| | # i -- sº % E- # Lº#; º # Žl. 2: C E. É E É E E = E # Fº-º-º-------------recºrczz-ºr-crº-2-rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrºº RImmmmm. III.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.III sº º ºs º-, * = s. as as a a s = * * * * * º *Tº gº º Aº nº ºf Gº Tº º |H| THE GIFT OF Fay L. Faurote sº º ºg mimi E H THE CYCLOPAEDIA: OR, U.W.IVERSAL DICTIO.W.APK OF ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE. vol. XXXVIII. CYCLo P E DIA: THE OR, U.W.II/EPS.A I, DICTIO.W.APY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE. BY ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMIN ENT PROFESSIONAL GENTILEMEN. —se ºf e- ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY THE JMOST DISTIWG UISHED ARTISTS. —me & sm– FIRST AMERICAN EDITION, REVISED, CORRECTED, ENLARGED, AND ADAPTED TO THIS COUNTRY, BY SEVERAL LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CHARACTERS. --> 18.7O Silex º sº tº - 1.56 Oyxd of iron - tº - 1.25 Oxyd of manganese - tº 0.75 TUNGSTEN, T U N T U N TungstEN, in Chemistry, is the metal obtained from the ore of the same name above described. By some of the German chemists it is denominated Scheelium, from Scheele, who first pointed out the peculiar nature of one of its oxyds. Tungsten was first obtained in the metallic state by the Messrs. D’Elhuyart from another of its ores called wolfram. New experiments have been since repeated by Vauquelin, Klaproth, Messrs. Allen and Aikin, and others, with various success, and very lately they have been confirmed by Bucholz. This metal has been obtained by exposing the tungs- tate of ammonia to a violent heat. It has never been procured in the state of a solid button, or in large panes, but only in small panes as fine as sand, having a strong metallic lustre, a light iron-gray colour, and slightly agglutinated. It is one of the hardest of the metals, and very brittle. Its sp. gr. according to the D’Elhuyarts, is 17.6 ; according to Messrs. Allen and Aikin, 17.2 ; and according to the late experiments of Bucholz, 17.4, which is about the mean of the others, and probably very near the truth. Hence, next to gold and platinum, it is one of the heaviest metals. This metal requires a heat of at least 170° of Wedg- wood (probably much higher) to melt it. It is not at- tracted by the magnet. Exposed to heat in an open ves- sel, it gradually absorbs oxygen, and is converted into an oxyd. Two oxyds of this metal were formerly known, viz. the dark blue or black, and the yellow or tungstic acid; but besides these, Bucholz has lately described another of a dark brownish-red or reddish-brown colour, and which he considers to be intermediate to the other two. Of these, the best brown and most important is the yellow oxyd, or tungstic acid. This oxyd is with- out taste. It is insoluble in water, but remains long sus- pended in it. It has no active or vegetable colours. It is stated to be composed of Tungsten tº * 8O Oxygen sº ſº 2O 1 OO Little is known of the nature and composition of the other oxyds of this metal, so that we cannot with any de- gree of certainty ascertain the weight of its atom. This metal combines with sulphur and phosphorus, and forms alloys with many of the metals; but these compounds do not appear to be interesting. The yellow oxyd, or tungstic acid, seems capable of forming compounds with all the alkaline, earthy, and metallic bases, though very little is known at present of the nature of these compounds. TUNGURAGUA, in Geography, a mountain of Peru ; 21 miles S. of Riobamba. TUNGURAGUA. See MARANON. TUNGUSES, a branch or division of the Mand- shures, or Mandshu, who originally composed one peo- ple with them, as appears not only from their mutual re- semblance in features, manners, and customs, but chiefly from their agreement in language. The Tunguses call themselves CEvoees, probably from the supposed founder of their race; or, like most of the Siberian tribes, from the word which in their language signifies men. They are called Tunguses only by the Ostiaks of the Yenissey and the Tartars. By the Mandshu they are denomina- ted Solomi, protectors, or Orontschon, people with rein- deer. The extensive deserts in which they now noma- dize, reach from W. to E. from the Yenissey across the Lena, as far as the Amoor and the Eastern ocean. From S. to N. they keep between about the 53d and 65th de- gree of N. lat., and accordingly touch neither upon the Soongarian borders, nor upon the coasts of the Frozen ocean. Being of an accommodating disposition, they have admitted into their seats Ostiaks, Samoyedes, and particularly Yakutans. The districts now mentioned lie mostly in the government of Irkutsk; nevertheless, some few races of the Tunguses are reckoned as be- longing to the government of Tobolsk. The first ac- counts which the Russians obtained of these people were received from the Ostiaks of the Yenissey; and in the year 1607, Cossacks were first sent from Mangasey against the Tunguses, to force them into submission. On occasion of these Russian attacks, the Tunguses dis- played a greater degree of courage than the other Sibe- rians; nor were they brought to the imperfect state of submission in which they are now held, till the latter half of the last century. By the enumeration of the year 1766, they consisted of 12,000 males: but besides these, distinct Tungusian stems wander among the Siberian nations, who together amount to about 1700 yourts, or families. Although they constitute one of the most nu- merous nations of Siberia, yet, on account of their roam- ing mode of life, few stems of them can be actually re- gistered. The Tunguses who nomadize about the coasts of the Eastern ocean, are known under the name of “Lamuts.” Of these, in the forementioned year, only about 400 men were enrolled to the payment of tribute. - The Tunguses are indefatigable in the chase, and are constantly changing their habitation. In the seasons of fishing and of collecting berries, they remain for some time nearly stationary ; and then they remove their tents, leaving their supplies of dried fish and berries in large boxes, constructed on trees or poles, for the bene- fit of themselves and their tribes, in travelling during the winter. They seem callous to the effects of heat or cold; their tents are covered with shamoy, or the inner bark of the birch, which they render as pliable as leath- er, by rolling it up, and keeping it for some time in the steam of boiling water and smoke. Their winter dress is the skin of the deer, or wild sheep, dressed with the hair on it; a breast-piece of the same, which ties round the neck, and reaches down to the waist, widening to- wards the bottom, and neatly ornamented with embroid- ery and beads ; pantaloons of the same materials, which also furnish them with short stockings, and boots of the legs of rein-deer, with the bair outward; a fur cap and gloves. Their summer dress only differs in being simple leather without the hair. They are religious observers of their word, punctual and exact in traffic; some few are christened ; but most of them are Demo- nolatrians, have their sorcerers, and sacrifice chiefly to evil spirits. They commonly hunt with the bow and arrow, but some have rifle-barrelled guns. Instead of burying the dead, they place the body, dressed in its best apparel, in a strong box, and suspend it between two trees. The implements of the chase belonging to the deceased are buried under the box. Except a sor- cerer is very near, no ceremony is observed ; but in his presence they kill a deer, offer a part to the de- mons, and eat the rest. They allow polygamy, but the first wife is the chief, and is attended by the rest. The ceremony of marriage is a simple purchase from her father; and the price is from 20 to 100 deer, L 2 QP T U N T UN or the bridegroom works during a stated time for the benefit of the bride’s father. The unmarried are not remarkable for chastity. A man will give his daughter for a time to any friend or traveller to whom he is at- tached; if he has no daughter, he will give his servant, but not his wives. They are in size somewhat below the common stature, very active, and have lively inviting countenances, with small eyes; and both sexes are very fond of brandy. The Tunguses wander about the moun- tains, and seldom visit such plains as are occupied by Yakuts; but frequently resort to the solitary habitations of the Cossacks, appointed to the different stages; as they are there generally supplied with brandy, needles, thread, and such trifles as are requisite among them and their women, who always accompany them in their wan- derings. See MANDSHUREs. •, TUNG USKA, a river of Russia, which rises in lake Baikal, and runs into the Enisei, about 20 miles S. of Eniseisk: in the former part of its course it is called ...Angara, in the latter Tunguska or Yenissey. This Unfier Tunguska, for there are three rivers of the same name, which bears the name of Angara till it unites with the ſlim, takes up several other rivers, as the Koda, the Tshalovetch, the Iriki, the Kamenka, the Olenka, and the Tatarskaia, all on the right; and to the left, the Oka, and the Tshuna or Uda. This Tungus- ka has for the most part a bed strewed with rocks, and forms several cataracts, five of which are very consider- able. Although it be navigable, the navigation is toil- some and difficult. The middle or Podkammenaia Tun- guska rises in the government of Irkutsk, among the Baikal mountains, not far from the origin of the Lena; and after a course of about 800 versts, and after having, on the right, taken up the Tshiucha and the Tshorna, falls into the Yenissey in 62° N. lat. The Lower or .Vi.vnei Tunguska takes its source in the same district, but bends its course northward, and after having taken up on the left the rivers Nipa, Svetlaia, with many oth- ers, and on the right the Rosmakaika, the Turiga, and the Gorela, and running a course of about 1500 versis, strikes into the Yenissey, not far from Turukansk. In this river are several dangerous whirlpools. TUNGUSKOI, Ust, a town of Russia, in the gov- ernment of Tobolsk; 24 miles S. of Eniseisk, at the conflux of the Finisei and Tunguska. TUNGUSLl, a town of Russia, in the government of Tobolsk, on the Oby ; 5.6 miles S. of Tara. TUN IA, or TUNJA, a town of South America, in the viceroyalty of New Granada; 60 miles N. of Santa Fé de Bogota. Tunia, founded in 1539, was formerly an opulent town, but has now declined, the inhabitants not exceeding 400. The edifices retain marks of former splendour, and the parish-church might well serve for a cati.edral. Here are three convents, that might answer the purpose of manufactories. N. lat. 5° 5'. W. long. 72° 56'. TUN J C, in Botany and Vegetable Physiology, the English nań.e of the appendage to certain seeds termed A R. L.LUs in Latin ; see that article, where, however, the explanation given by our predecessor, Dr. Woodville, refers only to the use of the term Arillus in the genus CAR.Ex. The Tunic, or Arillus, is attached to the base only of the seed, immediately adjoining to the Scar, #ilum, and envelops the rest of the seed more or less eompletely and closely. Its size and texture, as well as colour, are various. In the Spindle-tree, Euonymus, the part in question is a pulpy, wrinkled, orange-colour- ed wrapper; in Afzelia a beautiful, firm, close, scarlet Cup, embracing great part of the lower half of the black hard seed; in Hipponhãe a double membranous, but tough, coat, within the pulp of the berry ; in Myristica, the Nutmeg, a jagged, brittle, highly aromatic; com- Plex integument, well known by the name of Mace. JVarthecium, and great part of the Orchidae, have each of their minute seeds clothed in a lax membranous Tu- nic, extending beyond them at each end, and probably designed to give them buoyancy, like a sort of wing. Oxalis has an elastic pouch-like Tunic, serving to pro- ject its polished seeds to a distance, like the hard rigid bivalve Tunic of Dictamnus, Boronia, and their allies. (See Rutaceae.) That curious genus named by M. Konig, in Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 569, Blighia, the Akee of Guinea and the West Indies, has each seed supported by a large, fleshy, lobed Tunic, for which alone, as a delicate articie of food, the tree is cultivated. Some difficulty occasionally arises in discriminating between a real Arillus and the Testa of certain seeds, or at least the outer coat of the latter. (See Testa.) This diffi- culty occurs in the order of Asferifolia: ; witness Cy- noglossum ; while the real capsules of Geranium, Pe- targonium, Malva, &c. have, on the other hand, been sometimes called Arilli. TUNICA, a kind of waistcoat, or under garment, worn by the ancients, both at Rome and in the East. The common people ordinarily wore only a tunica; but those of better fashion wore a toga or gown over it. The philosophers wore a gown without a tunica, as pro- fessing to go half naked. The tunica was peculiar to the men; the under gar- ment of the women not being called tunica, but stola. The senators wore their tunica enriched with several little pieces of purple, cut in form of large nails; whence it was called laticlavia : the knights had less nails on their tunica, which was hence called angusti- clavia : the common people wore their tunica without any clavi at all. And it was by these three different sorts of tunicas, that the three different orders of the Roman people were distinguished in habit. It has been a common opinion, that the angusticlavia distinguished the knights from the common people, in the same manner as the laticlavia did the senators from those of the equestrian rank. But Rubenius avers that there was no manner of difference between the tunics of the knights and those of the commons. As to the per- sons who had the honour of wearing the laticlavia, it may be maintained, says Kennet (Ant. of Rome, p. 308.), that the sons of those senators who were patricians had the privilege of using this west in their childhood, to- gether with the praetexta. But the sons of such sena- tors as were not patricians, did not put on the laticlavia till they applied themselves to the service of the com- monwealth, and to bearing offices. Yet Augustus changed this custom, and gave the sons of any senators leave to as- sume the laticlavia presently after the time of their put- ting on the toga virilis, though they were not yet capa- ble of honours. And by the particular favour of the emperors, the same privilege was allowed to the more splendid families of the knights. In the declension of the empire, the tunics did not only reach down to the ankles, whence they were called taſares, but had sleeves too coming down to the hands, whence they were called chirodota. And now it was counted as scandalous to appear without sleeves, as it had been hitherto to be seen in them : and, therefore, i. - ‘the T U N T U N the writers of that age, we commonly find the accused persons at a trial habited in a tunic without sleeves, as a mark of disgrace and infamy. Besides the different sorts of tunicas above-mentioned, there was also the tunica falmata, worn by generals in a triumph, and perhaps always under the toga picta. It hath its name either from the great breadth of the clavi, equal to the palm of the hand, or else from the figures of palms em- broidered on it. Among religious, the woollen shirts, or under-gar- ments, are styled tunicas, or tuniques. TUNICA, in Anatomy, a technical name applied to the membranes which compose various organs; thus the serous and mucous membranes, and the muscular stra- tum of the scounach or intestines, are called their tu- nics : in the same way we have the tunics or coats of the eye, the blood-vessels, the testes, &c. &c. TUNICA, in Botany, a name adopted by Dillenius, as he himself avows, from the apoth: caries, and perhaps originally col rupted by them from Vetonica, or Betoni- ca, its synonyms. These names all belong to the Flos Caryofinillus, Clove flower, Cal nation, or Pink; and Dillenius was led to the above choice, for the purpose of removing the ambiguity arising from Caryofibyllus, (see that article,) as properly belonging to the valuable spice called Cloves. Linnaeus, not satisfied with either appellation, invented a new one, which has been gener- ally approved. See;DIANTHUs. TUNICATED Roots, among Botanists, such as are formed of a multitude of coats surrounding one an- other. See Root. TUNIOK, in Geografhy, a town of Hungary, on the river Samos; 6 miles E. of Etsed. TUNIS, a city of Africa, and capital of the country so called, situated on a rising ground, on the west bank of a lake, or rather a shallow in form of a lake, commu- nicating with the gulf by a narrow channel. The situa- tion of Tunis, probably first chosen by some fishermen, to whom that of almost all the maritime cities is to be ascribed, appeared to the inhabitants to be preferable to that of Carthage ; as soon as enriched by rapine, they dared openly to attack the trade of every nation. eminence on which the ruins of Carthage, N.E. of Tu- nis, that ancient rival of Rome, advances into the middle of the guli, and on that account would have exposed the Tunisians to be taken by surprise. This city was called, by Diodorus Siculus, “Léucon Tunéta,” that is, White Tunis; perhaps from the chalky cliffs which lie round it, when viewed from the sea; and was founded about 1250 or 13CO years B.C., as appears from Herodotus and the Patian chronicle. It is surrounded by lakes and marshes, which, however, do not render it unnealthy, which is, by Dr. Shaw, attributed to the number of mastich and myrtle trees, rosemary, and other gummy and aromatic plants, with which they heat their ovens, and their baths ; the water is obtained a miſe distant, for the general use of the inhabitants. The infected at- mosphere of Tunis is attributed by baron de Tott to the pus rid emanations of a channel, which conveys all the filth of the city to a neighbouring lake; which lake likewise produces exhalations that appear no less dan- gerous ; and the salubrity of Tunis, he says, can only be attributed to the depth of the valley, which comes down to the gulf, and which, by attracting the vapours of the channel and the lake, does not allow them to ac- quire that degree of corruption which would render them hurtful to the constitution of the inhabitants. The The Tunisians are the most civilized nation of Barbary, with little of the insolent haughtiness of the Algerines; and affairs with the government are transacted with ease : the English, French, Dutch, and several European states, having consuls here, who are treated with civility and respect. Including the suburbs, Tunis is, by Dr. Shaw, supposed to be rather more than three miles in circumference, and the number of houses 10,000 or 12,000, and of inhabitants about 50,000. But Bruns, on the authority of Sprengel, reckons the houses at 12,000, and the inhabitants, by an exaggerated statement, at 300,000 or 200,000, of whom more than one half perish- ed by the plague of 1789. There are few buildings of any magnificence, except the great mosque, the bey’s palace, called Barda, at some distance from the city, encompassed with walls and flanked with towers, and a few others : there are five gates, but none of then grand. Near the centre of the city is a piazza of vast extent, which is said formerly to have contained 3000 shops for the sale of woollen and linen goods; in the manufacture of both which this city has been long famous. Here are several colleges and schools, with many learned men and doctors of the Mahometan law, partly maintained by the public; the jalizaries are quartered in barracks: other public buildings are, an exchange, a custom-house, and an arsenal. On the side of a canal is the fortress of Goletta, but not carefully supported. The chief de- fence is the castle. In 1655, Tunis was bombarded by the English under admiral Blake. N. lat. 36° 44'. E. long. 10° 20'. TUNIs, the central region of Northern Africa, usual- ly dignified with the title of kingdom ; bounded on the north and east by the Mediterranean, and on the south by Tripoli, and on the west by Algiers. This is the west- ern part of the proper Africa of antiquity, and was for- merly the chief seat of Carthaginian power; and in the middle ages, Tripoli was subject to Tunis, which was seized by Barbarossa in 1533. It is now about 200 miles from north to south, and 120 from east to west. According to Desfontaines, this kingdom begins in the east at the isle of Garbi, and terminates in the west at the river Zaine, called also Tusca or Susca. After the decline of the Roman empire, this country came under the power of the Vandals and Goths; and after them, under the Saracens, when they were governed by vice- roys, called emirs. It afterwards became subject to the emperor of Morocco. For a space of time it was an in- dependent and powerful kingdom. In the year 1538, it was overrun by Barbarossa; and notwithstanding the endeavours of Charles V. and his successors, the king- dom was made a province of the Ottoman empire under the dominion of Sein, II, by Sinan, bashaw of the Le- vant. At present the whole kingdom is divided into two. circuits, the summer and the winter, which the bey makes in person through his dominions at those two seasons. The summel circuit, or northern district, is by far the most pleasant, fertile, and populous, and has the greatest number of cities, villages, and dowars, and car- ries the fairest appearance of plenty, prosperity, and cheerfulness of the two ; advantages owing to the mild- ness of its government, and its being freer from tyranny and oppression than that of Algiers. The Tunisians, in general, are like the Algerines; a mixture of Turks, Moors, Kabits or indigenous inhabitants of the moun- tains, Arabians, Jews, and Christians, merchants, and slaves; with this difference, that they are here polite and civilized. They are much more kind and humane to T U N I S. to their slaves, in general; though they treat the knights of Malta with greater severity. In other respects, the Tunisians are courteous to strangers; and all affairs with the regency are transacted in a very friendly man- ner: the consuls that reside here are treated with greater affability and condescension, justice and despatch, than in any other court on the African coasts: in a word, this nation hath, for many years, been more intent upon trade, and the improvement of their manufactures, than upon plundering and cruising ; upon which ac- count, it hath cultivated the alliance of many Christian powers. The dress of the Tunisians, of both sexes, is much of the same fashion with that of the Algerines. The women are handsome, neat, and more familiar: they go, indeed, veiled out of doors, but are allowed to be seen and converse with strangers, their husbands not being tainted with such jealousy as reigns among other Africans. The religion is the same as that of the Al- gerines. This kingdom, as well as Algiers, and others along the Barbary coast, are very subject to carthquakes, which commonly happen after heavy rains, at the end of the summer, or in autumn, and are often felt at a great distance from land, where the depth of water hath been above 200 fathoms: in other respects the country is, for the most part, as healthy and fertile as any under the same climate. The northern parts, which are the best cultivated, enjoy a wholesome temperature. The southern part is sandy, barren, and parched by a burn- ing sun; that near the sea is rich in olive-trees, and presents a great number of cities and populous villages. But the western part abounds with mountains and hills, and is watered by numerous rivulets; its environs being extremely fertile, and producing the finest and most abundant crops. The soil is in general impregnated with imarine salt and nitre, and springs of fresh water are more rare than salt. The chief river is the Mejerda, oran- cient Bagrada, which in summer is not navigable. The chain of Atlas seems here to terminate in Cape Bon, being called the mountains of Megala, Uzelette, &c. The winds are mostly from the sea, consequently refresh- ing; but those that blow from the southern sandy deserts are quite suffocating, especially as they prevail mostly in July and August ; if they continue five or six days successively, the inhabitants are obliged to keep them- selves cool by sprinkling their floors with water. The sea-winds, that blow west-north-west and north, bring dry weather in summer, and rain in winter; but the easterly, as well as the southerly, are for the most part dry, though attended with a thick cloudy atmosphere in most seasons. Their first rains commonly fall in Sep- tember, and sometimes in October ; about three weeks after which, the Arabians break the ground, sow their corn, and plant their beans, barley, lentils, and garvan- cos; their harvest usually begins in May, or the begin- ning of June, according to the quality of the preceding season. The Tunisians are much more addicted to ag- riculture than their neighbours, the Algerines, and are for making the most of every inch of their ground. Mines of metal and minerals they disregard; though Dr. Shaw observed, among the mineral productions of Tunis, alabaster, crystal, boles, plumbago, iron, and lead. The cattle are small and slender, and the horses have degenerated. Here are lions, panthers, hyenas, chakals, and other ferocious animals. The manufactures are velvets, silks, linen, and red caps worn by the common people. The government of Tunis at present, like that of Algiers, is altogether despotic; but with this differ. ence, that there it is elective, and here not only heredit- ary, but the bey hath power to name which of his sons he pleases for his successor, without regard to elder- ship; or, in case he doth not think him worthy, he may appoint a brother, or a nephew, to the succession: in all other cases, likewise, they are equally absolute and in- dependent, either on the Porte, or the Douwan or Di- van. They were once, indeed, under the protection of the former ; and the rapacious extortion and tyranny of its bashaws had, in some measure, obliged them to shake off their yoke, and form a government of their own, which they settled in such a manner, that their deys, as they were then called, could do nothing without the ad- vice and consent of the Douwan or Divan; but they have found means, in time, to rid themselves of this uneasy clog also, though they still retain a kind of form or shadow of both. The Porte hath a bashaw residing here, but in power and influence he is a mere cipher, and serves only to remind the Tunisians, that they were once subject to the Turkish sultans. The Douwan, being chiefly com- posed of friends and creatures of the beys, is rather as- sembled to give a forced approbation to their resolutions, than to consult them about the justice or expediency of them. At the first setting of this new form of govern- ment, the deyship was the supreme dignity, as it is still at Algiers; as that of bey was the next in rank, but wholly subordinate to it. However, having since built their power upon the ruins of the deys, they have by de- grees, raised the beyship to be despotic and independent; and by making it hereditary, have prevented, in a great measure, those frequent depositions, rebellions, and mas- sacres, which are the almost constant concomitants of the regal authority, wherever it is made elective. Yet far from preventing jealousies, cabals, and rebellions, in spite of all their precautions, the dignity oftener falls to the share of that son who has been able, by his address, to form the strongest party, than to him who hath been appointed to it by the father. Hence it is, that when- ever the throne becomes vacant, whether in the course of nature, or by open treason and rebellion, it is seldom filled up again without a great deal of bloodshed, rapine, and violence, in proportion to the number of competi- tors. In the summer the bey of Tunis resides in the northern part, and in the winter retires to the south, where is a lake of considerable extent, the “Palus Tri- tonis” of antiquity. The authority of the bey extends over a large tract of country, of which he receives the tribute, with a small army, which marches out annually for that purpose. Tunis, which had formerly a consid- erable commerce with France, exports thither, corn, oil, beans, lentils, wax, wool, hides, and Morocco skins; and receives, in exchange, Spanish wool, Languedoc cloths, vermilion, sugar, pepper, cloves, wine, brandy, paper, hardware, iron, and steel. The Italian trade is wholly carried on by the Jews, who send the same commodities to France, and import from thence Spanish cloths, da- masks, several sorts of silk and woollen stuffs, gold and silver tissue. The French pay 3 fier cent. for all the goods they bring from France, and the Jews 10 fier cent. on their imports from Italy. The Turks and Moors export to the Levant woollen stuffs, lead, gold-dust, and chequins, and a vast number of bales of caps; and bring, in return, silks, calicoes, iron, alum, and vermilion. They send much the same kind of commodities into Egypt; but the oil that is carried thither must be put up in jars, and not in casks, because the greatest part of it is designed for the lamps of Mecca and Medina; and ** the T U N T UN the Arabians would think it polluted, as the vessels might formerly have contained wine. They import, in ex- change, from thence, linen, cotton, rice, flax, and coffee. The number of French ships freighted at Tunis, by Turks, Moors, and Jews, has amounted yearly to one hundred and fifty to the Levant, and fifty for France and Italy: as for those of the English, their number is un- certain. All public conventions and instruments are written in the Arabic tongue, but the public commerce is commonly carried on by the medium of the Lingua Franca. Gadames, or Galames (which see), had form- erly a flourishing commerce; but it has ceased since the caravans passing from Tripoli to Tombuctoo do not stop there, but at Agadez. The caravans of Tombuc- too bring slaves, ostrich feathers, ivory, and amber ; those of Sallee, gold, as well as those of Gadames, which also bring Negro slaves. Ruins of ancient monuments are found near Zowan, Spitola, Cassa, Phradisa, Ham- mamel, and Chaspa. Desfontaines mentions in partic- ular with admiration a large and beautiful amphitheatre near Elgem. Some vestiges are also found here and there of an ancient Carthaginian aqueduct, which served to draw water from the springs of mount Zowan ; but there scarcely exist any other remains of Carthage. Near the river Mejerda are still seen some ruins of Utica, which are, at present, at the distance of about 4000 fathoms from the shore; though this city was for- merly a sea-port. . - - At Tunis, accounts are kept in piastres of 52 aspers, each asper being divided into 12 burbes. The coins con- sist of gold sultanins, valued at 100 aspers ; of silver nasaras (a square or shapeless coin), valued at 52 as- pers; and of doublas, valued at 24 aspers. The burbes are a small copper coin. Gold, silver, and pearls, are weighed by the ounce of 8 termini; and 80 ounces of Tunis = 81 ounces English troy. The cantaro, which is a weight for merchandise, contains 100 rottoli, weigh- ing about l l l pounds avoirdupois. measure, contains 18 weabs, or 216 saws ; 53 caffisi = 67; English quarters. The mattaro, an oil measure, is = 32 rottoli, = 354 pounds avoirdupois, and is about 5 English gallons. The mattaro, wine measure, is only half that for oil measure. The pic, long measure, is for woollen 298.3 French lines, or 26; English inches, for silk 24; English inches, and for linen 18; English inches. TUNKAT. See TongAT. - TUNKERSTOWN. See EPHRATA. TUNKHANNOCK, a township of Pennsylvania, in the county of Lucerne, containing 884 inhabitants. TUNKHANNock Creek, a river of Pennsylvania, which runs into the east branch of the Susquehanna, N. lat. 41° 31'. W. long. 75° 57. - TUNNA, in Commerce, a measure of grain in Swe- den, equal to four bushels five quarts Winchester mea- sure. - - TUNNAGE, or Tonna GE, a duty or custom due for merchandise brought or carried in tons, and such like vessels, from or to other nations; thus called, because rated at so much fier tun. Tunnage is properly a duty imposed on liquids ac- cording to their measures; as poundage is that imposed on other commodities according to their weight. See PounDAGE and Customs TUNNAGE is also used for a certain duty paid the ma- riners, by the merchants, for unloading their ships ar- rived in any haven, after the rate of so much fier tun. The caffiso, a corn TUNNEL, or FUNNEL, an instrument through which any liqour is poured into a vessel. Part of a draught of a chimney, above the mantle- piece, is also called by the same name. TUNNEL is a large subterraneous arch, driven through a summit or hill, for the passage of boats upon a canal continued through the same : also, smaller drains or culverts are called tunnels ; and the execution of mak- ing and driving them is called tunnelling. TUNNEL-Pit, a well or shaft sunk to the line of an in- tended tunnel, through which the stuff excavated from it is drawn up to the surface. TUNNEL. Kiln, in Agriculture, a term applied to a lime-kiln in which coal is burned, in contradistinction to that in which wood, peat, and other such matters are used, termed the flame-kiln. See LIME-Kiln. There is much less waste of heat in the former sorts than in those of the latter, and they have much advan- tage in the quick despatch in drawing the lime ; as, in the flame-kilns, after the matters are burnt, much time is lost by waiting until the lime be cold, and by emptying it at the mouth part instead of below. The nature of these different kinds of kilns, and many useful particu- lars relating to them, may be seen in detail in the Cor- rected Report on Agriculture for the County of Sussex. TUNNEL-JVet is a kind of net much used for the catch- ing of partridges; thus called from its form, which is a cone fifteen or eighteen feet long. - This net must be made of three-twisted thread, and must not be too thick; it should be dyed green, that the colour may give no suspicion to the birds, and the meshes should be about two inches and a half broad. Into the hind meshes, at the larger end, there must be put a smooth wooden rod, about the bigness of a gun- rammer ; of this must be made a sort of hoop, both ends being tied together; and at different distances from one another, there must be placed many more such, which are to be rounded in the same manner, and are to support the net its whole length in the tunnel form. Two stakes, or strong pegs, must be fastened at the sides of the entrances into the net, and one at the farther end, or narrow part : the two first are to keep the mouth of the net sufficiently extended, and the last is to keep it pulled out lengthwise to its full dimensions, the hoop prevent- ing its falling in. - There must be used with this net two others, of that kind which they call halliers. These are long and straight nets, and are to be fastened down to the mouth of the tunnel-net on each side, extending seven or eight fathoms on each side from it, so as to take in fourteen or sixteen fathoms in front, beside the breadth of the mouth of the tunnel-net, and to direct all that shall move forward within that compass into the net. In order to tise this net, a covey of partridges is to be found, and then the net is to be placed at a conside- rable distance behind them : when this is fixed, the sportsman is to take a compass, and get before the birds with a stalking horse or stalking ox, and then to move forward, driving them towards the net. This is to be done gently and carefully; they are not to be driven at once straight forwards, but the sportsman is to wind and turn about, and at times to stand still, as if the horse was grazing. If the partridges, in the time of driving, make a stand, and look at the machine, it is a sign they suspect it, and are ready to take wing: in this case the sportsman must stand still, or even go back a little; and when they are become composed again, he is again to advance T UN TU P advance upon them. If any single bird lies remote from the rest, the sportsman must take a compass round him, and fetch him in ; for if he takes wing the rest will all follow ; in this manner, with patience and cau- tion, the whole covey may be driven like a flock of sheep up to the nets. A real horse, trained to the purpose, is, however, much better than a stalking machine. The halliers or wings of the tunnel, must not be pitched straight, but in a sort of semicircle; and the birds, when they stop their march, will run along them to the mid- dle, where the mouth of the tunnel is open. When they come to the mouth of the tunnel, the old Gnes will make a stand, as if to consider what was be- fore them; but on pressing gently on them with the horse, the young ones will run in, and then all the rest will follow. . The sportsman must then make all the haste he can to the mouth of the net, to secure them from coming back again. - TUNNING, or Ton NING, a part of the process of brewing, or rather an operation which is the sequel of it. The Nunning of beer, &c. is performed various ways, some being of opinion it is best tunned as it cools, or begins to come ; while others let it stand longer to be- come riper. The most regular method is, to cleanse and tun just as it comes to a due ferment, and gets a good head; for then it has the most strength to clear itself. What works out of the cask is to be supplied with fresh beer of the same brewing. * TUNNING-Dish, a term applied to a large wooden dish, employed with a funnel, in tunning malt liquor. TUNNUDTIORBIK, in Geografhy, an island near the coast of East Greenland. N. lat. 60° 45'. W. long. 46° 50'. - TUNNY, in Ichthyology, a name given by us to the Spanish mackarel, a large fish of the scomber kind, called by authors thynnus and arcynus, by Salvian limo- sa, and fielamys by Aristotle, Ælian, and the other old writers. See Scom BER. In the locks on the western coasts of Scotland, as well as in the Mediterranean (see Sco MBER Thynnus), tun- nies are also found in pursuit of herrings, and sold to people, who either carry them fresh to the country mar- kets, or salt and preserve them in large casks. The pieces, when fresh, look like raw beef, but when boiled turn pale, and have somewhat the flavour of salmon. One of them has been found to weigh four hundred and sixty pounds. TUNS, The, in Geografthy, rocks in St. George’s Channel, near the coast of Ireland, and county of Wex- ford ; 3 miles N.E. from the Saltee islands, TUNSLA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sa- volax ; 52 miles N. of Nyslot. * * TUNST ALL, JAMES, D.D. in Biografhy, a learned divine, was born about the year 1710, and educated at St. John’s college, Cambridge, of which he was a tutor and fellow. In 1741 he was chosen public orator of the university, and became one of the chaplains to arch- bishop Potter. It was said of him, that many came to Lambeth humble, but no one left it so but Dr. Tunstall. He was created D.D. in 1744, and in 1757 took pos- session, upon an exchange, of the valuable vicarage of Rochdale, in Lancashire; but his life terminated in 1772. He had a controversy with Middleton concerning the letters between Cicero and Brutus, of which he had made great use in his “Life of Cicero,” and which Tunstall not only suspected, but proved, in the judg- ment of Markland, to be supposititious. He was also the author of some other publications: the principal of which is his “ Academica, Part I., containing several, Discourses on the Certainty, Distinction, and Connexion of Natural and Revealed Religion,” continued, as it is supposed, by Part II, printed after his death, under the title of “Lectures on Natural and Revealed Religion, read in the Chapel of St. John’s College, Cambridge.” Nichol’s Anecdotes. TUNSTEDE, or TUsTEDE, an English D.D. and a learned musician, who flourished in the fourteenth cen- tury. Pits, Bale, Tanner, and all our biographical writers, speak of him with respect. And among the MSS. at Oxford, we found, in 1780, a Tract on Music, entitled “Quatuor Principalia Artis Musicae,” by this writer, dated 135 ſ, Bodl. 515. bound up with other tl’actS. What this author calls the four firincipals of music, will best appear from his own manner of dividing the work. In the first part or firincinal, consisting of nine- tecn chapters, he treats of music in general, its con- stituent parts and divisions. Secondly, of its inven- tion, intervals, and proportions; twenty-four chapters. Thirdly, of plain chant and the ecclesiastical modes; fifty-eight chapters. Fourthly, of measured music or time, of discant, and their several divisions. This last principal is divided into two sections, of which the first contains forty-one chapters, and the second forty-nine. The whole treatise fills a hundred and twenty-four folio pages: the diagrams, which are very numerous, are beautifully written, and illuminated with different co- loured inks; and it seems to be in all respects the most ample and complete work of the kind which the four- teenth century can boast. TUNUB, in Geografthy, a town of Egypt, on the west branch of the Nile; 6 miles N.N.W. of Amrus. , TUNUPOLON, in Zoology, the name of an East Indian species of viper, found principally in the island of Ceylon; it is of a small size, and of a fine sattin-like gloss, beautifully variegated with shades of brown. Ray. TUONI EccLESIASTIC1, Ital., in Music, tones of the church. (See CANTo Fermo and MoDI.) The modi autentici are the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 ; and the modi filagali, the even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8. TUONO, Ital., a musical tone or sound. (See Tone.) “Tuoni,” says the Crusca, “appresso a musici, sono i gradi, per cui passano successivamente le voci e i suoni nel salire verso l'acuto, e nello scendere verso il grave colla regolata interposizione de’ semituoni a’ loro luoghi per riempiere gl’intervalli maggiori consonanti, e disso- ºnanti.”—“Tones among musicians are those degrees or gradations by which voices and instruments ascend and descend successively from the grave to the acute, and descend from the acute to the grave, with the interposi- tion of the necessary semitones to fill the greater conso- nant and dissonant intervals.” Varchi. In this arrange- ment of the seale, all the simple and perfect conso- nances are found, that is, the key-note, the fourth, the fifth, and the diapason or octave. TUP, in Rural Economy, a term often applied to a ram in different districts. - - TUPELO TREE, in Botany. See NISSA, TUPERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland; 4 miles N.E. of Oelnitz. TUPES, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru- dim ; 8 miles N.W. of Chrudim. TUPICA. “Tº uſ R *T U R TÜpic A, a town of Peru; 30 miles S.E. of Lipes. -T UPIN AM BAS, a nation of South American ln- dians who inhabited near Rio Janeiro ; but after the set- tlement of the Portuguese, removed towards the river of the Amazons, where the Tapayos are now their de- scendants. . - TUPISTRA, in Botany, an unexplained name, used by Mr. Ker, in Curt. Mag. t. 1655–The plant which bears it, T. squalida, was imported by Messrs. Loddiges from Amboyna, in whose stove it flowered, for the first time, in April 1814. The learned author did not exam- ine the specimen in a perfect state, so that his ideas, like our’s, must be chiefly derived from Mr. Edwards's figure, the accuracy of which there is no reason to doubt, and from which the close affinity of this plant to Orontium jahonicum is apparent. No botanist however is as yet sufficiently acquainted with the parts of fructification in either to determine their generic character, or to dis- 4inguish them generically from O. aquaticum. See ORon- TIU M. - T. squalida has a perennial tuberous root, with thick fibres. Stem none. Leaves few, erect, equitant, lan- ceolate-oblong, entire, coriaceous, smooth, about two feet long. Stalk solitary, erect, not a span high, simple, cylindrical, smooth, firm, purplish, bearing a dense shike of numerous scentless flowers, of a pale dingy, or brownish lead colour, quite sessile, with a bractea at the base of each. Calyz none. Corolla of one petal, bell- shaped; the limb in six or more spreading segments, each bearing on its disk a sessile, two-lobed, but seem- ingly imperfect, anther. A cylindrical body, four-lobed at the top, in the centre, looks like a germen and stigma. TUPMAN, in Rural Economy, a term frequently applied to a breeder and dealer in tups, in some dis- tricts, as those of the midland parts of the kingdom. *See RAM. TUPPA, a name given in Thibet to children, who at the age of eight or nine years are admitted into the mon- astery at Teshoo-Loomboo, and who are occupied in re- ceiving the instruction suited to their age, and the du- ties for which they are designed. See THoBA. - TUPPING, in Rural Economy, a term applied to the impregnating of eves by the tups or rams. TUPPING-Time, the period or season of putting tups or rains to the ewes. It should be done neither too early nor too late, as in the former case the lambs are dropped too much in the cold weather, while in the lat- ter they are liable to be of inferior size for the markets. It is consequently best done according to the nature of the situation and circumstances. See SHEEP. TUQUILIG ASTA, in Geografiſhy, a town of South America, in the province of Tucuman, on the Salado; 4 miles S of St. Yago del Estero. TUR RABA1N, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the gov- ernment of Mosul ; 20 miles E. of Nisibin. TURA, a river of Russia, which rises about 40 miles W. of Verchotura, in the province of Ekaterinburg, and runs into the Tobol, opposite Turchanskoi, in the govern- ment of Tobolsk. See Tobol.—Also, an island in the Grecian Archipelago. N. lat. 39° 34'. E. long. 24° 15'.-Also, a town of Hungary; 24 miles W. of To- poltzan. —Also, a town of the county of Tyrol ; 24 miles S.W. of Trent. - TURA Bamba, a spacious plain, in which stands the city of Quito. TURALINZES, one of the first colonies which con- structed for themselves permanent habitations, when the Vol. XXXVIII. Tartars subjugated Siberia in the 13th centity ; heree their name (from Tura, signifying in the Tartar lan- guage a town), which signifies the same with sctilers. Ever since their arrival, they have inhabited the region on both sides of the river, which from them is denomi- nated the Tura, between the Tavda and the Iser, in the Ekataiinemburg and Toborskoi districts of the govern- ments of Perme and Tobolsk. Their oldest fixed seat was the city of Tschinghiden; but when Yermak made the conquest of these parts, the khan Yepanºa resided higher up the Tura in a city, which after their restora- tion by the Russians was named Turensk, and bears this name at present, though it is also called by the Tartars' Yepantshina. TURAMIANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in the Eastern part of Boetica, S.W. of Ursi. According to the Itinerary of Antonine, it was on the route from Castulo to Malacca, between Ursi and Murgi. TURAN, in Geografthy. See TARAz. TURANCOURCHY, a town of Hindoostan, in Ma- dura ; 12 miles N. of Nattam. TURANNO, a town of Hindoostan, in Malwa 3 18 miles N.E. of Ougein. - TURANO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra; 3 miles W. of Bisignano. TURAPHILUM, Shuh. ELLAH, in Ancient Geogra- fihy, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Caesariensis, situa- ted in the mountains of the interior, S. of Icosium. TURATTE, in Geography, a town of the island of Celebes, and capital of a powerful kingdom ; 180 miles N. of Macassar. . w - TURBA, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Novempo- pulani, belonging to the Aquitains, in Gaul. TURBAN, TURBANT, the head-dress of most of the Eastern and Mahometan nations; consisting of two parts, viz. a cap, and a sash of fine linen or taffety, artfully wound in divers plaits about the cap. The word is formed from the Arabic -isºn dar, or "Y", dur, or ºxº dal, or ºn dul, which signifies to encomfiass, and "jo band or bend, which signifies sash, or scarf, or band ; so that durbant, or turbant, or tulbant, only sig- nifies a scarf, or sash, tied round ; it being the sash that gives the denomination to the whole turban. The cap is red or green, without any brim, pretty flat, though roundish at top, and quilted with cotton, but does not cover the ears. About this is wrapped a round piece of fine thin linen or cotton, in several wreaths variously disposed. There is a good deal of art in giving turbans the fine air; and the making of them up constitutes a particular trade, as the making of hats does among us. The emirs, who pretend to be descended of the race of Mahomet, wear their turbans green : those of the other Turks are ordinarily red, with a white sash. The genteel people have frequent changes of turbans. M. de Tournefort observes, that the turban, all things con- sidered, is a very commodious dress; and that he even found it more easy to him than his French habit. The grand signor's turban is as big as a bushel, and so exceedingly respected by the Turks, that they dare scarce touch it. It is adorned with three plumes of feathers enriched with diamonds and precious stones: he has a minister on purpose to look to it, called tulbentog- lan. See CRowN. That of the grand vizier has two plumes; so have ‘those of divers other officers, only smaller one than another º TU R T U R ---. another; others have only one, and others none at all. The turban of the officers of the divan is of a peculiar form, and called mugenezek. The sash of the Turks’ turban, we have observed, is white linen; that of the Persians is red woollen. These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions; Sophi, king of Persia, who was of the sect of Ali, being the first who assumed that colour, to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar, and whom the Persians esteem heretics. TURBAN, or Clavicle, in Conchology, denotes the ag- gregate, or whole set of the whirls of a shell, and forms its lower part. The flat, or helix turban, is one so slightly prominent, as to be nearly on a level. There are also the short turban, the produced turban, and the long turban. TURBAN-Tofi, in Botany. See HELVELLA. TuRBAN-Shell, Cidaris, in JVatural History, the name of a genus of the echinodermata, which are of a hemis- pheric or spheroidal figure, and have their name from the Latin cidaris, a Persian turban, as in some degree resembling that head-dress. Of this there are several genera, and subordinate species. - This class of the echinodermata is made out by the assistance of the fossil, as well as the recent animals; many of the kinds being now unknown on any shores. Klein’s Echinod. p. 17. See EchinoDERMA. TURBANIA, in Ancient Geography, a fountain of Palestine, at the foot of mount Gilbon, according to Wil- liam of Tyre. TURBARY, TURBARIA, a right to dig turf in an- other man's ground; from turba, an old Latin word for a turf. TuRBARy, Common of, is a liberty which some tenants have by prescription to dig on the lord’s waste. See CoMMON. - TURBARIA is sometimes also taken for the ground where turfs are digged. - TURBARIA Bruaria, more particularly denotes flaw- turf, or heath-turf; mentioned in the charter of Hain- mon de Massy. ſe -- TURBED, in Geography, a town of Persia, in the province of Chorasan; 90 miles S.S.W. of Meschid. TURBELA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Hither Spain, situated towards the south, and supposed to be the same with that which Livy calls Turba. TURBET, in Geografhy, a township of Pennsylva- nia, in the county of Northumberland, containing 2917 inhabitants. & TURBICO, or TURBIGo, a town of Italy, in the de- partment of the Olona; 18 miles W. of Milan. - TURBINATA Ossa, in Anatomy, turbinated bones; certain bony plates belonging to the nose. See NoSE and CRANIUM. * - TURBINATED, is a term applied by naturalists to shells which are spiral or wreathed, conically, from a larger basis to a kind of apex. TURBINES, in Natural History. See TURB.o. TURBINITIE, fossile shells of the turbo kind, or stones found in those shells. - TURBIT, in Ichthyology, the same with turbot. TuRBIT Pigeon, a particular species of pigeon, re- markable for its short beak, and called by the Dutch cort bek, that is, short beak. Moore calls. it in Latin columba fimbricata ; and its English name seems no other than a bad pronunciation of its Dutch one. It is a small and short-bodied pigeon, and has a beak no longer than that of a partridge; the shorter this is, the more the pigeon is esteemed. It has a short round head, and the feathers upon the breast open, and reflect both ways, standing out like the frill of the bosom of a shirt. This is called by many the furle, and the more the bird has of it, the more it is esteemed; the tail and back are gen- erally of one colour, as blue, black, red, yellow, or dun, and sometimes checquered; the flight-feathers, and those of all the rest of the body, are white; they are a light nimble pigeon, and, if trained to it, will take very high ſlights, in the manner of the tumblers. TURBITH, TURPETH, or Turflethum, a medicinal root, brought from the East Indies, particularly from Cambaya, Surat, and Goa; though others will have it, that the true turbith comes chiefly from Ceylon. It is the cortical part of the root of a species of con- volvulus, viz. the convolvulus turfiethum of Linnaeus. The turbith of the moderns bears so little resemblance to that of the ancients, that it is difficult to suppose them the same. That sold by our druggists is a longish root, about the thickness of the finger, resinous, heavy, and of a brownish hue without, and whitish within. It is brought to us cloven in the middle, lengthwise, and the heart or woody matter taken out. The best is ponder- ous, not wrinkled, easy to break, and discovers to the eye a large quantity of resinous matter. This root, on the organs of taste, makes at first an impression of sweetness; but when chewed for some time, betrays a nauseous acrimony. It is accounted a moderate strong cathartic, but does not appear to be of the safest or most certain kind; the resinous matter, in which its virtue resides, being unequally distributed; insomuch that, as it is said, some pieces taken from a scruple to a drachm purge violently, whilst others in larger doses have very little effect. Lewis. It is commonly supposed to take its name turbith from turbare, on account of the violence of its operation, as disturbing the whole economy; and has accordingly been used in the dropsy, palsy, and apoplexy. It yields a deal of resinous matter in a spirituous menstruum, which Quincy observes does not affect the larger passages much ; but is very active in the smaller vessels, and glandulous contortions, which it wonderfully clears of all viscid adhesions. - Some apothecaries, either through ignorance or par- simony, substitute white thapsia, which they call gray turbith, or turbith garganicum, for the true turbith; though both as to taste, colour, and qualities, they are very different. -- - TURBITH Mineral, Turfethum Minerale, is a name which the chemists give to a yellow precipitate of mer- cury, now called yellow sub-sulphate of mercury, For the method of preparing it, see Hydra Roy Ri Sub-sulfibas flavus. - Turbith mineral may also be made by precipitating mercury from its solution in nitrous acid by means of vitriolic acid, or of some vitriolic salt. For this pur- pose the nitrous acid must be well saturated with mer- cury. We may observe that turbith mineral becomes yel- low only by being deprived of the adhering vitriolic acid, and that it remains white till it has been washed with a large quantity of water; and, in general, the more perfectly it is deprived of acid, the deeper yellow colour it acquires. Some chemists have supposed, that a portion of vitriolic acid remains united with the tur- bith, T U R '1' U R bith, though not enough to render it soluble in water: M. Beaumé affirms, that when sufficiently washed it contains no acid : but the latter experiments of M. Bay- en prove the contrary. o This powder is called mineral turbith, from the re- semblance it bears to the vegetable turbith of the Ara- bians, in strongly purging the most internal recesses of the body; for though it be insipid upon the tongue, yet it is possessed of very considerable virtues. Being builed with water, it loses more of its salts, and thereby grows milder, and more safe; so it does also by being deflagrated twice or thrice, or distilled with spirit of wine. - - The powder, prepared in the manner above described, proves, though not corrosive, strongly emetic; opera- ting, in this intention, the most effectually of all the mercurials that can be given with safety. It is used chiefly in virulent gonorrhoeas, and other venereal cases accompanied with a great flux of humours to the parts : it is said likewise to have been employed with success in robust constitutions, against leprous disorders, and obstinate glandular obstructions. The dose, as an emetic, is from two grains to six or eight ; though some con- stitutions, habituated to mercurials, can bear larger quantities. It may be given in smaller doses, as half a grain or a grain, as an alterative, after the same manner as the red calx uf mercury; and even when intended as an evacuant, it may perhaps, as Malouin observes, be most adviseable to give only a small quantity at a time, as one grain, and repeat the dose every, hour till the vomiting succeeds. Lewis's Mat. Med. and Dict. Chem. Art. Turðith mineral. Turbith mineral appears to have been the grand se- cret of Paracelsus, which, in his scarce German book of hospital medicines, he praises so extrayagantly for the venereal and all chronical diseases. Sydenham also commends it in venereal cases, given in the quantity of six or eight grains, in strong habits of body, so as to prove emetic; but when imprudently used, it is apt to bring on a dysentery. Turbith mineral has been used as a sternutatory, and is said to have made wonderful cures in distempers of the eyes. Mr. Boyle relates a cure of this sort, per- formed by the famous empiric Adrian Glass-maker on Mr. Vatteville, a Swiss officer of distinction in the French service, and totally blind. This gentleman was ordered to snuff about a grain of turbith up each nos- tril, which immediately operated in a violent manner, by vomit, stool, sweat, salivation, and the lacrymal glands, for twelve hours together; and also caused his head to swell greatly; but within three or four days after this single dose had done working, he recovered his sight. Boyle's Works, Abr. vol. i. p. 103. We read of this preparation being given to the quan- tity of ten grains, with the same quantity of camphor, and fifteen grains of the filul. ex: doub. to remove the swelling of the testicles. This medicine, which in the beginning vomited and purged, at last operated chiefly as an alterative. It is said to be successful in obstinate venereal and scrofulous disorders. See Medic. Ess. Edinb. vol. iv. art. 4. - Turbith mineral is an excessive bright true yellow, of a great body like vermilion; will stand equally well, and work with oil or water much in the same manner. These qualities (says the author of the Handmaid to the Arts, vol. i. p. i07.) render it very valuable for many purposes; as it is much brighter than any other yellow used in oil, except king’s yellow, and is free from its nauseous smell, and cooler. Mixed with Prussian blue it yields a much finer green than from the king’s yellow without ultramarine. As it is now procured, it requires le vigation in water before it be used. TURBO, in the Linnaean System of Zoology, is a genus of the Testacea order of worms. Its characters are ; that its animal is a slug ; the shell univalve, spiral, and solid; and the aperture straightened, orbiculated, and entire. Gmelin, in his edition of Linnaeus, enume- rates one hundred and seventeen species, besides seve- ral varieties. See TURBo under the article Conc H- OLOGY. In Da Costa's system, the turbo is a genus of snails, with a lengthened clavicle or turban ; which have gene- rally a perfect round mouth ; the columella, or inner lip, not much faced outwards, and the body spire very bel- lied, so that the turban is suddenly, and not insensibly, produced from it. See SHELLs. -- The most remarkable species of the turbo, or screw- shell, is that called scalare by Rumphius, from its spires running up hollow, or with a space between them. This is a very scarce and valuable shell when large, but is often found small in the Adriatic. - Aldrovand, and many others of the old authors, make no difference between the turbines and screw-shells, though the distinction of the genera is very obvious; the screw-shells having a long, large, and dentated mouth, which terminates towards the base in a narrower aperture than elsewhere ; and the shell itself always runs to a very sharp point at the end : whereas the tur- bines terminate in a less sharp point, and have thicker bodies, and always much wider mouths. The screw- shells are indeed very easily confounded with the buc- cima; and it requires more accuracy to distinguish them, than has fallen to the share of the generality of writers on these subjects an age or two ago. Aldrovand and Rondeletius have confounded these genera, and have brought in a third among them, by the epithet murica- tum, which, when applied to the buccinum, is generally, observed to bring into that family a shell of the murex class, and which might have been very properly called by that shorter name. - For the sake of distinguishing these, it may be observ- ed that the screw-shell is of a very long and slender shape, terminating in a very sharp point, with its spires running on imperceptibly, without any great cavity, and the base small and flat, as well as the mouth. - * TURBO Cochlea, in Watural History, a name by which some authors have called the Persian shell, a species of concha globosa, or dolium. - Many have been puzzled with this shell, not knowing in what class to rank it; and Aldrovand has placed it at the end of his work, saying, that it would seem to belong to the turbinated kinds, but that it wants the turbo. - - TURBOT, in Ichthyology, a name given to the fish which, in the systems of Artedi and Linnaeus, is a Spe- cies of pleuronectes, being the fleuronectes of the for- mer, with the eyes on the left side, and a rough body, and the fileuronectes marimus of the latter, and the rhombus marimus asſier non squamosus of Ray. See PLEU Ro NEctEs Maactmus. - s Turbots grow to a large size, some of them weighing from twenty-three to thirty pounds. They are taken chiefly off the north coast of England, and others off the Dutch coast. The large turbots (as well as several M 2 other *T U R T U R …ether kinds of flat fish) are taken by the hook and line, for they lie in deep water; the method of taking them in weirs, or staked nets, being very precarious. When the fishermen go out to fish, each person is provided with three lines, which are coiled on a flat oblong piece of wicker-work; the hooks being baited, and placed re- gularly in the centre of the coil. Each line is furnished with fourteen score of hooks, at the distance of six feet two inches from each other. The hooks are fastened to the lines upon sneads of twisted horse-hair, twenty- seven inches in length. When fishing, there are always three men in each coble, and consequently nine of these lines are fastened together, and used as one line, extend- ing in length near three miles, and furnished with 2520 hooks. An anchor and a buoy are fixed at the first end of the line, and one more of each at the end of each man’s lines ; in all four anchors, which are common per- forated stones, and four buoys made of leather or cork. This line is always laid across the current. The tides of flood and ebb continue an equal time upon our coast, and, when undisturbed by winds, run each way about six hours; they are so rapid that the fishermen can only shoot and haul their lines at the turn of tide, and therefore the lines always remain upon the ground about six hours; during which time the myxine glutinosa of Linnaeus will frequently penetrate the fish that are on the hooks, and entirely devour them, leaving only the skin and bones. The same rapidity of tides prevents their using hand-lines; and therefore two of the people commonly wrap themselves in the sail, and sleep while the other keeps a strict look-out for fear of being run down by ships, and to observe the weather. For storms often rise so suddenly, that it is with extreme difficulty they can sometimes escape to the shore leaving their lines behind. Besides the coble, the fishermen have also a five-men boat, which is forty feet long, and fifteen broad, and of twenty-five tons burthen; it is so called, though navigated by six men and a boy, because one of the men is commonly hired to cook, &c. and does not share in the profits with the other five. This boat is decked at each end, but open in the mid- die, and has two large lug-sails. All our able fishermen go in these boats to the herring- fishery at Yarmouth, in the latter end of September, and return about the middle of November. The boats are then laid up till the beginning of Lent, at which time they go off in them to the edge of the Dogger, and other places, to fish for turbot, cod, lings, skates, &c. They always take two cobles on board, and when they come upon the ground, anchor the boat, throw out the cobles, and fish in the same manner as those do who go from the short in a coble ; with this difference only, that here each manis provided with double the quantity of lines, and instead of waiting the return of the tide in the coble, return to their boat and bait their other lines; thus hauling one set, and shooting another every turn of tide. They commonly run into harbour twice a week to de- fiver their fish. y The best bait for all kinds of fish is fresh herring cut in pieces of a proper size; the five-men boats are al- ways furnished with nets for taking them. Next to herrings are the lesser lamprey. The next baits in es: teem are small haddocks cut in pieces, sand-worms, and limpets, here called ſlidders, and when hone of these can be had, they use bullock’s liver. The hooks are two inches and a half long in the shank, and near an inch wide between the shank and the point. The hne is made of small cording, and is always tanned before it is used. Turbots, and all the rays, are extremely delicate in their choice of baits; for if a piece of herring or haddock has been twelve hours out of the sea, and then used as bait, they will not touch it. Pennant’s Brit. Zool. vol. iii. p. 234, &c. - TURBOWKA, in Geography, a town of Russia, in Poland; 32 miles S.E. of Zytomiers. - TURBUNNY, a town of Napaul ; 60 miles S.W. of Catmandu. TURCAE, in Ancient Geography, the name of a peo- ple who inhabited the environs of the Palus Maeotides, according to Pomponius Mela. See TURE. TURCHANS, or . RooHANs, in Zoology, a kind of wild horses in the great desert about Azof. They are higher than the tarfians, (which see,) moss-gray in co- lour, with long upright standing ears, their manes and tails thinner and shorter than the common breed, their coats long and thick._They feed by thousands together in one taboon. The Khirges Rhaissaks shoot them with guns, and eat them. TURCICA SELLA. See SELLA. TURGICA Terra, Turkey Earth, in the Materia Me- dica, a very fine bole or medicinal earth, dug in great Plenty in the neighbourhood of Adrianople, and used by the Turks as a sudorific and astringent, and famous among them in pestilential diseases. It is sometimes brought over to us also made up into flattish orbicular masses, of two or three drachms weight, and sealed with some Turkish characters. The earth is of a somewhat lax and friable texture, yet considerably heavy, of a grayish-red colour, but always redder on the surface than within ; extremely soft, and naturally of a smooth sur- face. It breaks easily between the fingers, and melts freely in the mouth, with a considerably strong astrin- gent taste. It adheres but slightly to the tongue, raises no effervescence with acids, and burns to a dusty yellow colour. Hill. Many authors who have written of the materia medi- ca, and of fossils in general, have indiscriminately called the various kinds of Lemnian earth by this name; but the true terra turcica, described by Schroder, Wormius, &c. is a different substance, though not sufficiently cha- racterized by those authors to distinguish it from all the other earths. - TURCKH El M, in Geografthy, a town of Germany, in the lordship of Mindelheim; 6 miles E. of Mindel. heim-Also, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Rhine, formerly imperial; 3 miles W. of Colmar. Tungkheim Rhein, a town of France, in the depart- ment of Mont Tonnerre ; 4 miles N. of Worms. TURCO, a town of Peru, in the diocess of La Plata ; 60 miles E.N.E. of Atacama. S. lat. 20° 30'. W. long, 68° 20'. TURCOCORIA, a town of European Turkey, in Livadia; 14 miles N. of Livadia. TURCOIN, a town of France, in the department of the North, and chief place of a canton, in the district of Lille. The unfortunate conflict between the French and the duke of York, who commanded the allies, may be said to have decided the fate of the Netherlands; 6 miles N.N.E. of Lille. - TURCOIS, or TuRquois, in Matural History, and Mineralogy, a substance found in Persia and other parts T U R C O I S. af Asia, and formerly chassed with stones. It has a beautiful light-green colour, and is susceptible of a high polish. The surface is smooth and polished; it has also a smooth shining fracture, and is so hard as to scratch glass slightly: the specific gravity is 3.127. It has for a long time been considered as the tooth of an unknown animal impregnated with copper; but by a se- ries of analytical experiments, La Grange has proved that it does not contain a particle of copper, but is in reality bone coloured by phosphate of iron. The con- stituent parts are as under : Phosphate of lime Cº. • 8O Carbonate of lime intº - 8 Phosphate of iron º - 2 Phosphate of magnesia - - 2 Alumine * , º, - 13 Water * > º sº - 6 Guyton Morveau suspected that the turcois contain- ed silex, but this is supposed by other chemists to have. been accidental. This celebrated chemist made some experiments on fossile bones, and found that they assume in the fire the colour of turcois ; and when digested in a weak solution of potash, they turn blue, varying from a greenish to deep blue. Messrs. Fourcroy and Vau- quelin have also observed that bones strongly calcined often assume a blueish tinge, which they considered to be caused by a small portion of phosphate of iron. * Turcois is employed in jewellery. See GEMs. The Greeks and Latins seem to have known it under the name callais : and it appears to have had a place in the rationale of the high-priest of the Jews. Some writers mention turcoises both oriental and oc- cidental, of the new rock and of the old. The oriental partakes more of the blue tincture than the green; and the occidental, more of the green than the blue. Those of the old rock are of a finer blue, and those of the new rock are often whitish, and do not keep their colour. The oriental ones come from Persia, the Indies, and some parts of Turkey; and some even suppose, that it is hence they derive their modern name turcois. The occidental are found in various parts of Europe, parti- cularly in Germany, Bohemia, Silesia, Spain, and France. Turcoises are found of a round or oval figure; they cut easily, and besides seals, which are frequently en- graved on them, some are formed into crucifixes, or other figures, near two inches high : though De Boodt mistakenly affirms, that none have been known to exceed the bigness of a walnut ; for the specimen exhibited by Mr. Mortimer to the Royal Society was twelve inches long, five inches broad, and in some places near two thick. The turcois is easily counterfeited ; and that often is done so perfectly, that it is impossible to discover the deceit, without taking it out of the collet. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for the year 1715, we have a very curious account of the for- mation of the turcois, and the manner of managing its naturally irregular colour, by M. Reaumur. The tur- cois, he observes. is one of the softest of precious stones, its hardness usually not coming up to that of a crystal, or a transpare t pebble; though some are much harder than others : and still the harder, cacteris fiaribus, the more valuable, by reason of the vivacity of the polish, which is always proportionable to the hardness. Rosnell, a jeweller, and the author of a scarce treatise, called Mercure Indien, estimating the several precious stones, sets a hard turcois, whose blue is neither bright nor deep, on the foot of the most perfect emeralds, that is, nearly on a level with a diamond; but such are scarcely ever met with. Those with any defect, he on- ly values at a French crown the carat. - Tavernier affirms, but erroneously, that there are but two mines of turcoises known in all the earth, and those are both in Persia; the one called the old rock, near a town called Necabourg, three days’ journey to the north-east of Meched; the other, called the new rock, is five days' journey from it. The stones from the latter, he adds, are but little valued ; and the king of Persia hath for many years prohibited the digging in the former for any but himself. M. Reaumur takes the old rock to be now exhausted; in effect, the common division of turcoises into the old rock or oriental, and new rock or occident. al, is very arbitrary and precarious All the best, and most perfect, wherever they occur, in India or Europe, are reckoned among the former, and the rest among the lat- ter. Near Simore, in the Lower Languedoc, there are se- veral considerable mines of turcoises; but that fine blue, colour, admired in the turcois, is not natural to those of these rocks; the prevailing colour being sometimes white, and sometimes much like that of tripoli of Ve- nice. Other precious stones are dug out of the mine with all their colour, to the force of which nothing can be added, though it may frequently be diminished, as we see fire bring down the too decp colour of the sapphire, and quite take away that of a pale Sapphire : these tur- coises, on the contrary, are naturally whitish or yellow. ish, of a colour as ordinary as that of a free-stone; and by opposing them for some time to the action of the fire they assume a blue colour. It seems a paradox, and yet M. Reaumur has attempt- ed to prove, that turcoises are originally the bones of animals. In the mines in France, pieces have several times been found in figure of teeth, bones of the legs, &c. And turcoises which are yet imperfect, or half- formed, are apparently composed of laminae, or leaves, like those of bones, between which some petrifying juice, insinuating itself, binds them close together; and still, the Sotter, the more imperfect the stones are, the Inore distinguishable are the different directions of the fibres and laminae, with their intersections, and the great resemblance they bear to fractured bones, and the less to any kind of stones known. To give them a blue colour, they dry them awhile in the air, then heat them gradually in a furnace made af. ter a particular manner. If they be heated too hastily, the humidity between the laminae wanting time to eva. porate, the whole will separate into scafes or flaws. Some of the stones require a greater degree of heat to bring them to their colour than others; and even in }arge pieces, the several parts ordinarily require several de- grees of heat. On this account a great deal of care is to be taken in the heating of them ; for the fire, which gives them their blue by degrees, if they be exposed beyond a certain de- gree, takes it away again. M. Reaumur accounts for their taking a blue colour by heat very well; when fresh cut out of the rock, it seems their substance is found sprinkled and streaked all over with spots, veins, little circles, &c. of a dark blue colour; these he takes to be sources of a deep blueish matter, which the fire rarefying, spreads and diffuses throughout the whole substance of the stone. This T U R T U R This matter, again, he concludes to have been either originally the juice contained in the bones, since mixed and coagulated with the petrifying juice, or some other mineral matter insinuatcd into the pores of the stone. According to M. Reaumur's Mem. Par. 1715, nitrous acid will not dissolve that of Persia, though it will that of France, which shows a difference between them. Dr. Woodward maintains, that the turcois, or caliais of Pliny, is nothing else but fossile ivory linged with copper; but Mr. Mortimer, who produced a specimen of the turcois to the Royal Society, is of opinion, that those which authors call stones of the old rock, and in which the colour is permanent, are real mineral stones; the form and size of the sample which he produced evin- cing this ; for its shape shows that it could not be part of any animal bone, but its botryoid form seems to prove, that it is the product of fire, which has once melted this substance, and that when it cooled, its surface was for- imed into blisters and bubbles, in the same manner as the haematites botryoides, or blood-stone, whose surface consists of knobs, resembling a bunch of grapes. He apprehends the eleńhas sevzºros, or ebur fossile of Theo- phrastus, to be what Dr. Woodward calls the turcois, and suspects that it is what De Boodt calls the new rock. He thinks that, for distinction sake, all these stones of ivory origin should be called fiseudo-turchesiae, or bas- tard turcois. By a chemical analysis he concluded, that his stone was a rich copper ore ; some of it pounded and dissolved in spirit of hartshorn gave a deep blue ; in aqua fortis, a fine green; and an iron wire put into it was in an hour's time incrusted with copper; some of it, being calcined without any flux in a crucible, ran to a slag or half vitrified substance; whereas the same heat, if it had been ivory or bone, would have reduced it to a white ash, like bone-ashes, for it was exposed to a fire that vitrified the tile which covered it. Its hardness and consistence to an engraver’s tool seemed to be the same as that of common white marble ; its colour was not improved by heat, and it became brittle when red-hot. Sir Hans Sloane had several specimens of these orien- tal turcoises, which are all botryoid, and seem to be cop- per ores; and in his museum there are also samples of turcoises from Spain and the south of France, which are small, and seem to be pieces of ivory tinged with cop- per. Phil. Trans, vol. xliv, art. 17. sº tº The great defect of turcoises in general is, that in time they lose their blue colour, and become green; and then cease to be of any value. • T The pale blue of the natural turcois gem, is a very favourite colour in the glass-trade, and is given to glass in the following manner. First calcine common sea- salt, and beat it into fine powder; then make a pot of the sea-green glass, of a fair and full colour; to this, when infusion, throw in at times the powder of salt, till the mass has lost all its transparence, and is become paler and opaque; then add, by very small quantities at a time, more and more salt, till the colour is exactly that of the turcois gem; and when it is so, work it immedi- ately, for the salt is soon burnt off, and the glass becomes transparent, and of its green colour. If it become trans: parent while working, more sait must be thrown in, and that will reduce it to the same opacity again. Neri's Art of Glass, p. 57. See GLAss. For making a paste resembling the turcois, see PASTE. TURCOMANIA, in Geography, that part of Arme- nia which belongs to the Turks. TURCOMANS. See TURKoMANs. TURCZYNKA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 38 miles N. of Zytomiers. § TURDE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Jaly, be- longing to the Velumbri, according to Ptolemy. TURDETANI, or 'TURDETANs, a considerable pco- ple of Spain, in Betica, a great part of which they occu- pied. The Turdetans were considered as the most dis. tinguished people of Spain. They studied their language, they were in possession of ancient histories, and of laws written in verse : they were regarded as the most po- lished people of the whole province, on account of the commerce which they carried on with strangers, and particularly with the Phoenicians. When the Phoeni- cians first landed on the coasts of Turdetania, they found silver so abundant, that all the moveables of the inhabi- tants, not excepting the meanest and most trivial, were made of this metal. Strabo says, that when the Turde- tani became subject to the Romans, they assumed the manners of their conquerors, and forgot their own lan- guage, adopting that of the Romans. Their provinces surpassed all others in riches and cultivation, in honesty and religious zeal. This country supplied great abun- dance of cheese, wine, oil, honey, wax, saffron, vermil- ion, &c. particularly fine wool. TURDULI, a people of Spain, in Betica, towards the S.E. According to Strabo, the Turduli and Turdetani were the same people. TURDUS, THRUSH, in the Linnaean System of Orni- thology, the name of a genus of birds, of the order of the Passeres. The distinguishing characters of this genus are, that the tongue is jagged, and has a rim or margin round it ; the bill is of a conic-pointed figure, the upper. mandible bent at the apex, and emarginated; the nos- trils naked, but half covered above with a small mem- brane, and the chaps ciliated. Gmelin enumerates 125 *g, Species. Viscivorus. With a brown back, neck with white spots, and a yellowish bill. This is the missel thrush of Pennant and Latham. Found in the woods of Europe. PILAR1s. With black tail-feathers, the outermost whitish at the apex and interior margin, the head and rump hoary. The fieldfare of Ray, Willughby, Pennant, and Latham. Of this there are four varieties. Found in the woods of Europe, Siberia, and Syria. AFRICANUs. Blackish, the breast covered with black feathers, with red margin; the bill yellow; and the legs cinereous. Found in Africa. TRIPOLITANUs. Olive-yellow, whitish beneath; black quills; equal blackish tail and yellow apex. The Tri- poli thrush of Latham. Found in Barbary. BARBARIcus. Green; breast spotted white, rump and tail at the tip yellow. The green thrush of Shaw’s Travels, and the Barbary thrush of Latham, so called from its habitation. - AoNALAscHKE. Brown spotted black; the breast yellow spotted black; the wing-coverts, the greater quills and tail-feathers black, with a testaceous margin. The Unalasha thrush of Pennant, and Aoonalashka thrush of Latham, so called from the place of its abode. IL1Acus. With wings ferruginous beneath, and whi- tish eye-brows. The red-wing, swine-pipe, or wind- thrush of Ray, Willughby, Pennant, and Latham. An European bird, migrating in large flocks. : MINort. Light-red, beneath white; breast yellowish, varied with black spots. The little thrush of Pennant, - Edwards, T U R D U S. Edwards, and Latham, l'ound in Jamaica and North America; seven inches long, migrating and feeding on berries. - JAMA1c ENsis. Above cinereous ; bill, head, and legs brown; quill-feathers and tail black; chin and throat white, striated with brown ; breast cinereous; abdomen white. The Jamaica thrush of Latham. GUIAN ENSIs. Above greenish-brown, underneath ochre-coloured, with black longitudinal striae. The Guiana thrush of Latham. - Musicus. With quill-feathers at the inner base fer- ruginous. The Mavis throstle or song-thrush of Ray, Willughby, Pennant, and Latham. Found in the woods of Europe, imitating in the mornings of spring the song of the nightingale, and continuing it for almost nine months. Of this there are three varieties. Oliv Ac EUs. Brownish; beneath yellow. the Cape of Good Hope. - INDious. Olive-coloured ; bill and legs blackish ; guills brown on the inner side. The Indian thrush of Latham ; so called because it is found in India. CINEREus. Ash-coloured, with the two intermedi- ate tail-feathers cinereous ; the next on both sides black at the margin, and cinereous at the apex; the rest black. The ash-coloured thrush of Latham. Pound in India. MiGRAT on 1Us. Gray ; abdomen red ; eye-lids white ; the external tail-feather white at its interior apex. The American fieldfare of Forster, and red-breasted thrush of Latham. Found in North America, from Hudson’s Bay as far as the bay of Natka and Carolina. TRICHAs. Olive-coloured ; the body beneath yellow; the ocular band black. The Maryland yellow-throat of Edwards, and the yellow-breasted warbler of Pennant and Latham. Found in summer in the moist low woods of Carolina, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. CANorus. Brown; beneath ferruginous; with a white line on the sides of the head, and a rounded tail. The crying thrush of Latham. Found in Bengal and China. Rufus. Red ; beneath spotted whitish, with quill- feathers of the same colour; the tail rounded and red. The ferruginous thrush of Pennant and Latham. Found in America, from Newfoundland to Carolina. PolyG Lottus. Obscurely ash-coloured ; beneath palely ash-coloured, with the greater quill-feathers white on the exterior half. The singing-bird, mocking-bird or nightingale of Sloane, the mock-bird of Catesby and Kalm, and the mimic thrush of Pennant and Latham. Found in Jamaica, and the moist woods of America, practising in the way which its name imports. ORPHEUs. With brown back ; breast and lateral wing-feathers whitish ; eye-brows white. The polyglott bird of Willughby, the lesser mocking-bird of Edwards, and the mocking-thrush of Latham. Found in Jamaica, and the warmer parts of America. It has two varieties. SANDwich ENSIs. Above and abdomen brownish; be- neath and front cinereous-white. The Sandwich thrush of Latham. Found in the Sandwich islands, PACIFicus. Above cinereous; beneath brownish- white; the lori black ; the tail black, with a white tip. The Pacific thrush of Latham. Found in the Friendly islands. SURATE usis. With the head somewhat crested; the neck, tail, and greater quill-feathers and legs black; the body above amber-coloured; beneath dirty-gray; the wing-coverts and second quills green. The Surat thrush of Latham : named from its habitation. Found at PHILIPPENSIS. Above olive ; neck and breast red, spotted with white ; abdomen and vent ochre-coloured. ‘I he Philippine thrush of Latham ; so called from the islands which it inhabits. SHAN BU. With chin, throat, and the ocular area black, with a large white streak at the ears; the rest of the head, neck, breast, and abdomen gray; the back and wings greenish-brown. The black-faced thrush of La- tham. Found in the woods of China. Now Ae Holl ANDIAE. Blueish lead-coloured ; the an- terior part of the head, the bill, chin, throat, and legs black; the quill and wing-feathers black, with lead-co- loured margin ; the intermediate white at the apex. The New-Holland thrush of Latham. w - PLUMBEUs. Black, with yellow axillae and cuneated tail. The red-legged thrush of Pennant and Latham, Found in North and South America, and in the Bahama islands. * CRAsslaosTR1s. Above from red, and beneath from black to brown, with the quill-feathers acuminated ; the two intermediate obscure. The thick-billed thrush of Latham. Found in New Zealand. ULIETENSIs. From red to brown; quill-feathers black at the margin, and roundish tail black. The bay thrush of Latham. Found in Ulietea. - PALLIDUs. From yellowish to ash-coloured; beneath whitish ; tail-fcathers from cinereous to brown ; the side ones white at the apex. Pale thrush of Latham. Found in Siberia, beyond the lake Baikal. SIB1R1c U.S. Black, with yellow mouth ; eye-brows. and space under the wings white. White-browed thrush of Latham. Rare in the alpine and more northerly woods of Siberia. - - RUF1collis. Above brown, below snowy, neck and equal tail-feathers red; the two intermediate cinereous. Red-necked thrush of Latham. OBsou RUS. Brown ; with eyc-brows, chin and vent blue. Dark thrush of Latham. Found beyond the lake Baikal, in the woods of Siberia. PHOENICULUs. Above olive, with white eye-brows; ocular band black; tail-feathers and two intermediate quills spadiceous; sides with throat and breast red. The red-tailed thrush of Latham. Found at the Cape of Good Hope. - RUF1e AUDUs. Above olivaceous; beneath purplish and white ; tail-feathers and quills black; sides for the most part red. The rufous-tailed thrush of Latham. At the Cape of Good Hope. MALABARIC Us. Ash-gray; beneath red-brown; bilſ and tail-feathers black ; legs yellow. The Malabar thrush of Latham. Found in Malabar. PAGoDARUM. Black; back and rump gray; vent white; head crested. The pagoda thrush of Latham, Found in Malabar and Coromandel. CAYENNENSIs. Cinereous; beneath whitish ; vent white; greater wing-feathers and tail-feathers black; throat, bill, and legs black. The Cayenne thrush of Latham. VARIEGATUs. Above brown; beneath whitish ; ſea- thers whitish and black interspersed. Variegated thrush of Latham. Found in Surinam. Striatus. Varied with yellow and gray; a longi- tudinal streak of the back yellow. Yellow-backed thrush of Latham. Found in Surinam. FUSC U.S. Olivaceous-brown ; breast and abdomen whitish, spotted with brown; greater quills and legs black- T U R D us. black. Brown thrush of Latham and Pennant. In New York. - MustELINUs. Beneath white, spotted with black; cheeks brown, spotted with white ; rump, and greater quills acuminated, and tail-feathers brown. The tawny thrush of Latham. In New York. CAMTschatkENsis. Brownish ; beneath from brown- ish to white ; eye-brows pale ; chin and throat caryo- phyllous coloured. Kamtschatka thrush of Pennant and Latham. Found in Kamtschatka. NAEvius. With head and pectoral band black ; streak from the eyes to the hind part of the head ferruginous ; body above cinereous; beneath ferruginous. The va- ried thrush of Pennant, and spotted thrush of Latham. Hudsonic Us. From blueish to cinereous; bill and legs black; feathers of the crown, nape, wing-covers and primary quills pale at the margin, red. The Hudso- nian thrush of Pennant. Found in Hudson’s Bay. Now Ebor AcENsis. With head, neck, and breast va- ried from black, and dilutely ferruginous; feathers of the back ferruginous at the margin ; with double band above and below the eye, wings, and roundish tail shi- ning-green, and legs black. The New York thrush of Pennant. Found in North America. CURAcus. Shining-black; bill sub-striated, and tail cuneated. Found in Civili. NITENs. Green; spot on the wing-covers violet. Shining thrush of Latham. Of this there is a variety, the green merula : beneath violet; throat and rump blue- ish. Found in Angola, and at the Cape of Good Hope. AENEUs. Shining-green; beneath brassy; head black- ish to shining-gold; rump and intermediate tail-feathers purplish ; tail wedge-formed. Glossy thrush of La- uham. Found in Senegai. AURATUs. Violet ; back and wings green-gold; band of the wings at the internal margin and tail, with the superior wing-covers, blue. The gilded thrush of La- tham. Found at Whidah, in Africa. LEU cog AstER. Violet ; with white belly ; blackish quills; bill and legs cinereous. The Whidah thrush of Latham. - Roseus. Subincarnate; head, wings and tail black; occiput crested. Merula rosea of Aldrovand, Ray, and Brisson ; rose or carnation-coloured ouzel of Pennant, Willughby, and Edwards; the rose-coloured thrush of Latham. Found in various parts of Europe, Siberia, and Syria, migrating in flocks, and feeding chiefly on locusts. LEU cuRUs. Black; rump and tail white; tail-feath- ers black at the apex. White-tailed thrush of Latham. Found about Gibraltar. CAF ER. Blackish ; somewhat crested; rump and bel- ly white; vent red. Cape thrush of Latham. Of this there is a variety, the merula above brownish to cinere- ous; striated brownish ; beneath hoary. Found in Chi- na, and at the Cape of Good Hope. MAcRou Rus. From purplish to shining-black ; be- neath from ferruginous to yellow ; rump and three tail- feathers on both sides exteriorly white. The long-tail- ed thrush of Latham. Of this there is a variety with the two intermediate tail. feathers black; the rest half white. Found in Pulo Condore and Malabar. AMBoin ENsis. Spadiceous ; beneath yellow; secon- dary quill feathers yellowish from the base to the mid- dle ; tail cuneiform; beneath yellow. The Amboine thrush of Katham. gray thrush of Latham. Bon Bonicus. From cinereous to olive ; black crown ; abdomen and vent from olive to yellow; tail brown, with two obsolete bands towards the apex. The Bourbon thrush of Latham. Found in the island of Bourbon. Ochroceph ALUs. With the larger quill-feathers, tail, and legs green; vertex and cheeks yellowish ; col- lars black; abdomen and breast cinereous; the latter va- ried with sagittated spots. The yellow-crowned thrush of Latham. Found in Ceylon and Java. - ORIENTALIS. Black; beneath white; rump cinere- ous; ocular band black ; three tail-feathers on both sides externally white. Ash-rumped thrush of Latham. In India. - * ...- NIGERRIMUs. Wholly black; feathers yellow at the margin; cheeks and throat holosericeous. The black- cheeked thrush of Latham. Found in Madagascar. HISPANIOLENSIS. Olive-coloured; beneath varied from olive to gray ; brown tail-feathers, whitish at the interior margin, olive at the exterior; with the interme- diate altogether olive. Hispaniola thrush of Latham. A LB IF Rons. From black to lead-coloured ; beneath yellowish ; with the spot on the front white; and brown legs. The white-fronted thrush of Latham. There is a variety black ; beneath white, tail beneath cinereous. Found in New Zealand. CAPENSIs. Brown; abdomen yellowish ; vent yellow. A variety has the head and tail black. Found at the Cape of Good Hope. ATRICAPILLUs. Brown; black head ; abdomen and rump red; spot on the wing white. Found at the Cape of Good Hope. MAURITIANUs. From greenish to deep blue; the feathers of the head and neck narrow and long ; bill ci- nereous; and legs lead-coloured. The Mauritius thrush of Latham. MINDANAENsis. Steel-coloured ; beneath white; the longitudinal band of the wings white ; tail subcuneated. The Mindanao thrush of Latham. MADAGAscARIENsis. Brown; abdomen and vent white; tail subfurcated ; two intermediate tail-feathers wholly, and the rest at the exterior margin green-gold; the exterior margin of the outmost on both sides while. The Madagascar thrush of Latham. SENEGALENsis. From gray to brown; whitish ; bill, tail-feathers, tail and legs brown. abdomen The Se- negal thrush of Latham. Longi Rostris. From olivaceous to pale brown ; be- neath pale sulphureous ; rump and eye-brows yellow- ish ; tail round and yellow ; intermediate tail-feathers brown. The long-billed thrush of Latham. Found in the islands of Eimeo and York. GRIsr.us. Gray; crown and neck whitish ; breast, abdomen and vent from very pale red to gray. The Found in Coromandel. PALMARUM. Green-olivaceous; beneath sub-cinere- ‘ous; black head, with three white spots on each side. The palm thrush of Latham. There is a variety, viz. merula palmarum atricapilla; found among the palms of Cayenne. * Monach A. Above yellow, with brown; beneath yel- lowish ; black head; terminating with black on the breast acutely. The nun thrush of Latham. Found in the woods of Abyssinia. AFTHIopicus. Black; beneath white; with a trans- verse white baſed on the wings; tail round, tail-feathers quadrated quadrated at the apex. The Ethiopian thrush of Latham. Found in the thick woods of Abyssinia. - ABYssinic Us. Brown; beneath yellow ; brownish throat, and black legs. The Abyssinian thrush of La- tham. - Coch INCHINENsis. Green; with blue spots on both sides at the base of the bill; face, chin, and throat black ; the latter encompassed with a yellow arc. Found in Cochinchina. - CINNAMoMEUs. Beneath more diluted cinnamon ; throat, legs, temples, cheeks, chin, covers of the wings, and breast black ; with white nebulous wreath. The black-breasted thrush of Latham. Found in Cayenne. RUFIFRONs. Brown; beneath, and the front and tem- ples red ; vent white ; tail and legs cinereous. The rufous thrush of Latham. Found in Cayenne. CANTANs. From red to brown, varied with transverse black or blackish streaks; beneath whitish ; chin, cheeks, and throat from red to orange ; with black area, spotted with white on both sides of the neck. Musician thrush of Latham. In the recesses of the forests of Cayenne. ConAYA. Red-brown ; beneath more diluted; ver- tex and sides of the head and neck black; tail gray : varied with blackish lines. The barrel-tailed thrush of Latham. - * FUSCIPES. Cinereous ; beneath red; vertex black; legs and tail-feathers brown; tail sub-cuneated. The buff-winged thrush of Latham ; supposed to be found in Cayenne. ALAPI. From olive to brown ; throat and breast black; abdomen cinereous; tail wedge-formed, black- . ish. The white-backed thrush of Latham. In Guiana. CIRRHATUS. Cinereous, with wedge-formed tail, white at the margin and apex ; crested crown; throat varied with white and black; breast black. The black-crested thrush of Latham. Found in Cayenne. TINTINNABULATUs. Vertex and temples white, spot- ted with black ; eye-brows black; chin white ; incar- nated breast spotted with black; back, wings and tail brown; rump, abdomen and vent from red to orange. The chiming thrush of Latham. Found in Cayenne and Guiana. BAMBLA. Spotted; above from red to brown; be- neath cinereous; wings black ; with a white transverse band. The black-winged thrush of Latham. Found in Cayenne. AURITUS. Varied from red and olive-coloured; be- neath white; vertex and wreath from red to brown ; chin and throat black; feathers near the eyes, and at the sides of the neck, Shining-white; elongated and more wide. The white-eared thrush of Latham. Found in Cayenne. CoLMA. I’rom red to brown; beneath cinereous; chin . and throat white, spotted with black; breast from gray to brown. The rufous-naped thrush of Latham. It has a variety from black to brown; the occiput and neck red. Found in Cayenne. TINNIENs. Above brown; beneath white; breast spotted with black; equal tail. The alarum thrush of Latham. Found in Cayenne. LINEATUS. From olive to brown; chin, throat and breast white ; the latter spotted with brown; the sides of the neck marked with white lines. The speckled thrush of Latham. Found in Cayenne. FoRMICIvo RUs. Above from red to brown; beneath cinereous; chin, throat, and breast black; band varied - VoI., XXXVII U, - - . - with white and black. The ant thrush of Latham. Found as the former. CYANURus. Spadiceous; beneath varied with blue and yellow transverse alternate streaks; vertex at the nape to the quill-feathers and ocular band black; another orange; pectoral band and wedge-formed tail blue. The blue-tailed thrush of Latham. In Guiana. REx. From red to brown; beneath more dilute ; occiput lead-coloured ; front varied from white to brown. The king thrush of Latham. Found in South America, particularly Guiana and Brasil. - SINENsis. Reddish ; head brown striated; white eye- brows; tail-feathers marked with obscure brown streaks, and legs yellow. The Chinese thrush of Latham. Found in China. | ARCUATUs. Above spadiceous; with eye-brows, col. lars, chin and vent white; cheeks and bow of the throat white; tail rounded, black towards the apex; apex. white. The crescent thrush of Latham. Found in China. MELANopis. Gray; back and wings from green to brown ; orbits, chin, and throat black ; spot on the ears white. The black-faced thrush of Latham. In the woods of China. VIol.AcEUs. From violet to blue; feathers of the head, neck, breast, and covers of the wings steel-fasciated at the apex; bill and legs black. Found in China. LEU coc EPHALUs. Gray; black quill-feathers; the lesser with the covers of the wings and tail green-brassy and shining-violet. The white-headed thrush of Latham. In China. NIGR1collis. Brown; head, chin and nape white; ocular band and breast yellowish ; neck, back and tail- feathers black; tail wedge-formed, lead-coloured. The black-necked thrush of Latham. Found in China. BUBIL. Of the colour of terra umbra; longitudinal band near the eyes black. The chanting thrush of Latham. Found in the southern part of China. PERSPICILLATUS. With head and neck cinereous; front and streak under the eyes on both sides black ; body above from greenish to brown; beneath ochroleucous. The spectacle thrush of Latham. In China. FLAvus. Yellow ; white orbits; band from upper mandible produced near the eye black; bill and legs red. The yellow thrush of Latham. In China. VIRIDIs. Green; with eye-brows, spot below the eye, abdomen and vent white; throat gray, spotted with white; breast reddish. The green thrush of Latham. In China. ATER. From gray to brown; beneath from greenish to yellow, spotted with black; bill, legs, front, face, chin, and throat black; the latter with a red margin. The black-throated thrush of Latham. In the island of St. Domingo. Dom INICUs. Brownish; beneath white; with the principal tail-feathers white at the base; the three outer tail-feathers white. The St. Domingo thrush of Latham. Found in St. Domingo and Jamaica. BRASILIENSIs, Black; beneath from ferruginous to yellowish ; rump ferruginous; tail sub cuneated; outer- most tail-feathers wholly, the rest at the apex, white. The yellow-bellied thrush of Latham. Found in Brasil. MERULA. Black; with bill and eye-lids yellow. The blackbird of Pennant, Ray, Willughby, and Izatham. Of this there are the varieties of merula leucocephala of Brisson, merula varia of the same, or pied blackbird of N • *- Albin, - ºf U R D Us. Albin, and merula alba of Brisson. Found in the woods of the temperate parts of Europe. AURANTIUS. From blackish to brown; throat and abdomen whitish; bill and legs orange-coloured. The thrush of Sloane and Ray ; the white-chinned thrush of Laatham. The varieties are, merula gula fusca, merula nigra, and merula americana. Found in the woody mountains of Jamaica, in New Caledonia, in Surinam, and the warmer parts of America. LABRADoRUs. Shining-black; with a blue and green tint; bill and legs black. The Labrador thrush of Pen- nant and Latham. * * , To Rqu ATU.S. Blackish, with a white wreath, and bill yellowish. The ring-ouzel or amsel of Pennant, Ray, Willughby, Albinus, and Latham. The varieties are, merula torquata alba, merula torquata albo-maculata, merula albo-maculata, non torquata. Found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. SAXATILis. Brown; beneath sordidly orange, undu- lated with brown and white ; rump ferruginous; chin white; throat and intermediate tail-feathers brown, the latter in the margin; side ones wholly orange. The greater red-start of Willughby, and rock thrush of Latham. Found in Italy and Spain. EREMITA. With whitish orbits; olivaceous vertex; the upper feathers of the occiput brown, near the whitish apex black-banded, and the lower ones from red to white; brown at the margin; and cinereous rump. The hermit thrush of Latham. Found in the Philippine isles. MANILLENSIs. From cinereous to blue; blue rump; tail-feathers and tail red at the margin, blackish ; throat and breast spotted with yellow ; abdomen orange-colour- ed, undulated with blue and white. The pensive thrush of Latham. Found in the Manillas. SoLITARIUs. Brown; spotted for the most part with whitish ; and blackish tail. The solitary sparrow of Ray and Willughby, and solitary thrush of Latham. Found in France, Italy, and the islands of the Mediterranean and Archipelago. * CYANUs. With feathers cinereous-blue at the mar- gin ; mouth and eye-lids yellow. The Indian mockbird of Ray, the solitary sparrow of Edwards, and blue thrush of Latham. Found in Candia, the Archipelago islands, and the rocks of Italy. ARUNDINAc EUs. Brown-ferruginous; beneath whitish- testaceous; with tail-ſeathers banded and reddish at the apex. The junco of Gesner, Aldrovand, Ray, and Willughby. The varieties are T. arundinaceous, with red rump and tail ; the T. arund., above varied with black darts; and legst T. arund., above from yellowish to green ; with covers of the wings ferruginous. Found among the reeds of Europe. - Iorio. Shining-black, with the greater tail-feathers red, and apex black. The African thrush of Latham. Found at the Cape of Good Hope. Bicolor. Brown tinted with green; abdomen and vent white. The white-rumped thrush of Latham. Found as the former. ERYTHRoPTERUs. Black, with red wings; wing- scovers and lower quill-feathers of the tail, the interme- diate excepted, white at the apex; tail wedge-formed. The ruſous-winged thrush of Latham. Found near the Senegal river. CHRYSoGASTER. Green tinted with orange; beneath erange; bill and legs brown. The orange-bellied thrush of Latham. A variety is from blue to green; beneath Ichthyogr, p. 322. orange. Found near the river Senegal, and at the Cape of Good Hope, - URov ANG. : Cinereous; vertex greenish-black; rest of the head, neck, breast, and body above varying to olive-coloured ; the abdomen and crest yellowish. The cinereous thrush of Latham. Found in Madagascar. SURINAMUs. Shining-black; vertex, rump, and lat- eral spot on the breast yellow. The Surinam thrush of Latham. .- - CoLUMBINUs. Green, reflecting different sorts of co- lours; the rump and vent sometimes white. The pigeon thrush of Latham. Found in the Philippine isles. DoMINICANUs. Above brown; here and there tinted with violet and steel; beneath from brownish to white; tail steel-coloured at the base, greenish towards the apex. The Dominican thrush of Latham. Found in the Philippine isles. CANTo R. From greenish to black, shining-blue and violet ; with tail-feathers and tail black. The songster thrush of Latham. Found as the former. * MALABARicus. Shining-green; yellow front; throat, bill and legs black; covers of the wings and streak on the lower mandible blue. The yellow-fronted thrush of Latham. Found in Malabar. - SELEUCIA. With bill and legs yellowish ; abdomen and back incarnate ; tail, wings, and thighs brown. Found in Smyrna. º ZEYLoN us. Green; beneath yellow ; ocular line on both sides extended as far as the black breast. The Ceylon thrush of Latham. Found at Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope. - TURDUs Aquaticus of Brisson. See TRINGA Macularia. TURDUs Chiaphae, the name of a bird of the West Indies, called also fiasser faber. - TURDus, in Ichthyology, the name of a genus of fishes, according to Mr. Ray, of the class of those which have only one back-fin, the anterior rays of which are prickly; the hinder ones soft and smooth. - Of these fish there are several species, which may properly be divided into two orders; the first, of those which are smaller and broad; the second, of those which are larger and oblong. Of the first order are the tinca inarina, or wrasse (see LABRUs Tinca); the merula, or turdus niger (see LA- BRUs Merula); the leftras, and flira firanga i and the turdus viridis, or verdonne. Ray’s Ichthyogr. p. 320. Of the second order are the fiavo, or flea cock:fish (see CHAETodon Pavo); and the turdus viridis major, and turdus fuscus maculosus. --~" The turdus viridus major, or great green wrasse, is of a fine green on its back and sides, even to the side- lines; and the lower part of the sides and belly are of a pale whitish yellow, variegated with grayish and pale blue spots; its body is long, and not much unlike that of the pike in figure ; its back-fin is long, and has thirty- two ribs, the antcrior nineteen of which are rigid and prickly, the hinder twelve soft, flexile, and ramose ; the scales are large, the eyes small, and the teeth very large and strong. The turdus fuscus maculosus, or brown spotted wrasse, scarcely at all differs from the others, except in colour. It is of a dusky hue on the back and sides, va- riegated with blue spots; and on the belly blue, with lines and spots of red. All the fins, except those of the gills, are of a red colour, spotted with blue ; the tail also is of this colour, and the gill-fins are yellow. Ray’s TURDUS T U R T U R TURDUs Oculo Radiato of Catesby. See SPARus Radiatus. TURDUs Primoris Branchialibus Carens. See LAB Rus Griseu8. -- TURDUs Flavus. See LABRUs Rufus. TURECUATO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan; 60 miles W. of Me- choacan. TUREE, a town of Bengal; 40 miles S.S.E. of Cur- ruckdeah. N. lat. 24° 30'. E. long. 86° 56'. TURENBERG, a town of Prussia, in Samland; 16 miles W.N.W. of Königsberg. TURENNE, HENRY DE LA Tour, Wiscount of, in Biografthy, a famous general, was the son of Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke of Bouillon, by Elizabeth, daughter of William I. prince of Orange, and born at Sedan in 1611. Destined from his childhood to the mili- tary profession, his education and habits were conducted and formed with this view. Having acquired the neces- sary qualifications, he was placed, in 1634, at the head of a French regiment, in which post he acquitted him- self with honour; and having pursued a career of dis- tinguished services, cardinal Richelieu, in 1638, offered him one of his nieces in marriage ; but his attachment to the reformed religion led him to decline the proposal. After he had served 17 years in Italy and elsewhere with singular reputation, he obtained, in 1644, the staff of marshal of France, and was entrusted with the command of the army in Germany, the wants of which he sup- plied out of his own purse. When the war of the Fronde broke out in 1649, he withdrew to Holland, but after- wards returned and engaged with the party opposed to the court. In this connexion he was defeated near Rhetel in 1650; and when asked how he had lost this battle, he replied, “By my own fault; but when a man commits no faults in war, it is because he has not been long engaged in it.” In 1651 his difference with the French court was accommodated, and he was appointed general of the royal army. In 1653 he married the daughter of the marshal duke de la Force, a Protestant, by whom he had no issue. After several campaigns of alternate success and defeat between him and d'Enghein, now prince of Condé, in the service of Spain, Turenne in 1657, having gained the battle of Dunes, captured Dunkirk from the Spaniards, and the greatest part of Flanders; so that Mazarin was enabled to make the peace of the Pyrenées. Upon a renewal of the war with Spain, in 1667, Lewis XIV. made choice of Turenne, now marshal-general of the French armies, as his tutor in war; and the result of the first campaign was the conquest of the greatest part of Flanders, and after- wards of Franche Compté. In the following year, Turenne, from motives not satisfactorily ascertained, but not redounding much to his honour, abjured Cal- vinism, and was reconciled to the church of Rome. In the year 1672, it was determined by Lewis to conquer Holland, and the command of the army was assigned to Turenne; to whose arms resistance was in the Course of the campaign ineffectual. The elector of Branden- burgh, proposing to relieve the Dutch, was pursued to the gates of Berlin, and obliged to sue for peace. When at this time it was proposed to the marshal to gain 400,000 livres without the knowledge of the court, he thanked the general officer who made the proposal, and told him, that as he had often declined such advantages, he did not intend to alter his conduct at his age. On anqther occasion, a considerable city offered him 100,000 crowns for not passing through its territory; and his re- ply to the deputies was, “As your city is not in my pro- posed line of march, I cannot in conscience take your money.” We should exceed our limits, if we detailed his various successful movements during the following campaign. The soldiers reposed confidence in their commander, and to this confidence he owed the prosper- ous issue of various expeditions. The glory of his con- quests, however, was tarnished by his cruel devastation of the Palatinate, which Voltaire has justly reprobated; observing at the close of his account, that “he rather chose to be called the father of the soldiers that were entrusted to him, than of the people, who, according to the laws of war, are always made the sacrifice.” The imperial court, determined to make every possible ef- fort to check the progress of Turenne, called forth Montecuccoli, its best general, to oppose him. As these two masters of war were preparing for an engagement, Turenne, whilst he was reconnoitering a fit place to fix a battery, on July 27, 1675, was struck by a cannon ball, which killed him on the spot, in the 64th year of his age; and with him terminated the good fortune of the French in that campaign. His remains were interred with the highest funeral honours at St. Denis, The greatness of Turenne’s soul was disguised by a rude and vulgar appearance. His temper was cool, and his manners modest and unassuming. He was not always successful in war, and committed faults, which he had the magnanimity to acknowledge; but, as Voltaire says, (Age of Lewis XIV.) “ by always repairing them, and doing much with small means, he passed for the ablest general in Europe, at a time when the art of war was more studied than ever before. Though he was re- proached for his defection in the war of the Fronde; though at the age of near sixty, love caused him to re- veal a state-secret; though he exercised cruelties in the Palatinate, which seemed unnecessary; he preserved the reputation of a man of worth, wise and moderate, because his virtues and great talents, which were his own, covered weaknesses and faults which were com- mon to him with so many other men.” " Ramsay, in his “Life of Turenne,” mentions the fol- lowing anecdote, as an instance of his strict performance of a promise. Being attacked one night by robbers near Paris, and stripped of his money, watch, and rings, he engaged to give them 109 louis d’ors, if they would return him a ring, of no great worth, but which he highly valued. The highwaymen complied ; and one of them had the boldness to go to his house the succeeding day, and in the midst of a large company to demand, in a whisper, the performance of his promise. The viscount gave orders for the money to be paid, and suffered the villain to escape, before he related the adventure. TURENNE, in Geograft hy, a town of France, in the department of the Correze; before the revolution, the capital of a viscounty; 9 miles S. of Brive. TUREVSKOI, a town of Russia, in the province of Ustiug, on the Vim; 60 miles N.E. of Yarensk. TURF, in Agriculture, a term often used to signify the green sward or surface of grass-land. It is of great use and importance to the farmer to have the turf of such land, close, firm, and well set, as where this is not the case, it soon declines, grows thin, and becomes of little value either for the purpose of mowing or pasturing. It has been noticed, in the “Georgical Essays” of Dr. Hunter, in speaking of the improvement of the turf of poor pasture land, that, on such, it constantly gets worse N 2 - a few - T U R F. a few years after having been laid down for that pur- pose : the cause of which is plainly this. There are a few spiry grasses, natural to most poor lands, which are denominated natural grasses; while those from the seeds of clover, and others of similar kinds, which are introduced, are in general termed artificial. The roots of these latter are not very durable, especially on poor land ; and as the cattle as well as other sorts of live stock are greedy of such sown grasses, they constantly crop them, and prevent their going into seed, by which the land is deplived of fresh supplies of young plants; when eas the former sort, or the natural grasses, being, in ge neral, much inferior to the other in quality, are refu- sed by such stock, and the land, consequently, soon be- comes plentifully stocked and provided with them. it is suggested too, that the general method of prac- tice for improving land, when the turf gets thin and bad, is to bring it under a course of tillage. But when that is not proper or convenient, or when the occupier of such land is not inclined to introduce this mode, it may be greatly improved by having fresh seeds of the grass sort sown upon it; the best season for which is in the beginning of the first spring month. The ground should first be well wrought over with a heavy harrow of the bush kind, which will brush up and raise the soil, and prepare it well for the striking of the seeds in it. Com- post earth should then be used as a dressing, and the seeds sown thereon: after which the ground may be lightly brushed over again, and well rolled. When the season proves moist and kind, the seeds will be found to thrive to admiration, and to wonderfully improve both the turf and verdure. And where the turf of land has been greatly cut up by carriages, or much trod up by cattle, it is also capable of being improved in this way, without the dressing of compost earth. Even in pad- docks where the turf of the land has been cut up to an extreme degree by rude and wanton horses, a new and verdant turf has been seen to arise, even to amazement, in a few weeks after sowing the seeds. It is, however, necessary that cattle should be prevented from coming upon the land until the turf get well set, and in a firm State. The turf, in all sorts of land, may be greatly benefited by the proper use of manure upon it, and at the same time properly feeding it down with suitable kinds of live-stock. See GRASS, GRAss Land, and GRAzING. TURF is likewise a term applied to a blackish fibrous vegetable earthy substance, which is used in many parts of the country as fuel. It varies considerably in its na- ture and composition in different places, being, in some cases, hard and of a dark or black colour, while in others it is soft and very spongy, and of a brownish colour. It is cut and formed into turves for the purpose of fuel, by means of a particular sort of instrument, employed in a certain manner. See TURFING Shade. It is a substance which is not only very useful in this way, but for burning calcareous stones into line, and many other purposes in agriculture. Turf or peat-earth is capable of extensive use as a manure, but it mostly requires some preparation to properly fit it for this sort of application; as it is found that it is a substance which is held together partly by the intertexture of its fibres, and partly by its natural viscidity; and that when it is allowed to dry steadily in that state, it becomes almost incorruptible; and that it does not yield food to growing vegetables, unless its na- tural conformation be destroyed, and its parts separated by the interventign of other substànces. This strongly shows that its substance or texture should be somehow brokém down and reduced, and the water which it ori- ginally contains be forcibly discharged from it, as soon as possible after it is taken from its native bed, in order to prepare it for manure. There are different methods of effecting this. It has been suggested, that as this sort of fibrous matter will not ferment unless some substan- ces are mixed with it, which act the same part as the mucilage sugar, and extractive or albuminous matters, with which it is usually associated in herbaceous and succulent vegetables; a mixture of common yard-dung has been lately properly recommended for the purpose of bringing turf or peat earth into fermentation; any putrescible or fermentable substance will, however, an- swer the end; and the more a substance heats, and the more readily it ferments, the better it will be fitted for the purpose. In forming this mixture, it is stated, that one part of dung is sufficient to bring three or four parts of the turf or peat into a state in which it is fitted to be laid upon land; but that, of course, the quantity must vary with the nature of the turf and the dung. In circumstances where some living vegetables are mixed with turf or peat, the fermentation will be more readily accomplished. Turf or peat of this sort, after being reduced in its parts, may also be prepared for this use by being soaked in the urine of cattle, in putrid water, and other such liquids; likewise by the action of lime, and by being ridged up and mixed in the manner below. This material, both in mixture with dung and lime, has been used with great success and advantage in Cheshire. The method of preparing it there, in the practice of some, is, before the winter sets in, to trench and throw it up into narrow ridges, that it may be dried and reduced into a powdery state by the action of the atmosphere. After some time it is turned over and laid flat, being then usually found much lighter than when first dug up. It is now covered over with dung, in the proportion of a fourth or fifth part of the weight, and left so for about three weeks, when it is turned over, mixed perfectly with the dung, and thrown into heaps. A fer- mentation commonly soon takes place, that varies in its duration in proportion to the moisture in the turf. When it has subsided, the mixture is turned over again, as before, and the turf or peat at the same time broken very small, that it may mix the more intimately with the dung. This often produces another fermentation, more powerful than the first, The mixture is mostly ready for use in the beginning of the spring. If lime be used, the quantity is very much less than that of the dung, but the process otherwise much the same. If, for this purpose, the turf or peat were thrown up in long narrow ridges, and a little quick-lime dusted between the different layers, it would, it is supposed by some, expedite its separation, and dispose it sooner to incorporate with putrid matters. This substance has like wise been used with great ben- efit in both of these mixtures, as well as in its simple re- duced state in different instances, is Lancashire, by Mr. Paterson and others. See a paper in the third volume of the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, and lord Meadowbanks’s Directions. TURF, in Gardening, the green surface or sward cut from pastures, &c. for the purpose of laying down grass- grounds; as lawns, plats, bowling-greens, banks of pieces of water in pleasure-grounds, &c. It "I", U R . It is flayed off with the turfing-iron, in regular lengths of two or three feet, and a foot wide; and being proper- ly laid down close and regular in the places intended, it immediately forms an even grass sward, which quickly strikes root in the ground, in proper growth and verdure. This sort of work may be performed any time in autumn, winter, and spring, in open weather, or occasionally in summer, in a moist season; but the autumn is the best season. The best turf is mostly procured from fine close-fed pastures, commons, or downs, &c. where the sward is close and even; or that of, any grass-field of similar close, firm sward, where the grass is not rank and coarse, nor abounding in weeds, or much over-run with the common wild daisy, dandelion, or other similar plants. In the operation of cutting the turf, a line should be drawn tight lengthways of the grass-ground, and then the cutting-racer be stricken into the surface of the sward, close to the line, pushing it along so as to cut or score the sward in a straight cut the length of the line, about an inch and a half deep ; and having thus raced out one length, the line should be moved a foot width further to race out another length as before, proceeding in the same manner to a third, and so on to as many lengths of the line, in foot widths, as may be necessary; then, by the same means, the sward is to be raced cross- ways in yard distances, and thus the proper widths and lengths are formed. After the sward has been thus raced out, it should be flayed, or cut up with the turfing-iron, beginning at one side, cutting evenly longways the whole length of each raced line, about an inch or inch and half thick ; a person following immediately after to all them up separately in yard lengths, grass-side in- Ward, as close and tight as possible : having thus cut up one range, proceed with another in the same man- ner, and so continue with the whole. As the turfs are rolled up, they should be piled close and regular to- gether, ready for carrying away. When cut by the hundred, as is often the case where large quantities are required, they are commonly piled up in tens; four below, three next, then two, and one at top, for the more ready reckoning of the number wanted. In performing this sort of work, it is constantly ne- cessary to keep a steady even hand, in order that the turf may be cut all of an even regular thickness, without any sort of lumpiness, which renders it less difficult and troublesome to lay down, as such jumps cause many in- equalities that cannot be easily made level, but require so much beating as often to greatly injure and destroy the turf, as well as to be productive of a great waste of time and iabour, thereby causing a great deal of unne- cessary expense. Besides, such work under these cir- cumstances can never be done so well as where the con- trary is the case. y TURF-4shes, in Agriculture, those formed from any sort of turfy or peaty matters. Turf-ashes have been used as a manure on poor thin soils, it; some districts, with great effect and advantage, and for potatoe crops; but they are probably, in general, the best when employ- ed as top-dressings for grasses and certain kinds of crops. See Top-Dressing. - The ashes formed from turf or peat in Berkshire have lately increased greatly in value, in consequeace of their general application as a top-dressing to civºr ºs and other sorts of artificial grasses, as well as to tares, turnips, and occasionally wheat in the young state of its growth. The usual time of applying, them is the very early spring. They are there commonly taken in carts, and sown by the hand over the ground, either before or after the seed' for the crop is sown. But when used only as a top- dressing, they are merely sown on the surface of the land evenly by the hand. The quantity made use of is mostly from twelve to fifteen statute bushels to the acre, as the soil and crops may be. It is believed, that too large quantities would be hurtful. Some do not hold them in much estimation for grain crops, or those of the pea kind; but they are preferred to all other manures, especially for all sorts of artificial grass. It turnip crops they are said to assist much in preventing the ravages of the fly ; and in those from the seeds of grass, the farmers suppose, that on an acre which is manured with them, the produce in hay will be nearly a ton, more than what it would have afforded without them. r " On meadow land too, in some cases, from fifteen t twenty bushels of these ashes may be laid with great improvement to the grass. The effect of them is sup- posed to be not of longer duration than two years. Several acres may be gone over with the sowing of the ashes in the course of a day, by one person and a two- horse cart. See Ash Es and SULPHATE. A. TURF-Drain, a term applied to that sort which is formed in turfy situations, and filled with turves or peats; and which is done in an useful, neat, and successful manner in many districts, especially in Lancashire, as may be seen in the corrected agricultural report of that county. It also signifies a sod-drain. See SURFACE- Drain. - - - An improved mode of turf or sod-draining may like- wise be met with in the report on agriculture for Che- shire. - . . . - TURF-Hedge, that sort of fence which is formed by means of sods, or the dug-up turf, and plants of differ- ent kinds. For turf-hedges that are to be six feet high when finished, six-feet bases are allowed in some places, as in Cornwall ; and as they settle a good deal, half the height is only built at a time, with the filling well ridged up in the middle to throw off the wet. This remains to settle perfectly, when the other half is laid, and the pro- per plants or cuttings put in. This is thought to be an improvement in the forming of this sort of fence. See FENCE - TURF. House, in Rural Economy, that sort which is formed of the turf cut from land, and which is common in the northern parts of the island. TURF-Moss, or Bog, a term applied to a tract or ex- tent of turfy, mossy, or boggy land, from which turf is cut, or which stands in need of being reclaimed and brought into order by suitable draining, and the proper application of weighty earthy substances of different kinds. See Bog, MooR, and Moss. TURF: Shade, a tool of this kind, which is used in cutting turf for fuel. It is about four feet in length with the handle, and four inches in breadth, being made sharp, in the mouth part, and having an ear or sharp iron on one side of it, which is bent or turned up to a right an- gle, that serves to cut and separate one side of the turf from the bed of turfy matter, as the back and mouth of the implement do the other. The work of cutting the turves for burning by means of this spade, is performed somewhat in this manner : the ground being first marked out on the surface in a straight line, of a length at pleasure, and between three and four feet in width, is then dug level on the surface with. T U R T U R with a common spade, the whole of the bad and imper- fect turfy parts being removed. The turf is then cut by a person standing in the pit or ditch, with the narrow spade described above, which is shod at the lower end with iron, as has been said, in a sharp manner. By this means every turf is cut and formed into a long sort of Square, which is then taken from the workman, and spread on the ground in a close manner, until dry, when they are set up on end, three or four together, and af- terwards put up into windrows and small stacks, till ready to be led or carried home for use. The spade which is made use of in cutting the turf or peat for being reduced into ashes in Berkshire, is some- what of this form too, but it has a considerably greater length of the mouth part. The turf or peat, when dug by it, is carried from the spot in little wheel-barrows, to a short distance, where it is spread on the ground, and after lying some days, the pieces are turned, which after being several times repeated, a heap is made of it, in the middle of which dry turf is put, which is set fire to, and the whole slowly burnt, additional quantities of turf or peat being occasionally supplied, so as that the burn- ing may be slow and smothering. The heap is mostly of a circular form, and rather flat at top, being small at first, but ultimately sometimes two or three yards in depth, and six or seven in diameter. - - The remaining materials, when passed through a rid- dle, are taken away, in a covered manner, to great dis- tah CeS, - TURF-Sweating, an Indian method of curing diseases, which has been found to succeed very happily on many trials. Paul Dudley, esq. gives an account of a man of seventy- four years old in New England, who drinking cold water when very hot, had a pain settled in one side and arm, which baffled all art to remove; till after nine weeks’ confinement to his bed, when he was given over by every body, it was proposed to try this method of cure upon him. - - An oven full of turf was ordered to be cut ; the turves were of about eighteen inches square each, and were of the nature of the English turf used in gardens. The Indian doctor, before the turf was put into the oven, rubbed over their grassy side with some sort of oil or spirit, and then putting the two glass sides together, placed thcm in the oven. When they had been two hours there, and were well baked, he took them out, and made a bed upon the floor, the place for the head being a little raised ; the old man was then taken out of bed without his shirt, but wrapped in a sheet, and being laid on the turf-bed, such another parcel of the hot turf was laid over him. The turf was laid thickest on that side where the pain was, but none of it was put on his breast or head. * He was then covered with a blanket to keep in the heat, and while he was in this warm bath, he was con- tinually supplied with warm cordials to keep him from ſainting, of which he was in great danger. After he had lain in this bath about three quarters of an hour, which was as long as he could bear it, he was put into a bed very well warmed, without his shirt, where he soon fell asleep, and sweated to that degree, that it run through the piilow and bed on the floor. After about two hours’ Swcat, they rubbed and dried him, and put on his clothes, and the old gentleman found himself much eased and re- freshed. The operation was performed in the morning, and before night he walked about the house comfortably, surface a neat appearance. his pain being almost all gone. The cordials were, af. ter this, repeated, and, on the fourth day, the sweating was performed again; the day after which, the old gen- tleman was well enough to go about his business. He lived eleven years afterwards in perfect health, and free from pain. . Great care is to be taken in this operation that the Patient do not lie too long in the turf; in many cases, a quarter of an hour is found to be long enough; and the general rule is, that as soon as the patient begins to fetch his breath short or faint, he must be put to bed imme- giately, and the cordials must by no means be omitted, for the life of the patient is endangered without them. Phil. Trans. N° 384, p. 129. TURFAN, in Geography. See TourFAn Hotun. TURFING, in Gardening, the operation of laying down turf. In preparing the ground for this purpose; it should, where loose, be well trodden, or occasionally rolled and rammed; then be properly levelled on the surface with the spade, and afterwards raked smooth ; when it will be ready for laying. In laying the turfs, they should be unrolled regularly on the ground, each in its place, making them join close edge to edge, so as to form at once a close even sward; beating the whole down close and even afterwards with a heavy Wooden beater, to settle the roots of the grass close to the earth, as well as to form the surface equally close, firm, even, and smooth; the turf thus soon strikes root below, and grows above, without any further care in this part of the business, except occasionally beating down any swelling inequalities, and sometimes rolling it with a heavy iron roller. Sometimes, when turf is laid in the summer, or in the early part of autumn, in dry hot weather, it will shrink and open considerably at the joinings, and assume a decayed-like appearance. In this case, a few good waterings would be serviceable; but should this be omitted, the first heavy rain will mostly recover the whole effectually, and swell the Sward, so as to close all the chasms, and revive the ver- dure of the grass plants, when a heavy rolling should be given, to settle the whole firm and even, and to give the The principal circ.: instance to be regarded in this sort of wºrk, is to have the sur- face of the ground well levelled before the turfs are laid down, for where this is neglected, it is utterly impossi- ble to do the business so as to look well. * - In respect to the after-culture of ground formed with turf, it is chiefly to give occasional mowings, from the spring through the summer till October, and occasion- ally poling and rolling the surface to keep it even and level. The mowings in these cases should constantly be performed before the grass gets to too high a growth, so as to injure the surface appearance by rendering it tender and of a bad colour. TURFING-Irºn, an implement made use of for flaying or cutting up grass, turf, or sward from land for the purpose of turfing : it is formed with an iron plate for the cutter, from six to seven or eight inches wide, a little rounding forward at the edge, which is thin and sharp for cutting, but thickening gradually behind to the upper part, where it is forged to a long bent iron handle, the bending so formed as to admit of the plate or cutter resting flat with its back on the ground, in the proper position for readily cutting or flaying the turf or sward evenly off, of a regular depth or thickness; the handle at top being either formed of iron, with an opening like the top of a spade, or a socket in which to - #3: T UR T U R fix a short wooden handle of that kind. In using it in cutting the turf or sward, the workman takes hold with. one hand in the top handle, the other below, with the latter guiding the tool in the proper position, whilst the upper hand is placed against his knee, &c. which assists him in thrusting it forward into the ground evenly under the sward; and thus he proceeds along in a regular manner, moving the tool gradually along at each stroke, level and even, at an equal depth. Thus, as one range of turf or sward is pared off, another is begun with un- til the whole work is done. It is necessary that the edges of the cutting iron should be well steeled, and ground perfectly sharp, as . the labour by such means is rendered much less, and the work far better performed. TuRFING Shade, in Agriculture, the name of an im- plement used to under-cut the turf, after it is marked out with the plough, in the old practice of paring and burning the turfy surface of land. . . . T URGA, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 40 miles S. of Doesa. N. lat. 22° 22', E. long. 85° 5'. TURGANA, in Ancient Geografthy, an island on the coast of Arabia Felix, in which was a very magnificent temple dedicated to Serapis, according to Ammianus Marcellinus. TURGESCENCE, Tungesøenox, a swelling or growing bloated. . . TURGHE, in Geograft hy, a river of Wales, which runs into the Cothey, in Caermarthenshire. TURGOT, ANNE-Rob ERT JAcquEs, in Biografthy, an enlightened and patriotic minister of state, was born at Paris in the year 1727, and studied theology at the Sorbonne, where, in his 22d year, he delivered two Latin discourses, “On the Advantages derived to Mankind from the Christian Religion,” and “On the Progress of the Human Understanding.” translated Virgil’s Georgics, and thus a change took place with regard to the direction of his studies; so that he became attached to the principles of Quesnay, and of the sect called Economists. Having quitted the Sorbonne, he was appointed intendant of Limoges; and in the course of twelve years, during which he occupied this office, his conduct in distributing alms and providing a supply of food in a time of scarcity, and in introducing various improvements in the province, established his character, and commanded for him great respect. With him, it is said, first originated the institution of charita- ble work-shops. As comptroller-general of the finan- ces, he adopted various regulations, which, without in- juring the revenue, encouraged industry, promoted ag- riculture and commerce, and lightened the burdens of Although many of his beneficial the lower classes. plans of reform were treated with contempt and ridicule, he succeeded to a considerable degree in ameliorating the state of the country. His resolution, diligence, and activity, overcame many obstacles and difficulties, inso- much that the benevolently disposed Lewis once said, on leaving the council. chamber, “No one loves the peo- ple but M. Turgot and I:” nevertheless, the cabals against him prevailed, and he was dismissed from the important office which he occupied with so much ad- vantage to the people. As an incitement to his indus- try, he alleged, that in his family life was not protracted beyond the age of 50 ; and therefore, having but a few years before him, he determined to leave nothing unfin- ished. Accordingly he died in 1781, at the age of 49. Of the pieces which he published, Condorcet has given his views to the relief of the people. At the age of 24 he an account in a “Memoir on his Life and Writings,” 1782, 8vo. La Harpe has given us the following sketch of his character. “He was a man of a strong mind, whom nothing could divert from justice, even at court, and in the highest places; of an unalterable equanimity, even in the midst of the oppositions and disgusts of his ministry; of a laborious activity, which disease could not slacken. He had only two passions, that of science, and that of the public good. During the few years in which he occupied the post of minister of financé, he bent ahl Attached to the doctrines of the Economists, he developed them in edicts which tended to the encouragement and improvement of agriculture. He was the first among us who changed acts of the sovereign authority into works of reasoning and persuasion; and it is perhaps a question whether this method may be useful or dangerous. His suppres- sions and reforms in the finance raised him many ene- mies; but among all who complained against him and reproached him, not one attacked his integrity. No one disputed the purity of his motives, but fault was found with his measures. Perhaps there was something un- yielding in his character, which impeded the good which he wished to effect. Further, the courtiers could not pardon a minister who encircled himself with men of letters and philosophers.” His innovations in favour of the people created a prejudice against him, on the ground of his being one of the promoters of the French. revolution. Nouv. Dict. Hist. Gen. Biog. TURGUT, in Geography. See DURGUt. - TURHUSSY, a town of Bengal; 17 miles N.N.E. of Palamow. -. TUR1A, in Botany, an Arabic name, retained by Forskall, Fl. Ægypt-Arab. 165, and cited by Jussieu, Gen. 395, under Anguria. The above name, if wanted, might not be inadmissible; at least, if any such, of bar- barous origin, are allowed to remain. But whether the five, partly doubtful, species on which Forskall has founded his genus be really entitled to stand alone, or whether they may be referrible, as Jussieu hints, to: .Anguria, or to any other genus of the Cucumber tribe, no one, conversant with Forskall's works, will, surely, venture to determine. He attributes a pentapetalous. corolla to these plants, which is unexampled in their natural order, and which, by other parts of his account, appears to be an errour. The villous cylindrical fruit, tapering at each end, and marked with ten ſurrows, will scarcely afford a generic character.—Forskali’s first species, Turia of the Arabs, to which he has given no specific name, is cultivated in Yemen, but we are not told for what purpose. Some of the others are call- ed, in that country, Lelaja or Lt. a, Gijºſ, and Moghadd. TURIA MO, Bay of, in Geogra/, / y, a bay of Carac- cas, three leagues to the windward of Porto Cabello, which extends one league from north to south. Having no shelter from the north wind, and the country round it affording no commodities sufficient for inducing mer- chants to encounter its inconveniences, scarcely any ships resolt to it. The case is the same with regard to Patancmo, Borburata, and Sianega. The whole popu- lation of these bays consists of no more than a small arty of soldiers, stationed there to prevent smuggling. TURIANO, a river of Sicily, which runs into the sea, to miles N.E. of Mistretta. - TURIAS, the Guadalavir, in Ancient Geografthy, a river of Hither Spain, on the banks of which was built the town of Valentia.--Also, a river or torrent of Italy, mentioned *T U R TU R mentioned by Silius Italicus (I. xiii. v. 5,) and thought to be the same with that mentioned by Livy, and placed. six miles from Rome. But the orthography is much controverted. TURIASO, TARAcona, or Tarazona, a town of the interior of Hither Spain, towards the south-west. Pliny speaks with high commendation of its iron. It was municipal. It was situated east of Numantium, and south-west of Cahaguris. - TURICU M. See ZURICH. TURIGA, a town of Spain, in Boetica. TuR1GA, in Geography, a river of Russia, which runs into the Niznei Tunguska, N. lat. 66° 12'. E. long. 98° 44'. - º TURIN, a city of France, capital of the department of the Po, during the revolution, before and since capi: tal of Piedmont, situated at the conflux of the Po and the Grand Doria, about seven miles from the foot of the Cottian Alps, in the road from France to Italy, by the way of Meunt Cenis. According to 'Pliny, the inha- bitants derive their origin from the Ligurians, and were anciently called “Taurini.” Hannibal, the Carthagini- an general, when he invaded Italy, took and destroyed the town, because the inhabitants would not take Part with him ; which frightened the other people who in- habited the banks of the Po. It was erected into a Ro- man colony by Julius Caesar, who gave to it the namº of “Julia,” and it was called “Augusta Taurinorum.” by his successor Augustus. It was successively sub- jected to the Goths, Huns, Eruli, and Burgundians, who ruined and destroyed it; but it was soon rebuilt, though not so large as before. When the Lombards became masters of the country, it became the capital of one of their principal duchies. Some of the dukes became kings of Italy. After Charlemagne had abol- ished the kingdom of the Lombards, Turin became sub. ject to the maiquis of Susa, who had the charge of guarding the passages of the Alps, and continued in that family to the death of Ulric Manfred, the last mar- quis of Susa, in 1302; whose daughter, Adelaide, mar- fied Odo, comte of Maurienne and Savoy. Turin sub- mitted to him and to his descendants, who since P9s- sessed it with little interruption till its union with France; before which Turin was the see of an arch- bishop, and was said to contain l 19 churches or chapels, several hospitals, and about 80,000 inhabitants. The apploach to it is magnificent, and the environs beautiful, though thick fogs from the two rivers are frequent in autumn and wiſter; so that the air of Turin is then very thick and moist. The four gates are highly orna- mental; the streets in the New Town are wide, straight, clean, having plenty of water running through them, well i, uilt, in a good taste, chiefly of brick stuccoed, and generally terminating in some agreeable object. No inhabitant could rebuild or repair his house but on a uniform plan, laid down by gºvernment, for the im- provement of the city. The iortifications of Turin were regular, and kept in excellent repair. The citadel is a regular pentagon, consisting of five strong bastions, and is reputed one of the strongest in Europe. At the end next the new gate is the arsenal, which, besides the armories found in such places, contains a cabinet of mi- nerals, a good chemical laboratory, a library of books in mineralogy and metallurgy, and furnaces for cºsting cannon: here, also, are mathematical, mechanical, and other masters, for the instruction of engineers, miners, &c. The garrison of Turin was changed at the end of two years, and then there was a general review. The university was founded first in 1405, by Amadeo, duke of Savoy, and consists of schools, wherein 24 professors read lectures, from the 3d of November to the 24th of June; the royal library, in which are about 50,000 vo- lumes of printed books, besides manuscripts, is open every day, except holidays, both morning and afternoon. The royal museum has a good cabinet of medals, and a collection of antiquities, found chiefly in Piedmont or Sardinia, and elegantly arranged: also of natural his- tory, as shells, and English minerals, polished marbles, and hard stones, petrifactions, corals, zoophytes, and some minerals, collected by Donati in the Adriatic; also, some chests of natural curiosities, which Doñati during his travels in Egypt and Arabia, sent from Goa. In the military academy, young gentlemen, both natives and strangers, might be instructed in the exercises, at a mo- derate expense, the king defraying a part of the charge attending this institution. The palace is in a simpie and noble style of architecture. The apartments are handsomely fitted up and furnished ; the ceilings paint- ed by Daniele di Sancterre and others. They contained a great collection of pictures, among which were many good ones. The king’s theatre, or great opera-house, is reckoned one of the finest in Europe. The build- ings which are most esteemed in point of architecture, are the palace of the duke of Savoy, called Castello Reale, by Filippo Giuvara; the Carignana palace, by Guarini; the buildings of the university, and the town- house. There is a literary society at Turin, which has published Memoirs, under the title of “ Miscellanea Philosophico-Mathematica.” The chief trade of this city and country is in thrown silk, which is sent to Eng- land and Lyons; they manufacture, however, some of it into excellent stockings, and good silk for furniture. In the year 1536, Turin was taken by the French, and again in the year 1640, after a long siege. In the year 1706, the same enemy made another attempt; but after besieging it upwards of three months, under the con- duct of the duke of Orleans, they were driven away with great loss, by the duke of Savoy and prince Eu- gene. In December 1797, the French took this city, and levied on the king of Sardinia a contribution of 2,000,000 livres. In May 1799, it was taken by the Austrians and Russians, and the citadel surrendered soon after. It was afterwards surrendered, with the whole of the principality of Piedmont, to the French republic, but restored after the revolution and re-estab- lishment of the French government. N. lat. 45° 3’. E. long. 7° 40'. At Turin, accounts are kept in lire, soldi, and denari, Piemontese currency : 12 denari = 1 soldo, and 20 soldi == i lira : accounts are also kept in francs and centimes, as in France. The gold coins now in circulation are cal lini, of 5 doppie or pistoles, with half carlini in pro- portion, and doppie, with halves and quarters in pro- poſt oil : the cariini passes for 120 lire, and the doppia for 24 lire, Piemontese currency. The silver coins are scudi of 6 lire, with halves, quarters, and eighths in proportion. Here are also base silver coins of 3; and 23 soldi; and copper coins of 1 soldo ; also pieces of 3 denari, called quattrini. The doppia contains 172; troy grains of fine gold, or 1394 grains of English standard gold, and is worth 1.l. 2s. 63d. in English gold coin: the seudo contains 492 troy grains of fine silver, OP T U R 'I' U R or 532 of English standard, and is worth 5s. 8%d. in sterling silver coin; thus the lira Piemontese currency may be valued at 11+d sterling. The rubbo, commercial weight, is 25 lbs., each pound containing 1% mark, or 12 oz. of the gold and silver weight: so that 70 lbs. of Turin = 57 lbs. avoirdupois. The sacco, corn mea- sure, contains 3 staga, 6 mine, or 48 coppelli; and 22 sacchi = 9 English quarters nearly : the brenta, Wine measure, contains 6 rubbi, or 36 pinte; the rubbo weighs 25 lbs. of Turin, and holds about 24 English gallons. Oil is sold by the rubbo of the same weight, or 294 lbs. avoirdupois: the raso or ell is + 2} Genoese Palmi = 23; English inches; the foot = 143.2 French lines = 3, English inches; so that 180 Piemontese rasi = 119 English yards, and 33 Piemontese feet = 35 English feet. Turin exchanges with, and gives Amsterdam, 38 sol: di, more or less, for 1 florin banco; Augsburg, 46 soldi for 1 florin current; Geneva, 86 soldi for lecu of 3 livres current; Genoa, 199 soldi for 1 sequin; Leghorn, 32 soldi for 1 pezza of 8 reali; London, 409 soldi for ll. sterling; Lyons and Paris, 50 soldi for 3 livres Tour- nois; Milan, 98 soldi for 1 filippo of 7# lire current; Rome, 90 soldi for 1 scudo of 10 paoli; Venice, 54 sol- di for 1 ducat piccoli. - The usance for bills drawn from London is three months after date, from Holland two months, and from France one month. The holder of a bill payable after date, may either demand payment when it becomes due, or wait till the fifth day; but bills at sight must be paid when presented. Kelly. - TURIN, a large post-township of New York, in the S.W. corner of Lewis county, 143 miles N.W. of Alba- ny. It comprises seven townships, viz. Pomona and Lucretia, adjoining Black river, and on which are the settlements; Flora, Xenophon, Rurebella, Hybla, and Penelope, unsettled. The settled part is about nine miles along Black river and seven back. The inhabit- ants are emigrants from the eastern states, farmers of plain domestic habits. Here are nine school-houses, in which are also held the meetings for worship. The whole population in 1810 was 856, and the senatorial electors were l l l ; in 1812, 170. The Black river road from Johnstown leads through this settlement, which has an excellent soil, and in which are two grain-mills, six saw-mills, a carding-machine, and two distilleries of grain and fruit spirits. TU RING, a town of Sweden, in the province of Blekingen; 7 miles N. of Carlscrona. TURINGE, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland ; 24 miles W.S.W. of Stockholm. TURINI, FRANCEsco, in Biografi.hy, an eminent Italian composer of the seventeenth century, who gain- ed great reputation by the composition of canons. He was organist of the Duomo at Brescia, and published many learned compositions for the church and cham- ber; but particularly a mass in 1643, for four voices, in Căil OI). In this work there is a perpetual fugue, upon the subject of which Handel has composed one of his finest instrumental fugues; but, according to his usual prac- tice, whenever he adopted another’s thought, he has enlivened and embellished Turini’s theme, like a man of true genius, with a counter subject; and shown that he saw farther into the latent fertility of the same series Vol. XXXVIII. .* of notes, than the original inventor, whose theme Was the following. The first sonatas for two violins and a base, which our musical inquiries have been able to discover, were published by Turini, with a set of “Madrigali à una, due, tre Voci, con alcune Sonate à due et à tre,” Ve- nezia, 1624. We were instigated by this early date to score one of these sonatas, which consisted of only a single movement, in fugue and imitation throughout; in which so little use was made of the power of the bow in varying the expression of the same notes, that each part might have been as well played on one instru- ment as another. The violin does not appear to have been Turini’s in- strument. A canonist need have nothing else to think of, than the solution of harmonical problems, which re- quire such intense application as to leave him not a single idea to bestow on anything else. TURINSK, in Geography, a town of Russia, in the government of Tobolsk, containing a wooden fort, seven churches, and about 350 houses; 144 miles W. of To- bolsk. N. lat. 58°. E. long, 63° 44'. TURINSKOI, a town of Russia, in the government of Tobolsk, on the Niznei Tunguska; 132 miles E. of Turuchansk. TURIONES, in Botany, the first young tender shoots which plants annually put forth. TURIRANA, in Geography, a river of Brasil, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat, 1° 30'. W. long. 46° 46'. TURISSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, at the foot of the Pyrenées, in the country of the Vas- coni, N.E. of Pampela. TURK, in Geography, an appellation of very ancient origin and of very comprehensive extent. It is said to be derived from the name of one of the sons of Japhet, the eldest son of Noah, who is generally allowed to be the progenitor of the Moguls and Tartars. This opinion has been adopted by those who have been most conver- sant with Oriental literature, and the Tartars themselves have expressed their persuasion of its truth. Accor- dingly it is said, that the progeny of Magog, Meshech, and Tubal, subverted both the Scythias, and consequent- ly the country of the ancient Moguls and Tartars. If it be admitted that the Turks and Tartars were origin- ally the same people, whatever is advanced concerning the first progenitors and early antiquities of the one, must, with the strictest propricty, be applicable to those of the other. It has been alleged as highly prob- able, that both the present Turks and Tartars are de- scended from the Scythians of Aristeas Proconnesius, and the Scythian Nomades of Herodotus (lib. iv.) Upon this supposition, the ancient Turks or Tartars cannot be considered as one of the earliest nations of antiquity, nor as occupying a tract for many ages of very considerable extent. For they scarcely made any figure at all before the reign of Cyaxares, king of the Medes, or the time of Ogus Khan, about 637 years B.C., when they drove the Cimmerians from their territories bordering upon the Palus Maeotis into the Upper Asia. Nor could their primitive seat, upon the eastern bank of the Volga or Araxes, have been at that time very extensive; since it is well known that they were then a people of little note, and T U R T U R and in the vicinity of some nations who were contend- ing for unlimited empire. In the time of Herodotus, Scythia lay only between the 45th and 57th degrees of longitude, and the 47th and 55th degrees of N. latitude, so that the Scythians at that period cannot be regarded as a very formidable power. The first Scythian king, according to this historian, did not live above 1000 years before Darius Hystaspes invaded Scythia, in the year B.C. 514; or by reducing the calculation of the Greeks and other ancient nations, as sir Isaac Newton has done, it may reasonably be supposed that the first Scythian prince could not have preceded Darius Hystaspes above 800 years. At this early period, therefore, or 1300 years before the commencement of the Christian era, the countries bordering upon the Palus Maeotis, as wéil as the Euxine and Caspian seas, must have been very thinly peopled. The Tartars, however, though they de- rive their name from Tartar Khan, pretend that this was not their primitive appellation, but that they are the descendants of Turk, as we have already said, the eld- est son of Japhet, whom they call Japhis; and accor- dingly they maintain that they were originally denomi- nated Turks; which name they seem to have retained till the time of Genghis Khan. But when that prince reduced all the tribes bearing the name of Turks under his obedience, they, with regard to their neighbours, gradually lost it, and were by them afterwards called Tartars. Nevertheless, though this was the case with respect to their neighbours, most of them have always denominated themselves Turks; nor do they allow, that any other nation has the least title to that denomi- nation. The name of Tartars was at first probably ap- plied to one particular tribe or horde of the Turkish na- tion, consisting of persons more considerable, warlike, and better known to the Asiatics, on account of their military exploits than the rest, till the time of Genghis Khan. This was succeeded by that of Moguls, which prevailed as long as the dominion of the people so called lasted over the southern provinces of Asia; when that expired, the former appellation was resumed. It is ob- servable, that Sherif al Edrisi, commonly called the Nubian geographer, makes no mention either of Moguls or Tartars; but intimates that the whole country bear- ing now the denomination of Eastern and Western Tar- taly, was peopled by different cantons of Turks. This is the more remarkable, as that author wrote but a little before the reign of Genghis Khan, about the year of Christ l l 70. Turk, it is said, was appointed by his father Japhet to bear the chief rule in his family after his death; and being a man of superior genius, he invented many of the conveniencies of life, made tents, and governed his fa- mily and subjects with great justice, prudence, and mo- deration. He also formed a body of salutary laws for his descendants. Turk is said by the Tartars to have had four sons; and from him the country in which he scitled was called Turkestan, and his subjects were de- nominated Turks. From Tatar Khan, the Tatars or Tartars derived their name, as the Moguls did their’s from Mogul or Mung'l Khan. These two branches of Turks, being rendered independent of one another, formed two considerable empires, which flourished for several generations. See Mongoles and TARTARs. The name Turk, says Volney, originally, was not pe- culiar to the nation to which it is now applied; it de- noted, in general, all the hordes dispersed to the east and even to the north of the Caspian sea, as far as beyond lake Aral, over those vast countries which have taken from them the denomination of Turkestan. These are the same people, who were known to the ancient Greeks by the names of Parthians, Massagetat, and even of Scythians, for which we have substituted that of Tar- tars. These formed a nation of shepherds, continually wandering like the Bedouin Arabs ; and in every age exhibiting themselves as brave and formidable warriors. Neither Cyrus nor Alexander was able to subdue them. The Arabs, however, about 80 years after Mahomet, by order of the caliph Waled I. invaded the country of the Turks, subdued them, and imposed upon them their religion ; and obliged them to pay tribute. But the power of the caliphs was resisted and vanquished. Like the Bedouins, the Turks were divided into tribes or camps, called “ordou,” of which has been formed the term horde; and these tribes, allied or at variance, ac- cording to their several interests, were perpetually en- gaged in wars. Hence we see, in their history, several nations, all equally called Turks, alternately attacking, destroying, and expelling each other. Volney, in order to avoid this confusion, has confined the name of Turks to those of Constantinople, and given that of Turkomans to their predecessors. (See TURKoMANs.) For a further account of the Turks, see TURKESTAN and TUR KEY. TURK’s-Caft, in Botany, a name given to a species of lily. See LILIUM. TURK’s-Head, a name sometimes given to the melon thistle. TURK’s Turban, a name given to a species of ran un- culus. TURE Islands, or Turk’s Islands, in Geografhy, a cluster of small islands among the Bahamas, the largest situated N. lat. 21° 20'. W. long. 71°. TURKAL, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pro- vince of Sivas ; 25 miles S.E. of Amasreh. TURKAREL, a town of Candahar; 30 miles. W. of Cabul. TURKEIM. See TURCRHEIM. TURKESTAN. See TARAz. TURKESTAN, (formed of Tourk and estan, a Persian word signifying country,) or Turan, a country of Asia, bounded on the north by deserts, which separate it from the dominions of Russia, on the E. by a part of Tartary, belonging to the Kalmucks, on the S. by Bucharia, and on the W. by Charasm or Kharasm, near 300 miles in length, and not much less in breadth. It is at present divided between two Tartar Khans or chiefs; one of them, residing at Tashkund, possesses the eastern part; the other, who possesses the western part, resides at Turkestan or Taraz. The latter is generally called the khan of the Karakalpahs. Turkestan, taken in a larger sense, is understood to include all the country between Russia to the N. and Bucharia to the S., and between the Caspian sea to the W. and Chinese Tartary on the E., not less than 700 miles from E. to W. and 350 from N. to S. In ancient periods, Western Turkestan and the N. of the Caspian were the seats of the Massageta: ; to the S. of whom were the Scythians, on this side of the Imaus or Belur-Tag. In the sixth century, the Turks, having migrated from their habitations near the mountains of Bogdo, adjoining to these of Altai, or the mountains of gold, and having imparted to the country the name of Turkestan, and forming a grand branch of the Tartars, () ºf T U R T U R or Huns, spread themselves to the Caspian. They soon after subdued the people of Sogdiana, and the Neptha- lites of Great Bucharia, called in that ignorant age White Huns. As the Turks founded their first western settle- ments in the regions now held by the Kirguses, they thence received the name of Turkestan, the capital city being denominated Otrar, and sometimes Taraz, also called Turkestan. From the centre of their power is- sued those Turkish armies, which have changed the destinies of so many nations. Little Bucharia was called Eastern Turkestan from a similar cause ; but appears to have been first subdued by the Turks of Cathay, on the N.W. of China. The Turks and Huns may be considered as one and the same Tataric race, totally un- known to Europeans till the appearance of the latter, who first passed the steppes, deserts and mountains which had concealed them from observation till the fourth century. The Huns, who appeared about A.D. 375, seemed to the writers of the period as a new and unknown race, having passed in a course of uniform depredation from Asia to Europe ; while the Gothic and Slavonic nations had left many of their settlements vacant, in their progress into the Roman empire. But the Turks, though originally the same people, perhaps warned by the fate of their brethren, made a slow and gradual progress, and appear to have been blended by marriages and conquests with the Slavonic and Gothic tribes on the N. and E. of the Caspian. Such was the origin of the name of Turkestan, from which the Turks spread desolation over the most beautiful countries of the East, and even threatened the liberties of Europe. Pinkerton’s Geog. vol. ii. See BUCHARIA and Indefen- dent TARTA RY. TURKEY, an extensive empire, comprehending a great number of countries on the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and several adjacent islands. Turkey in Europe extends, according to the statement of Pinkerton, about 870 miles in lengtin, from the north- ern boundary of Moldavia to Cape Matapan in the Mo- rea; and its breadth, from the river Unna to Constanti- nople, is about 680 British miles. It is computed to contain i 82,560 square miles. Its eastern and southern boundaries are formed by the Euxine or Black Sea, the sea of Marmora, the Archipelago, and the Mediterra- nean. Its utmost northern limit is now the river Dnies- ter, and the western consists of an arbitrary line, some- times supplied by rivers or mountains. In its whole extent it comprehends many ancient kingdoms and re- publics, which, since the subjugation of its greater part in the 15th century, after the fall of Constantinople and of the Byzantine empire, afford only the records of clas- sical names and events. Moldavia, the most northern province, was part of ancient Dacia; and Jassy or Yas- sy, the capital, was the “Jassionum Municipium” of the Romans. Budzac, or Bessarabia, was the Country of the Getae and Peucini. Walachia was also a pro- vince of the ancient Dacians; and Bulgaria, on the S. of the Danube, embraces nearly the two provinces of Moesia. Romelia, a spacious territory, contains ancient Thracia, Paeonia, Macedonia, and the northern part of the classical country of Greece; and the Morea is equi- valent with the ancient Peloponnesus. Dalmatia retains its ancient appellation; while Servia and Bosnia repre- sent ancient Pannonia. Turkish Croatia, the most west- ern province of the empire, forms a portion of ancient Pannonia, with probably a small district of Noricum ; but the Turkish part of Croatia is a diminutive province, about 40 miles in length by 20 in breadth, bounded by the river Save on the N., and partly by the river Unna on the W. In modern times Turkey, sinking before the power of Russia, has lost the provinces of the Crim and New Servia, which, with several Asiatic districts, have surrendered to Russia; and on the W., Transylva- nia, Sclavonia, with the Buckovin and part of Moldavia, and a great part of Croatia, have been subjugated by Austria. Of the original population of the Turkish empire, we have already given some account under the article TURK; and it appears to have been derived from the ancient Scythians on the Euxine, the progenitors of the Dacians, Thracians, &c. and even of the Greeks. These were originally blended northward with many Sarmatic or Slavonic tribes; which on the fall of the Roman empire migrated towards the S., so that about one-half of the population may now be regarded as Sla- vonic. Walachia, however, is supposed to contain many descendants of the ancient Roman settlers in Dacia. This original population, in consequence of the extent of the Turkish empire, has been blended with various Asiatic tribes, among whom the Turks constitute a part. Of that branch called Ottomans, and the commencement of the appellation of Ottoman empire, we have already given a brief account under the articles OTHMAN and OTTOMAN ; and for the more remote antiquity of the name and power of the Turks, we refer to TURK. Those Turks, or Turkomans, descending, about the middle of the sixth century, from the Altaian mountains, spread as far as the lake Maeotis; but their progress was restricted to the region near the river Oxus : from the Oxus and Samarcand they afterwards spread to the E. of Per where Mahmoud of Gazma established a powerful king- dom, subdued by the Turks of Bochara, who in the 11th century founded the dynasty of the Seljuks. The sul- tans of this race gradually extended their power towards the W. and took possession of Armenia and Georgia, their first acquisitions in the Byzantine empire; and it is remarkable that these should have continued, when it is tº rº its 3 considered, that the Turks had subdued almost the whole of Asia Minor before the beginning of the 12th century. Nevertheless the extension of their dominion was re- strained by the progress of the Crusades, which obliged them by the capture of Nice to remove the seat of power to Iconium. About the middle of the 14th century the Turks first passed into Europe, and soon after seized the greatest part of Thrace. In the 15th century their Sultan, Bajazet, extended his conquests even to the Dan- ube, and the provinces of Thrace and Macedonia fell under the Turkish sceptre, while Adrianople became the seat of their government. Although the Turks, as we have above intimated, formed a part of the people denominated “the Scy- thians beyond the Imaus,” and originally proceeded from the Altaian mountains, they were intermixed by their settlement on the Oxus with Sogdian and Bactrian tribes, and after their subversion of the Byzantine empire, in which they were assisted by European troops, many dif- ferent nations joined their standard, and various circum- stances, beside their intermarriages with Circassian women, contributed to render them a very mixed race. When the Roman arms had subdued many of those countries and cities which were comprehended under the widely extended Turkish empire, they became in the fifth century an important part of the Byzantine O' 2 empire; T U R K E Y. empire; and we shall follow Mr. Pinkerton in tracing their historical epochs. Accordingly he observes, that the first dawn of Turkish history preceding the reign of Othman, occurs A.D. 1299. In the reign of his suc- cessor, Orkau, the Turks took Gallipoli, and penetrated into Thrace, so that Adrianople was taken A.D. 1360; two years after winich period, Amurath established the military bands called Janizaries. The Turkish power was for some vime restrained after the famous battle near Ancy, a, A.D. i402, between Bajazet and Timur; ne- vel theless the dominion of the i urks increased in Eu- rope, though they received several checks from the Hungarians undcr Hunniades, and from the Albanians under the command of George Castriots, called by the Turks Scauderberg. On the 29th of May, A.D. 1453, Constantinople was taken by the Turks. Crimea and the Morea were subju,ated A.D. 1458; and in 1480, Otranto in Italy was cap, ured by the Turks. The con- quest of Egypt in 1517 made a considerable accession to the Turkish power; Rhodes submitted in 1522; and soon after the battle of Mohatz, in 1526, the sultan Soli- man took Buda. In 1552 the Turks seized the bannat of Temes war, and they took Cyprus from the Vene- tians in 1571. Although after the famous naval engage- ment of Lepanto, in this year, their power at sea ceased to be formidable, they invaded Hungary with various success, yet Europe obtained an interval of security by their wars with Persia: however, in 1642, the Sultan Ibrahim took Azof from the Cossacks, and about the middle of this century the Turks took possession of some Grecian isles. Hungary became the scene of repeated Turkish and Austrian conquests until the year 1699, when, by the peace of Carlovitz, the Turks sur- rendered Transylvania to the Austrians, the Morea to the Venetians, and Azof to the Russians. By the peace of 1739 the Turks resumed Belgrade and Orsova, with parts of Servia and Walachia, formerly ceded to Aus- tria, and Russia was constrained to abandon Azof. The last epoch of Turkish history would lead to a detail of the Russian wars against the Turks, and the decline of the Ottoman empire. We may here observe in general, that the Turkish dominion, wherever it has prevailed, has been detrimental in a very high degree to the best interests of humanity, and to every improvement, mental or moral, ecclesiastical or civil. The religion of the Turks is the Mahometan, although in this European division of the empire, it is supposed that two-thirds of the inhabitants are Greek Christians. The Turkish sultan has for some centuries been the principal leader and support of that attachment to the religion of the Koran, which has been the stay and guard of the Mahometan faith. The Mahometan pontiff, OT mufti, presides at Constantinople. . The next in rank to him are the mouiahs, and from these are selected the inferior muftis, or judges, through the empire, and the cadileschers or chief justices. The next class of divines consists of the imaums or parish priests, who perform the service of the mosques, or places of worship, while the cadis are judges annually appointed to administer justice in the towns and villages. The Turks have also their monks, denominated derviches, of four orders, de dicated to religious offices, public prayer and preaching. Of these, the Kadri constitute a singular order, appear- ing almost naked, and displaying their devotion by fran- tić and extravagant dances. The Greeks retain their -priests, bishops, archbishops, and patriarchs; but their church is in the lowest state of degradation, and its dig- nities are openly sold by the Turks. As to the government of Turkey, the sultan is a des- potic sovereign, but so restricted by the laws of the Ko- ran, to which he is bound to submit, that many Christian sovereignties are reckoned more arbitrary. The despot- ism of the monarch is balanced by a religious aristocra- cy ; and many circumstances have lately occurred, such as the insurrections of the Janizaries, and the power usurped by the pashas over their own provinces, which indicate the decline and approaching perdition of the empire. The Turkish laws are contained in the Koran, and in the comments of approved and renowned doctors, which have acquired the force of laws. The Turkish empire is chiefly guided by those of Abou-Hanise. The number of inhabitants in Turkey in Europe has been estimated at 8,000,000, or about 43 o each square mile ; but as the countries which it comprehends are intersected by many mountains and barren tracts, this estimate is supposed to exceed the truth. The navy is stated at about 30 ships of the line, and the army at 150,000 of ill-disciplined soldiers. The revenues of the whole Turkish empire are computed at about 7,000,000l. Sterling, and the usual expense as not ex- ceeding 5,000,000l. Their revenue is partly derived from a capitation tax on unbelievers, and from the “zec- chat,” or customs, but principally from a tax on land of about 68, an acre, called the “jizie.” Upon the whole, the Turkish empire may be regarded as in a declining state, notwithstanding all its endeavours to secure the friendship of various European powers. Of the manners and customs of the Turks, our limits will not admit of a minute detail. Marriage is a civil contract, managed by female mediation, and liable to dissolution at the pleasure of either party. Circumci- sion is performed at the age of 12 or 14. The dead are perfumed with incense, and buried in a kind of shroud, open at both ends, that the deceased may be able to sit up and reply to the interrogatories of the angels of death. The burial grounds are near the highways, and as one grave does not intrude upon another, they are very extensive. With regard to diet the Turks are moderate, and their favourite food is rice, of which they prepare their pilau, boiling it with mutton or fowl, their lappa, which is merely boiled rice, and the tehorbe, a kind of broth made of the same vegetable. The fish of the Archipelago is very good, and the beef tolerable ; the hares, partridges, and other game are excellent. The meat is usually spread on a low wooden table, over which the master of the house pronounces a short pray- er. The frugal repast is followed by fruits and cold water, and these are succeeded by hot coffee and pipes with tobacco. The houses are expensive, and the most costly part of the furniture is the Carpet that covers the floor. Their dress consists of a calico shirt, and the loose robe is fastened by a girdle, in which is stuck a dagger ; while the tobacco-box, pocket-book, &c. are worn in the bosom. The robe is commonly made of English broad cloth, trimmed with furs. The shoes are light slippers. The dress of the women resembles that of the men, differing only in that of the head, which is a sort of bonnet, formed of pasteboard covered with cloth of gold, or other elegant materials, with a veil reaching to the eye-brows, and a fine handkerchief concealing the lower part of the face. In their persons the Turks are very cleanly; the females, however, stain their nails with T U R K E Y. with a red tincture. Their amusements are principally such as favour indolence, hunting and military exer- cises excepted. They are fond of reclining on an ele- gant carpet, or in a hot season by the side of a stream, and smoking the delicate tobacco of Syria. . With opium they procure what they call “rief,” or a placid intoxica- tion, but a stronger dose produces irritation and ferocity. Chess and draughts are favourite games; whereas those of chance are regarded as immoral. Their coffee-houses and baths afford other means of amusement; and the beiram, or festival succeeding their long lent, is a season of universal dissipation. The Turkish language is far inferior to the Persian or Arabic, and is fol med by a mixture of several dia. lects. Literature is not wholly neglected, but they have some schools and libraries. In the 18th century a print- ing-office was set up at Constantinopie by Ibrahim Eſ- fendi, which was at first much opposed, but afterwards allowed to print all kinds of books, those on religion ex- cepted. Their market for boºks contains many shops well supplied with Oriental MSS. ; and they have their ancient poets, historians, and divines, though of little es timation compared with those of Persia or Arabia. Ed- ucation, however, is little encouraged : so that ignorance forms the distinguishing character of the nation. Law, connected with their theology, is the chief subject of their study; but they have no institution that merits the appellation of a college or university. The chief city of European Turkey, and of the whole Turkish empire, is Constantinople : next to this in dig. nity and extent is Adrianople, two miles in circuit, and possessing several splendid works, and a considerable share of commerce ; Philippopoli is a city ºf considera- ble importance ; Sofia, though meanly built, contains about 70,000 inhabitants, and inas considerable trade ; Silistria in Bulgaria, on the Danube, contains about 60,000 souls; and Bucchorest, the chief city of Wala- chia, is said to have the same number; while those of Jassy or Yassy, the principal town of Moldavia, and Ben- der of Bessarabia, are each estimated only at 10,000 or 14,000. Belgrade, the capital of Servia, is supposed to contain about 25,000 inhabitants; and those of Banja- luka, which is a considerable town in Bosnia, are esti- mated at 18,000. In the southern provinces we may first mention Salonica, containing 60,000 inhabitants, and distinguished by a considerable commerce : Larissa, 80 British miles to the S., an inland town, containing 25,000 souls; and Atini, the ancient Athens, of small popula- tion. See each article. If we except the seraglios and royal palaces, the chief edifices in Turkey are the mosques and caravanseras. The manufactures and commerce of Turkey in Eu- rope are chiefly conducted by foreigners. The Levant trade almost entirely centres in Smyrna and the Asiatic shore. The manufactures princip:liy exported from European Turkey are inconsiderable, being chiefly car- pets and some few other articles; but the products are currants, figs, saffron, statuary marble from Paros, silk, and drugs. - The climate and seasons vary with the different re- gions comprehended within the limits of European Tur- key ; and to these we refer for an account of them. The generala ppearance of Turkey in Europe is , mountain- ous, here and there interspersed with delicious plains and vales; enriched by the Danube, which intersects its provinces, and the numerous gulfs of the Archipelago and Mediterranean. The soil is generally fertile, the northern parts producing wheat and rich pasture, the middle and southern abundance of rice : but agriculture, as well as almost every other art and science, is neglect- ed by the Turks. The principal rivers of Turkey are the Danube, already mentioned, the Maritz or ancient Hebrus, the Vardari or ancient Axius, the Esker or an- cient Oeskus, the Morava or ancient Margus, and the Drin, rising N. of Albania, and falling into the Save. Budzac and Walachia, as well as Albania and the south- era provinces, contain considerable lakes. The chains of mountains in Turkey are numerous and extensive. Here we might mention, if they were not elsewhere no- ticed, the Carpathian chain, anciently called the Bastar- nic Alps; the grand range of the Haemus with its branches; and mount Athos of ancient celebrity. Euro- pean Turkey also abounds with fores's. Of its zoology we shall merely notice the jackal, the camel, and horse, and also its cattle and sheep, which are numerous and of different kinds. Its mineralogy has been little inves- tigated. The gold mines of Philippi, about eighty miles E. of Salonica, produced in the time of Philip of Mace- don annually about 1000 talents, or 2.880,000l. Sterling ; a d silver mines were found in Attica, and other quar- tel’S. The chief islands belonging to Turkey in Europe are those of the Archipelago; for an account of these we refer to their names, such are Crete or Candia, Negro- pont, the Cyclades, Sporades, Lemnos, &c. &c. Turkey in Asia extends from the shores of the AEgean sea or Archipelago, to the confines of Persia, through a . space of about 1050 British miles. The boundaries to- wards Persia are ine mountains of Ararat and Elwend. Towards the N. the Turkish territories are divided from the Russian by the river Cuban and the chain of Caucasus; in the S. they extend to the junction of the Tigris and the Euphrates, which last river separates, for a considerable interval, the Turkish possessions from those of the Arabs. The distance from the Cuban to the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates may be esti- mated at about 1 100 British miles. This extensive em- pire is divided into nine or ten provinces, viz. Natolia W., Karaman S., and Roum N.E. N. of Armenia are Guria or Guriel, Mingrelia, and the Abkhas of Cauca- sus, the ancient Circassias. To the S. of Armenia, also denominated Turcomania, are Curdist an and Irak Arabi, part of ancient Persia, round the celebra ed capital Bag- dad. The ancient Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and the Euphrates, now partly corresponds with the province of Algezira ; and Syria, or Soria, comprehends the ce- lebrated countries along the eastern extremities of the Mediterranean. These provinces are subdivided into governments, arbitrarily administered by pashas. The original po, ulation of these regions consisted chiefly of Scythians blended with some few Assyrians from the south. See TURE, and Turkey in Eurofle, supra. The prevalent language is the Turkism, to which we may add the modern Greek, together with the Arabic, Syrian, Persian, and Armenian, with the various dialects used by the tribes on the Black sea, and indicating the diversity of population. To the account already given of the historical epochs of Turkey, we may here sub- join the following from Pinkerton. Armenia and Georgia were subdued by the Turks in the eleventh century, and the whole of Asia Minor soon followerſ. Their kingdom of Roum extended from the Euphraſes to ºn- stantinople, T U R K E Y. stantinople, and from the Black sea to the confines of Syria. Successive warlike princes acquired additional territory from the Mamelukes of Egypt and the Per- sians. Syria, formerly an appendage of Egypt, was conquered by Selim II. in 1516; Tauris and Diarbekir, the last of which had formerly belonged to Persia, were subjugated by the same monarch ; and in 1589 Abbas, the great sovereign of Persia, was obliged to yield three provinces to the Ottomans, though he extended his conquests to the east; and Bagdad, with the sur- rounding province of Irak-Arabi, became subject to the Turks in 1638. The present limits seem to have been fixed by the treaty between the Porte and Persia in 1736, since which period the Turks have been chiefly employ- ed in defending themselves against the Russians; but such had been their ascendency over Persia, that in 1727 they had acquired the territory from Erivan to Tauris or Tebriz, and thence to Hamadan, a boundary which seems to be more precisely marked by nature than the pencil. The antiquities of Asiatic Turkey are those of Bal- bec and Palmyra or Tadmor in the desert, and those that have been discovered in the scite and plain of Troy; for which see these articles. The Turkish empire in Asia is estimated at 470,400 square miles, and the population at 10,000,000; which, allowing 8,000,000 for the European part, will render the total 18,000,000. The reader will find a sketch of the manners and customs of the inhabitants of Asiatic Tur- key under this article, which we shall now proceed to mention. The Curds or Kurds pass in summer from Mousoul to the sources of the Euphrates, and they are never punished either for robbery or murder. They are a pastoral people, who conduct their herds from one country to another, and extending sometimes as far west as Tocato ; where Tournefort, in his time, found other hordes called Turkomans. The Armenians, though Eutychian Christians by profession, and of course irre- concileable enemies of the Greeks, are distinguished by many singular manners and custons. They are repre- sented as a sensible and polite people; and by their fru- gality and enterprise, are admirably qualified for con- ducting the Levant trade, which is chiefly their pro- vince. For an account of the Druzes and Maronites, see these appellations. In the northern extremities of Asiatic Turkey, there are many tribes which have adopt- ed singular practices. Six or seven languages are said to be spoken in the country between the Euxine and the Caspian. The Abkhas, called by the Circassians “Kush- Hasip,” a people beyond the mountains, retain some traces of Christianity. The territory of the Tscherkas- ses, or Ciscassians, is extensive ; part of it is subject to Russia, but their manners are invariable. The princes cannot possess lands, and their nobles are chosen by the princes from the vassals, or third class. Public méa- sures are proposed by the prince, and debated by the nobles and deputies of the people, on a spot destined for this purpose, near the royal residence. The agricul- ture of these people is barely sufficient for their own consumption; but they export sheep and horses, and slaves taken in their predatory excursions. The beauty of their women has been much extolled. Having re- ceived a suitable education, and formed from their youth according to their own standard of beauty, they are sold from 201. to an 100l., and sometimes at a much higher price. Soon after the birth of a girl, a belt is sewed round her waist, and when this bursts, it is replaced by a second; so that their waists become very small, and their shoulders broad, which is a defect little regarded, on account of the beauty of their breasts. On the wed- ding-night the belt is cut by the husband with a dagger, an operation which is sometimes accidentally fatal. The bridegroom pays for his bride a present, or “kelym,” consisting of arms, or a coat of mail; but he must not then, nor on any future occasion, see her, or cohabit with her, without the greatest mystery. The young men recommend themselves by their activity and ad- dress in military exercises; and those who are most alert have the privilege of choosing the most beautiful partners. Their musical instruments are a long flute, with only three stops, a species of mandoline, and a tam- bourin. Their dances are in the Asiatic style, with little gaiety or expression. The women pride themselves on the courage of their husbands, and severely reproach them when they are defeated. It is their business to polish and take care of the armour of the men. The habitation of a Circassian consists of two huts, because the wife and husband are not supposed to live together. At meals the whole family is assembled. Their food consists only of a little meal, paste made of millet, and a kind of fermented beer, prepared from the same grain. The Mamelukes of Egypt are slaves regularly import- ed from Circassia and Georgia. In Imeritia, Mingrelia, and Guriel, as well as in Georgia, which forms a Per- sian province, the barons have power of life and death over their vassals, and form a very powerful aristocracy, very formidable to the prince, who resides at Cutais. The religion of all these provinces is the Greek; but they can scarcely be regarded as subject to Turkey. It may be"observed in general, after this brief detail, that the most striking feature of manners and customs in the Turkish empire, is that half the people may be considered as somewhat civilized, whilst the other half may be regarded as pastoral wanderers ranging over ex- tensive wastes. Next to the capital of the Turkish em- pire, the next city of Asiatic Turkey in dignity and im- portance is Aleppo, containing about 250,000 inhabitants, where the manufactures of silk and cotton are flourish- ing, and whither large caravans frequently resort from Bagdad and Bassora, with the products of Persia and India. Damascus is supposed to contain 180,000 souls: -Smyrna may be regarded as the third city in Asiatic Turkey, and contains about 120,000 souls:—Prusa is a beautiful city at the northern bottom of mount Olym- pus, and its number of inhabitants is estimated at about 60,000 :-Magnisi, or Magnesia, is also a city of some repute in this quarter of the empire; and Kircagatch has risen to importance by the cultivation of cotton, being situated about 40 miles N.E. of Magnisi, on the route to Prusa :—Angora contains 80,000 inhabitants, and trades chiefly in yarn for shalloons, and in Angora stuffs of its own manufacture from the hair of a breed of goats :-Tokat is flourishing, and its inhabitants are about 60,000 ; its manufactures are silk and leather, and chiefly copper utensils :—Basra, or Bassora, on the estuary of the Euphrates and Tigris, contains about . 50,000 inhabitants, and is a place of great consequence; as the various products of Europe and India are here exchanged for those of Persia; and opulent caravans. proceed from this most central port of the Oriental trade to the chief cities of Asiatic Turkey :—Bagdad, the seat of the caliphs, and scene of many Eastern fic- tl Of S3 T U R K E. Y. tions, is now reduced to a town of about 40,000 inhabit- ants —the ancient and celebrated city of Jerusalem is now a mean town, chiefly depending on the piety of pil- grims; and towards the frontiers of Persia frequent wars have spread desolation; nevertheless Erzeron, the capital of Armenia, has still about 25,000 inhabitants; but Kars, the extreme town upon the frontiers of Persia, though tolerably fortified, is an inconsiderable place. The chief articles of commerce in Asiatic Turkey, are carpets, rhubarb, and several other drugs. The Levant or Turkey trade was formerly of great consequence to Great Britain; but from the middle of last century it has been more advantageous to France. The state of the Levant trade chiefly carried on at Smyrna; appears from the following documents : France sends coffee, sugar, indigo, cloths, and cochi- neal. England, shalloons, muslins, iron, tin, spiccs, refined sugars. Holland, muslims, India goods, cloths, spices. Austria, from Trieste, cloths, glass, hard-ware, linen, wood, amber. Russia, iron, corn, caviare, dried fish, furs. Italy, silks and velvets, wax and paper. European Turkey, wines, silks, tobacco. Natolia and Syria, woollens, cottons, silks, drugs. Egypt, coffee of Yemen, rice. Barbary, dates, woollen caps from Tunis, butter, wax. The port of Marseilles, which carries on the French trade with Smyrna, draws the wool and cochineal from Spain; but this country has lately began to conduct her own commerce. Venice, under the Austrian power, might become the chief port of the Levant business. Of the French commerce, the chief staple is coffee : but this cannot be resumed with much vigour till France shali acquire a greater naval power. Upon the whole, says Pinkerton, if the commerce of Smyrna be at present valued at fifty millions of franks, the English trade for thirty millions, the Dutch for ten, while France shares the remaining ten millions with the emperor, Italy, and other states above-mentioned. The climate of Asia Minor has been always consider- ed as excellent. The heat of the summer is tempered by numerous chains of high mountains, some of which are covered constantly with snow. The aspect of Asiatic Turkey is mountainous, intermingled with spacious and beautiful plains, which afford pasture to the numerous flocks and herds of the Turkomans. The soil is various; but the chief agricultural products are wheat, barley, and durra. It abounds also with grapes, olives, and dates. In Syria the agriculture is deplorable, and the peasants are in a wretched condition, being sold, as in Poland, with the soil, and their constant fare being bar- ley bread, onions, and water. The principal river of Asiatic Turkey is the Eu- phrates, the course of which may be estimated at about 1400 British miles: next in importance is the Tigris, whose course is about 800 miles; and both these rivers are navigable to a considerable distance from the sea. The third river is called by the Turks Kizil Irmak, the celebrated Halys of antiquity, rising in mount Taurus, and discharging itself into the Euxine sea on the W. of the gulf of Sansoun: the river Sacaria, or ancient Sanga- rius, rises about fifty miles S. of Angora, and joins the Euxine about seventy miles E. of Constantinople: next in rank is the Maeander, rising N. of Apamae, and winding its course about 250 British miles: the Sarabat is the an- cient Hermus, famous for its golden sands. The chief river of Syria is the Orontes, now called Oron or Asi, which runs into the Mediterranean. -** The lakes of Asiatic Turkey are numerous. The most remarkable are the Van and Urmiah: others are the Dead sea in Syria, fifty miles long, and twelve or thir- teen in breadth: that of Rackama, S. of Hilla and the ancient Babylon, about thirty miles long, and ſlowing into the Euphrates: the Tatta, or Palus Salsa of D’An- ville, a saline lake about seventy miles long, and one or two in breadth towards the centre of Asia Minor, being the modern Tousla or salt lake : that of Ulubad in Na- tolia, anciently denominated the lake of Apollonia, twenty-five miles in circumference, and in some places seven or eight miles wide, sprinkled with several isles and peninsulas, and the grand receptacle of the waters from mount Olympus : the largest of these isles is called Abouillona, probably from the ancient name of the city which stood upon it: and about fifty miles to the N.E. was the lake anciently called Ascanius, now Isnik. The mountains of Asiatic Turkey are of ancient ce- lebrity ; such are the Taurian chain ; the Caucasian mountains, ranging from the mouth of the river Cuban in the N.W. to the place where the Kur enters the Cas- pian in the S.E., and furnishing various chains, such as the Antitaurus of antiquity, and others branching out into Persia; mount Taurus, terminating at the Eu- phrates and deserts of Algczira : the chain of Taurus is now called Kurun, and extends about 600 miles E. and W. from the Euphrates to the vicinity of the shores of the Archipelago. These and other mountains of Asiatic Turkey are conjectured to be calcareous; while the Caucasus alone aspires to the rank of a granitic or primitive chain. Towards the E. of Armenia is Ara- rat, properly belonging to Persia; and beyond Ararat are branches of the Caucasian chain, to which probably belongs the mountains of Elwend, or Niphates of anti- quity. In Syria, the most celebrated mountains are Lebanus or Lebanon, and Antilibanus. On the eastern side of the Archipelago was Olympus (now Keshik Dag); and 140 miles W. of Olympus is mount Ida, the branch of which was called by the ancients Garganus, which gave source to the Granicus, the Simois, and other streams, most of which directed their course to the N., and extended in western prominences to the Hellespont, amidst which was situated the celebrated city of Troy. Other remarkable mountains on this classical shore, as it has been denominated, were those of Rhea, Pedasus, &c. &c. S. of the Maeander, the Taurus detaches a chain called Cadmus and Grius, bending towards the isles of Cos and the Cyclades. The numerous mountains of Asiatic Turkey are frequently clothed with immense forests of pines, oaks, beeches, elms, and other trees; and the southern shores of the Black sea present many gloomy forests of great extent. The inhabitants are hence supplied with abundance of fuel, in defect of pit-coal, which has not been explored in any part of Asiatic Turkey. Sudden conflagrations arise from the heedless waste of the caravans, which, in- stead of cutting off a few branches, set fire to a stand- ing tree. The extensive provinces of Natolia, Syria, and Mesopotamia, have been little accessible to Euro. pean curiosity, since their reduction under the Turkish yoke, T U R K E. Y. yoke. In Pinkerton's Geography we have a catalogue of those plants and trees that have been found wild in the Asiatic part of the Ottoman territory. Several dye- ing drugs and articles of the materia medica are import- ed from the Levant, among which are madder, and a variety called alizari, which grows about Smyrna, and affords a much finer red dye than the European kind ; jalap, scammony, sebesten, the ricinus, yielding by ex- pression castor oil, squirting cucumber, coloquintida, opium, poppy, and spikenard. The best horses in Asia- tic Turkey are of Arabian extract; but mules and asses are more generally used. The beef is scarce and bad, the mutton superior, and the kid a favourite repast. Other animals are the bear, tiger, hyaena, wild boar, jackal, and dogs in great abundance. On the summits of Caucasus is found the ibex, or rock-goat; at Angora, singular goats and cats ; the gazel, and deer and hares in great abundance are found in Asia Minor. The par- tridges are generally of the red-legged kind, larger than the European : fish is plentiful and excellent. The mineralogy of these extensive provinces has not been yet sufficiently explored. The most noted mineral waters are those of Prusa, at the bottom of mount Olympus: the baths are splendid, and paved with marble. Wala- chia furnishes many other hot-springs. The chief islands belonging to Asiatic Turkey, situa- ted in the Archipelago, are Mitylene, Scio, Samos, Cos, and Rhodes. Along the southern shores of Asia Minor are some small isles, such as that of Castel Rosso, S.E. of Patira ; but these are of no moment compared with Cyprus, about 160 miles long and nearly 70 at its greatest breadth; the chief cities of which are Nicosia and Famagusta. Some geographers, in opposition to the testimony of travellers, have considered Egypt as a Turkish pro- vince; whereas it was only occasionally tributary, and subject to the military aristocracy of the beys. Some of the maritime Mahometan powers have likewise as- sisted the Porte with ships in time of war; but they can- not be regarded as subject to the Ottoman sceptre. TURKEY, Coinage, &c. of. As the Turks, though as- piring to a very ancient derivation, comprehending Tar- tars and Moguls, (see TURK,) are merely a mixture of Sarmatae or Slavi, Arabs and Greeks, which began to form a nation in the fourteenth century, they seem to have issued no coins till they seized Constantinople in 1453 ; and their coins resemble those of Persia and Arabia, having merely inscriptions on both sides. Tur- key keeps accounts in piastres, commonly called grouch by the Turks, and by the English dollars. Each pias- tre is divided into 40 paras, and each para into 3 aspers. Sometimes, instead of these real coins, the piastre is divided into 80 or 100 imaginary parts, called aspers, or minas. Jux or juck is a sum of 100,000 real aspers; a chise or purse is 500 ditto. The gold coins of Turkey are the sequin or chequeen (see SEQUIN) : the silver coins are the two-dollar piece of 80 paras; the altmich- lic of 60 paras; the dollar or piastre of 40 paras; the zolotta or izelotta of 30 paras; the roup of 10 paras; the beslick of 5 paras; the para of 3 aspers; and the asper. The Turkish coins, notwithstanding the regu- lations of 1780, when a single piastre weighed 5; drachms, or 277 English grains, have been gradually deteriorated ; so that a piastre of the latest coinage, weighed and assayed by the king’s assay-master of the Mint, was reported to be as follows: weight 8 dwts. 6 grs., fineness 5 oz. 6 dwt.s. worse than the English standard ; hence its fineness was 47 car, 2 grs. Turkish, and its value in sterling 13; d. - The Turkish chequee or pound, with which gold, silver, diamonds and precious stones are weighed, is divided into 100 drachms, and the drachm into 16 killots or carats, or 64 grains. A chequee weighs 10 oz. 5 dwts. 3 grs. troy weight, and a drachm 49+ grs. ditto; so that 48 chequees = 4.1 lbs. troy very nearly. The cantaro, quintal or kil;tal contains 44 cKes, or 100 rottoli; the oke, 4 yusdromes or chequees, or 400 drachms; the rottolo, 176 drachms. A metecal is 1} drachm. The kintal of cotton-yarn is 45 okes. The cantaro weighs about 1234 lbs. avoil dupois; the oke 2 lbs. 13 oz. ; the rottolo, 194 ounces ; the chequee, 114 ounces avoirdupois. Silks from Persia are weighed by the batman of 6 okes, or 2400 Turkish drachms, or 16 lbs. 14 oz. avoir- dupois: silks from Brussa are weighed by the taffe of 610 Turkish drachms, or 4 lbs. 4 oz. 10 drs. avoirdu- pois. The chequee of goats’ wool is 800 Turkish drachms, or 5 lbs. 10 oz. avoirdupois; the chequee of opium 250 Turkish drachms, or 27 oz. 10 drs. avoirdupois. Corn is measured by the quillot or killo, weighing, in wheat, about 22 okes, or 60 lbs. avoirdupois; 4 killos make 1 fortin: 8; killos answer nearly to 1 English quarter. A killo of rice is 10 okes. Oils and other liquids are sold by the meter, or al- mud : the meter weighs 8 okes, or 224 lbs. avoirdu- pois; and 8 almuds equal l l English gallons. The pic or pike is of two sorts; the longest, called halebi or archim, with which silks and woollens are measured, is 314 French lines, or 27 & English inches long; the other, called endassè, with which cotton goods and carpets are measured, is 3 fier 100 shorter. But, in the general course of European trade, the pike is reckoned at # of an English yard. - The exchanges of Constantinople with the principal commercial places in Europe are as follow : Constanti- nople gives Amsterdam 60 paras, more or less, for 1 florin current. Genoa 23 paras, more or less, for 1 lira fuori banco. Hamburgh 1 piastre, for 24 grotes Flemish banco, more or less. - Leghorn 145 pras, more or less, for 1 perza of 8 reali. London 18 piastres, more or less, for ll. Sterling. Marseilles 1 piastre for 1 franc 45 centimes, more or less. Naples 120 paras, more or less, for 1 ducat regno. Paris 210 piastres, more or less, for 100 ecus of 3 livres, or 300 francs. Venice 360 paras, more or less, for 1 sequin of 22 lire piccoli. Vienna and Trieste 50 paras, more or less, for 1 florin Current. - The exchanges between Constantinople and other trading places, where Turkish money is used, are done at a premium of 10 fier cent. more or less in favour of Constantinople. Bills between Constantinople and the principal trad- ing places of Europe are commonly drawn at 31 days’ sight; but from one place, in Turkey, on another, at 11 days’ sight. Some European merchants pay their bills on the very day on which they become due ; , and others T U R T U R others take as many days grace as are allowed in their respective countries. - Trieste keeps accounts in fiorini or florins of 60 creut- zers; also in lire of 20 soldi; the creutzer being sub- divided into 4 pfenings, and the soldo into 12 denari. These monies of account are valued in Austrian cur- rency, in Trieste currency, and in Valuta di Piazza : the first is chiefly used in foreign exchanges, the second in wholesale trade, and the third in retail business. A florin Austrian currency is worth 5 ºr lire of Trieste currency, or 5 ºr of lire di piazza. For the coins, &c. see VIENNA Tripoli keeps accounts in piastres of 13 grimellini, or 52 aspers : the grimellinis valued at 6 sous Tournois, which makes the piastre of Tripoli worth 38. 3d. Ster- ling. The weight for gold and silver is called Metacal (which see); 50 of which are equal to a Venetian mark; so that 1 metacal weighs 73% English grains. The can- taro weight contains 100 rottoli, each of 6 ounces, or 128 termini; the cantaro answering to 168 lbs. peso sottiie of Venice, or about 1 12 lbs. avoirdupois. The corn measure, called caffiso, contains 20 tiberi, and is equal to 4 staja of Venice ; so that 13 caffisi = 15 En- glish quarters. The oil measure, called mattaro, weighs 42 rotoli, or about 47 lbs. avoirdupois. The pic, or ell, is equal to 2% of Genoese palmi, or 214 English inches. Kelly’s Universal Cambist. TU RKEY, a town of the state of New Jersey ; 13 miles N.N.W. of Amboy. e TURKEY Creek, a river of South Carolina, which runs into the Cangaree, N. lat. 34° 50'. W. long. 8 13 35'. —Also, a river of America, which runs into the Ohio, N. lat. 38° 22'. W. long. 83° 12'. TURKEY Foot, a township of Pennsylvania, in Somer- set county, containing 975 inhabitants. TURKEY Hill, a township of Illinois territory, in the county of St. Clair, containing 1 151 inhabitants. TURREY Point, a cape on the coast of Maryland, at the mouth of the Susquehannah, where it takes the name of Chesapeak. Here the British army landed in August 1777, as they were advancing to Philadelphia; 16 miles S.W. of Elkton.—Also, a cape on the N. coast of lake Erie. - TURKEY River, a river of Louisiana, which runs into the Missisippi, N. lat. 42° 10'. W. long, 91° 55'. TURKEy, Meleagris, in Ornithology, a distinct genus of birds, of the order of the Gallinae. For the distin- guishing characters and species, see MELEAGRIs. Wild turkies preserve a sameness of colouring ; the tame varying; but the black approaching nearest to the ori inal stock. Of late a beautifui kind has been intro- duced into England of a snowy whiteness, finely con- trasting with its red head. The usual weight of the wild turkey is about 30 lbs. The passions of the males are strongly expressed by the change of colours in the fleshy substance of the head and neck, which alters to red, while, blue, and yellow- ish, as they are differently affected. One cock serves many hens, who retire to an obscure place in order to sit, the cock being apt to break the eggs. The females are very affectionate to their young, and though the eggs addle, will almost perish with hunger, unless they are removed, before they will quit the nest. Turkies delight much in the seeds of nettles, but those of the purple fox-glove are fatal to thcm. They are stupid, quarrelsome, and cowardly birds; they Wols, XXXVIII, § are swift runners, but indifferent flyers; they love to perch on trees, and in a wild state, get so high as to be beyond the reach of the musket. In the state of nature they go in flocks, even of five hundred, and feed much on the small red acorns, fre- quenting the swamps of their native country, where they roost, but at sun-rising repair to the dry woods in search of acorns and berries. The flesh of the wild turkey is said to be preferable to that of the tame, but redder. Wild turkies are now very rare in the inhabited parts of America, but are found in numbers in the distant and most unfrequented spots. The Indians make a very elegant clothing of the feathers, twisting the inner webs into a strong double thread of hemp, or inner bark of the mulberry-tree, and working it like matting : it appears rich and glossy, and as fine as a silk shag. They also make fans of the tail, and the French of Louisiana were wont to make um- brellas by the junction of four of the tails. Turkies are natives only of America, or the New World, and of course unknown to the ancients: this is a point which Mr. Peanant has established by an elabo- rate induction of various particulars in the history of these birds; evincing that they are natives neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa. The first precise descrip- tion of them is given by Oviedo, in 1525; they are also mentioned as natives of the main land of the warmer parts of America, by Fernandez, physician to Philip II. who wrote between the years 1555 and 1598: they were also frequently seen, both in their wild and tame state, by Dampier, in the province of Yucatan, now a part of Mexico. In North America they were observed by the first discoverers. They were first introduced into Europe from Mexico or Yucatan, and imported into England, probably from Spain, as early as the year 1524. Since that period they have been successfully cultivated in this kingdom, so that in the year 1585 they made a dish even in our rural feasts. But in France they were so rare, that the first which was eaten in that kingdom ap- peared at the nuptial feast of Charles IX. in 1570. Phil. Trans, vol. lxxi. part i. p. 67, &c. See PoulTRY. TURKEY-Berry Tree, in Botany. See CoRDIA. TUR KEY Company and Silk. See CoMPANY and SILK. TuRKEY Leather. (See MoRocco Leather.) The processes for dyeing leather red and yellow, as practi- sed in Turkey, with the directions for preparing and tanning the skins, as communicated by Mr. Philippo, a native of Armenia, who obtained 100l. and a gold medal from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, as a reward for the discovery, are as follow. 1. First Preſlaration of the Skins, both for Red and Yellow Leather, by dressing them in Lime.—Let the skins, dried with the hair on, be first laid to soak in clean water for three days; let them then be broken over the flesh-side, put into fresh water for two days longer, and afterwards hung up to drain half an hour. Let them now be broken on the flesh side, limed in cold lime on the same side, and doubled together with the grain-side outward. In this state they must be hung up within- doors over a frame for five or six days, till the hair be loose; which must then be taken off, and the skins returned into the lime-pit for about three weeks. Take them out, and let thrm be well worked flesh and grain, every sixth or seventh day during that time; after which, lot T U R T U R let them be washed ten times in clear water, changing the water at each washing. They are next to be pre- pared in drench, as below mentioned. 4 2. Second Preparation of the Skins for both the Red and Yellow Dyes by drenching.—After squeezing the water out of the skins, put them into a mixture of bran and water, warm as new milk, in the following propor- tions; viz. about three pounds of bran for five skins, and water sufficient to make the mixture moderately fluid, which will be about a gallon to each pound of bran. In this drench let the skins lie three days; at the end of which time they must be well worked, and afterwards returned into the drench two days longer. They must then be taken out and rubbed between the hands; the water squeezed from them, and the bran scraped off clear from both sides of the skins. After this they must be again washed ten times in clear water, and the water squeezed out of them. - Thus far the preparatory process of all the skins, whether intended to be dyed red or yellow, is the same ; but afterwards those which are to be dyed red, must be treated as follows, 3. Prefaration in Honey and Bran of the Skins that are to be dyed Red.--Mix one pound of honey with three pints of lukewarm water, and stir them together till the honey is dissolved. Then add two double hand- fuls of bran; and taking four skins (for which the above quantity of the mixture will be sufficient), work them well in it one after another. Afterwards fold up each skin separately into a round form, with the flesh-side inwards; and lay them in an earthen pan, or other pro- per vessel ; if in the summer, by the side of each other; but in the winter, on the top of each other. Place the vessel in a sloping position, so that such part of the fluid as may spontaneously drain from the skins, may pass from them. An acid fermentation will then rise in the liquor, and the skins will swell considerably. In this state they must continue for seven or eight days; but the moisture that drains from them must be poured off once or twice a day, as occasion may require. After this a further preparation in salt is necessary ; and which must be performed in the following manner. 4. Prefiaration in Salt of the Skins to be dyed Red,— After the skins have been fermented in the honey and bran, as above-mentioned, let them be taken out of that mixture on the eighth or ninth day, and well rubbed with dry common sea-salt, in the proportion of about half a pound to each skin; the salt must be well rubbed and worked with them. This will make them contract again, and part with a further considerable quantity of moisture : which must be squeezed out by drawing each skin separately through the hands. They must next be scraped clean on both sides from the bran, superfluous salt, and moisture that may adhere to them. Af- ter which dry salt must be strewed over the grain side, and well rubbed in with the hand. They are then to be doubled, with the flesh-side outwards, lengthwise from neck to tail, and a little more dry salt must be thinly strewed over the flesh-side, and rubbed in ; for the two last operations, about a pound and a half of salt will be sufficient for each skin. They must then be put, thus folded on each other, between two clean boards, placed sloping, breadthwise; and a heavyweight laid on the upper board, in order gradually to press out what moisture they will thus part with. In his state of pres- sure, they must be continued two days or longer till it is convenient to dye them, for which they will then be duly prepared. * 5. Preſlaration of the Red Dye, in a firoſher Profor- tion for four Skins.—Put eight gallons of water into a copper, with seven ounces of shenan tied up in a linen bag. [Shenan is a drug much used by dyers in the East; and may easily be procured at any of the ports of . Syria and Africa, in the Levant. It is the Eastern joint- ed kali, called by botanists salicornia ; and grows in great plenty in those and other parts of the East.] Light a fire under a copper; and when the water has boiled about a quarter of an hour, take out the bag of shenan, and put into the boiling fluid or lixivium, 1st, two drachms of alum ; 2dly, two drachms pomegranate bark; 3dly, three quarters of an ounce of turmeric; 4thly, three ounces of cochineal; 5thly, two ounces of loaf-sugar. Let the whole mixture boil about six min- utes, then cover the fire, and take out a quart of liquor, putting it into a flat earthen pan; and when it is as cold as new milk, take one skin, folded lengthwise, the grain- side outwards, and dip it in the liquor, rubbing it gently with the hands. Then taking out the skin, hang it up to drain, and throw away the superfluous dye. Proceed in the same manner with the remaining three skins; re- peating the operation of each skin separately, eight times, squeezing the skins by drawing them through the hands before each fresh dipping. Lay them now on one side of a large pan, set sloping, to drain off as much of the moisture as will run from them without pressure, for about two hours, or till they are cold; then tan them as below directed. 6. Tanning the Red Skins.—Powder four ounces of the best white galls in a marble mortar, sitting it through a fine sieve. . Mix the powder with about three quarts of water, and work the skins well in this mixture for half an hour or more, folding up the skins fourfold. Let them lie in this tan for 24 hours; when they must be worked again as before ; then taken out, scraped clean on both sides from the first galls, and put into a like quantity of fresh galls and water. In this fresh mix- ture they must be again well worked for three quarters of an hour; then folded up as before, and left in the fresh tan for three days. On the fourth day they must be taken out, washed clean from the galls in seven or eight fresh quantities of water, and then hung up to dry. 7. Manner of dressing the Skins after they are tan- *ed.--When the skins have been treated as above, and are very near dry, they should be scraped with the pro- per instrument or scraper on the flesh-side, to reduce them to a proper degree of thickness. They are then to be laid on a smooth board, and glazed by rubbing them with a smooth glass. After which they must be oiled, by rubbing them with olive-oil, by means of a linen rag, in the proportion of one ounce and a half of oi! for four skins: they are then to be grained on a graining-board, lengthwise, breadthwise, and corneº- wise, or from corner to corner. - 8. Prefiarations with Galls, for the Skins to be dyed Yellow.—After the four skins are taken out of the drench or bran, and clean washed as before directed in the second article, they must be very well worked, half an hour or more, in a mixture of a pound and a half of the best white galls, finely powdered, with two quarts of clean water. The skins are then to be separately doubled lengthwise, rolled up with the flesh-side out- wards, laid in the mixture, and close pressed down on each T U R T U R each other, in which state they must continue two whole days. On the third day let them be again worked in the tan; and afterwards scraped clean from the galls, with an ivory or brass instrument (for no iron must touch them). They must then be put into a fresh tan, made of two pounds of galls finely powdered, with about three guarts of water, and well worked therein fifteen times. After this they must be doubled, rolled up as before, and laid in the second tan for three days. On the third day, a quarter of a pound of white sea-salt must be worked into each skin ; and the skins doubled up as be- fore, and returned into the tan, till the day following, when they are to be taken out, and well washed six times in cold water, and four times in water lukewarm. The water must be then well squeezed out, by laying the skins under pressure, for about an hour, between two boards, with a weight of about 200 or 300 pounds laid upon the uppermost board, when they will be ready for the dye. 9. Prefaration of the Yellow Dye, in the firoſher Pro- fortion for four Skins.—Mix six ounces of cassiari ge- hira, or dgehira, or the berries of the Eastern rhamnus, with the same quantity of alum; and pound them to- gether till they be fine, in a marble or brass mortar, with a brass pestle. [The cassiari gehira is the berries of an Eastern rhamnus, or buckthorn-tree ; and may be had at Aleppo, and other parts of the Levant, at a small price, The common Avignon or yellow berries may be substituted, but not with so good an effect; the cas- siari gehira being a stronger and brighter yellow dye, ‘both for this use and also that of colouring paper-hang- ings, &c.] Then dividing the materials, thus powdered, into three equal parts of four ounces each, put one of those three parts into about a pint and half of water, in a china or earthen vessel, and stir the mixture to- gether. Let the fluid stand to cool, till it will not scald the hand. Then spreading one of the skins flat on a table, in a warm room, with the grain-side uppermost, pour a fourth part of the tinging liquor, prepared as above di- rected, over the upper or grain-side, spreading it equally over the skin with the hand, and rubbing it well in. Af- terwards do the like with the other three skins, for which the mixture first made will be sufficient. This operation must be repeated twice more on each skin separately, with the remaining eight ounces of the powder of the berries and alum, with the above men- tioned due proportions of hot water, put to them as be- fore directed. The skins, when dyed, are to be hung up on a wooden frame, without being folded, with the grain-side out- wards, about three quarters of an hour to drain ; when they must be carried to a river or stream of running water, and well washed therein six times or more. After this they must be put under pressure for about an hour, till the water be well squeezed out ; afterwards the skins must be hung up to dry in a warm room. This being done, the skins are to be dressed and grain- ed as before directed for those dyed red; except the oil- ing, which must be omitted. The processes for dressing and preparing the skins of lambs, sheep, goats, and other thin hides are various, according to the nature of the article. This branch of the manufacture supplies the large demand of white and dyed leather for gloves, the leather called morocco of different colours and qualities, used for coach-linings, book-binding, pocket-books, &c. This leather is appli- cable to a variety of other purposes. The white leather is not tanned, but finished by the mere process of taw- ing ; but the coloured leather receives a tanning, gene- rally by sumach, independent of the other materials. The previous preparation of each, or that in which the skin is thoroughly cleansed and reduced to the state of simple membrane, in which it is called felt, is essen- tially the same, whether for tawing or dyeing. It is thus performed at the best manufactories at Bermondsey, near London, a place long celebrated for all branches of the leather business. By far the greater number of the skins are imported : if lambs, they are thus prepared; the skins are first Soaked for a time in water, to cleanse them from any loose dirt and blood, and put upon the beam commonly used for the purpose, which is a half cylinder of wood covered with strong leather, and scraped on the flesh- side with the semicircular blunt knife with two handles, used in this operation. They are then hung up in con- siderable numbers in a small close room heated by flues, where they remain to putrefy for a given time. During this process a thick filthy slime works up to the surface of the skin, by which the regularity of the process is judged of; and the wool is loosened, so that it readily comes off with a slight pull. Each skin is then returned to the beam, the wool taken off and preserved, and all the slime worked off with the knife, and the rough edges pared away. The skin is then put into a pit filled with lime water, and kept there from two to six weeks, according to the nature of the skin, which has the effect of checking the further putrefaction, and produces a very remarkable hardening and thickening of its sub- stance, and probably also it detaches a further portion of the slime. The skin is again well worked upon the beam, and much of its substance pared down, and all inequalities smoothed with the knife. Much pains and judgment are required in these operations, on the one hand not to endanger the substance of the skin by the putrefaction (which if carried on too long would soon reduce it to an incohesive pulp), and on the other hand to work out every particle of the slime, of which the least, if retained, will prevent the skin from dressing well in the subsequent processes, and from taking the dye uniformly and well. The skin is then again soften- ed and freed from the lime by being thrown into a vat of bran and water, and kept there for some weeks in a state of gentle fermentation, being occasionally return- ed to the beam. All the thickening produced by the lime is thus removed, and the skin is now highly puri- fied, and is a thin extensible white membrane, called in this state a felt, and is fit for any subsequent operation of tawing or dyeing, or oil dressing, or shammoying. The method of bringing kid and goat’s skins to the state of pelt is nearly the same as for lambs, except that the liming is used before the hair is taken off, the hair being of but little importance, and only sold to the plasterers; but the lamb’s wool, which is more valua- ble, would be injured by the lime. Kids’ skins will take a longer time in tanning than lambs’. If the pelts are to be tawed, they are put into a solu- tion of alum and salt in warm water, in the proportio’s of three pounds of alum and four pounds of salt to every 120 middle sized skins, and worked about therein till they have absorbed a sufficient quantity. This again gives the skin a remarkable degree of thickness and toughness. The skins are then taken out and washed in water, P 2 and T U R T U R , and then again put into a vat of bran and water, and al- lowed to ferment for a time, till much of the alum and salt age got out, and the unusual thickening produced by it is for the most part reduced. They are then taken to a lofty room with a stove in the middle, and stretched on hooks and kept there till fully dry. The skins are then converted into a tough, flexible, and quite white leather; but to give them a glossy finish, and to take off the harshness of feel still remaining, they are again soaked in water to extract more of the salt, and put into a large pail containing the yolks of eggs beat up with water. Here the skins are trodden for a long time, by which they so completely imbibe the substance of the egg, that the liquor above them is rendered almost per- fectly limpid, after which they are hung up in a loft to dry, and finished by glossing with a warm iron. There are other smaller manipulations, which need not be here mentioned, The essential difference therefore between tanning and tawing is, that in the former case the pelt is com- bined with tan and other vegetable matter, and in the lat- ter with something that it imbibes from the alum and salt (possibly alumine), and which is never again extract- ed by the subsequent washing and branning. The morocco leather prepared chiefly from sheep’s skins and used for coach-linings, the best kind of book- binding, &c. is prepared by the following process. The skin, cleansed and worked in the way already described, is taken from the lime-water, and the thickening thereby occasioned is brought down, not by bran liquor as in tawing, but by a bath of dogs’ or pigeons’ dung diffused in water, where it remains till sufficiently suppled, and till the lime is quite got out, and it becomes a perfectly white clean pelt. If intended to be dyed red, it is then sewed up very tight in the form of a sack, with the grain side outwards (the dye only being required on this side), and is immersed in a cochineal bath of a warmth just equal to what the hand can support, and is worked about for a sufficient time till it is uniformly dyed, a pro- cess that demands much skill and experience. The sack is then put into a large vat containing sumach infused in warm water, and kept for some hours till it is suffi- ciently tanned. - .*: The skins intended to be blacked are merely sumached without any previous dyeing. After some further pre- paration, the colour of the fine red skins being finished with a weak bath of saffron, the skins when dry are grained and polished in the following way. They are stretched very tight upon a smooth inclined board, and rubbed over with a little oil to supple them. Those in- tended for black leather are previously rubbed over with an iron liquor, by means of a stiff brush, which uniting with the gallic acid of the sumach, instantly strikes a deep and uniform black. They are then rubbed by hand with a ball of glass cut into a polygonal surface, with much manual labour, which polishes them and makes them very firm and compact. Lastly, the grain- ing or ribbed surface by which this kind of leather is distinguished, is given by rubbing the leather very strong- ly with a ball of box-wood, round the centre of which a number of small equi-distant parallel grooves are cut, forming an equal number of narrow ridges, the fric- tion of which gives the leather the desired inequality of surface. - The process for the real morocco leather, as prepared from goat-skins at Fez and Tetuan is thus described by and bran. M. Broussonet. The skins are first cleansed, the hair taken off, limed and reduced with bran, nearly in the way already described for the English morocco leather. Af. ter coming from the bran they are thrown into a second bath made of white figs, mixed with water, which is thereby rendered slimy and fermentable. In this bath, the skins remain four or five days, when they are thoroughly salted with sal-gem (or rock salt) alone (and not with salt and alum), after which they are fit to re- ceive the dye, which for the red is cochineal and alum, and for the yellow, pomegranate bark and alum. The skins are then tanned, dressed, suppled with a little oil, and dried. Much excellent leather of every kind is prepared in different parts of the Russian empire. The preparation of the fine Russia leather, so well known for its quality and for its peculiar smell, is described at large in Mr. Tooke's “View of the Russian Empire,” to which we must refer the reader for the minuter particulars. In general it may be stated that the hides are first put into a weak alkaline ley to loosen the hair, and then scraped on a beam, then (if calves) are reduced by dogs’ dung, and a sour oatmeal drench, then tanned with great care and frequent handling. The bark used here is seldom oak, but, where it can be got, the bark of the black wil- low, or if this cannot be had, birch-bark. They are then dyed either red or black, these being the two co- lours the most esteemed. For the red, the hide is first soaked in alum, and then dyed with Brazil wood. The black is given,as usual with an iron liquor. The leather is then smeared with birch-tar, which gives the peculiar smell so much prized (and which, when used for book- binding, has the valuable property of protecting the book from worms), and is finished by various other manipulations. The streaked or barred surface is given to the leather by a very heavy steel cylinder wound round with wires. See YUFTs. A valuable saffian or dyed maroquin leather, almost equal to that of Turkey, is prepared largely at Astra- chan and other parts of Asiatic Russia. Only bucks’ and goats’ skins are used for this purpose. The fa- vourite colours are red and yellow. The general method of preparing the pelt is the same as in this country for the dyed morocco leather, that is by lime, dogs’ dung, Honey is also used after the branning. The honey is dissolved in warm water, and some of this li- quor is poured on each skin spread out on wooden trays till it has imbibed the whole of the honey, after which it is let to ferment for about three days, and then salted in a strong brine and hung up to dry. The skin is then ready to receive the dye, which for red is made with cochineal and the salsola ericoides, an alkaline plant growing plentifully on the Tartarian salt deserts, and the colour is finished with alum. When dyed, the skins are tanned with sumach. To the very finest reds, a quantity of sorrel is used with the cochineal bath, and the subsequent tanning is given with galls instead of Sumach, which renders the colour as durable as the leather itself. The roughness always observed on the surface of the skin, is given by a heavy kind of iron rake with blunt points. The yellow saffians are dyed with the berries of a species of rhamnus (the Avignon berry would answer the same purpose, and is used in other countries), or with the flowers of the wild chamomile. For other kinds of leather, see SHAGREEN and SHA- MOY, TURKEx-Pod, T U R T U R TURREx-Pod, in Agriculture, a troublesome weed in dry sandy pastures, but which is only an annual. TURKEY-Stone. See OIL-Stone. TURREy- Wheat. See MAIzE and ZEA. TURKI, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in Ba- har; 31 miles W.N.W. of Durbungah. N. lat. 26° 18'. E. long. 85° 33'.—Also, a town of Grand Bucharia; 30 miles N. of Termid. TURKIN, a town of Russia, in the government of Caucasus, on the Caspian sea; 140 miles S. of Astra- chan. N. lat. 44° 15'. E. long. 47° 14'. TURKISH Coins, Measures, and Year, see the sub- stantives, and TURKEY. TURKOMANS, TUR comans, or Turkmans, in Ge- ografthy, a denomination distinguishing some of those Tartar hordes, who, on the great revolutions of the em- pire of the caliph, emigrated from the eastward of the Caspian sea, and spread themselves over the vast plains of Armenia and Asia Minor. After having been intro- duced into the Arabian empire, they proceeded to give law to those who called them in, either as mercenaries or allies. This was signally experienced by the caliphs themselves. In 834, Motazzam, brother and succes- sor of AImamoun, having taken a body of Turkmans for his guards, was compelled to quit Bagdad on ac- count of their disorders, and, after his time, their power and insolence increased to such a degree, that they be- came the disposers of the throne and life of their princes, and murdered three of them in less than thirty years. The caliphs, when freed from this bondage, did not pro- fit by their experience ; for about the year 935, Radi B’ellah, having again resigned his authority to a Turk- man, his successors were entangled in their form cr chains, and, guarded by the Emirs-el-Omâra, possessed only the shadow of power. Amidst the disorders of this anarchy, a multitude of Turkman hordes penetrated into the empire, and founded different independent states, in the Kerman and the Khorasan; at Iconium, Aleppo, Damascus, and in Egypt. Until this time the Turks, called “Ogouzians,” had remained to the E. of the Caspian and toward the Djihoun ; but, about the beginning of the 13th century, Genghis Khan, having united all the tribes of Upper Tartary against the princes of Balk and Samarcand, the Ogouzians did not think proper to wait for the Moguls, but marched under their chief Soliman, and driving their herds before them, encamped (in 1214); in the Aderbeidjan, to the num- ber of 50,000 horsemen. The Moguls followed them, and pushed them still farther to the west, into Armenia. Soliman, being drowned in 1220 in endeavouring to pass the Euphrates on horseback, Ertogrul, his son, took command of the hordes, and advanced into the plains of Asia Minor, where he was relieved by the abundant pasturage which they afforded for his cattle. The good conduet of this chief procured for him, in these countries, a power and respect which made his al- liance sought after by other princes. Among these was the Turkman Ala-el-din, sultan of Iconium. Ala-el- din, advanced in life and harassed by the Tartars of Genghis Khan, granted lands to the Turks under Erto- grul, and even made their chief general of all his troops. Ertogrul proved himself deserving the confidence of the sultan, vanquished the Moguls, acquired still greater power and reputation, and transmitted his honours to his son Osman, who received from Ala-el-din, succes. Sor of the former of that name, the Kofetan, drum, and horse-tails, which are symbols of command among all the Tartars. This Osman, to distinguish the Turks, his followers, from the others, gave them the name of “Osmanles,” from which we have made Ottomans; which new name soon became formidable to the Greeks of Constantinople, from whom Osman conquered a suf- ficient extent of territory to found a powerful kingdom. He soon bestowed on it that title, by assuming, in 1300, the dignity of sultan, which signifies absolute sovereign. No one is ignorant in what manner his successors, the heirs of his ambition and activity, continued to ag- grandize themselves at the expense of the Greeks; till continually depriving them of whole provinces in Europe and Asia, they at length shut them up within the walls of Constantinople ; and Mahomet II. son of Amurath, having taken that city in 1453, annihilated this branch of the Roman empire. The Turks, now finding themselves disengaged from the affairs of Eu- rope, turned their ambitious arms against the southern provinces. Bagdad, subjugated by the Tartars, had been without caliphs for two hundred years, but a new power, established in Persia, had succeeded to a part of their domains; and another, formed in Egypt, so early as the tenth century, and subsisting, at that time, under the name of Mamlouks, had seized on Syria. The Turks determined to despoil these two rivals. Bayazid, the son of Mahomet, executed a part of this plan, by taking Armenia from the Sofi of Persia, and Selim his son completed it, by the conquest of the Mam- louks. This sultan having drawn them near to Aleppo, in 1517, under pretext of desiring their assistance in the war with Persia, suddenly turned his arms against them, and took from them successively Syria and Egypt, whither he pursued them. From that time the Turks established themselves in that country; but they are not settled much among the villages. We rarely meet with any individuals of that nation, except at Cairo; there they exercise the arts, and occupy the religious and military employments. Formerly they also were ad- vanced to posts under government, but, within the last thirty years, a tacit revolution has taken place, which, without taking from them the title, has deprived them of the reality of power. See TURK and TURREy. Volney observes, that the language of the Turkmans is the same with that of the Turks, and their mode of life nearly similar to that of the Bedouin Arabs. Like them, they are pastors, and consequently obliged to tra- vel over immense tracts of land to procure subsistence for their numerous herds. But there is this difference, that the countries frequented by the Turkmans being rich in pasturage, they can feed more cattle on them, and are therefore less dispersed than the Arabs of the desert. Each of their “ordous” (hence hordes), or camps, acknowledges a chief, whose power is not de- termined by fixed laws, but governed by custom and circumstances. It is rarely abused, because the society is compact, and the nature of their situation maintains sufficient equality among it members. Every man able to bear arms is anxious to carry them, since on his in- dividual force depend both his personal safety and the respect paid him by ilis companions. All their pro- perty consists in cattle, that is camels, buffaloes, goats, and especially sheep. They live on milk, butter, and meat, which are in great abundance among them, and the surplus of which they sell in the towns and the neighbouring country, for they are almost able alone to supply T U R T U R supply the butcheries. In return, they take arms, clothes, money, and corn. Their women spin wool, and make carpets, the use of which is immemorial in these countries, and consequently indicates their manner of. living to have been always the same. As for the men, their whole occupation consists in smoking, and looking after their flocks. Perpetually on horseback, with their lances on their shoulders, their crooked sabres by their sides, and their pistols in their belts, they are expert horsemen and indefatigable soldiers. They have fre- quent differences with the Turks, who dread them ; but as they are divided among themselves, and form sepa- rate camps, they do not assume that superiority which their combined forces would ensure them. The pacha- lics of Aleppo and Damascus, which are the only parts of Syria they frequent, may be computed to contain about 30,000 wandering Turkmans. A great number of these tribes pass, in summer, into Armenia and Ca- ramania, where they find grass in greater abundance, and return to their former quarters in the winter. The Turkmans are reputed Mussulmen, and generally bear the distinguishing mark, circumcision. But they trou- ble themselves very little about religion, and they have neither the ceremonies, nor the fanaticism of sedentary nations. As for their manners, to describe them accu- rately, it would be necessary to have lived among them. They have, however, the reputation of not being robbers, like the Arabs, though they are neither less generous, nor iess hospitable than they ; and when we consider that they live in plenty, without being rich, and are inured to war, and hardened by fatigue and danger, we may presume they are equally removed from the igno- rance and servility of the peasants, and the corruption and selfishness of the inhabitants of the towns. See TRUCHMENIANs. TURLACH-MORE, i. e. the Great Turlach, in the county of Galway, Ireland, a kind of lake, formed by the expansion of the rivers Clare and Moyne, which is upwards of six miles in length, and two in breadth; but which in summer, from the water being carried off by subterranean passages, becomes a beautiful and sound sheep walk. - TURLA.H, a town of Hindoostan, in the circar of Cicasole; 25 miles E. of Kimedy. TURLOS, a small island in the gulf of Engia, near the N.E. point of the island of Engia. TURLUPINADE, a term used chiefly among the French for a low jest or witticism. The occasion of the *ame is said to be derived from a famous comedian at Paris, called Turluft in ; whose talent consisted chiefly in raising a lăugh by miserable puns and quibbles. TURLUPINS, TURLUPINI, a denomination given to the brethren of the free shirit ; whose external aspect and manners carried a very shocking air of lunacy and distraction. They called their sect the fraternity of the floor, and spread themselves over England and France. They are said by some to have had their name turluftines, Quod ea tantum habitarent loca, gua luſhis each osita º?"Q???. - They attempted to settle themselves at Paris in 1372, but were a great part of them burnt, with their books; as is related by Gaguin and Du Tillet, in the life of Charles V. - TU R MERIC, or Indian Saffron, in Botany. CURG UMA. See TURMERIC, Curcuma, in the Materia Medica, a me- dicinal root, being the root of the curcuma longa of Linnaeus, used likewise by the dyers, to give a yellow Colour. - It is externally grayish, and internally of a deep lively yellow or saffron colour, very hard, and not unlike, either in figure or size, to ginger. - It is brought chiefly from the East Indies, but it is common in the gardens of the Chinese, who use it as a sternutatory, and grows abundantly in Malacca, Java, and Balega. In England it was first cultivated by Mr. P. Miller in 1759. It has been long officinally known. That should be chosen which is big, new, resinous, hard to break, and heavy. - Some people have mistakenly imagined, that there was a native red turmeric ; their errour was owing to this, that the yellow root, as it grows old, turns brown; and when pulverized, is reddish. It is much used by the glovers, &c. to dye their gloves. The Indians use it to dye their rice, and other foods, of a yellow colour: whence some call it Indian saffron. - Our dyers do not find that it gives so steady a yellow as the luteola, or weld; nor can any of the mordants give it a sufficient degree of durability; common salt and ammoniacal muriate fix its colour fast, at the same time rendering it deeper; but it is admirable to bright- en and heighten the red colours dyed with cochineal and vermilion; as scarlets, &c. Turmeric has a slight aromatic, and not very agree- able smell; and a bitterish, slightly acrid, and somewhat warm taste. It readily gives out its active matter, both to aqueous and spirituous menstrua; communicating to the former its own deep yellow, and to the latter a fine yellowish-red tincture. Distilled with water, it yields a small quantity of a gold coloured essential oil, of a moderately strong smell, and pungent taste : the re- maining decoction, inspissated, leaves a bitterish, con- siderably saline mass. The inspissated extract from rectified spirit is moderately warm and bitter, and not a little mauseous. In the Eastern countries, this root, be- sides its use in colouring and seasoning their food, is much recommended as a medicine; being accounted one of the most effectual remedies in obstructions of the viscera and mesentery, which are there frequent; in uterine disorders, difficulties of urine, and affections of the kidnies. Among us it has also been employed by way of decoction, infusion, and powder, as a deob- struent, in hypochondriac, leuco-phlegmatic, and ca- chectical constitutions; and esteemed by some as a spe- cific in the jaundice : the dose in substance is from a scruple to a drachm ; in decoction or infusion twice as much. It tinges the urine of a deep yellow colour. Lewis. Although the use of this root has been highly com- mended, it is now very rarely employed. A plaster of turmeric, well bruised, top and roots, is thought to be good against the bite of the rattle-snake. See Phil. Trans. N° 479. p. 144. TURMER Ic- Wash, is the gum of the turmeric-root dissolved in water. The qualities and uses of it are much the same as those of the yellow-berry wash for water painting; but it is a brighter and cooler yellow ; for which purpose it should be dissolved in spirit of wine instead of water, by putting two ounces of proof. spirit, and one ounce of water, in a phial, with two drachms of powdered turmeric- root, T U R T U R root, shaking them well together, and letting them stand, with a repetition of the shaking, for three or four davs. *URMERo, in Geography, a town of South Ame- rica, in the government of Caraccas; 40 miles S.W. of Leon de Caraccas. - TURN, a town of Walachia, at the conflux of the Alaut and the Danube; 24 miles S. of Brancovani. TURN is used for a circular motion; in which sense it coincides with revolution. TURN, in a Clock or Watch-work, particularly de- notes the revolution of a wheel or pinion. In calculation, the number of turns which the pinion hath is obtained by common arithmetic ; thus 5)6O(12, where the pinion 5, playing in a wheel of 60, moves round 12 times in one turn of the wheel. Now, by knowing the number of turns which any pinion hath in one turn of the wheel it works in, you may also find how many turns a wheel or pinion has at a greater distance ; as the contrate-wheel, crown-wheel, &c. by g e wº 5).55ſ 1 multiplying together the quotients, and the ::::: number produced is the number of turns, as 5)40)8 in this example: The first of these three numbers has l l turns, the next 9, and the last 8. If you multiply 1 1 by 9, it pro- ducetin 99; that is, in one turn oi the wheel 55, there are 99 turns of the second pinion 5, or the wheel 40, which runs concentrical or on the same arbor with the second pinion 5. If you multiply 99 by the last quo- tient 8, it produces 792, which is the number of turns the third pinion 5 hath. See Clock-Work and PINION. TURN, in Mining, is a pit sunk in some part of a drift. If the mine be deep, there are many of these turns one below another. TURN-House. When a drift is driven across the country N. and S. to cut a lode, the miners make a right angle from their drift, and work on the lode itself; which, as it is in a contrary direction to their past drift, they call turning-house, in order to work on the course of the lode. TURN, in the Manege, is a term commonly used in directing to change hands. See CHANGE and ENTIER, TURN, in the Sea Language. See LAND Turn, TACK, and TURNING. TURN, or Te URN, is also used for the sheriff’s court, kept twice a year in every hundred within his county, viz. a month after Easter, and within a month after Mi- chaelmas. From this court none are exempted but archbishops, bishops, earls, barons, religious men and women, and all such as have hundreds of their own to be kept. It is a court of record in all things that pertain to it; and is also the king’s leet through all the county, of which the sheriff is judge ; this court being incident to his office. The attendance on it is called secta regalis, or suit-royal. - It is called the sheriff’s turn, because he takes a turn or circuit for this purpose through the shire, holding the same in several places. TURN in the Head, in Rural Economy, a disease in calves and young cattle, in which external objects would appear to turn round. The affection in this case seems to arise from some diseased state of the brain, or parts about it. In the cure, bleeding is advised, in proportion to the size and strength of the animal; after which a powder, composed of camphor, valerian, nitre, and birthwort, in the quantity of a drachm of the first to an ounce of each of the other ingredients, should be well powdered and mixed together, and then given at once in a pint of rose- mary tea, repeating it as occasion may require. By this means much advantage has been gained, it is said, in some instances of this disease. TURN ADO. See Torn ADO. - TURN AGAIN ARM, in Geografthy, a branch of the north part of Cook’s inlet, extending east from Point Possession. TURNAMENT, or ToukNAMENT, a martial sport or exercise, which the ancient cavaliers used to per- form, to show their bravery and address. The first turnaments were only courses on horse- back, in which the cavaliers tilted at each other with canes in manner of lances; and were distinguished from justs, which were courses or careers, accompanied with attacks and combats, with blunted lances and swords. Others say it was a turnament when there was only one quadril or troop; and that where there were sever- al to encounter each other, it was a just ; which see. But it is certain that the two became confounded to- gether in process of time; at least we find them so in authors. The prince who published the turnament used to send a king at arms with a safe-conduct, and a sword, to all the princes, knights, &c. signifying that he intended a turnament and a clashing of swords, in the presence of ladies and damsels: which was the usual formula of in- vitation. The first engaged man against man, then troop against troop; and after the combat, the judges allotted the prize to the best cavalier, and the best striker of swords; who was accordingly, conducted in pomp to the lady of the turnament; where, after thanking her very reverently, he saluted her, and likewise her two attend- ants. The turnament made the principal diversion of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Munster says it was Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony, and afterwards emperor, who died in 936, that first introduced them ; but it appears from the Chronicle of Tours, that the true inventor of this famous sport, at least in France, was one Geoffry, lord of Preuilli, about the year 1066. It is difficult to fix the epocha of their institution, as many nations have laid claim to it. Nithard relates, that at the interview of Charles the Bald, king of Frange, who succeeded to the throne in the year 840, and his brother Lewis of Germany, at Strasburg, the gentlemen of the retinue of both princes fought on horseback, to display their courage and skill. Du-Cange says, that these sports were so peculiar to the French, that they were called conflictus Gallici, or French combats. To this purpose Matthew Paris, under the year 1179, says, “Henricus rex Anglorum junior mare transiens in conflictibus Gallicis, et profusioribus expensis, triennium peregit, regiaque majestate deposita, totus est de rege translatus in militem.” The Historia Byzantina tells us, that the Greeks and Latins borrowed the use of it from the Franks; and we find mention made of them in Cantacuzenus, Gregorias, Bessarion, and others of the late Greek authors. Instances of them occur among the English in the reign of king Stephen, about the year I 140; but they were not much in use till Richard’s time, towards the year T U R T U R year 1149. After which period these diversions were performed with extraordinary magnificence in the Tilt- vard, near St. James’s, Smithfield, and other places. At last, however, they were found to be productive of bad effects, and the occasion of several fatal misfortunes; as in the instance of Henry II. of France, and of the tilt exhibited at Chalons, which from the numbers killed on both sides, was called the little was of Chalons. These and other inconveniences, resulting from these danger- ous pastimes, gave the popes occasion to forbid them, and the princes of Europe gradually concurred in dis- couraging and suppressing them. . Budaeus derives the word turnament from Trojana agmina; others from Trajamentum, quasi ludus Troja. Menage deduces it from the Latin tornensis, or the French tourner, because the combatants rode in rings and circles, and were obliged to make many turnings with their horses, as the laws of the game required. M. Paris calls them in Latin hastiludia; Neubrigen- sis, meditationes militares; others, giadiaturae; others, decursiones ludicrat, &c. It is natural, however, to conclude ex vi termini, that although the sport itself may owe its rise to the Trojan game, yet that its name is of French extraction, and not only given with great propriety, but seems to be a tacit agreement of its superior antiquity among that people, whose historians assert that it was first known in France. Berenger’s Art of Horsemanship, vol. i. p. 104, &c. Pope Eugenius II. excommunicated those who went to turnaments, and forbad them burial in holy ground. King Henry II. of France died of a wound received at a turnament. One Chiaoux, who had assisted at a tur- nament under Charles VIII. said very wisely, “If it be in earnest, it is too little; if in jest, too much.” It is to the exercise of turnaments that we owe the first use of armories, of which the name blazonry, the form of the escutcheons, the colours, principal figures, the mantlings, labels, supporters, &c. are undeniable evidences. e § In Germany it was anciently a custom to hold a so- lemn turnament every three years to serve as a proof of nobility. For the gentleman who had assisted at two was sufficiently blazoned and published ; i. e. he was acknowledged noble, and bore two trumpets, by way of crest, on his turnament casque. Those who had not been in any turnaments had no arms, though they were gentlemen. TURN AU, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleslaw ; 14 miles N.E. of Jung-Buntzel. N. lat. 53° 32'. E. long. 15° 11'. * TURNDORF, a town of Bavaria; 21 miles N.N.W. of Amberg. TURNEBUS, ADRIAN, in Biografhy, a learned critic and scholar, was born at Andeli, in Normandy, in the wear 1512,educated at Paris, and intimately acquainted witi, every branch of classical literature. After having been empioyed for some time in teaching the classics at Toulouse, he became, in 1547, a professor of Greek at Paris, in which station he was very popular. He also superintended the royal press for Greek books, which he declined on being appointed professor-royal of Greek in 1555. In his manners, which were mild and conde- scending, meek and modest, he differed, as we regret to observe, from many eminent scholars; so that Henry Stephens pronounces this eulogy upon him, “Hic placuit cunctis, quod sibi non placuit.” His fame spread through Italy, Spain, Germany, and England; from which several countries he was honour- ed with many lucrative proposals, which he declined, though at home his income was scanty. He closed his life at Paris in 1565, at the age of 53 years, and his re- mains were privately interred in the cemetery of poor scholars, at Montaigu-college. Catholics and Protes- tants, claiming him respectively as one of their own body, concurred in their testimonies to his learning and character. His works consist of “Annotations upon Cicero, Varro, Thucydides, and Plato;” “Writings against Ramus ;” “Translations from Aristotle, Theo- phrastus, Plato, and other Authors';” “Poems, Latin and Greek;” “Treatises on particular Subjects;” and “Adversaria; or, Miscellaneous Remarks on Wri- ters,” which latter was printed at Paris in 1 vol. fol. 1580. Of his versions, Huet says, that they possess every quality necessary for perfect translations; as he understood Greek thoroughly, and turned it into elegant Latin, without deviating from his author, and his style was clear and agreeable. His works were printed col- lectively at Strasburg, in 3 vols. fol. 1606. Nouv. Dict. Hist. Huet de Interpret. Gen. Biog. TURNEFF Islan D, in Geography, an island in the bay of Honduras, about 20 miles long, and 10 broad, abounding in cocoa-nut trees, and much frequented by fishermen. N. lat. 17° 16'. W. long. 88° 20'. TURNEP, in Botany, &c. See BRAssica and TUR- NIP. TURNER, WILLIAM, in Biografthy, one of the fa- thers of English botany as well as of the English Pro- testant church, was born at Morpeth in Northumber- land, probably about the year 1520. He was educated at Pembroke college, Cambridge, under the patronage of sir Thomas Wentworth, and about the year 1538 had already distinguished himself for science and learning, being justly dissatisfied with the little real information he could obtain from those about him. Natural philoso- phy, medicine, and botany, chicfly engaged his attention at this time, but the great questions involving the vital interests of religious truth and liberty, having been stirred up, he devoted himself also to their examination, and incurred the danger and obloquy incident, more or less, in every age and country, to the honest prosecution of such inquiries. Turner, like many others in Eng- land, at this period, united the characters of a physician and a divine. He became an itinerant preacher, of so zealous a character, that the infamous bishop Gardiner threw him into prison; from whence he was, after a long time, released, we are not informed by what means, and became a voluntary exile from his native land. He resided on the continent with many other English refu- gees, principally at Cologn, and Basle, till the death of Henry VIII. During this interval, Turner travelled into Switzerland and Italy, where he contracted a friend- ship with many distinguished botanists and physicians, especially the great Conrad Gesner of Zurich, and pro- fessor Ghini of Bologna, the founder of the physic-gar- den, and of the botanical chair, in that university, and the preceptor of Caesalpinus and Anguillara. At Fer- rara Turner received the degree of doctor of physic. which was confirmed to him at Oxford, when he re- turned to England on the accession of Edward VI. He was made physician to the Protector Somerset, and his * ecclesiastical T U R N E it. ecclesiastical merits were still more amply rewarded, by a prebend of York, a canonry of Windsor, and the dean- ery of Wells. He had deserved this preferment by several publications in defence of Protestantism, which very cause, however, obliged him to fly from the perse- cutions of the bloody Mary, during whose whole reign Dr. Turner remained abroad. The accession of Eliza- beth restored him to his liberty and native soil, as well as to all his ecclesiastical benefices. The rest of his life was devoted to his clerical duties, and his botanical a musements ; two pursuits which in many honest and good men have “gone very lovingly together;” to their mutual advantage and honour. He had a botanic gar- den at Wells, and another at Kew, and appears to have divided his time between his deanery, and his residence in Crutched Friars, London. Dr. Pulteney thinks, from Turner’s frequent mention of the plants of Purbeck, and Portland, that he had some intimate connexions in Dorsetshire. This worthy man died July 7, 1568, ap- parently at no very advanced age, leaving several chil- dren. “His son Peter was educated to physic, travelled, and took degrees abroad; was incorporated doctor at Cambridge, and at Oxford, and died, aged 72, in 1614, but does not seem to have inherited his father’s turn for botany.” Turner’s earliest botanical work is said to have been printed at Cologn in 1544, in octavo, under the title of Historia de naturis herbarum scholiis et notis vallata. But this is mentioned by Bumaldus, or rather Ovidius Montalbanus, only, in his Bibliotheca Botanica, Se- guier’s edition, p. 18, without notice of any other pub- lication of our author; nor does it appear to be known to English collectors, any more than the following. “Names of Herbes in Greek, Latin, English, Dutch, and French,” printed at London, 1548, in 12mo, by the same writer. The chief publication of Dr. Turner is his well- known Herbal, in small folio, black letter, with wooden cuts, of which the first part was originally printed at London in 1551, and is now, on account of its rarity, much valued by collectors. The second part appeared at Cologn in 1562, accompanied by a reimpression of the first. In 1568 these first and second parts were re- published at the same place, with a new title page, a dedication to queen Elizabeth, from which many of the above particulars of the author’s life are taken, and the addition of a third part of the same work. To the whole are subjoined “A booke of the natures and properties as well of the bathes in England as of other bathes in Germanye and Italye, very necessarye for all sycke per- Sones that can not be healed without the helpe of natu- ral bathes :” and “A most excellent and perfecte homish apothecarye or homely physick booke, for all the grefes and diseases of the bodye, translated out of the Almaine speche into English, by John Hollybusch.” For this last sapient production Turner is, perhaps, not respon- sible. The Herbal is arranged alphabetically, and is more original and practical, than the more popular and celebrated publications of Lyte, Gerarde, or even Par- kinson. The object of the author was to determine the plants of the ancients, and to record their reputed vir- tues. But this is accomplished with more caution and discretion than are common to most of his contempora- ries, and with far less dogmatical confidence than Fabius Columna subsequently assumed. The third part, dedi- cated to the company of surgeois, professes more espe- Vol. XXXVIII. cially to treat of nic dical plants not known to the ancient-, The author apologizes in these terms for its imperfec- tions. “For surely beyng so much vexed with sick - nes, and occupyed with preaching and the study of di- vinitye and exercise of discipline, I have had but small leasure to write Herbalies.” This dedication is dated “ at Welles 1564.” The wooden cuts of all the three parts of Turncr’s Herbal are taken from those of Fuch- sius, and at first sight appear to be the very same blocks as those used in the octavo edition of the latter author, printed at Lyons, in 1595. A careful inspection how- cver will easily detect minute differences; and we espe- cially observe slight damages in Turner’s figures, not occurring in this later impression, which decisively prove it to have been printed from more recent cuts. Haller gives our author much credit for having first figured the true Medica, and the Rhus Cotinus ; see part 2d, 52 and l l 5. Under the former he describes various species of Medicago, distinguishing their dif- ferent seed-vessels; and of the latter exhibits a suffi- ciently expressive delineation, with a correct, though brief, history. Turner ranks moreover amongst our earliest British zoologists. He published at Cologn, in 1544, an octavo of ten pages, entitled Avium firſt ciſivarum, quarum a ſtud Plinium et Aristotelem mentio est, historia. Con- rad Gesner, to whose museum he repeatedly contribu- ted, after his settlement in England, speaks of him as eminently deserving of praise in the department of or- nithology; and Merret in his Pinar mentions the above little book, as great in authority, though small in bulk. Gesner has prefixed to the third volume of his own pon- derous Historia Animalium, a letter of Dr. Turner’s, dated Wissenburg, Nov. 1557, in which the various kinds of Fishes known in England, amounting to more than fifty, are briefly distinguished, with their Latin and English names. At the conclusion of the dedication of his Herbal to the queen he promises a book of the names and natures of fishes that are within her majesty’s do- minions, if he might have rest and quietness in his old age, and defence from his enemies, “whiche,” says he, “ have more then these eight years continuallye troubled me verye much, and holden me from my booke.” He speaks here also of sickness, as an impediment to his la- bours. His work upon baths is marked with the same originality of thought, and practical observation, as his botanical and zoological writings. Turner wrote also on the “Wines commonly used in England,” and on the “ Nature and Vertue of Treacle.” His numerous trea- tises on controversial divinity, published and unpublish- ed, were chiefly in defence of the Reformation; but his most valuable undertaking of this kind we presume to have been his collation of the translation of the Bible, with Hebrew, Greek, and Latin copies, in consequence of which he found occasion to correct it in many places. How far his corrections were turned to advantage by the translators in James I.’s time we are not informed. Dr. Pulteney observes, that “he procured to be print- ed at Antwerp, a new and corrected edition of the Histo- ria Gentis nostrae, s. Angliae, written by William of New- burgh, from a manuscript he found in the library of Wells;” but he complains of the printer, for omitting his preface as well as other communications, Turner translated several works from the Latin, particularly “The Comparison of the old learning and the new ;” written by Urbanus Regius; printed at Southwark in 1537, T UR T U R 1537, in 8vo, ; and again in 1538 and 1548. We regret having never Inet with this book, as the subject pro- mises much; and in the hands of Turner, or any man like him, who dared to think for himself, and whose judgment was regulated by prudence and learning, it could not but be valuable and instructive.-Turner’s Herbal. Haller's Bibl. Bot. Pulteney’s Sketches of the Progress of Botany. Dryand. Bibl. Banks. S. TURNER, WILLIAM, a fellow student with Purcell and Dr. Tudway, among the second set of chapel-children under Dr. Blow, was sworn in gentleman of the royal chapel in 1669, as a counter-tenor singer, his voice settling to that pitch ; a circumstance which so seldom happens, naturally, that if it be cultivated, the possessor is sure of employment: and in consequence of its utility, soon after his reception into the chapel royal, he was appoint- ed vicar-choral in the cathedral of St. Paul’s, and a lay- vicar of the collegiate church of St. Peter, Westmin- ster. In 1696, he was admitted to the degree of doctor in music at Cambridge. - Dr. Turner arrived at the great age of eighty-eight, and dying in 1740, was buried in the cloister of West- minster Abbey, in the same grave with his wife ; who being nearly of the same age, died but four days before him, after living together with great harmony of dispo- sition, and felicity, near seventy years. In many of our cathedral books there is an anthem, “I will alway give thanks,” which is called the club-an- them, on account of its having been composed by three masters in conjunction; but not, as has been said, by Dr. Boyce and others, “as a memorial of the strict friendship that subsisted between them :” for, according to Dr. Tudway, who remembered the transaction, and records it with the anthem in the Mus. Collect. vol. iii. “ the anthem was composed by order of Charles II. at a very short notice, on account of a victory at sea over the Dutch, the news of which arrived on Saturday, and the king wishing to have the anthem performed the next day, and none of the masters choosing to undertake it, three of the children of the chapel, Humphrey, Blow, and Turner, performed the task.” There are two whole services, and several anthems, of Dr. Turner’s composition in Tudway’s collection, with an ode for the solemnity of St. Cecilia’s day, 1697, accompanied with violins and trumpets. To this there is a long symphony or overture, consisting of two move- ments, the second of which is in triple time, upon a ground, seemingly in imitation of Purcell, as the first movement is of Lulli. After this production, is insert- ed his anthem, “The King shall rejoyce,” which is more in the style of a secular ode, than a composition for the church. The divisions, light and common in the last century, are now become extremely old-fash- ioned. TURNER, in Geografthy, a township of the province of Maine; 172 miles N. of Boston. TURNER’s Cerate. See CERATUM Eftaloticum. TURNERA, in Botany, was dedicated by Plumier to the memory of Dr. WILLIAM TURNER, (see that ar- ticle,) whom he characterizes, in spite of his heresy, as “a man of solid learning and judgment.”—Plum. Gen. 15. t. 12. Linn. Gen. 149. Schreb. 201. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1503. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 2. 172. Juss. 313. Lamarck Illustr. t. 212. Gaertn. t. 76. (Piriqueta; Aubl. Guian. 298. Juss. 295.)- Class and order, Pentandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Columniferae, Linn. Portulaceae 2 Juss. Rather Tiliaceae. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, double ; the outer- most of two combined, oblong, permanent leaves; inner of one leaf, funnel-shaped, deciduous; tube oblong, erect, cylindrical, slightly angular ; limb erect, in five deep lanceolate segments, the length of the tube. Cor. Petals five, inversely heart-shaped, pointed, flat, moder- ately spreading ; claws narrow, inserted into the tube of the calyx. Slam. Filaments five, awl-shaped, shorter than the corolla, inserted into the tube of the calyx; an- thers pointed, erect. Pist, Germen superior, conical ; styles three, thread-shaped, the length of the stamens; stigmas in many capillary divisions. Peric. Capsule ovate, of one cell and three valves. Receptacles linear, attached lengthwise to the valves. Seeds numerous, ob- long, obtuse, dotted, each furnished with an oblong, membranous, lateral tunic. Ess. Ch. Outer calyx of two permanent leaves; inner funnel-shaped, five-cleft, deciduous. Petals five, inserted into the calyx. Stigmas many-cleft. Capsule superior, of one cell, and three valves. Seeds numerous, each with a lateral tunic. - Of this well-marked genus, which we presume to be- long to Jussieu’s Tiliaceae rather than to any other of his orders, Linnaeus has described but four species, to which Willdenow has added five from Aublet and Jacquin. We are enabled to furnish three new species from the Linnaean herbarium. Aublet’s Pirigueta differs from the rest merely in having five styles, a point of no gen- eric importance in the present case. All the species are found within the tropics, in South America, or the West Indies; none in the East Indies, nor in Europe. Their stems are either shrubby or herbaceous. Leaves alter- nate, stalked, simple, and mostly undivided, thoughcre- nate or serrated. Pubescence rather silky. Flowers yellow, stalked, axillary, or occasionally racemose ; their stalks in some instances combined with those of the leaves. Outer calyx wanting in some of the species. 1. T. ulmifolia. Elm-leaved Turnera. Linn. Sp. Pl. 387. Willd, n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Lamarck t. 212. (T. frutescens ulmifolia; Plum. Gen. 15. Mart. Cent. t. 49. f. 1. T. e. petiolo florens, ſoliis serratis; Linn. Hort. Cliff. 112. t. 10. T. n. 2; Mill. Ic. 17.9. t. 268. f. 2.) 8. T. ulmifolia; Mill. Illustr. t. 14. (T. angustifolia; Curt. Mag. t. 281. T. frutescens, folio longiore et mucronato; Mart. Cent. t. 49. f. 2. T. n. 1. ; Mill. Ic. 179. t. 268. f. 1. Cistus urticae folio, flore luteo, vasculis trigonis; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 202. c. 127. f. 4, 5.) Flowers sessile on the footstalks. Leaves ovato-lan- ceolate, acute, coarsely serrated, with two glands at the base. Outer calyx ovato-lanceolate, notched:—Native of the red hills, and other places, in Jamaica; cultivated by Miller, and frequently seen in our stoves, especially the narrow-leaved variety, 8, flowering from June to November. The stem is shrubby, but soft, or partly herbaceous, lasting a few years only, several feet high, with roundish, wavy, downy branches, leafy at the ends. Leaves ovate, or lanceolate, varying in length from two to three inches, and in breadth from half an inch to above an inch, unequally and bluntly serrated, strongly ribbed and veined, soft and downy on both sides, fetid when bruised. Footstalks half an inch or an inch long, bearing two peltate glands near the top. Flowers large, bright yellow, shert-lived, solitary, on the footstalks of several of the upper leaves, close to the leaf itself. Outer ca- lya: T U R N E R A. iya of two ovato-lanceolate, strongly notched or serra-, say whence Linnaeus took his account of the inflores- ted, permanent leaves, resembling the proper foliage; inner tubular, silky, yellowish, in five lanceolate, entire, deciduous segments, shorter than the corolla. We can scarcely think there is any specific difference between the broad and the narrow-leaved varieties. Willdenow’s g and y are precisely the same plant. He, like Lin- naeus, erroneously refers Sloane’s synonym to the broad- leaved variety, though Martyn had previously, like Mil- ler, considered it as belonging to our g. His figure, in fact, represents that intermediate form of leaf which most usually occurs. 2. T. subulata. Awl-shaped Turnera.—Flowers sessile on the foolstalks. Leaves ovate, acute, coarsely serrated, with two glands at the base. Outer calyx awl- shaped, entire.—Gathered in New Granada by Mutis, whose specimen was very incautiously referred by Lin- naeus to T. ulmifolia. The leaves are ovate, not much above an inch in length, very downy and hoary, like the stalks and branches. Flowers likewise smaller than those of ulmifolia ; their fetals, in the dried specimen at least, nearly white, with a purple radiating spot on the disk. Calyz clothed with dense silky bristles; the leaves of the outer one very narrow, awl-shaped, chan- nelled, and quite entire, affording a decisive specific character. Caftsuie the size of a pea, clothed with long silky bristles. The peltate glands, on the edge of the leaf itself, are very large and conspicuous in this species. * 3. T. obtusifolia. Blunt-leaved Turnera.—Flowers sessile on the footstalks. Leaves obovate, obtuse, coarse- ly crenate, with two glands at the base. linear lanceolate, flat, entire.-Native of Brasil. Com- municated to the younger Linnaeus by Thouin, probably from Commerson’s collection. This is very clearly dis- tinguishable from the two former by its broad obtuse leaves, scarcely an inch and a half long, and one inch in breadth; wedge-shaped at the base ; broadly and blunt- ly crenate. The leaves of the outer calyac are broader, flatter, and rather shorter, than in the last, measuring about half an inch. Cañsule twice as large as in that species, coriaceous, densely covered with rigid bristles. Seeds club-shaped, beautifully reticulated, with inter- mediate depressions; their tunic nearly of their own length. 4. T. Pu milea. Nettle-leaved Dwarf Turnera. Linn. Sp. Pl. 387. Am. Acad. v. 5. 395. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Swartz Obs. 1 16. (Pumitea n. 1 ; Browne Jam. 188. Chamaecistus urticae folio, flore luteo ; Sloane Jam. v. 1, 202. t. 127. f. 6.)—Flowers sessile on the footstalks. Leaves lanceolate, deeply serrated, without glands. Outer calyx linear, minute, hairy.—Native of dry sandy fields in Jamaica, flowering late in the year. Swartz. Root annual, fibrous. Stem herbaceous, from one to three inches, or more, in height, simple or branch- ed, erect or decumbent, round, hairy, leafy. Leaves about an inch long, so deeply serrated as to be almost pinnatifid, clothed with long scattered hairs, but desti- tute of glands at the base. Flowers small, yellow, sel- dom expanded, solitary, sessile at the base of each upper leaf, on its hairy foots talk. Outer calyx of two small, linear, upright leaves; inner in five linear hairy seg- ments, pressed close to the corolla. Petala convolute, with long orange coloured claws. Seeds roundish, compressed, corrugated. Swartz. The Linnaean spe- cimen, from Browne, has no flowers, nor is it easy to Outer calyx cence, which, nevertheless, is confirmed by Swartz. 5. T. sidoides. Sida-leaved Turnera. Linn. Mant. 58. Willd. n. 4.—Flower-stalks axillary. Outer ca- lyx linear. I.eaves nearly sessile, obovate-wedgeshaped, sharply serrated, downy and hoary on both sides, with- out glands.—Gathered in Brasil by Father Panegai, whose specimen was sent by Arduino to Linnaeus. The stem is shrubby at the base, four or five inches high, erect, simple, round, leafy, clothed with hoary down, and long, soft, tawny hairs. Leaves rather more than an inch long, covered on both sides with dense, entan- gled, somewhat starry, soft, hoary pubescence; strongly and acutely serrated upwards; entire at the base, and tapering down into a very short hairy footstalk. Flow- ers axillary, nearly sessile, tawny, their stalks and ca- lyac downy, and clothed with long, yellow, shining hairs. The specific character of Linnaeus, pedunculis bisetis, seems to allude to the two linear or awl-shaped leaves of the outer calyz. 6. T. setosa. Bristly Turnera.—Flower-stalks axil- lary, partly combined with the footstalk. Outer calyx linear. Leaves obovate-wedgeshaped, deeply serrated or pinnatifid, very hairy on both sides, without glands.-- Gathered by Commerson at Monte Video and Buenos Ayres. The size of the last. Stem shrubby at the base, throwing up a few simple, wavy, nearly upright, hairy, leafy branches, from three to five inches high. Leaves more stalked, and much more deeply cut, than in T. sidoides, being sometimes sharply pinnatifid ; they are scarcely at all hoary or downy, but covered with long, silky, yellow hairs, such as are extremely copious on the branches, stalks, calyar, and cafsule. The flowers are said to be of a tawny red. Their outer calyx is very long and linear. Their stalks, as far as we can judge, are connected, for about half their length, with the ad- joining footstalks. This species is certainly near akin to the last, and the segments of its leaves are evidently variable. We cannot, without spoiling our only speci- men of T. sidoides, determine whether its flower-stalk be really separate from the footstalk or not. What Lin- naeus in the Mantissa terms bracteas, are what we have all along called, after his own example in the Systema Wegetabilium, an outer calyx ; nor is this part perhaps, as professor Swartz says, entirely wanting in the next species, though we must allow it to be there still more like bracteas. 7. T. cistoides. Betony-leaved Turnera. Linn Sp: Pl. 387. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 3. Swartz Obs. l l 7. (Pumilean. 2; Browne Jam. 189. Helianthemum be- tonicae folio, caule hirsuto ; Plum. Ic. 141. t. 150. f. 1. Chamaecistus caule hirsuto, folio oblongo angusto sinu- ato, flore luteo, pediculo insidente ; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 202. t. 127. f. 7.)—Flower-stalks axillary, many times longer than the footstalks. Outer calyx obsolete. Leaves linear-oblong, obtuse, with shallow serratures —Native of dry barren ground in Jamaica. Sent by M. Richard, in 1774, to Kew garden, where it flowered in the stove, from June to October. The root is annual, long and simple. Stems one or more, subdivided, erect, from six to twelve inches high, round, leafy, hairy. Leaves on short stalks, spreading, bluntly toothed or serrated, about an inch and a half long, clothed on both sides with minute starry hairs; paler beneath. Flowers small, yellow, on long slender hairy stalks swelling upwards, bent or jointed about the middle, where are sometimes Q 2 to 'I' U R N E R A. to be scen two minute bracteas, hardly to be deemed an outer calyx. The proper calyx is hairy, in five lance- olate acute segments. Capsule somewhat hairy, pale. Seeds buff-coloured, curved, elegantly impressed with numerous rows of minute dots. 8. T. racemosa. Cluster-flowered Turnera. Jacq. ii.ort. Vind. v. 3. 49. t. 94. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 4.— Flower-stalks in a terminal cluster; the lower ones ax- illary, many times longer than the footstalks. Outer calyx wanting. Leaves ovate, bluntly serrated, downy. —The native country of this species is not known, but we have little doubt of its West Indian origin. Jacquin received its seeds with the name of T. cistoides, under which a specimen lies in the Linnaean her barium. M. Thouin sent seeds to Kew in 1789, and we have what seems a garden specimen from him. The root is annu- al. He rô much larger than the cistoides, with a very hairy, slightly branched, stem. Leaves broadish-ovate, two inches long, unequally serrated, clothed with ex- tremely soft, starry, depressed hairs. Footstalks bristly, almost an inch in length. Flowers small, dull or tawny yellow, on very long and slender hairy stalks. Calyx hairy. Cañsule slightly hairy, each of its valves split- ting into two. Seeds pale, rough with minute points between the depressed dots.—The calyar in this and the last species does not answer well to the idea of the ge- nus, the tube, though present and permanent, being ve- ry short, nor are there any traces of the two outer leaves. Perhaps the latter had best be omitted in the generic chai acter, which is sufficiently marked without them. 9. T. guianensis. Slender Guiana Turnera. Aubl. Guian. 291. t. 1 14. Willd. n. 9.—Flower-stalks in a terminal cluster, smooth. Outer calyx linear, entire, naked. Leaves linear, smooth, slightly serrated, with two glands at the base.—Gathered by Aublet in the marshy meadows of Timoutou in Guiana, flowering in April. Root fibrous, probably annual. Herb slender, smooth, with a rushy, angular, slightly branched stem, two feet high. Leaves nearly sessile, two inches long, much less distinctly serrated in Aublet’s specimens than in his figure. Flowers small, yellow, on short smooth partial stalks, collected, very few together, into a cluster. Outer calyar permanent, glandular at the bºttom, rather longer than the inner, whose segments are, as in all the species we have hitherto described, deciduous, the per- manent base being short, like that of T. racemosa. Caſi- sule very smooth, of three undivided valves, 10. T. rufi estris. Rock Turnera. Aubl. Guian. 289. t. 1 13. f. 1. Willd. n. 3.-Flower-stalks axillary, very short. Outer calyx linear-lanceolate, toothed, somewhat bristly. Leaves nearly linear, toothed, very smooth, almost sessile.—Found by Aublet, in the moist mossy clefts of rocks about the great water-falls of Si- némari in Guiana, flowering in November. A rigid, slender, branched shrub, about a yard high, whose stems are more or less covered with Jungermanniae. Ileaves crowded about the ends of the branches, nearly sessile, an inch and a half long, very narrow, tapering at each end, slightly revolute, furnished with distant teeth, and by no means serrated, as in Aublet’s plate, from which Willdenow took his specific definition. Flowers small, yellow, nearly sessile, solitary in the bosoms of two or three of the uppermost leaves. Outer calyx toothed, or rather serrated, longer than the inner, whose seg- ments are lanceolate and entire ; both are slightly clothed with close, silky, white hairs. Petals oblong, jagged at the end. ll. T. Jrutescens. Shrubby River Turnera. Aubl. Guian. 290. t. 113. f. 2. Willd. n. 5.-Flower-stalks axillary, very short. Outer calyx linear-lanceolate, toothed, somewhat bristly. Leaves lanceolate, serrated, very smooth, almost sessile.—Observed by Aublet, on the rocky banks of the Sinémari river, above the great fall, flowering in December. The natives call this shrub, as well as the former, Mofotogomoti. The pre- sent appears to us a variety of the last, differing only in its more luxuriant growth, being seven or eight feet high, with larger more dilated leaves, whose length is two or three inches, their breadth above half an inch, their veins far more numerous, and their margins rather serrated than toothed. Those differences may arise from a more favourable situation, or a more fertile soil. In the flowers or inflorescence there seems no difference whatever. - 12. T. rugosa. Wrinkled Turnera. Willd. n. 6. (Piriqueta viilosa ; Aubl. Guian. 298. t. 117. Burcar- dia; Schreb. Gen. 206, adopted from Scopoli; ex- punged at p. 827, and referred to Turnera.)—Flower- stalks axillary, many times longer than the footstalks. Outer calyx wanting. Leaves ovate, unequally crenate, wrinkled, downy. Styles five.—Native of the sandy sea-shores of Cayenne and Guiana, flowering and bear. ing seed almost all the year round. The root is annual. Stem erect, about two feet high, branched, leafy, villous. Leaves on very short stalks, bluntish, two or three inch- es long, rather elliptical, veiny, rugged, clothed with reddish hairs. Flowers small, yellow, on long, slender, hairy stalks. Cañsule very like that of T. racemosa, n. 8, which this species so nearly resembles in many respects, that, were it not for the five styles, and the more crenate and rugged leaves, we should be disposed to unite them. We place this at the end, for future ex- amination, not having seen a specimen to determine the question. TURNERA, in Gardening, comprises a plant of the woody, flowering, exotic kind, for the stove, the species of which cultivated is the elm-leaved Turnera (T. ul- mifolia); which has a shrubby stem, rising eight or ten feet in height, and a bright yellow ſlower. It is found in the West Indies. - There is a variety with narrow leaves, which also rises with a shrubby stalk to the height of eight or ten feet, with branches less slender and stiff than in the broad- leaved sort: the leaves narrow-lanceolate, hairy, near three inches long, and about three quarters of an inch broad, terminating in acute points, obtusely serrate on their edges, and standing upon very short footstalks; when rubbed they emit a disagreeable odour : the flow. ers are of a pale yellow : the petals large and oval, with the tails or claws twisted, and joining : they are not so large or half so bright a yellow as in the true elm-leav- ed sort. This is a native of Jamaica. Culture-Both these plants are easily raised from seed, which should be sown in the spring, in pots, and plunged in the bark-bed, or any other hot-bed, under glasses; and when the plants are come up two or three inches in height, they should be planted separately in small pots, plunging them in the bark-bed of the stove, to forward them a little in growth : they may afterwards. be placed in any part of the stove, and be managed as o'her exotic stove plants. They are also capable of being increased by cuttings, planted in pots, and forwarded in the above manner. f - They afford a good variety among stove-plants, but they T U l' T U R they are seldom of long duration, as they mostly go off in the course of two or three years, being therefore rather of a biennial nature. TURNESOLE, or TURN sole, in Botany. LIoTRoPIUM, and CRoton Tinctorium. Some have translated turnesole by the English word sun-flower, which has led many to suppose that the great yellow sun-flower, which we keep in gardens, was the plant that afforded the turnesole colour: but this is a mistake ; and it is to be observed, that the true turne- sole plant, or heliotrofium tricoccum, is very common in the fields of France, especially about Montpelier, and in Germany, but does not grow wild with us in England. The juice of the berries of the turnesole, rubbed upon paper or cloth, at the first appears of a fresh lovely green, but presently changes into a kind of blueish pur- ple. It is said that the common blue paper receives its colour from this juice. The same cloth, afterwards wet in water, and wrung out, will turn the water into a claret colour; and it is to be observed, that the rags of cloth tinctured by this juice, and turned red by acids, are usually called turnesole in the druggist’s shops, and employed for colouring wines and other liquors. M. Nissole, of the French Academy of Sciences, says, that the colouring juice is obtained, not from the berries, but from the tops of the plant, gathered in August, ground in mills, and then committed to the press. The juice is exposed to the sun about an hour ; the rags dipt in it, dried in the sun moistened by the vapour which arises during the slaking of quicklime with urine, then dried again in the sun, and dipt again in the juice, The Dutch and others are said to prepare these rags and turnesole in the mass from other ingredients, of which archil is a principal one. Boyle's Works abr. vol. ii. p. 19. Neumann’s Chem. by Lewis, p. 433. The Dutch process for making the blue called turne- sole is as follows: Lichen, archil, or in case this last cannot be obtained, the greater moss of the oak, is dried, cleaned, and pulverized in a mill, resembling the oil- mill, and then sifted through a brass wire sieve, the in- terstices of which do not exceed one millimetre in width (ºth of an inch). The sifted powder is then thrown into a trough, and mixed with an alkali called vedas, which is nothing else but the cendres gravelées in pow- der. The proportion is one part by weight of the alka- li, to two parts of the pulverized vegetable. This mix- ture is moistened with a small quantity of human urine ; the urine of other animals does not contain a sufficient quantity of ammoniac. The mixture ferments, and is kept moist by successive additions of urine. As soon as the materials have become red, they are transferred into another trough, where they are again moistened with urine, and stirred to renew the fermentation. Some days afterwards, the paste acquires a blue colour, in which state it is carefully mixed with one-third of excel- lent potash well powdered; and with this new mixture certain trays are filled, which are one metre (394 inch- es) deep, and eight decimetres (313 inches) wide. When the fermentation which takes place for the third time has given the paste a considerably deep blue colour, chalk or powdered marble is added, and the whole is well and perfectly mixed. This last addition is made, not to improve the quality of the blue, but to add weight. It is merely an affair of profit. The blue thus pre- pared is put into iron moulds 32 centimetres long and 22 square at the end (13 inch by 4%ths of an inch). The See He- moulded picces are then placed upon deal planks, in well-aired lofts, to dry ; after which they are packed in casks for sale. The Hollanders made a secret of this process; and in order to mislead, they have published, that the blue was made with rags coloured by the plant turnesole; whence it has obtained its appellation. The English writers have used this denomination: but the dry-salt- ers, or dealers in drugs, distinguish these pastils by the name of litmus. We may derive much profit by car- rying this discovery into practice. The principal use of this plant is in dyeing : in order to which, the juice is inspissated and prepared with calx and urine, into blue cakes; which are used also with starch, instead of smalt. * The lixivium of this plant in lime-water and urine, or in the volatile spirit of wine, turns marble blue. See Colouring of MARBLE. TURN ESS, in Geography, a cape on the east coast of the island of Hoy. N. lat. 58° 41'. W. long. 3° 10'. TURNETUM, in our old Law Books, a duty paid to the sheriff for holding his turn, or county-court. TURNHOUT, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Two Nethes, built in the year 1212, by Henry IV. duke of Brabant. In the year is 45, the emperor Charles V. gave it to his sister Mary, queen of Hungary, to enjoy during her life. In the year 1648, after the peace of Munster, Philip IV. gave it to prin- cess Amelia, widow of Frederick Henry of Nassau, from whom it came to the house of Orange. The quarter of Turnhout comprehends fifteen villages; 25 miles S.S.W. of Bois-le-Duc. TURNING, in the Mechanical Arts, is the operation of shaping wood, metal, or other hard substances, into a round or oval figure, by the aid of a machine called a lathe ; which see. In turning, the work or substance to be operated upon is placed in the lathe, and made to revolve with a circu- lar motion about a fixed right line as an axis of motion ; and the exterior surface is worked to its intended figure by means of some kind of edged tool, which is present- ed to it and held fast down upon a fixed rest. The pro- tuberant parts of the work, by its rotatory motion, are carried against the cutting edge, and cut off, so as to re- duce every part of the outside surface, to an equal dis- tance from the axis of motion, and of course it will be of a circular figure. The articles which admit of being turned to give them their figure, are all such as combine the three fol- lowing properties: 1. That they may be supposed to have an imaginary light line or axis passing centrically through the whole length of the piece : 2. That all the sections which can be made by planes perpendicular to such axis shall be circular: and 3. That the centre of all such circles shall coincide with the axis or centre line. It should be observed, that a piece of work may have two or more centre lines in different parts or in different directions; but it must in that case be formed or turned at two or more successive operations, because what can be done at once fixing in the lathe, must come within the above definition, The work may be turned hollow, so as to make a ca- vity withinside ; or work may be turned on the outside, to give form to the external surface; and frequently work is turned both without and within; but in either case, the above definitions will apply. Biodorus, T U R N IN G. Diodorus Siculus says, the inventor of the art of turn- ing was a nephew of Daedalus, named Talus; and that the reputation which he acquired by this invention ex- cited the jealousy of Daedalus, and induced him to put Talus secretly to death. Pliny ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, and mentions one Thericles, who rendered himself very famous by his dexterity in managing the lathe. With this instrument, it is said, the ancients turned all sorts and kinds of vases, many of which they enrichcd with figures and ornaments in basso relievo. Thus Virgil says: “Lenta quibus torno facili superaddita vitis.” The Greek and Latin authors make frequent men- tion of the lathe, and Cicero calls the workmen who used it, vascularii. It was a proverb among the ancients, to say a thing was formed in the lathe, to express its delicacy and justness. The art of turning is of considerable importance, as it contributes essentially to the perfection of many other arts. The architect uses it for many ornaments, both within and without highly finished houses. The mathe- matician, the astronomer, and the natural philosopher, have recourse to it, not only to embellish their instru- ments, but also to give them the necessary dimensions and precision : in short, it is an art absolutely necessa- ry to the mechanist, the goldsmith, the watchmaker, the joiner, the smith, and others. As the operation of turning is to be performed by the aid of the lathe, the structure of that machine is the first thing to be considered. In our article LATHE, we have given a description of the most perfect kind of lathe, made in iron, with a triangular bar; and in the ar- ticle Rose-Engine, we have described a curious lathe for ornamental turning; but it is to be observed that a much more simple machine will answer all the com- mon purposes of turning. The essential properties of a lathe for outside work are, first, that it shall have two points which will firmly sustain the work at each end, by penetrating into the ends of the work, and, at the same time, allow it to turn freely round upon the points: there must be a rest or support to hold the tool upon, and also some means of turning the work round upon the points. A lathe to turn hollow or inside work will not admit of a point of support at each end of the piece, and therefore the work is firmly fixed to the extremity of a spindle, which is called a mandrel ; when the mandrel is turned round, the work revolves with it, and the tool can be applied at the end of the work, to excavate or turn it hollow with- inside, or to turn it on the outside, as required. Lathes are made in a great variety of forms, and put in motion by different means: they are called centre (athes, where the work is supported at both ends; and mandrel, s/hindle, or chuck lathes, when the work is fixed at the projecting extremity of a spindle. From the different methods of putting them in motion, they are called fiole lathes, and hand-wheel lathes, or joot-wheel lathes. For very powerful works, lathes are turned by horses, steam-engines, or water-wheels. The lathes used by wood turners are generally made of wood, in a simple form, and are called bed lathes : the same kind will serve for the common turning of iron or steel, but the best work in metal is always done in iron lathes, which are sometimes made with a triangu- lar bar, and are called bar lathes, (such a one is de- scribed in the article LATHE); small ones, for the use of watch-makers, are called turn-benches, and turns ; but there is, in fact, no proper distinction between these and the centre lathes, except in regard to size, and that they are made of iron and brass instead of wood. The centre lathe is the most simple of all others. Two beams of wood are fixed horizontally upon legs, like a bench, and form what is called the bed. The two beams are fixed together, parallel to each other, and at a small distance asunder, so as to leave a space or nar- row groove between them, nearly the whole length of the bed. This groove is to receive the tenons at the lower ends of the flufflets, which are short posts rising perpendicularly from the bed, and firmly fixed thereto by means of cross wedges, put through the tenons be- neath the bed; for the tenons are of sufficient length to descend quite through the groove in the bed, and project beneath sufficienuly to receive the cross-wedges, which being driven in, draw the bases of the puppets or post so firmly down upon the surface of the bed, that they will stand firmly erect upon it; or by withdrawing the wedges, the I uppets become loose, and can be fixed in another part of the bed, in order that the distance be- tween the two puppets may be made to correspond with the length of the piece of work to be turned. One of the puppets has a pin or flike of iron fixed into it, and the other one has at the same level the centre screw, working through a nut fastened in the puppet : both the screw and pike have sharp points made of steel, hardened and tempered, that they may not wear away. They must be exactly opposite, and in a line with each other. The piece of work, suppose for instance it is a roller of wood, is supported by its ends between the points of the pike and the screw, that it may turn round freely. The rest for the support of the tool is a rail or bar, extending from one puppet to the other ; it lies in hooks, projecting from the faces of the puppets. The work is put in motion by means of the treadle, which is worked by the turner’s foot; a string or cat- gut is fastened to the treadle, and passing two or three turns round the work, is is fastened to the end of an elas- tic flole, fixed to the ceiling over the turner’s head. The workman stands before his lathe, having one of his feet on the treadle to give it motion ; he places a sharp gouge or chisel on the rest, and approaches the edge of it gently to the piece of work; then pressing the treadle down by his foot, the string turns the work round, and the chisel or gouge being held firm upon the rest, and so as to touch the wood, it will cut it to a circular form. When he has brought the treadle to the ground, he releases the weight of his foot, and the elas- ticity of the pole draws up the treadle, turning the work back again ; during which retrograde motion, he with- draws the chisel from the work, as it would not cut in this direction, though it might impede the motion of the wood, and would injure the edge of the tool. He must perform his work gradually, without leaving ridges; and when he meets with a knot in the wood, he must go on still more gently, otherwise he would be in danger both of splitting his work and breaking the edge of his tool. For turning light work, a bow, such as is used for shooting arrows, is suspended by its middle over the lathe; the string is then tied to the middle of the bow-string, in lieu of the pole, and acts in the same In an Ilºſ'. The T U R N IN G. The common centre lathe is a very imperfect ma- chine, when worked in this manner; yet its simplicity is a great recommendation, especially among country workmen, who use it to make various sorts of common articles of household furniture in soft wood, as stool and table legs, stair-case rails, &c. e In centre lathes, the work is sometimes put in motion by means of a large wheel, turned by one or more la- bourers; the wheel should be heavy, that its momentum may be sufficient to overcome any moderate obstacle in the work; and the frame in which it is mounted must be of sufficient weight to stand steady, and not be liable to move, by the exertions of the man turning it. An end- less line is used, to communicate the motion of the wheel to the work; it passes round a groove in the circumference of the wheel, and after crossing, like a figure of 8, goes round a small pulley, fixed upon the work. By this means, when the great wheel is turned, it gives a rapid rotatory motion to the matter to be turned, and with a much greater power than can be ob- tained from the treadle, with the additional advantage of the work turning always the same way round, so that the turner has no need to take his tool off the work. The centre lathe will turn any kind of work which will admit of being supported at both ends; and it is used by mill-wrights and iron-founders, for turning mill- shafts, axles, rollers, and other iron-work. For such purposes, the lathe must be made exceedingly strong, and with nuts and screws to fasten the puppets down upon the bed, instead of wedges; the rest must be made in iron, with the requisite adjustments for placing it close to the work, at that part where it is required to be turn- ed. To put the work in motion, the centre pin or point in one of the puppets is made to project considerably, and has a pulley fitted upon it, so that it can turn freely round upon the pin by means of an endless band or strap, which communicates the motion from a great wheel. In these large lathes for iron-work, the wheel is com- monly turned by horses, or by a water-mill or steam- engine. From the pulley a pin projects in a direction parallel to the centre pin, and a piece of iron, called a driver, is screwed or clamped fast upon the end of the piece of work, so as to project from it sufficiently to be intercepted by the pin which is fastened into the pulley : by this means, the motion of the pulley is communica- ted to the work. The tools employed for turning iron and other metals are different from those used for wood, as we shall afterwards describe. The shindle or mandrel lathe will turn hollow or in- ternal work, and is equally well adapted to turn centre work as the centre lathe. In Plate Turning, fig. 1. we have given a representation of one of these, which is on a very good construction, made by Messrs. Holtzapfel and Deyerlien : it is put in motion by the foot, so that the turner has both his hands at liberty to direct the tools. A A are upright legs, to support the bed B, which consists of two pieces or bars of cast-iron, put together, and leaving a small crack between them : C D is a cast-iron frame, which is fastened down upon the bed B, and supports the spindle or mandrel a b : E is the back puppet, which is used to support one end of a piece of work, as is shown in the figure at G, when the other end is fixed to the end of the mandrel, and turned round by it: the back puppet E, has a cylindrical pin accurately fitted into it at the upper part, and the end of the pin is formed to a sharp conical point, proper to penetrate and support the end of the work: this point is called the back centre. A screw e is tapped into the puppet, so as to press on the opposite end of the pin, and force it towards the work; and there is like- wise a clamp screw, E, at the top, to bind or fasten the pin into its socket. The back puppet is fastened down upon the bed, by means of a tenon entering into the groove, through the bed B, and a screw descends from the tenon quite through the bed, and projects beneath it upon this screw a nut g is tapped, and by turning it, the shoulder of the puppet E is drawn down firmly upon the bed; but when the nut is loosened, the puppet can be slided along the bed to place it at any required distance from the end of the spindle, according to the length of the piece of work G. It is necessary that the point of the back centre should in all cases be precisely in the centre line of the axis of motion of the spindle a b, and for this purpose, the bed must be made very straight, and flat on the upper surface; the groove through it should also be perfectly straight and parallel, and the tenon at the lower end of the back puppet must be ex- actly fitted to the groove : the frame of the mandrel must be so fixed on the bed, that the centre line of the mandrel will be exactly parallel to the bed, and to the groove in the bed. Mandrels are mounted in different ways, but they are always made of steel at the parts where they are supported in the collars, which collars should be also made of steel, and hardened, so as to have little friction. The neck of a mandrel must be very accurately fitted into the collar, so as to have no shake or looseness, at the same time that it can turn round quite freely. The neck at one end projects beyond the collar, and the projecting part is formed to a screw, for the pur- pose of fixing the work to it. A variety of pieces, call- ed chucks, are fitted upon this screw, and each chuck is adapted to hold a different piece of work: the chucks screw up against a shoulder on the end of the mandrel, and by the motion of turning round in the direction in which the lathe works, the chuck screws itself fast on against the shoulder; but if the lathe is stopped, and the chuck is turned in the opposite direction, it will unscrew and come off, and a different chuck may be put on. In some lathes, the neck of the mandrel is perforated, and cut withinside, with a female screw adapted to receive a male screw on the chuck : the effect is just the same as the above described. The opposite end of the man- drel to that on which the chucks are screwed, must be supported either by a point or in a collar. In general, the mandrel is made with a point at one end; and the other end, which has the screw to fix the work to it, is formed with a neck, proper to run in the collar, and with a shoulder on the neck, to stop the neck from going through the collar. The mandrel represented in the drawing has a neck and collar at each end, for a pur- pose which will be explained. When the mandrel is made with a pointed end, the point must be received in the end of a screw tapped through the part D of the frame of the mandrel, just in the place of the end a of the mandrel. By turning this screw, the mandrel can be adjusted to run very correctly in length; and to pre- vent the screw from turning back when the lathe is in motion, a nut is placed on the screw, beyond the part d : this causes such a pressure upon the threads of the screw, that it is in no danger of turning back, as it would otherwise do with rough work. The mandrel, by ſº T U R N I N G. by this means, runs very steadily and accurately in its bearings, and it is plain that any piece of work, which is firmly attached to the end of it by means of the screw before mentioned, may be turned by a tool held over the rest, in the same manner as if it were mounted between centres, but with the advantage that it be turned at the cnd, to make hollow work when required. The mandrel is turned round by a band of catgut passing round the pulley h, and also round the large foot-wheel H, which is made of cast-iron, and fixed on the end of the axis I. This axis is bent in the middle, as in the figure, to form a crank, which crank is united, by an iron link K, to the treadle L, on which the work- man presses his foot. This treadle is affixed by three rails to an axis M, on which the treadle moves. The wheel H is of considerable weight in the rim, and being fixed fast on the axis I, turns round with it : the momen- tum acquired by the wheel is the power that continues to turn the work while the crank and treadle are rising, and consequently while the workman exerts no power upon then. When the crank has passed the vertical position, and begins to descend, the workman presses his foot upon the treadle, to give the wheel a sufficient impetus to continue its motion until it arrives at the same position again. The length of the iron link K, which connects the crank with the treadle, must be such, that when the crank is at the lowest position, the board L of the treadle, to which the link is hooked, should hang about two or three inches from the floor. To put the lathe in motion, the turner gives the wheel a small turn with his hands, till the crank rise to the highest, and passes a little be- yond it; then by a quick tread he brings the crank down again, putting the wheel in motion with a velocity that will carry it several revolutions: he must observe to be- gin his next tread just when the crank passes the high- est point, and then it will continue running the same way with a tolerable regular motion, if he is punctual in the periods of his treads. The foot-wheel, by means of the band, causes the mandrel to revolve very rapidly, so that it will perform its work very quick, and the work- man must acquire a habit of standing steady before his work, that he may not give his whole body a motion when his foot rises and falls with the treadle. The rest N of this lathe is fixed on the bed of the lathe by its foot, which is divided in the manner of a fork, to receive a screw bolt: this bolt passes down through the lathe-bed, and fastens the rest at any place along the bed, by a nut k beneath. The groove in the foot is for the purpose of allowing the rest to be moved to and from the centre of the work, to adjust it to the diameter of the work which is turning. The height of the rest is a matter of some importance in turning, and in some work it should be fixed higher than others; therefore the piece upon which the tool is laid, is made with a Shank of the form of the letter T. This shank is a round pin, and is received into a socket in the foot of the rest, and can be held at any height by a clamp-screw. As the socket and shank are cylindrical, the edge of the T of the rest can be placed inclined to the axis of the work when turning cones, or other similar work, though the same purpose may be accomplished by the screw, which holds the foot of the rest down to the bed of the lathe, admitting the fork to stand in an oblique direction across the bed. * The wood-turner employs gouges of all sizes, and chisels of different forms: the gouges are uscd in the first instance to rough out and form the wood, as they cut very rapidly, beeause they can take a very strong chip, and the angles will not stick in, as would be the case with the chisels. The latter are used to smooth the work, and to reduce it exactly to shape and size. The blade of the turning-gouge is formed nearly half round to an edge, and the two extreme ends of this cdge are a little sloped off, in the manner of an apple-scoop, that the middle part of the edge may cut away the pro- minences of the work; and it has no corners, which would catch and get fast in the rough wood. The hollow part is whetted upon a piece of Turkey-stone, made with a convex edge, for the purpose ; the outside is whetted upon a common flat Turkey-stone, taking care to turn the gouge round, that all parts of the convex edge may successively be sharpened. In turning, the blade of the gouge must be held considerably inclined, by depressing the handle (see fig. 42.), so that the bevil, or outside of the edge of the gouge, may come very nearly in the tangent to the circumference of the work, and the cutting edge be above the level of the centre. The turner holds the tool down firmly upon the rest, keeping it steady, by placing the long handle under his al’Iſl. The turner’s chisels are mostly ground with a bevil on both the flat sides, so that either side may be indif- ferently applied to the work : they are ground up and sharpened on the oil-stone to a keen edge. In some chisels, the line of the edge is inclined to the direction of the blade, instead of being perpendicularly across it, as in the chisels used by carpenters; in others, the edge is rounded to a semicircle, instead of being a straight line; and others are made with angular points, like spears. It is difficult to describe the proper use of each particular tool, as the turner must employ one or other, according to the particular part of the work which is to be executed. In using the chisel, the rest is raised considerably above the centre of the work, so as to be nearly on a level with the top of it (see ſig. 41.), and the line of the cutting edge must stand oblique to the axis of the cylinder, so as to prevent either angle of the chisel from running into the work. It is necessary to traverse the chisel gradually along the work, but not too fast, otherwise it will leave a roughness on the sur- face. The turning-tools should be fixed in long handles, and the turner holds them firmly down upon the rest, steadying them by placing the end of the handle under his arm. The turner should be provided with a grindstone, and an oil or Turkey-stone to sharpen his tools; and he must have callipers and gauges to ascertain the dimen- sions of his work. In order to fix the work in the lathe, he must have a great assortment of chucks. The chucks for wood-turning are blocks of wood, each having a screw, by which it can be attached to the mandrel. The end of the chuck being turned true, and the shoulder of the screw upon the mandrel being also turned true, the chuck fixes so tight to the spindle, that it becomes as it were one piece with it. Most of the wood chucks are bored out like a box, and the work is jambed into the cavity. There are other chucks, which are only flat round boards, and the work is cemented or screwed against them; but the generality of chucks are cylindri- cal blocks, with a cylindrical or conical hole turned * the º T U R N IN G. the end, like a box, into which the piece of wood to be turned is driven fast, so as to be turned round with the mandrel. The chucks are generally hooped with iron, to prevent them from splitting. When centre-work is to be turned in a mandrel lathe, a chuck must be screwed on the end of the mandrel, which terminates in a sharp conical point. - The lathe should be fixed in a place very well lighted; it should be immoveable, and neither too high nor too low. - The puppets should neither be so low as to oblige the workman to stoop in order to see his work properly, nor so high, that the little chips, which he is continually eutting off, should come into his eyes. The piece of wood to be turned should be rounded, before it is put in the lathe, either with a small hatchet made for the purpose, or with a plane or rasp, fixing it in a vice, and shaving it down till it is every where al- most of an equal thickness, leaving it a little bigger than it is intended to be when finished off. Before putting it in the lathe, it is also necessary to find the true cen- tres of its two end surfaces, so that they shall be exact- ly opposite to each other in order that, when the centre points of the puppets are applied to them, and the piece is put in motion, no one side may project out more from the centre line than another. To find these two centres, lay the piece of wood to be turned upon a plank, open a pair of compasses to almost half the thickness of the piece, lay one of the legs on the plank, and let the point of the other mark on one of the ends of the piece when laid flat on the plane with the plank, like a roller, from which plank the point of the compasses stands up at a given height above the plane on which the piece lies. Describe four marks or arcs on that end at equal distan- ges from each other round the circumference of the end, by laying the piece successively on four different sides, which arcs intersecting one another, the point within the intersections will be the centre of the end. In the same manner, the centre of the other end must be found. After finding the two centres, make a small hole at each of them, into which insert the centre points of the back centre and the mandrel, and screw up the back centre, to fix the piece so firmly as not to be shaken out, and yet loose enough to turn round without difficulty. This is the mainer of fixing the work when it is to be turned between centres ; but if it is required to be bol- lowed out, the back puppet is removed, and the work must be fixed in a chuck at the extremity of the man- drel. For this purpose, a chuck is selected which has a hole in it nearly the size of the piece of woºd, the diameter of which being taken in the callipers (ſg. 35.), the chuck is sciewed to the mandrel; the rest is fixed in a convenient position, and the hole in the chuck turned out by a proper tool to the size measured by the callipers: the hole should be rather conical, and the wood, being rasped to the same figure, is driven in fast by a hammer. By turning the mandrel slowly round, it will be seen if the wood is fixed straight in a line with the mandrel, and if not, a blow or two of the ham- mer, properly directed, will rectify it. If the piece of wood is not very long, the chuck will be sufficient to hold it firm whilst it is turned ; but if it is not, then a small centre hole must be made in the ex. treme end, and into this the point of the back centre screw must be inserted to steady the work, until the tough Part of the turning is done, and then it may be Vol. XXXVIII, .. removed ; but it is much more convenient to turn with. out the back centre, and therefore the turner fits the chuck to the wood with care, so that it will fix fast in the chuck. The work being thus chucked, or fixed in the lathe, the rest is set, so that its edge is close to that part of the work which is required to be turned, and the top of the rest being raised considerably above the level of the centre of the work, it is there screwed fast. The turner now puts the lathe in motion by treading with his foot, and takes a gouge, of a proper size, in his right-hand, and holds it by the handle a little inclined, keeping the back of the hand lowermost : he grasps the blade of the tool with his left-hand, the back of which is to be turned upwards, and he holds it as near the end as possible on the front side of the rest; then leaning the gouge on the rest, he is to present the edge of it a little higher than the horizontal diameter of the piece, se as to form a kind of tangent to its circumference : see fig. 42. This is the best position for cutting, and the tool must be held very firmly, to prevent the edge being depressed by the motion of the work, for if it does, it will take hold too deep, and tear the work. The gouge is applied first to one end of the work, and gradually ad- vanced to the other, turning the work true all the way, and reducing it till the callipers (jig. 36.) determine it to be near the intended diameter. The chisel is next employed to smooth the cylinder: is handle is held in the right-hand, whilst the left grasps the blade, and keeps it steady upon the rest, holding the edge a little inclined over the work, as in fig. 41; se that one side of the flat part of the blade lies on the rest, and the other side is elevated, that the plane of the blade, and consequently the line of the edge, is not horizontal, but inclined thereto, so that one corner of the edge of the chisel is elevated above the work: then the bottom of the edge of the chisel, or near the bottom, cuts away a shaving from the work, and this is the only way in which it will cut; for if the edge of the chisel is held Parallel to the axis of the cylinder, it acts parallel to the length of the grain of the wood, scraping away the fibres, one by one, without cutting, and leaves a very rough surface. In the same manner, the narrow chisels, formers, and other instruments, are to be used accord. ing to the work which is to be done, taking care that the wood be cut equally and that the instrument be not pushed suddenly forwards, or sometimes more strongly than at others ; and taking care also that the instrument docs not follow the work, but that it be kept firm on the rest, without yielding. The gouge and chisel are the instruments by far the most frequently used, and the most necessary in this art. Soft woods are almost en- tirely turned by them. To make the end of the work exactly flat, the thin side of the chisel is laid upon the rest, so that the plane of the edge inay stand exactly upright. The hand is depressed, that the lower corner of the edge may rise against the work, and cut a deep circle into it, near the end, and being steadily advanced, cut to the centre, se- parating a thin round chip, and leaving the end quite flat. The cutting corner of the chisel must be directed exactly perpendicular to the length of the work, in ad- vancing it, otherwise the end will be either concave or cºnvex, and care must be taken to keep the plane of the edge wiy upright, and hold it very firm, for there is tºge: of the work drawing the chisel into the end of & ‘F W R N IN G. of it, with a deep spiral cut, like a screw, and tearing the work out of the chuck. *g A cylinder of wood being formed by the process we have just described, if it is required to turn it hollow withinside ; the rest is fixed opposite the end of it, with the edge of the rest perpendicular to the length : then a sharp-pointed tool is used to bore such a hollow in the end as will form the required cavity, using the inside callipers (jig. 35.) to determine the size of it. The side-tool, which is made with a cutting edge on the side, like a knife, may be used, if it is required to make the bottom of the cavity square; or a hooked tool, with the cutting edge at the end of the hook, may be employed to enlarge the inside to the proper size: the gauge (fig. 34.) is used to determine the depth to which it is to be turned. This is the process for turning soft woods, which are generally of a fibrous texture: but hard woods, ivory, and bone, are turned with different tools. The points or cutting edges of some such tools are represented in Jigs. 23, and 24; they are bevilled only on ene side, and the angle of the edges is obtuse. The round-point- ed tool, and the sharp angular-pointed tool, are those employed for first roughing out the work, and by them a number of contiguous grooves are cut in the wood, until its grain is broken and divided, and the irregular- ities reduced ; then an edged tool can remove the re- mainder : but as the edged tools will only cut or scrape off thin shavings, they are not used when the work is to be reduced to size, but only to finish it. The manner of applying the tools to the work is shown in fig. 39. and is nearly the same as for turning brass, or other soft metal : the upper surface of the tool is directed to the centre of the work, the intention being to scrape away shavings in hard wood, and in soft to cut chips, as at Jºgs. 41. and 42. The graver (ſig. 40.) is a very use- ful tool for hard wood : the manner of using it, as well as other tools, will be described when we come to speak of turning in metal. After the work is completely turned, it is next to be polished, and this cannot be done with the instruments hitherto mentioned. Soft woods, as pear-tree, hazel, maple, &c. ought to be polished with shark skin, or Dutch rushes. There are different species of sharks, some of which have a grayish, others a reddish skin. Shark’s skin is always better when it has been used; at first, it is too rough for fine polishing. The Dutch rush is the equisetum hyemale ; it grows in moist places, among mountains, and is a native of Scotland. The oldest plants are the best. Before using them, they should be moistened a little, otherwise they break in pieces almost directly, and render it exceeding- ly difficult to polish with them : they are particularly proper for smoothing the hard woods, as box, lignum vitae, ebony, &c. After having polished the piece well by such means, it should be rubbed gently either with wax or olive-oil, then wiped clean, and rubbed with its own turnings or shavings, or with a cloth a little warm. Ivory or horn is polished with pumice-stone or chalk, finely pounded and put upon leather, or a linen cloth a little moistened with this: the piece is rubbed as it turns round in the lathe; and to prevent any dirt from adhe- ring to any part of it, every now and then it is rubbed Agently with a small brush dipt in water. To polish me- tals very finely, the workmen make use of a particu- lar kind of earth called tripoli, and afterwards of putty, er calx of tin. Iron and steel are polished with very fine powder of emery; this is mixed with oil, and put between two pieces of tin or pewter, and then the iron is rubbed with it. Tin and silver are polished with a burnisher, and that kind of red stone called blood-stone, Iron and steel may also be polished with putty, putting it dry into shamoy-skin. All kinds of articles in wood are turned in the above manner ; but many contrivances are necessary to mount different things in the lathe. The small figures in the plate represent various chucks, which are occasionally employed, and which are adapted for turning different kinds of work. *gs. 2. and 3, exhibit a small wood chuck, which is adapted to be screwed to the mandrel at a, a hole being perforated in the centre of it, at 5, into which a smail piece of wood or ivory is to be inserted, in order to turn it. To hold the work fast in this chuck, it is di- vided at the end b by two saw-kerfs, at right angles to each other, as shown in ſig. 3. So as to separate the end into four segments, which admit of expanding or clos- ing : a hoop or ferrule is fitted on the outside of the chuck, which part is made tapering, so that forcing the ferrule farther on, will close the four segments together, and bind fast upon the work, which is introduced into the cavity b. This is a very convenient chuck for hold- ing small pieces of ivory, and particularly for the pur- pose of polishing. Pigs. 12. and 13. exhibit a similar chuck, made in brass, for more delicate work; it is only divided into two segments. Fig. 4. is a brass box, to screw to the mandrel, and hoid a wood chuck, such as we have before explained. Wood chucks are usually made to screw on the mandrel by means of a hole in the chuck, which is cut with a fe- male screw within. The objection to this mode is, that the threads of the screw on the wood wear away by con- stant use. In fig. 4. a brass female screw, a, is cut to fit the screw of the mandrel, and at the other end, 5, is a box, also cut with a screw withinside, into which the wood block or chuck is screwed, as shown by the dotted lines, so as not to come out without great force : by this means, the fitting of the chucks to the mandrel is not with a wooden screw, as in general, but with a brass one, which will not be liable to get out of the truth, but will always screw up to the same shoulder. The lathe should have at least two dozen of these wood chucks, with ca- vities of different sizes, and some of them hooped with iron at the outer end, to prevent them splitting. The brass box is a great security against splitting. Fig. 5. is a very useful arbor for turning wheels, col- lets, or any other flat piece of work that will admit of having a small hole in the centre of it. A brass screw- chuck, a, is fitted to the mandrel, and a steel pin, b, is fixed into it, and projects an inch or more; the pin is turned true, and the work is fitted fast upon it, either by turning the pin to the size, or by broaching the hole in the work: and to prevent the work from slipping round upon the pin, it is pinched fast up against the flat sur- face of the chuck, as shown by the dotted lines, by a nut d, which is screwed on the end of the steel pin b : by this means, the work will be held fast, and will be car- ried round by the chuck, so as to be turned by the ap- plication of proper tools upon the rest. These kinds of arbors should be of all sizes, to fit the holes in differ- ent wheels, &c. Fig. 10. is a brass chuck, which is very useful for holding * T U R N IN G. holding small pieces of brass work; it screws to the mandrel at the end a the hollow part, 6 b, has six screws tapped through it, and pointing to the centre, as shown in fig. 1 1. By screwing in these screws, their points will pinch upon any piece of work which is put into the chuck, as shown at d, and will hold it firm. The screws being regulated, admit of adjusting the work d to a true centre with the line of the mandrel. Pigs. 16. and 17. are views of chucks having similar properties to the preceding: a (jig. 16.) is the end which is screwed to the mandrel; 5 b is a circle of brass, having a mortise or opening across the centre of it, as in fig. 17; into this opening two steel dies are fitted, and screws d, d, are placed behind them, to approach them together : the screws come through the outside of the chuck, and have square heads, which are to be turn- ed by means of a key. The adjacent surfaces of the two dies are hollowed, so that they will embrace a piece of wire or other similar substance which is put between them, and the dies may be cut like a file, to hold it fast. By means of the two opposite screws d, d, the work may be adjusted to the centre line of the mandrel. Pigs. 20. and 21. are a table chuck, proper for hold- ing wheels or flat plates by the circumference, whilst the centre parts are turned : a is the screw to fix it to the mandrel : 6 b, a large circular plate, turned per- fectly flat on the front surface. In this plate are grooves pointing-from the centre to the circumference, as shown in fig. 21 : the grooves are adapted to receive clamp- pieces, d, d, d, by means of which the wheel or other work is bound fast against the flat surface of the chuck. The grooves admit the clamps d, d, d, to be placed at any distance from the centre, according to the size of the work, and to place them at those parts where it will be most convenient to apply them. The form of these clamps is shown more particular- ly in ſig. 22 : fare sliders of metal, which are fitted to the grooves in the chuck; and the grooves are dove- tailed, so that these sliders can be put into the grooves at the back of the chuck, but will not draw through the grooves into the front. Screws are tapped into the sli- ders, and draw the clamps, h, against the face of the chuck, and hold fast the work, which is placed beneath their claws. The clamps, h, have shanks projecting from them at right angles, which pass through the grooves, and keep the clamp from turning round to one side. Figs. 35. and 36. represent the callipers used by turners to take the measure of their work : they are made of two curved pieces of steel-plate, united togeth- er by a joint. When they are opened, as in fig. 36, the dimensions of a round piece of work may be convenient- ly taken between their points, as shown by the dotted circle ; but if the points are closed together, as in fig. 35, so that they pass each other, then the callipers are adapted for measuring the diameter of internal cavities, by the distances of their points from each other. Several other kinds of callipers are used by turners, but these are the most convenient, as they serve equal- ly well for inside and outside dimensions. Some calli- pers are made double, like a pair of scissors; and the points at one end are for inside measures, whilst the others are for outside measures; and the distances of all the points from the joint being exactly the same, the inside measure of any hollow being taken by one end of the callipers, the opposite end will be readily opened to the requisite dimensions for a solid to fill such hollow. Fig. 34, is a gauge for measuring the depth of hol- low work. A is a ruler, through which is a socket to receive another ruler B ; and a clamp-screw is fitted through the side of the socket, to hold the ruler, B, fast in the socket. The edge of the ruler, A, is applied to the end of the work, and the other ruler is then slided through its socket, until the end of B touches the bot- tom of the cavity; and in this state, the clamp-screw being fastened, the gauge may be applied to the piece of work in the lathe, to ascertain if the cavity is turned out to the required depth. Fig. 6. is a chuck for turning wood when it is a long piece, which will admit of being supported at both ends, or between centres, as it is called. The chuck has a screw within the part a, to fix to the mandrel, and the other end is of steel, with a pin b in the centre; and on each side of the pin is a sharp edge c, like a chisel, the line of the edge pointing to the centre of the pin. When a piece of wood is mounted between the points of this centre pin and of the back centre, as we have before described, if the back centre screw is turned, it will force the piece of work against the mandrel and the pin b, and the edges c will penetrate into the opposite end of the wood ; in this case, the motion of the mandrel and chuck a will be communicated to the wood, to turn it round. The centre pin b is made to project beyond the edges c, and by this means the work may be re- moved from the lathe, and put in again if required, be- cause the centre pin will enter again into the same hole in the end of the work, and restore the work to its ori- ginal position. Fig. 7. is a chuck for the same purpose, but it is made with a flat circle of brass, and three pins, c, are fixed in it instead of the edges c, c. This kind of chuck is shown in use in fig. 1, to turn a pillar for a balustrade. When a piece of metal work is to be turned between centres, the edges or points of the last chucks cannot be made to penetrate the end of the piece, and therefore a small chuck, b, (figs. 14. and 15.) is screwed to the mandrel; in the end of this chuck, at b, is a hole, which is made square withinside, and the work has a square filed at one end to fit the hole. The other end of the work is supported by the back centre, a small hole being made in the end to receive its point; or if the end of the work is sharp-pointed, the back centre pin is drawn out of its socket, and turned end for end; the end of the pin op- posite to the point has a small centre hole for the recep- tion of, such pointed work. Iron and steel work may be turned very conveniently by means of a square, but not very accurately ; and after the work has been taken out of the lathe, and the square cut off, if it be required to turn the work again in the lathe, it is very difficult to find the true centre. All works requiring great accuracy, as arbors, screws, axles, spindles, &c. are turned between centre points, thus: a chuck (fig. 8.) is screwed to the mandrel by the screw in the part a, a steel centre point à being formed at the end of it. The point is turned very truly, to be exactly in the centre line of the mandrel. The work is mounted between this point and the point of the back centre ; and to communicate the motion of the mandrel to the work, a driver, (ſig. 9.) is screwed fast on that end of the work nearest the chuck. The driver is an iron ring, with a screw d tapped through one side of it, to pinch the work so fast as to prevent the driver slip- R 2 ping T U R N IN G. Ring round upon the work; and on the side opposite to the ring is a projecting tail f. The chuck (jig. 8.) has a steel claw k e fitted through it, and fastened by a screw : the end of the claw is bent at e parallel to the direction of the mandrel, so that the end of it will catch the tail f of the driver, and turn it round, together with the work on which the driver is fixed. The stem k of the claw slides in and out of the sock- et, through the chuck, in order to remove the claw e to a greater or less distance from the centre point 6, and adapt the chuck to operate upon different sized drivers, for delicate or large work. This is the most accurate method of turning iron work in a mandrel lathe, be- cause the centre points at the ends of the piece are pre- served. When one end of the work is finished, the driver may be shifted to the other end. Such work may at any time be mounted again upon its original cen- tre points, in any kind of lathe, to turn wheels, collets, &c. which may be fitted upon it. The form of the driver is shown in fig. 30. In order to make it fit different sizes, the side of the ring oppo- site to the screw d is made angular, and the point of the screw forces the work into the angular part. This driver may be fixed on either end of the work, whilst the other end is turning; but when it is necessary to fix the driver on that part of the work which is fin- ished, the end of the screw d is apt to pinch and bruise it ; it is therefore proper to interpose a piece of iron between the point of the screw and the work. But it is better to use the driver shown in fig. 31 : it is com- posed of two bars of iron, united by two screws passing through one bar and tapped into the other: both bars are somewhat hollowed out in the middle, that they may encompass the work. If this should be found to injure the work, a piece of sheet-lead wrapped round it before the driver is put on will prevent it from damaging the work; and if the screws of the driver are drawn very tight, it will carry the work about with sufficient force to bear turning. When a piece of iron or steel work is to be turned, the centre points at the ends must be found with great precision before it is turned, because it is difficult to cut away great protuberances in metal. The centres are first found by the compasses, and marks are slightly punched in the ends by a conical-pointed punch. The workman now places the work in the lathe, between the points of the mandrel and that of the back centre, but without fixing any driver on the work; he then screws up the centres, so as to hold the work just tight enough to pre- vent its falling down. In this state, by turning it round with one hand, while he holds a piece of chalk against it with the other, he ascertains whether it is pitched nearly concentric on the points; and if it varies much at any one point, he turns back the screw to take out the work, and punches new centre points, or alters the old ones, taking care to move them nearer to that side which appeared to project farthest in revolving, and was of course marked by the chalk. When he has by repeated trials found the true centre, he screws up the centre point so hard, that it may effec- tually mark the end of the work, by forcing the points to the bottom of the marks punched; then taking the work out of the lathe, he drills holes in the ends, at the places which the centre points have marked, and to such a depth, that the points of the lathe will not reach the bottom, When the work is again returned into the lathe, it will run very nearly concentric, and the driver being screwed fast on either end of the work, as is most convenient, the work will be turned round by the clutch Pºłº from the chuck. T he work is now ready for turning, which is done by different tools, and applied in a very different manner from the chisels and gouges for turning wood. Figs. 37. to 40. are different examples of the manner of turn- ing metals: a tool applied in the manner of fig. 39. operates very well upon brass and bell-metal. The cut- ting edge should be ground nearly to the angle which is there represented, and the upper side should be di- rected nearly to the centre of the piece; the edge will then scrape away shavings from the metal. The tool has some tendency to retreat backwards from the work, and must be held firmly thereto. The edges of tools, applied as shown in fig. 39, may be formed to any of the shapes shown inſigs. 23. and 24, the angle of the cutting edge being in all cases nearly the same. The graver (ſig. 40.) is an extremely useful tool, and fit for turning any metal or hard wood ; it is a square bar of steel, cut off obliquely, and the greatest obliquity of the cutting plane is in the direction from one angle of the square to the opposite angle. This produces a prominent point on one of the angles, which point is ap- plied to the work in the manner shown in jig. 40, and cuts off continuous shavings instead of scrapings: this is owing to the direction of its edge, which is disposed obliquely to the motion with which the work meets the cdge in its rotation. The turner should be provided with gravers of all dimensions. Pig. 37. is the action of what is called a heel tool for turning wrought iron or copper : the edge of this is ap- plied nearly in a tangent to the work, on the same prin- ciple as the chisel is applied to cut wood. The heel of the tool is placed upon the rest, and being just opposite to the edge on which the pressure or drift of the work lies, the tool cannot escape from its work, although the pressure upon it is very great, so much so, that it would be impossible to keep the tool to its work, if it were held upon the rest, as in the case of the wood chisel, merely by the lateral friction on the rest. The handle of the heel tool is long, and is held inclined upwards, so that the workman can rest the end of it on his shoulder, whilst he holds it firmly down on his shoulder and on the rest with both bands. This firm position is very necessary, because the heel tool is liable to draw deep into the work, and take away too large a chip. This tool will cut away thicker chips than any other, being what the workmen term a greedy tool. The requisite height of the rest, to make the edge of the tool a tangent to the proper point, is a matter of importance, and requires the attention of the workman, who can only learn the management of this tool by experience. It is not well adapted for finishing work with accuracy, but is very expeditious in roughing out wrought iron : it generates so much heat in working, that it is necessary to keep it constantly wet ; and in large lathes, a constant stream of water is made to fall on the edge at the place where it is cutting. The graver and all other tools work wrought iron and steel to the greatest advantage when wetted. Fig. 39, is the tool used for turning cast-iron; this substance must be scraped way, and it is plain from the figure, that the cutting edge is presented very nearly in the same manner, with respect to the work, as in fig. i. 3 \lt T U R N IN G. but from the hardness of cast-iron, it requires a very con- siderable force to press the edge against the work, and it would be impracticable to hold it up effectually on the plan of fig. 39; hence the tool in ſig. 38. is bent at the end, and is lodged over the edge of the rest, in the manner of a lever ; the handle is pressed down at the extremity, and lifts up the edge against the work with very great force. The workman must bear on the han- dle of this tool with the requisite pressure; and in large work, such as cannon and mill-shafts, he usually seats himself upon the end of the tool, which is made very long in the handle. Different substances require different velocities of motion to cut with the greatest advantage. Wood can scarcely be made to move too quick ; and it is always preferable to take a very thin chip, and move as quick as possible, than to move slowly, and compensate for the loss of time by cutting deep. Brass and bell-metal may be moved very quick, but not with half the velocity of wood. Wrought iron and copper must be turned more slowly, and the tool must be kept wet. Steel should go rather slower than wrought iron, for it is lia: ble to have hard veins in it, which the workmen call pins: these will be cut through if the work moves slowly, but with a quick motion they will destroy the edge of the tool : this makes some workmen think that the pins are actually formed, or that they become hard during the operation of turning, if too great a velocity is used. Cast-iron must move very slowly, indeed it can scarcely turn too slowly, and the tool applied as at fig. 38. will cut a thick chip. To obtain these different degrees of velocity, the foot- wheel of the lathe fig. 1. is made with several grooves of different diameters, and the mandrel pulley h has also different sizes. A band can be applied upon any of these grooves at pleasure, and the workman finds by experience what velocity is best for different kinds of work. The most experienced workmen prefer a centre lathe to a mandrel lathe, when they have to turn aceurate iron-work, which will admit of being poised between centres; and it is obvious, that the revolving motion of the centre point at the end of the mandrel is of no use ; and if the point should be the least out of the centre line, or if the mandrel has any shake in its collar, the work would not be turned truly. But in a centre lathe, where both points are fixed immoveably, or, as the work- men say, with dead centres, this cannot happen; and if the work is screwed up tight between the centres, so that there is no shake, the centre points at the ends of the work must be precisely in the centre line of the work. The manner of giving motion to a piece of work in the centre lathe is, as we have before described, by a loose pulley fitted on the centre pin, and from this pulley a pin projects in a direction parallel to the centre line, so that it comes exactly in the place of the claw e (ſig. 8.), and turns the driver round when the pulley is put in mo- tion by the band, either from a foot-wheel or hand-wheel. When the mandrel lathe is used for centre work, the centre of the chuck must be turned very exactly, so that it does not vary in the least from the same position when it turns round; and in all cases the mandrel must be fitted with the most scrupulous accuracy into its collar, so that there will be no shake; for unless this is the case, the lathe will not turn chuck-work with any accuracy. Messrs. Holtzapfel and Deyerlien make very excel- lent lathes on the plan represented in fig. 1. The bed, and the puppets are made of cast-iron, and very correct- ly fitted, such lathes possess great strength : some of them are fitted up, as in the figure, with a pattern screw at the end a of the mandrel, for the convenience of cut- ting screws on work. For this purpose, the mandrel is fitted in a collar at each end, and the necks are cylindri- cal, so as to admit of the mandrel moving endways at the same time that it turns round. On the extreme end of the mandrel, beyond the collar D, a pattern screw is fixed, which has the distance of its threads correspond- ing with the screw that is desired to be cut upon the work, which is fixed in the lathe by a chuck : a piece of brass, n, is provided, which is cut with threads adapted to the pattern screw, and which can, by turning a screw, be drawn up against the pattern screw, so as to work in its threads; and in this state the mandrel, at the same time that it turns round, will move endways in its col- lars with a screwing motion; and in consequence, a Pointed tool being presented to the work, and held fast on the rest, will cut a spiral groove or screw upon its circumference. This contrivance is more fully ex- plained in the article Rose-Engine. It is the most con- venient method of all others for cutting screws, and very accurate, if the pattern screws which are fixed on the mandrel are correctly cut. For all purposes of wood turning, it is undoubtedly the best method, and far pre- ferable to the common one of cutting screws flying, as it, is called, that is, by means of the tools 32 and 33, which are applied to the work, and moved along end- Ways at the same time that the work turns round, so that they cut a spiral. (See Rose-Engine.) The rapidity and accuracy with which some workmen cut screws in this way exceed belief; but it is only by long ex- perience that this habit can be acquired, and for those who have not had such experience, some mechanical, help is necessary. The objections made by accurate workmen to the flying or screw mandrel are, that as the necks must be cylindrical, it cannot be kept so perfectly fitted in its collars as the common mandrels, which have a point at the extremity, and the neck at the other end is made slightly conical, so that it can always be screwed up to fit in the collar. Messrs. Holtzapfels’ mandrels are made of hardened steel at the necks, and the collars are also hard ; they are accurately fitted, and have no shake when new. . From the hardness of the materials, they will wear a long time before they get any loose. I) CSS. Mr. Maudslay has the most complete set of tools for all kinds of mechanical works at his manufactory, and is particularly well provided with turning apparatus. All his lathes are made with triangular bars, such as is de- scribed in our article LATHE, and the mandrels are all formed with conical necks and collars. The bar lathes are very accurate, particularly when the slide-rest is. applied to them, as there described. The bed lathe may also have a slide-rest applied, as is shown under Ros E-Engine. If a piece of metal, after being properly turned, is to be bored hollow within, like a gun barrel, the back pup. pet is to be removed from the bed of the lathe, and an- other substituted in its place, having a hole or collar through it, into which the neck or end of the iron is to. be correctly fitted, the other end of the iron being sup. ported and turned round by being fitted into a chuck at the- T U R N IN G. the end of the mandrel, or else by means of the centre point at the end of the mandrel, and with a driver, as Jigs. 8. and 9. The rest is to be set opposite the end of the piece where it comes through the collar, and drills or borers are to be applied, similar to those used by locksmiths in boring keys, beginning with a small one and afterwards using larger ones, until the hole is made as wide and deep as necessary. The borers must be held very firm on the rest, otherwise there is danger of not boring the hole straight. The borer should be with- drawn from time to time, to oil it and clean the hole, As it is difficult to make a hole quite round or concen- tric with the outside by means of borers alone, it is ne- cessary to have also a turning tool considerably smaller than the hele, one of the sides of which is sharp, very well tempered, and a little hollow in the middle. This instrument being fixed in a long handle, is to be intro- duced into the hollow, and applied with steadiness to the inner surface of the hole, and it will entirely remove every inequality that may have been there before its ap- plication. The collar puppet is only resorted to, when the piece which is to be bored is of considerable length; for if it is short, it will be held sufficiently fast in the chuck, without the necessity of supporting the extreme end. A collar puppet is sometimes necessary in turning centre work when the work is long, and so slender, that it bends or springs by the stress of the tools: the collar is then applied to support the work at the part where it is weakest and bends most. Turning of ellifitical or oval Work, such as Picture- frames, Snuff-boxes, &c.--This is periormed in the same lathe, and with the same tools, as the circular work ; but the lathe is provided with a chuck, which causes the work to traverse in a very curious manner, by a motion given to it in a direction to and from the centre of the mandrel as it revolves; so that a tool held up against the work will cut an elliptical figure instead of a circle. Elliptical work has a very singular appear- ance when in motion; for after the work has been turn- ed truly elliptical, every part of the circumference, ex- cept the exact point where the tool was applied, appears to vibrate, or be excentric in a great degree, but that one point of the circumference runs perfectly true and regu- lar, the same as the whole circumference of a piece of circular work does. The mode of action of this inge- nious apparatus is rather difficult to describe, and it is first necessary to understand the principle of its action. This is the same as the trammel or elliptic compasses; see fig. 29. An octagonal or square board A A, B B, has two grooves cut in its surface, which intersect each other at right angles; this board is held down upon the surface where the ellipse is to be described, with the centre-lines of the cross grooves coincident with the two diameters of the intended ellipsis, and of course their intersection will be its centre. The curve D D is traced beyond the circumference of the board, by means of a pen or pencil, which is fixed at F, to a radical bar or beam F G H ; this bar carries two other points or pins, G and H, which are attached to sliders, inserted into the cross grooves of the board, as shown in the figure : the sliders are fitted in truly, so that each of them will have a motion in its respective grooves : thus the slider of the pin H will move along A A ; and the slider of G, along the groove B B. By turning about the beam F G H, the sliders go backwards and forwards in their cross grooves with a simultaneous motion ; so that when the beam has gone one-fourth way about, one of the sliders will have moved from the circumference of the board A B, to the common centre of the cross grooves; and when the beam has gone half round, the same slider will have proceeded the whole length of the cross, and arrived at the opposite side of the circum- ference. The same applies to the other slider, and when one slider is at the centre, the other will always be at the circumference. The pins F and G H can be fixed at any part of the beam at pleasure, (though this is not so represented in the drawing.) for the purpose of setting the trammel to draw any particular ellipsis ; thus, place the beam in the direction of the line A A, then the pin G will be in the centre of the cross grooves; now fix F at such a distance from the centre, as is equal te half the small diameter of the ellipse, and set H so far distant from G, as the difference of the two diameters; consequently, from F to H will be equal to half the longest diameter. Now, in turning the beam round from the direction A A, till it comes to the direction BB, the point G will depart from the centre along B B, and H will approach it along AA, till it gets to the centre. Then will the pencil F be so much farther from the centre, as G is dis- tant from H, and the pin has in its circuit traced one- fourth of an ellipse. . The beam being turned quite round, will complete the whole curve. This apparatus may be applied to turning by some modification. Suppose the two cross grooves made in a round board, as large again as that represented in the figure ; then, if the whole apparatus. be inverted, and the beam FG held fast in a vice, or otherwise, the board With the cross may be traversed round upon the fixed sliders, in the same manner as the beam could be tra- versed round upon the fixed board. Suppose a tracing point is held to the back of the board, exactly opposite to the place where the tracing point F is fixed to the beam, and held fast; it is evident that its point will trace the same ellipse on the back of the board, that was de- scribed on the surface which the board lay upon in the former instance : or a chisel being held fast in the same spot, will cut the board elliptical when it is turned round; and the chisel being successively applied at different points along the line of the beam, a series of concentric ellipses may be turned in the board, to make mouldings for picture-frames or other ornaments. If the distance of the two fixed pins G and H, and the chisel F, is al- tered, it will vary the proportion between the two diam- eters of the ellipses, in the same manner as before de- scribed of the trammel. The oval chuck is constructed in a different manner from this, though it preserves the same movements. It consists of three parts, the chuck, the slider, and the excentric circle. The chuck e ef (fig. 27.) is attach- ed to the mandrel by a screw-socket, cut in a piece f, which projects from the centre of it behind; and hence the shuck turns round with the mandrel with a circular motion. The chuck has a dove-tailed groove, formed in it at the front side, for the reception of a slider g h, (ſig. 26.) which traverses freely in the groove : the groove is formed, as the figure shows, by pieces i, i, screw ed to the chuck on each side. In the centre of the slider, in front, is a screw h; see also the plan, fig. 25. The screw h projects from the slider, and by means of it, a Wooden T U R N IN G. wooden chuck may be screwed against the slider, and any work can be fixed in the chuck in the usual man- ne. The work so fixed, at the same time that it turns round by the motion of the chuck, has a sliding motion across the centre, which motion being given according to a certain law, produces an elliptic motion. The sliding motion is given by the excentric circle -(J's. 28.); this is a ring of brass, attached fast to the puppet of the lathe, close to the collar, in which the neck of the mandrel runs. The mandrel passes through the aperture l ; the ring has a flat plate, m, to strengthen it, and forming two bends at the ends m, m, which bends have screws tapped through them, and pointing exactly to each other: these screws are sharp at the points, and are inserted into small holes in each side of the pup- pet, as is shown in the plan Jig, 25. at C, the back of the plate m of the circle lying flat against the front of the puppet C ; by this means the circle is fixed fast; the two screws are horizontal, and both point to the centre of the mandrel 5; therefore, by screwing one screw in, and the other out, the whole circle may be moved sideways horizontally, so as to give it any re- quired degree of excentricity from the centre line of the mandrel, and it will be held stationary wherever it is placed. Fig. 27. is a back view of the chuck, and shows two grooves made through it in the direction of the length of the slider; these admit the shanks of two pieces of steel n, n, to pass through the chuck, and they are firm- ly attached to the slider g, by a screw for each in front of the slider, as shown in Jig. 26. The two inside edges of the pieces n, n, are exactly parallel to each other, and the distance between them is exactly equal to the diameter of the outside of the ring 28, which ring is included between them, when the chuck is screw- ed to the mandrel b, and the circle fixed to the puppet C, as shown in fig. 25. Suppose then the circle is set concentric with the mandrel; if the mandrel is turned round, it will cause the chuck e, and slider g, together with the work at- tached to the slider by the screw h, to revolve. The work will now run in a circle, and turn circular work as usual, because the slider is guided by means of its claws m, n, which embrace the circle ; and will keep the same position in its groove in the chuck during all the parts of a revolution, because the circle is concen- tric with the mandrel. To set the chuck for an ellipsis, place the point of a tool opposite the work, at such a distance from the cen- tre of the work, that it will describe a circle of a diame- ter equal to the breadth or smallest diameter of the el- lipsis intended to be turned. This is best done by fix- ing the tool in the slide-rest. Now turn about the man- drel, till the slider g comes horizontal, and set the cir- cle 28 excentric from the mandrel by its screws ºn, ºn ; it will of course move the slider g in the groove of the chuck, and also the work will move with it to a greater distance from the centre, because the two steel pieces m, n, at the back of the slider include the circle between them. The quantity of excentricity given to the ring, must be equal to the difference between the two diame- ters of the required ellipsis, so that the work shall move, or throw out a sufficient distance, to bring the point of the tool as much beyond the circle first described, as the length of the ellipse exceeds the breadth. The point of the tool will now be at one end of the longest diame- ter, and here we will commence to trace the curve all. round. In turning the mandrel .round till the slider comes vertical, it must return in its groove to the place it first occupied, viz. the centre; because the excentric circle which guides the slider is not excentric in a ver- tical direction, though it is in the horizontal. In this motion, the point of the tool has cut or described one quadrant of an ellipse, because it gradually approached the centre a quantity equal to the excentricity of the circle. By continuing to turn the mandrel round far- ther, the circle will cause the slider to move out the other way from the centre in its groove until it comes again horizontal, when it will be at the greatest throw out, as the turners term excentricity, and the point of the tool will be at the other end of the longest diame- ter, having described one half the curve: continuing to move forwards till the slider becomes vertical, it will become concentric again, and the tool will be at the breadth of the ellipse, having finished three quarters of the ellipse; and in turning the next or fourth quarter, the slider throws out till it comes horizontal, and brings the work to the position where we first set out, viz. at its greatest excentricity; and with the tool at the end of the longest diameter of the ellipse. The simple trammel (fig. 29.) is not easily recognized in this complicated chuck, although it has all the same movements. Thus, let us return to our first idea of a board with two cross grooves in the back of it, turning round on two fixed pins, which enter the sliders in those grooves. Suppose that one of the pins is extended to a large ring, and the groove proportionably widened to receive it, this will have the same effect. Such a groove is formed by the two pieces of steel n, n, which have straight edges made truly parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the length of the slider which carries them. The other fixed pin is represented by the man- drel ; and the siider being always confined in a right line across it, has the same effect as a pin entering a straight groove. This ingenious apparatus was invented early in the last century by the celebrated mathematician Abraham Sharp. Before his time, oval-work was always turned in a rose-engine, which had an elliptical pattern. In turning oval work, the tools must be delicately used, because the circumference moves with an unequal velocity at different parts of its revolution. Method of ornamenting turned Articles by an Eaccem- tric Chuck.—This produces a similar effect to the rose- engine; but as a chuck of this description can be appli- ed to any lathe which has a mandrel and slide-rest, it has been reserved for the present article. º Figs. 18. and 19 are two views of an excentric chuck: a is a socket, which is screwed to the mandrel; and 5 6 the chuck, which is formed in the same piece with the socket a ; a dove-tailed groove is formed in the front of the chuck, by means of two pieces d, d, which are screw- ed to the chuck, and into this groove a slider, e e, is fitted : to this slider a centre pin is fixed very firmly, and upon the centre pin a circle, f, is fitted, so as to turn round freely; in the front of the circle a screw, g, pro- jects, for the purpose of fixing chucks to the circle. The slider is applied to the chuck, just the same as in the oval chuck, but it is not left at liberty to slide in the groove, for a screw, k, is applied, which will move the slider gradually in the groove, but always holds it fast where it is placed. By means of this screw, the centre piń T U R TU R pin of the circle, f, can be made either to coincide with the line of the mandrel, or it can be set with any re- quired degree of excentricity from the mandrel, as is shown in fig. 19, by the difference between the line of the screw g’, and that of the socket a. The circle is divided round the edge with notches or teeth, cut at equal distances; and a tooth or catch, h, is fitted on the slider by a centre screw, and has a tooth which can be inserted into any of the teeth at pleasure, and will hold the circle fast from turning round upon its own centre pin. In this case, any piece of work, which is fixed to the screw g, will turn round with the man- drel, just as though it was fixed immediately thereto, The manner of using this tool is as follows: when the excentric chuck is screwed to the mandrel at 2, the screw, k, is turned, until the screw, g, is brought ex- actly into the line of the mandrel. A wood chuck is now screwed on at g, and a piece of work fitted into it; which work is turned to its required figure, just as though the wood chuck was screwed to the mandrel it- self, without the interposition of the excentric chuck, which hitherto has been passive. The work being turn- ed, it can be beautifully ornamented on the flat surface, by tracing a number of circles upon it. To do this, turn the screw k, until the centre of the circle,f, is re- moved to a given distance from the line of the mandrel; snow apply a tool to the end or flat surface of the work, by means of the slide-rest, and turn the mandrel round, until the tool has cut a fine circular line in the surface of the work. Now it is evident that this circle will not be in the centre of the work, but removed from the cen- tre thereof a distance equal to the degree of excentricity given to the slider. Having thus described one cil cle, stop the lathe, and release the catch h; then turn the circle, f, round one tooth or notch. Put the lathe again in motion, and describe another circle by the point of the tool, held exactly in the same spot as before ; different part of the work to that circle which was be- fore made, although its centre will be at the same dis- tance (rom the cent, e of the piece of work. The lathe is stopped, and the cit cle, f, turned round another tooth: a third circle is then described ; and when as many circles are described as the whole number of teeth in the circle f the ornamenting is finished. It will consist of as ma y circles as there are divisions in the circle,f, all of an equal size, and their centres at rang- ed at equal distances, around the circumference of a small circle, which is concentric with the work. The whole produces a rosette or engraved figure upon the surface of the work, and the numerous intel “ections of the excentric circles have a very pleasurg off ct to the eye. This kind of work is seen on the cases of many watches; aſ:d when well executed, is muct, esteemed. Tºur NING Horizontal Hand-Mill, in Rural Economy, a useful contrivance of the hand corn mill kni,d. It was invented by Mr. Wright, and consists of a sort of tub or box; the flame of the mill-part of which is three feet square, and three and a half in height. The mill- stones are eighteen inches in diameter, and inclosed in the tub or box, supported by two cross-bear ers, under which is a level, having an ion pin or pivot, which runs through the centre of the bed stone into a socket in the bridge ºf the upper st. ne or unner, to which is attach- ed he shaft and spindle, runſ,ing trirough the eye of the runner and hopper, and supporting the fly-wheel and crank. A piece of wood of a round form, fastened q1. the shaft, serves as a feeder; and above is a screw to regulate the feed according as the mill is turned. On the side of the tub or box is a thumb-screw, fixed to the lever underneath, which regulates the stones, according as they are turned. The shaft runs through the crown. tree or cross-bar at the top of the frame, on which is the horizontal fly-wheel and crank; to which are attach- ed one or two handles, by means of which the mill is put in motion. Under the stones is a drawer; in which are placed three sieves of different finenesses; one for taking away the broad bran, another for the coarse pol- lard, and the third for stopping the fine pollard, and let- tiug the flour pass into the drawer, which is effected by a sort of iron fork running through a hole in front of the drawer, and fixing on one of the sieves. Small hand-mills of this nature are extremely conve- nient and useful in many cases. TURNING Palisades. See PALISADE. TURNING Evil, in Cattle, a disease that causes them frequently to turn round in the same place. It is also called the sturdy 5 which see. See TURN in the Head. The common remedy, recommended by Mr. Malk- ham, is to throw the beast down, and bind him; then to open his skull, and take out a little bladder, filled with water and blood, which usually lies near the membrane of the brain, and then gradually heal the wound. Boyle’s Works, abr. vol. i. p. 87. TURNING to Rot, in Agriculture, a term used in til- lage to signify stripping, ribbling, baulking, and comb- ing, according to the manner in which it is performed. It is the leaving of a narrow strip of ground whole, on which the furrow-sluice is turned. It is much used in Devonshire, Cornwall, and some other districts. TURNING to Windward, in Sea Language, denotes that operation in Sailing, in which a ship endeavours to but the circle so described will fall on a make a Progress against the direction of the wind, by a Seompound course, inclined to the place of her destia- tion. This method of navigation is otherwise called filying. See T ACKING. TURNIP, or TURNEP, in Agriculture, a most useful and nutritious bulb rootcd plant, of which there are many different sorts in cultivation by the farmer. It has been long known in this country, but Only more lately introduced as a field-crop, probably from Hol- land, or the Low Countries. It is from a more general introduction of this root into field husbandry. that much improvement and advantage have been produced, not only in the management of arable land, but in the gene- rai system of feeding and supporting different kinds of live-stock The culture of this root has, indeed, con- tributed much towards exploding the expensive and wasteful practice of naked fallowing, as well as to cleanse aid ameliorate the soil, and render it more abundantly productive. The turnip belºngs to the genus brassica, and is we'l known, by its having a round, or rather long, fleshy, eatabie root, that varies considerably in these respects, as well as size and colour, in different sorts, under the state of cultivation. The leaves proceeding from the top of the root in the middle part are large, and mostly of a full green colour, being ragged on the edges. The stem arises from the midst of these in the second season of the growth of the plant, to the height of four feet, or more, producing a yellow flower, with cylindrical pods of T U R N I P. of some length, filled with small purple, or reddish- brown coloured seeds. See BRASSICA. All the different sorts of this excellent plant are, for the most part, distinguished by the form or shape of the bulb or root, which appears in some measure to depend upon the diversity of soil, and the nature of the culture of the plant. But the sorts that have been had recourse to as field-crops, with the greatest success and benefit in different parts of the country, are principally of these two kinds; those having a round or flattish-formed root, that rests much on the surface of the land, and those in which the root is of the more long tap-rooted form, penetrating deeper into the mould with the lower part of the root, but standing higher above it with the upper portion of the bulb. In the first, or round flat-rooted sort, there is like- wise mauch variety in the appearances of the tops as well as the roots, though the latter are mostly a little round and flattish. They are commonly distinguished in field-culture into the red-round, or flurfile-toffled, the green-toffed, the white-tofiſhed, the yellow-rooted, the black or red-rooted, the hard or stone, and the Dutch turnip. In the latter, too, or long taſi-rooted sort, there is soine degree of variety in their roots. They are usual- ly known and discriminated by the farm-cultivator un- der the titles of the tankard, the taſi-rooted, the fivedding, the oblong, the long, round, and the hardy or Russian turnip. º ſt may be noticed, that the different varieties of the former of these kinds of turnips, in consequence of the roots of them being formed more on the ground close to the surface, than in those of the latter kind, which often stand high, naked, and much exposed in their up- per parts, above it, are better suited to the purposes of general field-culture, in cases where there is much risk of their being hurt by the effects of frosts in the more severe winter months; but that in other cases, as where they are to afford an early feed, as for suckling ewes, and in the fattening of forward sheep at an early period, the latter kind may be had recourse to as the most pro- per and beneficial. This is said to be the practice of some districts in the vicinity of the metropolis, where it is of importance to have forward lambs. In different districts where this root is largely culti- vated, different sorts of this plant are employed; and it is not improbable that some sorts may be more pro- per for some qualitics of land than others, though little has yet been done in the view of deciding this point. Nor is it reasonable to suppose, that among the varieties of this highly valuable plant, there may not be some which, in addition to their superior hardiness, possess a greater proportion of the nutrient principle than others. It has, indeed, been stated that, in a great northern turnip dis- trict, the green-topped and white-topped are general- ly esteemed as more sweet and nourishing than the red- topped sort, which possesses a degree of bitterness, and is disposed soon to become stringy and bad as food; that the white-topped sort, on the better kinds of land, is probably the most proper and beneficial, as while it has the property of being hardy, it grows to a large size ; and that this and one of the Stone or small hard sort, are the most commonly grown, and held in the greatest estimation in some of the best turnip districts still more towards the north. The latter of these sorts is, indeed, by some farmers in those districts, supposed to stand the severity of the winter season much better than vol. XXXVIII. most of the other sorts ; but then the produce on the acre is commonly much less. And by others in more southern districts, it is thought to bulb quicker, to have a greater solidity, a finer grain, a thinner skin, and to be smoother in the crown of the bulb ; consequently to be less liable to, injury from wetness and severe frost. And that, although it may not grow so quick, or to so large a size, the latter of these defects may be obviated by leaving the plants a little thicker on the ground at the time of thinning and setting them out. Indeed, both the white and green-topped sorts are also much grown and approved in all these districts, and by some highly extolled on account of the qualities just noticed, as well as their being of a large growth, and continuing longcr in a state fit for use, especially the latter. The yellow- rooted or straw-coloured turnip, too, is found to be a firm-fleshed and sweet-tasted nourishing sort, but it has not yet been much cultivated, so that its properties are but imperfectly known. The red sort, which was for- merly much esteemed, has now mostly given way to other sorts. And the black-rooted sort is very rarely cultivated in any district of the kingdom ; nor even those of the Dutch sort, though the early kind of them might answer well for forward crops. Much might probably be done in getting good sorts, by collecting seed from such as are the most hardy, and which grow to a large size, and sowing it in continuance. In some northern and other districts turnips arc grown much in mixture, which is a bad plan, as they have different growths, and of course rise unequally. And in the southern ones, the white globe prevails much, in some instances; and the green round sort is found to stand well, and be larger as well as more certain in the produce. P The turnip is a sort of crop which is grown after ma- ny other different kinds, as those of a wheat stubble, a pease lay, a tare, potatoe, or any other similar kind of crop; as well as after the process of paring and burning the layers of old grass-lands. It is the practice too, in some districts of this sort, to have two turnip crops in succession, as the means of cleaning the land more ef- fectually, which has been found to answer greatly in the barley or other crops that may be grown after them. The soils which are the most proper for the growth of this sort of crop, are all those of the more light, fria- ble, loamy, medium Sandy, and other kinds, which have a sufficient depth ; but it may often be raised with suc- cess and advantage on many other sorts, which have the surface mouldy parts sufficiently fine, without their being too much moisture below, as those of the thin gravelly, loose chalky, and many other sorts and quali- ties: even on the loamy clays, in some cases when pro- perly managed in their tillage preparations, and other ways. A late practical writer has well remarked, that from the success of the culture of this useful crop, on lands that differ greatly in their nature and qualities, it is plain that the plant admits of more latitude in respect to soil than many other sorts; though an opinion appears to have been too general among the cultivators of it, that it is only capable of being had recourse to with advan- tage, on such as are of a light, mellow, and open texture and quality. It is suggested too, that this has probably had considerable influence in preventing the culture of the turnip from becoming so general as, from its great utility and importance, it ought at present to have been. But though the turnip may be grown with success and S benefit T U R N I P. benefit on soils that vary considerably in their natural friabilities and compositions, it is constantly necessary, to the perfect growth of such crops, that at least the more superficial parts of the soil, or the beds of earth in which they grow, should be in as fine a reduced pow- dery condition as possible, as more is found to depend on this, than even on the nature or qualities of the soil. In the view of bringing land into a state of suitable preparation for this sort of crop, much breaking down and reduction of its parts, are, of course, requisite. This sort of breaking and pulverization is supposed to be ne- cessary and beneficial in many different ways, as by ren- dering the land more penetrable to the roots of the plants, by promoting the growth of the small weeds more fully on the surface, and thereby making them capable of being more perfectly radicated, and the young turnip plants, of course, be less endangered by them ; while, at the same time, a more fine and mellow bed of mouldy earth is provided for the reception of the turnip-secci, and its vegetation and growth rendered more quick and strong in consequence of the more equal diffusion of moisture that must take place among the parts of the soil. Without such a state of mould in the soil being produced, it is found to be in vain to expect good crops of this sort. In order to provide this state of prepara- tion in the soil, it is the practice in some of those dis- tricts where turnip husbandry is carried on in the most complete and successful Inanner, when the seed is to be put in on a fallow, to have recourse to three, four, and frequently five ploughings or stirrings of the land, hav- ing the cloddy parts of it well broken down, between the times, by harrowing in different directions, and the occa- sional use of the roller or other such means, as by these modes almost every particle of the soil becomes divided, and exposed completely to the influence and action of the atmosphere, and perfectly aerated and saturated with moisture. In these cases, some advise that the first op- eration should be performed towards the close of the year in a shallow manner, so as merely to take off the rough surface ; the land may then remain in this situa- tion until just before the beginning of the spring, when it should be well broken and reduced by harrowing, and then cross-ploughed to theºfull depth. When the land is weedy, it should be again broken down by the harrow in the course of a little time ; but when clean, it is bet- ter to remain in its rough state. In this condition it may then be left until the spring be a little advanced, when it should have another ploughing to the full depth, and where the season is dry, and the soil of the more heavy or stiff kind, be immediately after harrowed, but where it is light, this may be deferred for a week or two. By repeating these operations sufficiently, the soii is mostly soon brought into a fine clean state of preparation for the crop. Others, however, think the first ploughing should be deep, and the after ones and harrowings be continued to a later period, but at the same time, suggest that they must, in general, be much regulated by the nature of the soil, the circumstances of the season, and the convenience of the cultivator. In preparing fallows, as well as other lands for turnip crops, some, in different places, besides these means, make great use of scarifiers and scufflers, and find them particularly beneficial in foul states of them. Where the seed of this sort of crop is, however, to be put in after corn, early pease, tares, or other such crops, the preparation of the land is seldom carried to such an extent of ploughings and other operations. Much fewer are commonly thought sufficient for the purpose, as tWO, or three at most. In preparing for this crop, after the surfaces of coarse pasture or other grass-lands that have been long in that state, old saintfoin lays, or downs, have been taken off and reduced by means of paring and burning them, the practice is to have recourse to once ploughing over the lands in a light manner, the ashes having been previous- ly spread out equally on the surface. In this way the most advantage is afforded to the turnip crops, and they have been well produced by it. There are some other local practices of preparing for turnip crops, but they need not be noticed in this place, as being only of little use in certain cases. In the application of manure in the preparing of land for this crop, in the first of these ways, and where it is of the calcareous kind, such as lime, marle, or other similar sorts, it may be the best mode to make use of it after the second or third ploughing, especially in the for- mer of these kinds, in the proportion of from one and a half to about three chaldrons, or thirty-two bushels; and in that of the latter, from eight to ten or fifteen ordinary cart-loads to the acre, as the circumstances and nature of the land may be ; as in this manner such matters may become the most perfectly blended and incorporated with the mould of the soil. Each of these sorts of substances has been found highly useful, in this way, in several dif- ferent districts of the kingdom. It is, however, clear, from the success of different cultivators of this, sort of crop, that substances of the dung-kind, where they can be fully supplied, and used in the preparation of the land, or other ways, are the most suited to the growth of the root. And that for such soils as possess a proper degree of lightness, and are in a fine meliow state of mould, those which are in the more reduced, or rotten short condition, may be the most suitable, as they are capable of being the most in- timately mixed and incorporated with them ; but that where they are more close and heavy, the longer and less reduced kinds may be more proper and beneficial, as they will not only tend to preserve these soils in a more open and loose state, but by their more gradual de- cay in them, render the earth more friable and mellow. Some, however, think them best applied in the medium state between these extremes. This sort of manure, when used in preparing land in this intention, should vary, in some measure, not only as the nature of the soil may be, but according to the Inanner in which the crop may be cultivated : in general, however, it should be put into the soil as nearly as possible to the period at which the seed is sown ; as, in this case, in consequence of the new fermentation that necessarily takes place in the soil, the crop receives the most benefit from it. When, therefore, the crop is to be put in, in the broad-cast man- ner, the dung may be spread out equally over the land, and be turned in with the seed furrow ; though some advise it to be lightly turned in by the ploughing that precedes the seed-earth, and to be well intermixed with the mould of the soil, by harrowing immediately before that earth be given. The former would appear, how- ever, to be the better practice, especially when the ma- nure is in a sufficiently reduced state, as the plants will have the more full advantage of it. The quantity must necessarily depend in a great measure upon the different circumstances of the soil, and the richness of the dungy material ; but less than from ten to twelve good three- horse T U R N I P. horse cart-loads can seldom be made use of with advan- tage on the acre. Where earthy and other matters, in mixture with dung, are had recourse to in this way, after being well prepared, as is sometimes the case, the proportion should mostly be considerably larger. f In cases where the crops are put in, in the ridge or drill manner, as the manure is wholly confined to the middle parts of the ridged-up earth, and does not occupy all the superficial portions of the land, a somewhat less quantity of it may answer the purpose; though a full and rather liberal allowance should always be made, as the safety and success of the crops depend much upon the rapidity and strength with which the young plants are at first pushed forward by such means. In whatever way this sort of manure is made use of in this preparation, it should constantly be applied in an even manner, and be turned into the soil as soon as pos- sible afterwards; as where this is not the case, great loss must often be sustained by the dissipation of the more liquid parts of it. There are many different practices, in the preparation and application of this kind of manure, recurred to in different districts, in using it for the purpose of raising turnip crops, as may be seen by consulting the Correct- ed Agricultural Report of the County of Norfolk; and different kinds of it are sometimes preferred by cultiva- tors, as that from fattening beasts, hogs, and the sheep- fold. But good clean dung of any sort is capable of answering the purpose. * The dungs of rabbits, poultry, and pigeons are occa- sionally used with success in the raising of crops of this sort, after being rendered dry, and dispersed over the surface of the land in an equal manner. They are most- ly used for this purpose in the quantities of from about twenty to thirty bushels to the acre, just before the time of sowing the seed. And as they require to be put into the soil to only a slight depth, harrowing may, in many cases, be sufficient for the purpose, or a very light and shallow ploughing. Rape-cake has long been employed as a manure in some districts, in preparing for turnips, as that of Norfolk, by having it sown over the land in a coarsely reduced state, five or six weeks before the time at which the seed is to be put into the soil, in the quan- tity of about a ton to three or four acres, and leaving it so, or turning it in very lightly at the period of sowing. But it is considered a great improvement by some, and practised to much extent by Mr. Coke, of the above district, to have it ground by proper mills into a perfect state of powder; and applied at the same time with the seed over it, in the drills or small openings in the land made for the purpose. It is effected by a contrivance of the drill kind, that contains alternate divisions with small and large cups for delivering the seed as well as the cake into the same drills. The stream of powdered cake is thus rendered constant and regular, the proper Cups and funnels being capable of ready application. In this way, it is not necessary to have the cake applied before hand, and a ton is sufficient for six acres, by which there is a considerable saving in labour as well as the inaterial. It is said to answer perfectly in the practice, though some dislike it. Different other sorts of manures that can be reduced into a powdery state may likewise be employed in this manner, in the growth of this crop, with great economy and ad- vantage in many cases. Malt-dust or combs too, might be made use of in the same way with advantage, though it is commonly applied over the surface in the pro- portion of about twenty sacks, of three bushels each to the acre. & Sheep-folding, in some districts, is used as a means of providing manure for the growth of turnips, from the time of first ploughing up the land, to that at which the seed-earth is given. From the treading and consolida- ting of the soil so much in these cases, it may however be best only to fold during dry weather, and always to plough over the land in a light manner as soon after the sheep are removed as possible. The quantity of seed which is necessary must be diſ- ferent in different cases, as a great deal must constantly depend on the nature and quality of the soil, the period of sowing, and the manner and circumstances under which it is put into the ground. In some good soiled districts in the southern parts of the country, where the turnip culture in the broad-cast method is carried on to a considerable extent, the quantity made use of is com- imonly from about one pound to one pound and a half; but on those of a more light, and those of the sandy kinds, a pound is mostly found quite sufficient; while on some more heavy turnip soils, nearly two pounds are employed. On the calcareous and loose chalky soils too, a large quantity of seed is mostly necessary. It is, indeed, in common, a good practice in sowing for turnips, not to be too sparing of seed, as the unnecessary plants are readily capable of being removed by the first hoeings and thinnings of the crops. - In the culture of the crops in the ridge or drill method, as is commonly practised in some northern districts, in consequence of the seed being deposited in a more regu- lar and exact manner, and the whole of the land not being occupied by plants, a somewhat less quantity of seed may be sufficient. §: As the success in the growth of turnip crops has been found to depend greatly on the quick early sprouting of the seed, and the young plants being expeditiously pushed into broad leaf, it may be useful to have the seed steeped a little in water, or some other liquid, before it is put into the ground, especially in dry seasons; but it must become externally dry bcfore it be sown in all Că SCS. Soaking the seed in strong-scented oils, and drying it by means of brimstone, have likewise been practised in the view of preventing the destruction of the crops, but probably with but little success. The time which is most proper for sowing crops of this sort, must be principally regulated by the intentions of the farmer in respect to the disposal and use of them; but for the general more early consumption of them, the most proper season for putting them in may be about the beginning of the month of June ; but where it is intended that the crops should serve as food for stock in the more early spring months, or at late periods, the sowing should take place proportionably sooner or later. Indeed, where the root is grown on a large scale, it may often be of great utility and advantage, as well as very convenient, to have the times of sowing still more con- siderably varied; as the crops by such means not only come more suitably in succession to the hoe, but are likewise ready for the purpose of consumption by dif- ferent sorts of live-stock, at the different periods when they may be most wanted. In cases where the practice of lamb-suckling is had recourse to for getting tº ready soon, it is essential to have crops of turnips as early as possible, in which in- S 2 tention ^\ T U R N I P. tention the seed is to be put into the soil often a month sooner than the above period; such land being set aside for the purpose as is well enriched with manure, in a fine state of tilth, and perfectly free from weeds. In common, however, early sown crops of turnips are not only less sweet and nutritious for stock, but more exposed to injury from mildew and other causes of the same kind, than those which are sown later in the season: L. i though this may be the case, the so wings in no cir- cuxnstances should be deferred so long as that the plants cannot have time to fix themselves fully in the soil, and cover it well before their growth is checked and restrain- ed by the coldness of the approaching autumn and win- ter seasons, as in such cases the crops never answer well for the farmer. - - In regard to the methods of sowing or putting this sort of crop into the ground, they vary in different dis- tricts, but are chiefly of two different kinds, the broad- cast, and the ridge or drill. In the great turnip district of Norfolk, and most of the southern parts of the coun- try, it is the most prevailing practice to sow this sort of crop in the broad-cast manner on the level-surface : while in the large turnip districts of Northumberland and Derwickshire, where this kind of husbandry has under- gone considerable improvement, and in most of the more northern parts of the island, it is more common to have recourse to the drill mode, depositing the seed in rows, either in hollows or ridges mostly raised by one bout of the plough, or in drills on the level surface ; at the dis- tances of from twenty-four to thirty inches in the former case, as the circumstances of the land and the intentions of the cultivator may be, and from ten to twelve or thir- teen inches in the latter. These different general methods may each of them probably be had recourse to with propriety, success, and benefit, under different circumstances and qualities of the soil. As on the light, mellow earthy, deep sandy, gravelly, and other similar sorts of land, which are apt to part with their moisture too quickly, and consequent- ly liable to become too dry and parched for the healthy perfect growth of the turnip, it may be the best and most successful practice to sow in the broad-cast or drill mode on the plain or level surface, as by such means, the moisture which is necessary for the crop, may be more effectually preserved in the land for the supply of the plants. And on the contrary, where the lands are of a somewhat more heavy quality, and not so much dis- posed to part with their moisture, but to retain it in a sort of stagnant state, the ridged-up drill method may be the most suitable and advantageous, as by the mel- lowness and fineness of mould which it affords, and its tendency to keep it dry and preserve the plants from being hurt by the retention of too much wetness about their roots, the growth and security of the crops will be much promoted. It has a superiority too in some cases in other ways ; as on soils which are rather thin in the staple, this plant, in consequence of its long tap-root standing in need of a good depth of mould, can seldom be grown in a perfect or beneficial manner, by ridging up the land considerable advantage may be gained in providing a more suitable depth of cultivated soil for the plants to grow in, and a better bed for putting in the seed, as the operation has been found to more than dou- ble the common depth of mould in some such cases. The plants in this way grow more strongly, and besides, by the manure being confined to the ridges on which they grow, are less exposed to the atmosphere, and not demanded in so large a quantity, in consequence of which more land may be employed in raising this sort of crop; while by its concentration, and the seed being placed more immediately upon it, the nourishment, and means of support to the plants may be more fully and effectual- ly supplied, and a larger produce, of course, be afforded. This mode of sowing may be beneficial too in afford- ing the means of more easily and readily getting up the crops, as food for stock in particularly severe seasons, when eaten off very early in the winter months. It is of importance also in several other circumstances as the hoeing, working, and cleaning of the land between the rows of the plants can be easier, better, and more per- fectly executed, less expert persons can be employed in much of the work, and from the earth or mould being laid up to the plants by the use of the plough or some tool of that kind, the reots of the crops are better pro- tected and preserved from the effects of severe frosts and other causes of injury. They can be raised in this way likewise on land that has been less prepared and is less dry, as the tops of the ridges are preserved by it in a proper state, and the crops are mostly more abundant in this manner of sowing. - Different objections have, however, been made by some to the ridged or raised drill method of putting in the seed; but the principal of those that appear to have any sort of weight or importance are, that in conse- quence of the roots of the crops, in such cases, being more elevated or standing higher, they are, on account of being so much exposed, less capable of standing the severity of the winter season; and that larger spaces or distances are allowed than are necessary for the roots to attain a proper size in, consequently that the quantity of produce on the acre will not be so great. Notwithstanding the latter supposition, it is probable, however, that from the nourishment or food of the plants being so greatly in- creased, and the growth of the crops thereby rendered so much more healthy and strong, the amount of the produce must be increased rather than diminished. Dif- ferent statements and calculations would indeed seem. to show this to be the case, and that even a greater weight of turnip is raised on wide intervalled ridges than those that are narrow within certain limits. It has been contended too, in opposition to the raised mode of sowing, that there is difficulty in restoring the land to the level state again, and that the ground in the intervals becomes unproductive in consequence of the want of manure; but by forming the ridges in a suita- ble and proper manner, according as the nature of the soil may be, all these inconveniences may readily be removed. In this intention, it has been advised to form the ridges in diagonal and other directions over the fields, keeping the lands dry. It is further objected to the raised practice of sowing, that in lands of the more heavy turnip kinds, which have little irregularity of surface for taking away moisture when in excess, though larger crops of this root may often be produced, the grounds are so much injured by being poached in getting them off, that the crops of grain or other kinds which succeed them, are lessened in a far larger proportion, than is compensated by the greater value of the turnips. In such cases and circumstances, it is advised, as more beneficial, to form the land into large ridges, so convex as to throw the wetness quickly into the furrows, as about fifteen feet in width, that a cart may be easily passed along them without pressing the earth in and obstructing the furrows on the sides, the T U R N I P. the seed, where the land is disposed to throw up weeds of the annual kind, being sown in the drill manner on the surfaces without being raised, as by that means the work of hoeing may be rendered more easy and convenient : but where this is not the case, and where the seed is put in at a late period, or the land much infested with the grub, it may be preferable to have recourse to the broad- cast mode of sowing, as being more certain, from the plants being left so much closer to each other at the first hoeings, as to admit of thinuing out and removing the bad and unhealthy ones in the succeeding operations of the same sort. Besides, they are supposed to have the advantage of growing more strongly, from the shel- ter being more complete, and from the ground being less stirred about them in their early growth, before their tap-roots are sufficiently fixed in the soil to support them perfectly. It would, however, appear from the success which has attended the sowing and raising this sort of crop in the ridged-up or other drill mode in different districts, and from the greater facility and cheapness of performing the necessary after-culture, that it is, in many instances, the most beneficial manner of sowing ; but that the na- ture of the ridges or drills, and the distance of the rows, must often require to be varied according to the quality of the soil, and many other circumstances. See a paper in the second volume of “Communications to the Board of Agriculture,” for the comparative benefits of the drill and broad-cast methods of sowing, as ascertained by experiment. In explaining the practices which are mostly made use of in putting in turnip crops in the above two dif- ferent methods, it may be observed, that where the for- mer or broad-cast manner of sowing is in use, which may be proper and advantageous in some cases, as has been just shown, it is of much consequence to their suc- cess, that the more superficial parts of the land be brought into as mouldy and fine even condition as pos- sible previously to the putting in of the seed, and that in sowing, the seed be dispersed over the surface of it in as perfectly even and exact a manner as may be, as Soon as it can be done after the ground has been made ready, as upon these circumstances being well attended to, the goodness and abundance of the crops in a great measure depend. An expert seedsman is required for performing this sort of work, but as it can seldom be done by the hand in a suitable manner by persons who have not been long in the habit of putting in small sects in this way, a sort of box or trough has been invented and constructed for the purpose, which is in frequent use ; and when proper care is taken to prevent the per- forations of it from becoming obstructed by two or more seeds being fastened in them, it is of great utility in dispersing the seed in a uniform and regular manner over the surface of the land. After this has been properiy effected, the seed is mostly covered in, in a shallow manner, by means of harrowing, a light short- tined harrow being uscd for the purpose, as from the turnip plant forming its bulb in some measure above the surface of the ground, it should not probably be put in to too great a depth in the soil. Some advise the passing of the tool twice over the land only in the same direction, in the first going slowly, and in the latter more quickly, in order to give a neater finish and finer surface ; the ridges having been laid out to the breadths of from four to ten yards, as the land may be inclined to be more moist or dry. This is the Norfolk practice in some measure, and found to be extremely beneficial in many cases of broad-cast sowing for this crop. In the drill method of sowing turnips, the land, after being prepared in the mander already described, is either formed into little ridges by the plough, and the seed put in, in drills upon them, or these are struck in the level surface, as noticed above; but the first is by far the most common. In the great turnip-drilled district of Berwickshire, the little ridges or drills, in cases where the ground is not well reduced, but remains in rather a rough and cloddy state, are, it is said, formed with the common swing plough, drawn by two horses, which lays together three or four small rinds or furrow-slices for one such ridge or drill. But that the most common and expeditious method of laying up these ridges or drills is by a double mould-boarded plough, which has the boards hung on the sheath with hinges, and which can be set wider or narrower, as may be necessary. This too is drawn by two horses abreast, and forms two sides of the little ridges or drills at the same time; the width of such ridges or drills being commonly, as has been seen, from twenty-seven to thirty inches. In cases where the large ridges or lands are not much rounded, the little ridges or drills for sowing on are not laid in ex- actly the course of them, which is mostly parall cl to one or other of the sides of the fields, but are angled a little, for the purpose of having the manure better mixed with the soil, when it comes to be ploughed up into ordinary sized ridges or lands for other crops, after the turnips have been eaten or taken off the ground, as already suggested. .* But in another district, where this mode of sowing turnips is largely practised, in the extensive cultivation of the root by some, the manner of performing the work is, after the land has been prepared and made very fine, as directed above, for the ploughman to set up three sticks or poles in a right line where it is thought most proper to begin, and by having the horses yoked double, and driven by himself with cords, these poles are seen between the horses, and by keeping the plough to bear always upon the poles, the first furrow is drawn as straight as possible. In returning, the far-side horse is kept in the new-made furrow, and the plough at such a distance as to form a one-bout ridge or drill in a com- plete manner, which has somewhat this appearance A : by proceeding in this manner over the whole, the land, when finished, displays the forms of alternatc littie e º º A. * e rt ridges and furrows in this way AAA. ; the distances of which are mostly as stated above, as smaller ones do not admit of ploughing between the little ridgcs or drills. However, in the practice of the former of these districts, the land when ridged up or formed into narrow raised divisions, the ridges have a less sharp form : thus -/\Z^^. In the latter of these districts, or tº at of Northum- berland, the next processes are those of applying and turning in the dung or other manure into the little ridges or drills, which is effected in this way: a cart goes down every third interval between the small ridges or drills, and lays such matters in small heaps in it; when labourers, as women and children, are ready, and with small three-pronged forks placc them out evenly in the bottoms of the three furrows of the ridges or drills ; that T U R N I P. that is, in the one where the matters are dropped, and in those on each side of it. This being done, the plough- man splits the one-bout ridges, and covers up the ma- nure exactly in the middles of new-formed ridges of the same sort: but before the sowing can take place, the tops of the ridges require to be flattened, which is done by means of a small roller, four feet eight inches in length, and nine inches in diameter, which flattens two ridges at once. On the tops, and cxactly in the middles of these flattened ridges, the seed is deposited in small openings, made by one or more drill-sowing implements tied to the roller by a rope of six or seven feet in length, at which distance the roller is followed,. the sowing-drill or tools being guided by a man, the work S. S’ S’ - * * * * tº S. when finished appearing in this form & Voſ, V2ſ, Yº! ” the letter s showing the place of the seed, and d that of the substance used as manure. The ridging-up the land, and covering in the manure, are done in the same way as in the first district, by ploughs of the same kind. And in the mode of this district, or Berwickshire, the work of manuring and covering it in go hand in hand, and succeed each other as fast as possible ; the matters thus used being laid in heaps in the furrows of the different ridges or drills, from the third to the sixth, at the distance of from eight to ten feet, and immediate- ly put carefully in along the furrows of them, when, a few being completed from end to end, the double mould- boarded plough is used, as before, to split the ridges or raised drills, and cover in the manure, which it does at one bout, leaving the ridge-tops immediately above the manure put in, rather high. These are sometimes here, in some cases and circumstances, a little levelled down before sowing, in a sort of sharp convex mainer, by a light harrow run once or twice over them. But the most usual mode of flattening them is by the light wooden roller, as above, to which the drill or sowing- plough is attached, in the manner already seen. Some- times, however, instead of the roller, a kind of sled, made of wood or iron, is had recourse to in some places, for flattening the tops of one or more bout-ridges; but the light rolling mode is much the neatest, most conve- nient, and ready manner of executing the work. There are different other modes and practices of per- forming the business of putting in the seed, in the ridged-up and drill manners made use of in different places; but as they are not common, or of much prac- tical importance, they need not be mentioned here. In putting in the seed of turnip crops in this way, a great number of different kinds of drill-sowing imple- ments and contrivances are made use of ; but those wrought by horses, and which are so formed and at- tached in their different parts, as to perform all or most of the several operations of the process at the same time, are, in general, the most proper and convenient for the purpose. Vº hatever contrivance of this nature is, however, employed, it is constantly necessary to take care that the seed be regularly delivered and put into the soil; as from the smallness of the perforations in the revolving cylinders of most of them, the seeds are liable to be obstructed in passing, and the regularity of the delivery and sowing thereby prevented. * Every district has mostly its favourite drill-sowing implement for this purpose. In the first of the above, they, for the most part, make use of a tool of this sort for sowing turnips, which has a cylinder or small barrel of white iron or copper, and that is mounted on an axle with two wheels. The barrel is perforated with holes at equal distances, and as it turns round with the wheels, the seed falls equaily out, and exactly in a straight line. This cylinder and wheels are fixed to a light frame- work, which has two stilts, and is kept on the top of the ridge or drill by them, by a man or boy, who walks be- hind, as in managing a common plough. Before the cylinder there is fastened to the frame-work a sort of coulter, which makes a kind of small rut-like opening for the seed, and behind is fixed a rake with two or three teeth, which mixes the seed that is dropped with the mould of the soil, and covers it; and as the horse and implement return by the next furrow or interval to the right or left, the opposite end of the roller rolls the ridge sown, and compresses or flattens the top of that on which the sowing implement follows. When it is necessary to do much work at a time, two sowing tools are had recourse to, which follow the same roller, and sow two ridges at once, and the seed is rolled in by a second roller. An improved tool of this kind has been invented, which flattens two ridges or drills, forms the little ruts or openings on their tops, puts in the seed, and covers it in all at the same time, by which much saving in tools and labour is made. It is a very complete implement for sowing in the raised drill or ridge method. It is made and much used in Berwickshire. Sometimes the roller used for the seed in these cases is a kind of low broad wheel, which is attached to the Sowing tool, and rolls only on the track or rut where the seed is put in, which may answer where the work is on a small scale. On fine land, fully prepared with reduced dungy matter, and on which it is considered unnecessary to horse-hoe, a sowing implement of this sort is sometimes used, which is attached to the common swing-plough ; and one tool following the other, the seed is sown in rows, at a regulated distance and depth. This tool and mode of sowing answer well in such cases, and are much employed in some parts of Yorkshire. In cases where powdery substances of the rape-cake, or other such kinds, are to be put in as manure with the turnip-seed, in this way, a so wing implement of this sort has lately been contrived aid had recourse to in some of the southern turnip districts, with much utility and benefit. It sows the seed and dust in regular lines and quantities, on two ridges at the same time, the horse passif g in the furrow or interval between them. This is effected by having proper cups and funnels for depositing the cake in addition to the other parts, as seen above. It is a very complete and useful tool for the purpose. * Where, however, the seed is to be sown in the drill manner on the level surface, without its being raised in ridges, as is the practice in some districts, especially when formed at narrow distances, as not more than twelve or thirteen inches apart, the larger contrivances of this sort, which sow a number of rows or drills at the same time, may be the most proper and advanta- geous, as being more quick in performing the work. There are many other implements of the same kind, which are useful, and suited to different cases of sowing in this way. See TURN1 P-Drill. In whatever manner turnip-seed is put into the ground, experience has shown that it is of much conse- quence to have it done in such a way, and under such circumstances, T U R N J. P. circumstances, as that the germination and early growth of it may be in as ready a manner as possible, as upon this a great deal in the goodness of the crops depends, as has been already seen. It has been supposed by some that the seed, in order to secure these effects in the most certain manner, should be put into the soil to the depth of three or more inches; and that the supe- riority of the drill method of sowing partly arises from the seed being placed to a greater depth, and growing more rapidly, on account of having more moisture, so as to have the plants become Sooner out of danger from insects, or other such causes of destruction; while others think, from these circumstances, that it should be covered in only in a light manner. A late able practical writer, however, suggests, that as air is necessary as well as moisture to the vegetation of seeds when placed in the ground, it would seem probable that the quick sprouting and growth of such crops may be the best and most effectually secured, by only putting them in to a middling depth, and according as the particular nature of the land, and state of the season may be, as from an inch and a half to about two inches, as the soil or season may be inclined to be wet or the contrary. In this way, it is believed, the incon- veniences arising from the seed being too much parch- ed and dried by its being exposed near the surface, and from the want of the action of the air on account of its too great depth, may be equally avoided. As crops of this sort are, for the most part, put into the earth during the hotter umonths, there is another circumstance that may be of equal consequence, it is supposed, in pro- moting the quick shooting and growth of the young plants; which is, that the seed, especially in such hot seasons, be well imbued with moisture by soaking it, and consequently with the oxygene principle of the air, as already suggested, before it is committed to the ground; as by such means, there will be less required to be drawn from the mould of the soil which surrounds the seed, and the process of vegetation almost immedi- ately takes place. Sir George Staunton, in his account of the “ Embassy to China,” as well as Mr. Gillet, in the “Bath Papers,” have likewise ascribed the preser- vation of turnip crops in that country as well as this chiefly to this practice; and by it good crops of this sort may often be produced, where they would other- wise almost wholly fail. And the correctness of the practice and principles on which it depends, is further supported by the success of the general custom of put- ting in these crops on the moist, new or fresh turned up mould. Some interesting and useful observations and experiments on the shooting and growth of turnip-sectl, may be seen in a pamphlet “On the Failure of Turnip- Crops,” by the Rev. H. B. Stacey, but which we have not room to introduce here. .After-culture of the Croft.—It is of much conse- quence in the production of good crops of this sort, to have this part of the culture of them well performed, and at such times as are most suited for promoting the growth of the young plants, as well as preventing those of the weed kind from rising and injurii,g them by the shade and obstruction which they produce ; as without considerable attention in these respects, the labour and expense employed in preparing the land, and putting in the crops, must, in a great measure, be thrown away, from the want of a sufficiently adequate return being afforded. This culture is constantly to be accomplish- ed by means of the hoe, in some way or other. Where the crop has been put into the soil in the broad-cast manner, the hand-hoe only can be made use of for the purpose ; but where the seed has been sown in rows. by the drill, or in other ways, and a sufficient space of interval allowed, those of the horse kind may be employ- ed, cither alone, or in addition, after the plants have been properly set out in the hand manner, to suitable distances. - It is the common practice, when the plants have pro- duced four or five leaves, or when they cover a circle of three or four inches in diameter, which mostly hap- pens, in favourable seasons, in the course of ai)out a month or six weeks from the time of the seed being put in, to begin the different operations in this sort of work. In the first of which, such plants as stand too close are to be struck out, to leave the others at a suitable dis- tance, according as the circumstances of the season, the nature of the soil, the period of sowing, and the use to which the crop is to be applied, may be. When the season is hot and dry, the striking out of the plants in the first hoeings should not, however, be such as to leave them at too great a distance ; as by keeping the remaining plants pretty close together, the moisture may be better preserved in the land, and the crop ren- dered more secure ; but in rich soils, when early sown, and when intended to be consumed by stock at an early period, a greater striking out of plants at first may be advantageous. In the practice of some, the most usual custom is to leave the plants in the first hoeings at the distance of from six to eight inches from each other, but others prefer a still greater distance. In the second hoeing, which should be performed in the course of about a fortnight, or three weeks, from the first, accord- ing as there may be a necessity, the plants that are to remain for a crop may be left at the distances of from eight or nine to twelve or more inches in the broad-cast practice, and at those of from nine or ten to fifteen, or a greater number, in the rows where the drill method is employed. In these second hoeings, the mould between the plants should always be well stirred, in order that it may be rendered perfectly mellow and well aerated, and any weeds that may have risen be effectually destroyed. The future hocings that may be necessary in crops of this sort are to be regulated by the particular circum- Stances of the cases; but the mould should never be allow cd to become too stiff and cofmpact about the roots of the plants, or any weeds be suffered to interfere with them. It is the practice in Some places, especially with the broad-cast crops, to pass a light harrow over the iand once in a place, as soon as the plants are sufficiently strong, in order to render the first noeing more effectu- al; and even in particular cases, where they push for- ward rapidiy, it is made use of a second time in the contrary direction. In performing the work, however, great care is necessary, particularly when the plants are thin upon the ground, as otherwise too many of then may be dragged up, and the crop be much injured from the want of a sufficient plant. In the ridged crops in the latter of the above drilled turnip districts, it is the practice, when the plants have got four leaves, to begin to hoe, leaving the plants at only eight or nine inches distance in the rows; and as they have so much room sideways, or from row to row, the hoers go in that nighner and pull out the surplus piants, weeds, and other matters into the furrow or hol- low space between ridge and ridge, and the turnip plants are left as regular as if they had been planted º Wlth. TUI RNIP. - with the greatest care and exactness, the work being Performed by women and children at but a trifling ex- pense. After this, wheti the plants left have perfectly recovered and established themselves again in the soil, as is mostly the case in about eight or ten days, the earth is taken from the rows where the turnip plants stand; by a light plough contrived for the purpose, and turned upon the pulled and struck-out plants and weeds left by the hand-hoers, in the ſurrows or intervals of the ridges. And when they have once more recovered themselves from this part of the work, and are become again in a vigorous state, or when other circumstances render it necessary; the mould, which was in the former process turned from the turnip rows, is now divided and laid up equally to the different rows by the same tool, or a similar one with a double mould-board. By these means, where the land is clean and free from weeds, the work is completed; but when the contrary is the case, additional hoeings and ploughings are given, according as the state and other circumstances of the land may be. But in the former of these districts, where the horse as well as the hand methods are had recourse to, they proceed in a different manner. In the former or horse mode, when the turnip plants are from one to three or four inches high, or when weeds begin to appear, a small light common plough of the swing kind, drawn by one horse, goes along one side of the ridge or drill, and turns off the earth from the young plants, and returns on the other side, doing the same, leaving the plants standing on sharp ridges. But sometimes, instead of this plough, the work of turning the earth off from the different sides of the plants on the ridges is done by a tool of the same nature, mounted with two sharp coulters, which cut or pare from both sides at once, and which on smooth fine land performs the work equally well and much more expeditiously. . It is indeed an excellent tool for the purpose, when properly formed and made use of in the In the latter or hand method of hoeing, which is had recºurse to two or three days after the earth is turned off from the plants, the hoers go to work, making use of a hoe of from five to eight inches in breadth, and at one stroke across the ridge, cut out the weeds and un- necessary turnip plants, and leave the crops sufficiently thinned and set out. “ . . . When the crop has been horse and hand hoed in this manner, the field is left in that state for ten or fifteen days, and if weeds grow fast, the same work is repeated. In ordinary circumstances, the whole work of horse and hand hoeing only costs about 7s. the acre. - The turnips are now to be furroweſ, or earthéd up, which is done after they have been clean hoed, and are beginning to bottle, by having the earth lying between the rows, which was turned off as above, from both sides of the plants, again laid up to them by means of a , double mould-boarded plough with one horse. The whole work is now finished, except only removing any weeds that may afterwards arise. - . . . . * : . It has been suggested by a large cultivator of this sort of crop, that these advantages, may be equally well, at- tained, and withºptºsuccess and less danger and incon- venience, by 'm ever tool may be employed for, the purpose, it will al- ways be of great utility to have the earth and mould well black Caterpillar. drought has not so much impression on their growth; and the land has more benefit from the atmosphere by being stirred at different times, thāfi when the mould is directly thrown into its first bed, as if the common manner. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... In this mode of proceeding, the work is reversed at times in an alternate manner, and continued as long as a passage is allowed to the plough by the stems of the tur- nips; and they are never set up at all. ... . . . . ~ * Much advantage in the hoeing of turnip crops may often be gained by having the seed put in at different times, as by this means six labourers have been found ca- pable of performing the work twice over more than one - *, *.*. *...* º s sº. * Sº . ~ : ** hundred acres, while in the contrary circumstances, a 'k See HoFING. - - . . . . . .* In the hoeing culture of turnips, many different tools of different sorts are in use ; but in the horse method, the work can be well and correctly performed by any light small plough. In this work, some use one which is much larger number is always necessary for the purpose. about five-inches in width at the bottom behind, and elev- en at the top, which answers well for working the inter- vals of the drills or ridges. But in setting or earthing up the rows, one of the double mould-boarded sort is probably better, as being more expeditious and conve- nient. Improved tools of this sort have been contrived, with coulters that are moveable, for cleaning these crops, which by their capability of being re dily set to different distances; so as to suit the different widths of the rows, not only perform the work of paring off, and removing the earth from the different sides of rows at one opera. tion, but which, by having their earth-boards, so attach- ed, as to be set differently as to width; effect the work of moulding up the plaſits. In managing the business by this tool, there is evidently not only an advantage in double the quantity of work being performed, but in the different operations and processes of it being effected in a more correct manner, such as those of stirring the mould in the intervals of the ridges or drills, and the application of it to the stems of the young plants on or in them. For these purposes, the tool of this sort, which has lately been invented by Mr. Waistall, may also be found very useful in different cases. See TURNIP. Hoe. In whatever way the work may be performed, or what- loosened near to the roots of the plants, when they are stiff in any way, and to have all weeds well cleared out from about them. * . Dangers to which eachosed.—Turnip crops are liable to danger from different causes during the more early stages of the growth of the plants, but the principal of them are those of the attacks of the fly, the slug, and the .# '. º - . The fly chicfly preys upon the sweet tender seed-leaves of the young plants, and; its presence is rendered suffi- ciently evident by its leaving many little brown spots on them, and by its eating away their fleshy green parts down to the fibres of the leaves. It is said to increase in size, and the number to become larger, until the plants be wholly destroyed. It is supposed by some, that from as of paring only one-side of a ridge at these insects being extremely numerous on such leaves a time, leaving the other to be performed some time •of turnip plants; and hot eating, but, as it were, suck- afterwards. It is thought too, that this practice of par ring one side only at a time with a single plough, and Heaving the other untouched for several days, has many important uses and some superiority. The tool, in this manner, is capable of going nearer to the plants; the in such plants to push into rough leaf. ing their sap or juice through Hong probosces or organs, that serve to attach them to the leaves in somewhat the manner of leeches, they may, in some measure, be the cause of the very slow progress that is sometimes made The T U R N I P. The ravages of the slug are readily ascertained by looking to the edges of the leaves, as it begins first to feed upon them, gradually afterwards proceeding from one part of them to another, until each is more or less consumed, sometimes exhibiting in the whole of the crop a partially eaten state. In many cases, almost the whole of the plants are destroyed. The depredations of the black caterpillar mostly take place after the crops are in a more advanced state of growth, and the plants have formed considerable tops, and are in what is usually termed rough leaf; the green parts of the leaves in such cases being eaten through and destroyed, consequently the growth of the plants greatly retarded. A great many different practices have been proposed and had recourse to at different times, for guarding against the destruction produced in these ways, but hitherto probably without any great success in effectu- ally preventing it. In this intention the blending of new and old turnip-seed together, or such as has been moist- ened, and such as is dry, and using them as seed for raising the crops, has been advised by some, as by this means the plants, as crops, coming up at different times, may be less in danger of being wholly destroyed, or may escape in sufficient quantity for the purpose, espe- cially as such insects are well known to frequently make their attacks suddenly in large numbers, destroying the plants as they rise, and as suddenly disappearing again, leaving those that come a few days afterwards untouch- ed. On the supposition that other sorts of plants are more desirable and liable to be fed upon by this destructive in- sect than that of the turnip, the old practice of mixing and sowing other kinds of seeds with turnip-seed, as those of the radish and some other sorts, has lately been revived, and much extolled by different persons, but probably the method is extremely uncertain, as it cannot be suc- cessful, except when the different kinds of plants rise pretty exactly at the same time, which from the great difference in the vegetative powers of different seeds, will rarely be the case. Any use that can be gained in this way, must probably be by employing the seeds of such preferred plants, as are rather more quick in their sprouting and growth than those of the turnip, as, where this is not the case, the turnip plants may often be de- stroyed before the others are in a state to be fed upon. The dusing of the leaves of turnip crops over with caustic lime in the state of fine powder has been tried and found useful in saving them in some cases. The Same substance, as well as those of vegetable ashes and Soot in their reduced states, when used by being thrown over the crops by the hand in pretty large quantities, have likewise occasionally been used with benefit against this insect as well as the slug. The sprinkling of tobac- co-water, either simply or in mixture with soap-suds and urine by proper means upon the plants and land, has been found to destroy the slugs in a ready manner, and to prevent their increase. Heavy night-rolling has long been practised with supposed success against both the fly and the slug. And the practice of treading with sheep, by keeping them in constant motion on lands cropped with turnips, as well as that of sowing barley- chaff over them, has been thought useful against the latter. This last too, as well as the tobacco mixture, has been tried with benefit against the black caterpillar, Vol. XXXVIII. a bush-harrow being previously passed over the crop to dislodge the insects. The barley chaff is to be applied over the crop on their first appearance. A great variety of other means has been proposed in these intentions, but probably with no very great suc- cess. See BLACK.-Canker, SLUG, and TURN, P-Fly, Prevention of In turnip crops, the roots of the plants are liable to have a large sort of excressence formcd below the small apples or bulbs, which, after becoming in a state of something like maturity, takes on the putrid process, and sends forth a most offensive smell. Plants in this condition are mostly stunted in their growth, and the crops indifferent. It is said to depend on soil, and that the soils of some turnip districts are subject to it until they have been clayed or marled, which is almost a cer- tain remedy for it. This is the case with Norfolk; the soil is perhaps too light. The knobs often contain a small worm in the centres of them, which may be the cause. Taking out the affected plants and stirring the earth about the others may be useful. See ANBU- RY On some thin light soils too, especially in dry seasons, these crops are sometimes liable to be affected with a sort of white mouldy state, which injures and checks the growth of the young plants greatly ; the chief means of removing which, is that of proper thinning and stirring the mould about the roots of the plants. When it oc- curs in deeper soils, benefit may be derived from render- ing them more dry by deeper furrowing between the ridges. See MILDEw. Turnip-plants often send off numerous stringy roots with knobby lumps at the ends of them, which are liable to decay and come to nothing, or what farmers term fin- gers and toes, instead of bottling or forming bulbs. This mostly happens in new or fresh land, and no mode of preventing it has probably yet been discovered. Utili- ty in such cases may, however, be derived from better tillage and preparation. - Where these crops have been destroyed by the fly, or in other ways, the same lands should not be resown without a slight ploughing, as is too often the practice, as there must always be great danger of the crops of the second sowing in such cases. It is better either to leave the land wholly for wheat, or to give a shallow ploughing or scuffling before the turnip-seed is again put in. Transplanting is said to have been employed with bene- fit in such cases, as the young turnip plant is found to succeed in this way. The seasons most favourable to crops of this sort, are those in which the weather is warm and showery, with- out much continued rain. In the autumn and winter periods, when the changes from frosts to thaws are fre- quent with rain, the roots are liable to much injury, by becoming decayed and rotten ; and where they stand well in them, seldom afford the quantity of nourishment and support for stock that may be fed on them that is usual under other circumstances. They are liable too to be much hurt in the winter season by the wounds and punctures made in them by different sorts of birds, as wood-pigeons, rooks, and some others ; against which they should be guarded as much as possible. The expenses of raising crops of this sort must ne- cessarily vary considerably according to the nature of the soil, the crops which they succeed, the methods of - putting T U R N I P. putting them into the ground, the situation, and many other circumstances of different kinds; but in the ridge or drill practice, they may in many cases stand in this way. JEachenses fier Acre. S. Ploughings, three at 8s. Harrowings, ditto at 48. 6d. Cleaning by hand-picking Making up ridges or drills Manure and labour, half allowed Covering up ridges or drills Seed * ſº e & Sowing by the drill Horse-hoeing twice Hand-hoeing once Earthing up rows l mºnºcºmº 5 i O 4 *: In the broad-cast practice, the expenses may mostly perhaps be a little lower than in the above estimate. It is in most cases the practice to sow barley after turnip crops, but in some northern districts, wheat, and other crops with seeds, are occasionally put in after them, when fed off with sheep, and cleared early on one ploughing. The quantity of produce or food for stock which is afforded by crops of this sort, must, of course, differ much according to the differences of season, the nature of the soil, and the mode of culture that is pur- sued ; but a medium crop, where the land is good and suited to the purpose, may afford fifteen tons or more on the acre ; in many cases, however, it will be much less. The value of such crops must depend upon many different circumstances, as their quality and abundance, the manner in which they can be consumed, as on the land, or in cribs and stalls, in feeding or rearing live- stock of different sorts; and on the state of the market for the sale of such stock; but in common, it may be from about three or four to six or seven pounds the acre, and in some cases considerably more, as ten and upwards. An acre of good turnips will fatten a beast of forty stone and nºore, or about eight sheep. Seeding Crofts.-In raising crops for seed, which is the produce of the second year’s growth of the plant, considerable attention is necessary in the view of pro- *cing such as is good; as when it is collected from stich crops as have been sown three or four years in succession, without transplanting, the roots are liable to be numerous and long, and the necks, or parts between the bulbs and leaves, coarse and thick; and when taken from such as have been transplanted every year, these parts are apt to become too fine, with too great a dimi- nution of the tap-roots. The best and most certain way is, therefore, to take seed from turnip plants that have been transplanted one year, and sown the next ; or transplanting once in three years is supposed by some sufficient for preserving it good. The most suitable manner of performing this is to select such turnips as are the hardiest, the best of their kinds, and that have the most perfect forms, from the common crops; and after cutting their tops off, to transplant or remove them, in the latter end of the autumn, into ground that has been well prepared for them, where birds can be kept off. The seed will become ready for gathering towards the close of the ensuing summer. Some prefer that the seeds taken from a few roots, transplanted in this manner, should be preserved and sown in the drill method, for the purpose of providing plants for affording seed for the general crops, taking out all such as are weak and im- proper, leaving only those that are strong, and which have the best growth ; and that when these have afi- filed, or formed bulbs, to again take out such as do not appear good and perfect; as, by this means, turnip- seed may be procured, which is not only of a more vigorous quality, but which is capable of vegetating with less moisture, and which produces stronger and more healthy plants, and, of course, better crops. The custom of transplanting the whole of the turnips in this intention is said to be too expensive, as well as in- jurious in some respects. . In either of these modes very good turnip-seed is ca- pable of being raised and provided. When the seed, in these cases, is become fully ripe, the crops are mostly reaped by cutting part of the stems with the seed-pods upon them, afterwards tying them up into wads or sheaves, which, when properly dry, are carried and put into long narrow stacks, to be kept through the winter, and threshed out near the time when wanted in the spring. As in this way, however, much seed is liable to be shed and lost, on account of its readiness to escape from the pods in which it is contained, it is probably a much better practice to have it immediately threshed out, either upon a cloth in the place where it grew, or in some other more convenient spot, being then put into proper bags, and placed in a situation which is perfectly dry. ‘Ās crops of the seed kind are subject to injury and loss in many different ways, the quantity of produce must be different under different circumstances; but it may be said in common to be about twenty or twenty- four bushels on the acre. And as the price of turnip- seed is seldom less than seven or eight shillings the bushel, from the great demand for it, the culture may seem at first to be very beneficial; but from the exhaust- ing nature of the crop, the loss in that of the grain, and the quantity of manure afterwards necessary, it is pro- bable that turnips, can only be seeded to advantage in particular circumstances of soil and situation. As often as possible, however, the farmer should raise his own, as that of the shops is in general less to be depended upon. .. .A/filication and Use of the Croft.—The turnip is a plant or root that is capable of being made use of in dif- ferent intentions, but the principal are those of feeding, supporting, and fattening different sorts of live-stock, in which there are great differences in the practices of dif- ferent districts of the kingdom; but the most economi- cal and beneficial modes of applying and consuming it, under different circumstances of soils, situations, and animals, have probably not yet been sufficiently investi- gated and ascertained by those engaged in the cultiva- tion of the root. It is stated by a practical writer, that though few trials have been made to determine the par- ticular state or condition in which these roots afford the greatest and most suitable proportion of nourishment for different animals that are fed on them, it would seem, from their containing a much larger quantity of rich nutrient matter, in thcir fresh state, before being taken from the ground, than afterwards when removed and packed up, as shewn by the shrinking and loss of weight that * T U R N J P. that takes place, to be a more Saving and useful"prac- tice, particularly where the nature and situation of the land and season will admit of it, as on dry lands in most of the Southern parts of the country, to consume them under the former rather than the latter circumstances; but in more cold and exposed situations, as in many places in the northern districts of the kingdom, and wherever the lands are inclined to moisture or heaviness, as the roots may be greatly injured by frosts and other causes, and the animals receive much harm from the coldness of such places, while feeding on them, as well as the lands be much damaged by their treading, it may be better to eat them under the latter conditions. There are likewise other situations and circumstances, it is sup- posed, in which it may be particularly hecessary, as well as beneficial, to make use of turnips after being drawn, removed, and stored up, as those where it is difficult or inconvenient to raise and provide other sorts of green food for the winter and spring use of stock. Wherever crops of this sort are, however, taken from the land, to be consumed by animals in other places, as from their nature and large growth they must exhaust and deprive it of its fertility greatly, it will constantly be proper and necessary to return an equivalent in manure, otherwise the harm done in this way may more than equal the benefits of the crop. And in all such cases, the tap-roots and other waste parts should always be re- moved and left on the land, that neither soil nor manure may be taken away, by adhering to them. In cases where the lands are properly dry, in a high state of fertility, and under good management, it may often too be an advantageous and economical practice to have a partial recourse to both the methods, by having one part of the crop drawn, removed, and eaten off the land, in some adjoining convenient place for the purpose, and the other fed off on the field where they grow; as, by such means, a much larger quantity of land may be benefited and improved, without injury to the crops that may afterwards be grown on the turnip land. In this mode of improving lands, a great deal more is yet probably capable of being done than has hitherto been the case, when its vast utility and powers in different ways are fully considered. Some difference in the use and manner of consuming this sort of crop likewise takes place, from the kind of stock to which it is applied; as when used in the rearing, keeping, and fattening neat-cattle stock, it is, for the most part, pulled up and eaten, either after having been removed to some proper dry field or spot of ground of the grass or stubble kind, or to some shed or other building near the straw-yard or feeding-house; in the latter case, being given the stock in bins, troughs, or cribs, or placed before the heads of the cattle in stalls, when tied up, that are contrived for the purpose. The latter of these two modes of eating the root is supposed the better, though less frequently made use of, as there is the least possible waste, while, at the same time, the dung and urine of the cattle are the most extensively and effectually preserved. In the former of these me- thods, the usual practice is first to admit the fattening stock, and then to allow the lean to follow them, and eat up what may remain. In this way there is the least loss. - - * . . . - - . The cattle are mostly confined wholly upon the roots, except when prevented by the state of the season, when they are consumed in other places, or as above. In some cases, the lands to which the roots are removed, in this method of feeding, are those intended to be used for other crops in the ensuing year, by which the different fields, of course, in their turn, have the benefit of being improved in this way most conveniently; and the prac- tice is found more useful than feeding them on the land where they grow. The roots, in these cases and modes of consuming them, should not be scattered over the ground in too thick a manner; as, where that is the case, much loss must necessarily be sustained by their being crushed and bruised by the feet of the stock, while upon them. These several different practices are much had re- course to in some southern turnip districts, where grea numbers of different sorts of this kind of stock are every year fattened on turnips. In cases where milk is a principal object with the farmer, this plant and root are also capable of great use as a proper juicy food for cows, care being taken that the decayed leaves and other parts be not given, as they are apt to communicate a disagreeable flavour to it, The offal produced in such cases may be given to the dry stock, by which little or no loss will be sustained in the consumption of the root. This taste in milk is said to be completely removed by the use of a very weak selu- tion of mitre in water, These roots, too, have been usefully applied in the feeding of work-horses, as by their means the usual quantity of corn may, it is said, be lessened nearly one- half, and the horses rise in condition at the same time, as well as perform their labour equally well, and be more free from bowel complaints than in the common manner of feeding them. When used in this way, they should, however, be chopped, and have dry food of some sort joined with them in proper quantity. The most extensive use and application of this crop is, however, in its consumption by sheep, particularly where the more suitable improved sorts prevail, in which the most general practice, where the lands are properly light and dry for the purpose, is that of con- fining them upon a suitable proportion of the crop by hurdles, or other means, and removing them to fresh parts, portions, or breaks, as they are sometimes called, every eight or ten days, or oftener, according to circumstances, or as the spaces may be eaten and cleared by the stock. Where the crop is used as the food of ewes and lambs, the former are sometimes con- fined in this way, and the latter left at liberty, as feed- ing more readily in this manner. But where the soils are of a more deep and heavy retentive quality, it is more usual, and a better and more beneficial method, to have the roots drawn and removed, as wanted, to some adjoining field to be consumed by the sheep, somewhat in the way noticed for cattle ; as, in this manner, there is not only less injury and waste by soil- ing and treading the turnips into the ground, but the sheep get a more certain and regular supply of fresh roots, by which they do better, and the shells, by being left clean, are more fully and completely eaten up by the store cattle that are afterwards put upon them for the purpose. In some cases and states of the land too, in the former mode, it is the practice to have the crop partly eaten off on the land on which the turnips grow by sheep, and partly drawn and re- moved, to be consumed in other places. In such cases, T 2 the T U R N I P. the method is usually to turn the sheep upon them as they stand in the field; but, except the bulbs be much exposed above the soil of the land, it is probably a better practice to have the roots pulled up on the part, before the sheep are turned in and confined on it, as in this way they are not only less apt to break and soil the turnips, but feed and fatten much better upon them. This practice is much in use in Some southern districts. - In some situations, the hilly parts have the turnips fed off in this manner by sheep, with a certain quan- tity of hay allowed for every acre thus eaten off, be- ginning with a break or portion from the lowest part of the field, and allowing a new portion or hitch every day, still gradually rising, clearing the whole off in time for preparing the land for the following crop. The crops on the more flat and heavy parts of the lands are drawn and removed, to be eaten with hay or other dry food in proper places. It has been suggested, that much loss is often sus- tained in these modes of feeding off turnips by folding sheep upon them, particularly where the crops are raised in the broad-cast manner, and it is the custom to give the sheep large folds or breaks at a time, in consequence of frost or snow taking place. In such cases, it is supposed the ridge or drill method is far preferable, as it is easy to have the pens or trays made and fixed in such a manner as to constitute a sort of moveable crib or trough, the bars being set near the sides of the rows, and the boards from ten to twelve inches in breadth, having stakes of suitable lengths, as the depths of the soils may be, nailed to them, and secured on the sides from which the sheep feed. The narrower the spaces the turnips are included in, the better. As it may be imagined that the animals rmay get in among the turnips so fenced off, it is said that, supposing the roots may occupy a regular space of about twelve inches, the troughs may be made little more than a foot in width at the bottom, having a sloping direction upwards. The bars may likewise have an inclination towards the sheep, and hang over the troughs or the parts in which the turnips are en- closed, and thus prevent them from getting in. It is supposed that in this way the sheep will have their food quite clean, and that by setting off only at a time the quantity necessary for a day, they may eat it with more avidity, and without the danger of spoiling so much by their discharges, as is mostly the case in the common circumstances of feeding upon the root. On examination, it is contended that this mode, when even largely employed, will be found to be bet- ter in many respects, as well as a great deal cheaper, as, on the most moderate calculation, three sheep may be kept in this way to two by the common old method, or perhaps even double the number, and they will fatten much sooner. And on the principle that ani- mals do not feed so well when a redundance of food is before them, it is thought that if the sheep, in such cases, were driven into the straw-yards for the night, and even to eat straw in the morning, they would re- tain the turnips longer, and fatten quicker; while, in the mean time, the persons employed in looking after them might move the hurdles a row further, and thus little time be lost. If both fattening and store sheep should be kept in this manner, it would be proper to ,” give the feeding stock rather more roots than are suf- ficient for the day, and to turn in the store sheep the succeeding day to consume what may be left. In this mode, the length of turnips that may be necessary, without waste being committed, may soon be disco- vered. It would seem, however, that from the con- stant trouble, difficulty, and expense of the plan, in providing hurdles, and fixing them for the folds, they would render it incapable of being put in execution, except in cases of a small number of sheep, where it may be an improvement, and a more economical manner of feeding off turnip crops by such sorts of stock. - In the practice of hurdling for this purpose, great attention is necessary to see that the hurdles are at first well set into the ground, and secured by stakes of sufficient length, with proper withes for tying them to- gether, as after frosts and thaws, or snows, they are very apt to be thrown down by the wind, and other causes. The best sort of hurdles for this use is that of the flatted kind; and a material of the netting kind is sometimes employed, which is called toiling, but it is more expensive. See HURDLE. In whatever manner the feeding off turnips by sheep is done, the hurdles should always be set in such di- rections and forms, as that labour and expense may be saved as much as possible. In some districts, the practice of feeding off these crops in a partial IIlanner, or that of flull and throw, has given way to that of consuming them wholly upon the land, from the full conviction of its greater utility and profit; while in others, the mixed method of eat- ing the root is still had recourse to, as being preferable for the purpose, and affording more benefit. As it is found, in the fattening of sheep on this crop, that they make the greatest progress just before the turnips begin to run and form their seed-stems, which is supposed to depend partly on their contain- ing the greatest proportion of rich nourishing matter at that time, and partly on the weather becoming more dry, warm, and settled; the shoots are some- times mown off in the spring, and by the lateral sprouts and leaves, a more copious supply of green food is not only afforded, but the roots are pre- served longer in a condition fit for use in this ap- plication. The feeding or fattening qualities of these roots are, however, much disputed by some, except when some sort of dry food is made use of with . them. - In the feeding of these crops off by all sorts of stock, regard is to be had ºn first turning upon them, that they do not continue too long, as otherwise injury may be sustained by the distension that is sometimes occa- sioned by their eating too freely of them, or their being hoven or blown. - Where these crops are drawn for winter and spring use, it is some times necessary to have them preserved in some way or other. See TURNIPs, Preserving of . Great attention in many ways is necessary to turnip crops, as being the foundation of several of the most beneficial practices of the farmer. Stealing or otherwise destroying turnips, when grow- ing, is by statute punishable criminally by whipping, small fines, imprisonment, and satisfaction to the party wronged, according to the nature of the offen. º ; £O, ille T U R N I P. Geo. III. c. 32. the offender shall, on conviction before one justice, by confession on oath of one witness, forfeit such sum, not exceeding 108. over and above the value of the goods stolen, as to the justice shall seem meet; and in default of payment, be committed to hard labour, for a time not exceeding one month. - No person shall be prosecuted for any such offence, unless the prosecution be begun within twenty days af- ter the offence committed. The provisions of this act have been extended by statute 42 Geo. III. c. 67. in three particulars; viz. in the description of the offence, inserting injuring barns and orchards : in the penalty, making the sum not exceeding 20s. ; and in the term of imprisonment, which is made two months. TURNIPs, with regard to diet and medicine, are ac- counted a salubrious food, demulcent, detergent, some- what laxative and diuretic, but liable in weak stomachs to produce flatulencies, and prove difficult of digestion; the liquor, pressed out from them after boiling, is some- times used medicinally, in coughs and disorders of the breast. The seeds have been accounted alexipharmic or diaphoretic; they have no smell, but discover to the taste a mild acrimony, seemingly of the same nature with that of mustard-seed, though far weaker. Lewis. TURNIPs, Preserving qf, in Agriculture, the means of guarding and securing them against the effects of severe frosts and other such causes, by which they are not unfrequently much injured and rendered improper as t , food of stock. In cases where they are designed for the feeding or supporting of neat cattle or other kinds of stock, during the winter and very early spring seasons, as they are then extremely liable to becqme hurt and destroyed in this way, on account of the Sud- den alternations of frost and thaw that take place in the former period, this becomes particularly useful and ne- cessary. For want of this attention, the roots often be- come quite rotten and wholly unfit for use, as well as difficult to be got up when wanted. In the intention of preserving them, many different methods and practices have been attempted and had re- course to at different times, but hitherto probably with- out any of them having been attended with complete success, and at the same time so cheap as to answer the farmer’s purpose. The only perfectly secure mode would be that, probably, of having them drawn, topped, and piled up with layers of dry straw in houses properly formed and constructed for the purpose, and conve- niently situated for the sheds and other feeding places; but it would be liable to objection, except on a small scale, as being both troublesome and expensive. A method of preserving this root, which is much in use, very effectual, little expensive, and attended with no great trouble, is that of drawing and piling the tur- nips up in different portions on the field where they are raised, with layers of dry straw put betwixt each of those of the turnips. In this mode, which is much prac- tised in Some southern counties, a load of straw is used to about thirty or forty tons of the turnips. The man- ner of effecting the work is said to be this: the turnips, on being drawn in a dry time, and the tops and tap- roots removed, a layer of straw is spread out on a dry part of the ground, and a layer of turnips placed upon it to the thickness of eighteen inches or two feet; after this another layer of straw, and then a layer of turnips; proceeding on, alternately in the same manner, until the pile or heap be brought to a sort of ridge or point; when the edges of the different layers of straw are turn- ed up and fastened, which serves to prevent the roots from falling out, and at the same time affords a sort of external covering to the heap or pile, which is com- pleted by being well thatched over the top with long Sti’aW. It is supposed too, by some, that the difficulty of getting them out of the ground, and the dangers they are exposed to in severe frosty seasons, as well as the inconveniences the stock experience in feeding upon them from their coldness, and the hazard of their in- juring the land by remaining too long, may all be avoided by piling them up in a similar manner, in small heaps in the stack form, the tops outwards, near to the places in which they are to be consumed, covering them over with wattles or hurdles lined with straw. In some cases, turnips have been attempted to be preserved by being formed, without straw, after the tops and small roots have been taken off, and the former used green, into a sort of heaps termed flies, in the manner in which potatoes are sometimes kept, being well thatched over on the outsides by straw or some other more cheap material. They have also been attempted to be preserved in the field by covering them by deep ploughing in differ- ent manners, when perfectly dry. - A geart many othèr modes of preserving these roots have likewise been suggested and practised by farmers and others, but they need not be noticed here, as they mostly appear less useful than the above. In all cases of preserving these roots in the heap manner, care must be taken not to have them made too large, or too closely packed up together, as the danger of their heating and being spoiled, may thereby be, in a great measure, avoided. By some means of these sorts, turnips may mostly be preserved, kept ready, and fit for use as food for live- stock, even in situations and seasons which are the most expºsed and severe, which under different circumstan- ces are often matters of much consequence to farmers. See TURNIP, supra. TURNIP, Swedish. See RUTA DAGA. TURNIP, Stubble, the crops raised on lands after grain as sheep-feed, which on good dry soils often answer well. See STUBBLE-Turmiſhs. TURNIP-Cutter, or Slicer and Chofifter, contrivances of the cutting kind, which are made use of in preparing this sort of root for being eaten by different kinds of live-stock. rmplements of this nature are formed and constructed on very different principles, but those which have the greatest simplicity are almost always to be preferred, as performing the work in the most easy and ready manner. There is a very useful tool for this pur- pose, in which the roots are cut by means of a knife fixed upon a fly-wheel, the turnips being forced upon it through an inclined hopper or sort of trough. Some turnip-slicers are so effective as to cut a bushel of the root in a min ite The chopper is made by a sort of sharp small spade, either fixed or loose, working in a box, into which the roots are thrown for being cut ar chopped. The work is readily executed in this way by hose who are in the habit o performing it in this manner. TURNIP-Drill, that sort of drilling implement which is employed in the sowing of turnip-seed in the row manner. An improved tool of this sort for one-bout ridges T U R T U R ridges is in use in some districts, which obviates the de- fects of sowing too much or too little seed. It consists of a solid cylinder, made of iron or brass, about two in- ches in diameter, and one inch broad, on the surface of which are formed fifteen or sixteen cavities, resembling the shape of a semi-egg when cut longitudinally, and as deep as to hold four or five seeds each. On the back of the cylinder, a little from the top, is placed the hind part of the hopper, to which is fixed a piece of iron or brass, one inch long and half an inch broad, hollowed on the inside in the form of a Gothic arch, the sides of which meeting the sides of the cavities in an oblique angle, prevent the seed from being bruised: at the lower end of this piece of iron, or gatherer, there is a slit, three-tenths of an inch long and one-tenth wide; and at the back of it, a thin flat piece of iron moves up and down by means of a screw at the top of the hopper, which enlarges or lessens the orifice directly above the cavities, and increases or di- minishes the quantity of seed delivered, as the workman may think proper. This slip of iron, or regulator, is let into a groove made in the board, which forms the back- part of the hopper. The cylinder is fixed, before the cavi- ties are made, on an iron axle one inch square, turned very true, as well as those parts of the axle which turn in the collars fixed in the handles. To the ends of the axle are fixed two wheels, twenty-six inches in diameter, which turn the axle and cylinder round, and which, in passing through the hopper containing the seed, bring forward in each cavity a number of seeds and drop them into the spout, by which means they are conveyed to the coulter, which forms a rut or channel on the top of the one-bout ridge in order to receive them. If the cavi- ties in this sowing implement be made to hold five Seeds, when the regulator is screwed close down, and there be sixteen of them, it will deposite eighty seeds each revolution; and from the diameter of the wheels being twenty-six, and the circumference eighty-one in- ches and a half, eighty seeds will be sown in eighty-one and a half inches, or nearly twelve feet. This being the minimum quantity, by screwing up the regulator, the number may be increased gradually to fifty or sixty in a foot, which is far more than is necessary in almost any case. - There are various other improved implements of this nature, which suit different purposes of this sort of culture made use of in different circumstances and places. See DRILL and TURNIP. TURNIP-Hoe, a hoe employed in the culture of turnips, which is of the hand as well as the horse kind : the lat- ter is the most ready and effectual, but both are fre- quently made use of in raising the crops. A turnip-hoe chopper has lately been contrived, which is both useful in this way and for cutting the roots in feeding stock on the land. It has in the first part the make of the common nine-inch hand-hoe, but forming an oblong square, with an eye to receive the handle from the centre of the first part or hoe, another crosses it at right angles, but this second is not made solid, as in the first common one, but, like the Dutch-hoe, the centre part is open the whole length of it. In working, the turnip being pulled out of the ground by the angles of the hoe, is immediately struck with it about the cen- tre, which divides it into four pieces, and if these be not small enough, the stroke is repeated upon each of the pieces until they be sufficiently so. It is imagined ca- pable of much improvement, by having two stoutish prongs on the back or reverse part of the hoe, proceed- ing from the neck of the eye; these prongs would pull up the turnips with a great deal more expedition, it is Supposed, and the increased weight of the hoe would rather be in its favour, by lessening the force necessary to split the roots. The whole is simple and the expense trifling, which render it more valuable. It is said that by means of this tool the turnips may each readily be sliced into as many parts, according to their sizes, as that each piece may be small enough for wether lambs, or, which is of more consequence, for be- ing eaten by the crones, or old toothless ewes, which may fatten in this way with nearly equal facility as the young sheep, as they are capable of picking them up, and by a slight toss of the head, to place them so as to be pro- perly consumed. They can thus feed on the root, when they would otherwise find it difficult to supply them- selves with a sufficient quantity of food in the usual man- ner of nibbling the turnip, either while in the ground, or when picked up without being so cut. It is the in- vention of Mr. Malcolm, and is in much use in the coun- ty of Surrey, but may be beneficial in many other dis- tricts, where the practice of feeding off the crops on the land by stock is a material object to the farmer. Hand-hoes of from four to twelve inches in width are in use, in this kind of culture, for setting out the plants and other purposes, as the nature of the crops may be. See HoH, and TURNIP. TURNIP-Rack, a contrivance of the rack kind, for sheep eating this and some other sorts of food out of with less waste than in some other ways. It is usually made about eight and a half feet long, and on one side two feet high, and on the other two feet three inches, without the feet, which are about three inches long. In the top, the middle part folds back on the rack, and on the lower part or side of it there is a bend, which serves as a gutter for preventing the rain-water falling from it on the sheep’s back. The bottom opens the other way and leans against the top, for the convenience of carrying it. It is sometimes placed on low wheels. It is very useful and convenient in many cases of feeding and fattening sheep. TURNIP Sowing Trough, a contrivance of this kind for the purpose of sowing turnip-seed with regularity in the broad-cast manner, where it cannot be done by the hand. It is somewhat in the box form, and so contrived as to disperse such small seeds with great exactness over the land. See TURNIP. TURNIP-Tray, a long narrow shallow sort of trough or box contrived and made use of for the purpose of sheep eating turnips out of in consuming them upon the land, in order to prevent waste in such modes of feeding. TURNIP-Cabbage. See CABBAGE and Kohla ABI. TURNIP-Rooted Cabbage. See CABBAGE. TURNIP-Rooted Celery, a root of that sort of the tur- nip form. See APIUM. TURNIP-Fallow, in Agriculture, a term applied to that sort of preparation for the crop which is made by repeatedly working over the land in some way or other. The most improved practice is that of not having the autumn broken-up lands stirred again, until the surface- working in the early spring has well loosened the mould, to favour the growth of weeds, which is best performed by means of tools that operate the more superficially, as by this tillage keeping the upper parts fine and unburied that have been broken and reduced by the frosts, it is - - I}] OI’ê T' U R TU R more suited to the rising of such plants than that of turning it down in a deep manner, and the work is done with greater expedition, which is a material object at such a season. This is a most excellent method; but much must constantly depend on the nature and state of the land in such sorts of work. See FALLowING and TURNIP. TURNIP-Fly, Prevention of the means of guarding and protecting young seedling turnip-plants against its attacks and ravages. Though many different means of this nature have been proposed, few have been attended with much success in preserving the crops The sub- stances which appear to be the most promising in this intention, are those of soot and quick-lime, and urine and quick-lime, in a state of mixture pro- per for being thrown over the plants on the land, in a watering manner, by some sort of contrivance for the purpose, or for being put in with the seed. It is supposed that the volatile alkali, which is given off by these mixtures, may be offensive to the insects; while at the same time they afford nourishment and ready growth to the plants. In a trial with lime slaked in urine, in mixture with three parts of soot, applied by means of a small barrel, perforated all round with little gimlet holes, so as to let the quantity of about four bushels to the acre pass out, and fall into the drills with the turnip-seed, the adjoining rows were found to be eaten away, while those to which the composition was applied were scarcely touched at all. The mixture of sulphur with lime has been used, but on a full trial found wholly inefficient. Ammoniacal fumes are said to be successful by some, but further trials are wanting, and they are not very well suited for the farmer’s pur- pose. See SEED, STEEPING, and TURNIP. TURNITZ, or Twardon Ice, in Geografthy, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Brunn ; 30 miles S.S.E. of Brunn. TURNO WICEcoMITUM, in Law, a writ that lies for those that are called to the sheriff’s turn, out of their own hundred. TURNPIKE, a gate set up across a road, watched by an officer for the purpose, in order to stop travellers, wagons, coaches, &c. to take toll of them, or money towards repairing or keeping the roads in repair. See RoAD. There are several statutes, which have established re- gulations relating to turnpike roads, the principal of which, besides those recited under HIGHWAY, are as follow. No person shall be capable of acting as a trus- tee in superintending turnpike-roads, who is not possess- ed of lands, &c. of the clear yearly value of 40l., or per- Sonal estate to the value of 800l. ; to which purpose he makes oath before two trustees, or heir apparent of a person possessed of an estate in land of the clear yearly value of 80/. No alehouse-keeper, nor persons retail- ing liquors of any kind, are capable of acting as trustees, or holding any place under them, or collecting the toll ; but they are not precluded from farming the tolls, pro- vided some other person collects them. No gate-keep- er, or person renting the tolls, and residing in the toll- house, shall gain a parish settlement, nor shall the tolls, or toll-house, be assessed to the poor-rate, or any other public or parochial levy. Any gate-keeper, permitting a violation of the orders pertaining to carriages and horses, and not proceeding within one week for the re- covery of forfeitures, shall forfeit 40s, ; and both he and the surveyor shall render upon oath, when required by written notice from the trustees, an account of all mo- ney received, on pain of 5l. ; and all officers shall deli- ver up their books, &c. relating to the execution of their offices, within ten days after written notice, on pain of 201. ; and all persons concerned in the execution of acts relating to turnpike-roads, neglecting their duty, shall forfeit 10l. The trustees, whose meetings are assem- bled by ten days’ notice affixed on the toll-gates, or other conspicuous places, and adjourned for no longer time than three calendar months, or any five of them, may cause weighing engines to be erected at the toll gates, order the weighing of carriages and their loads, and take an additional toll for every hundred weight over and above the following weights: viz. for every four-wheel carriage, having the fellies of the wheel sixteen inches broad, eight tons in summer, and seven in winter : for every wagon and wain, with axles of different lengths, having the distance of the nearer pair of wheels on the ground not more than four feet two inches, and the dis- tance of the other pair such, that the fore and hind wheels shall roll only a single surface sixteen inches wide, at the least, on each side of the carriage, and the fellies nine inches from side to side, six tons ten hundred in summer, and six tons in winter : for every four- wheeled carriage, having the bottom of the fellies of the wheels nine inches broad, six tons in summer and five tons ten hundred in winter : for every cart, having fellies of ninc inches, three tons in summer, and two tons fifteen hundred in winter : for every wagon, hav- ing the fellies of the wheels six inches broad, four tons five hundred in summer, and three tons fifteen hundred in winter: for every wagon, rolling a surface of eleven inches, five tons ten hundred in summer, and five tons in winter : for every cart of the same dimensions, two tons twelve hundred in summer, and two tons seven hundred in winter : for every wagon, having the bot- tom of the fellies of the wheels of less breadth than six inches, three tons ten hundred in summer, and three tons in winter : and for every cart of the same dimensions, one ton ten hundred in summer, and one ton Seven hun- dred in winter: summer, in all these cases, being de- termined from May 1, to October 31 : and winter from November 1, to April 30. (13 Geo. III. c. 84.) The additional toll shall be as follows: viz. for the first and second hundred of overweight, the sum of 3d. for each hundred : for every hundred above two, and not ex- ceeding five hundred, 6d. : for every hundred above five, and not exceeding ten hundred, 2s. 6d. : for every hundred above ten, and not exceeding fifteen hundred, 58, : and for every hundred above fifteen hundred, 20s. The trustees, however, of the several turnpike-roads within ten miles of London, Westminster, and South- wark, are allowed to lower these additional tolls at plea- sure. (14 Geo. III. c. 82.) The toll-taker offending against these regulations, incurs a forfeiture of 51. : but the preceding regulations of weight do not extend to any carriage employed in husbandry, and carrying ma- nure for land, hay, straw, fodder, or corn unthrashed; excepting hay or straw carried for sale; nor shall any toll be taken for horses belonging to officers or soldiers upon their march, or upon duty, or for any horses, cat- tle, or carriages, employed in carrying their arms or baggage, &c. It is required that a table of the several tolls be put up at every toll-gate. (18 Geo. III. c. 63.) For the encouragement of broad wheels, the trustees are cmpowered to reduce the toll of carriages, having wheels TU R T U R wheels six inches broad, so that it may not be greater than that which is taken for four-wheeled carriages drawn by four horses; and for carts, having the fellies of their wheels six inches broad, no more than for carts drawn by three horses; but for every carriage, having the fellies of the wheels of less breadth than six inches at the bottom, and for the horses, &c. one-half more than the tolls payable for the same respectively, except car- riages carrying corn in the straw, hay, straw, fodder, dung, lime for the improvement of land, or other ma- nure, and implements of husbandry. The fellies of the wheels of carriages entitled to the above exemptions, and the tire upon them, are required to be so flat, as not to deviate more than one inch from a flat surface. And all carriages, moving upon rollers sixteen inches broad on each side, with flat surfaces, shall pay only so much toll as shall not exceed half of the full toll pay- able for carriages having the fellies of the wheels six in- ches broad, and not rolling a surface of sixteen inches on each side; and half-toll shall be paid for wagons having the fellies of the wheels nine inches broad, and rolling a surface of sixteen inches on each side. These regulations do not extend to any chaise-marine, coach, landau, berlin, chariot, chaise, chair, calash, or hearse; nor to the carriage of ammunition or artillery for his majesty's service; nor to any carriage drawn by one horse, or two oxen; nor to any carriage having the fel- lies of the wheels nine inches broad, and laden with one block of stone or marble, one cable-rope, and one piece of metal or timber; and no toll shall be paid at any turn- pike gate for carriages employed in carrying materials for the repair of any turnpike-road, or public highway. No four-wheeled carriage, having the fellies of the wheels of less breadth than six inches, shall pass on any turnpike-road with more than four horses. Two oxen orkneat cattle shall be considered as one horse. For other regulations relating to the number of horses, see Highway. Any carriage may be drawn with any num- ber of horses upon a turnpike-road, where a weighing- engine shall be erected, provided the carriage be weigh- ed at such engine; and the trustees may allow for hills, the rise of which shall be more than four inches in a yard, such number of horses as they shall think neces- sary, not exceeding ten for wagons with nine-inch wheels, nor six for carts with nine-inch wheels; and not exceeding seven for wagons with six-inch wheels, nor five for carts with six-inch wheels; and not exceeding five for wagons with wheels of less breadth than six inches, nor four for carts of such dimensions. There is also an exception in favour of carriages that are drawn in deep snow or ice. No carriages, with the fellies of the wheels of less breadth than nine inches, shall be al lowed to pass upon any turnpike-road, if the same shall be drawn by horses in pairs; except such, having the breadth of the fellies six inches, authorized by Seven or more trustees, and carriages drawn by two horses only. The penalty, on conviction, by confession or oath of one witness, is a forfeiture not exceeding 5!, nor less than 10s. The penalty of evading the tolls, by unloading goods, is 5l.; by turning out of the road, for the owner, any sum not exceeding 51, nor less than 20s. but for the driver, if he be not the owner, any sum not exceed- ing 50s. nor less than 10s. ; by taking out horses, 5%; or by taking the benefit of any exemptions fraudulently, a sum not exceeding 51. nor less than 40s. Exemptions in favour of cattle going to or from water, or pasture, shall extend only to such as shall be driven from one pa- rish to the next adjoining, or that shall not pass upon the turnpike-road more than the space of two miles. Turnpike-roads are kept in repair by the statute-duty, required by the several acts, or if this be insufficient, by contracting for labour, &c. The surveyor of any turn- pike-road, who shall suffer to remain in any part, with- in ten feet on either side of the middle of it, for four days, any heap of stones, rubbish, &c. obstructing the passage of it, shall forfeit 40s. ; and any person encroach- ing on it by a ditch, fence, &c. shall forfeit 40s. ; and the trustees may direct prosecution by indictment for any nuisance; at the expense of the tolls. See HIGHway and RoAD. - If any person shall wilfully or maliciously destroy any turnpike-gate, post, rail, wall, chain, bar, or other fence, set up to prevent passengers from passing without pay- ing toll, or any house erected for the use of such gate, or any weighing-engine, or rescue any person in custo- dy for such offences, he shall be found guilty of felony, and transported for seven years, or committed to prison for any time not exceeding three years The indict- ment for such offences may be inquired of, heard, and determined in any adjacent county; and the hundred shall answer damages, as in cases of robbery. If the trustees erect a gate where they have no power, the jus- tices upon complaint may order the sheriff to remove it. As for direction-stones, &c. see HIGHway. The trustees are empowered to let the tolls to farm, in consequence of public notice, to the best bidder; and if the farmer of the tolls shall take a greater or less toll than he ought to do, he shall forfeit 5l. and the contract; and every other gate keeper, offending in the same way, shall forfeit 40s. The trustees may also lessen the tolls, during such time as they shall think proper, provided that the persons entitled to five-sixths of the money re- maining due upon such tolls, consent. The penalty for obstructing the execution of any turnpike-act is a for- feiture of a sum not exceeding 10l. nor less than 40s. to be paid to the surveyor for the use of the road, or com- mitment to the common gaol, or house of correction, for any time not exceeding three months, unless the money be sooner paid. Persons aggrieved by proceedings in the execution of turnpike-acts may appeal, with pre- vious notice, to the general quarter-sessions, when the justices shall determine the appeal, and award costs, &c. But all actions are limited to thirty-three calendar months after the fact committed, and to the county where the defendant resides, or the fact was done ; and the defendant may plead the general issue, and if he prevails in the action, have treble costs. 13 Geo. III. c. 84. 4 Geo. III. c. 82. 16 Geo. III. c. 39. 17 Geo. III. c. 16. 18 Geo. III. c. 28. c. 63. Burn's Justice, art. Highways. The first turnpike-road 1663. 16 Car. II. c. 1. TURNPIKE is also used, in the Military Art, for a beam stuck full of spikes, to be placed in a gap, a breach, or at the entrance of a camp, to keep off an ene- my. See CHEVAL de frise. TURNSOLE. See TURNESOLE. TURNSPIT, VERSAtoR, in Zoology, a variety of the dog (which see,) which belonged, in the arrange- ment of Dr. Caius, to the class of degeneres, Curs, or mongrels. erected by law was A. D. This T U R T U R This breed is much on the decline in England; though still used in some other countries. TURNSTONE, in Or, ithology, the English name of a bird, th tringa morinellus of Linnaeus, called by authors morinellus marinus, or sea dotterel. It is a little larger tha. the blackbird; its head mode- rately thick, and its body of a longish shape; its beak a finger’s breadth long, thick, and whitish at the base, and sharp and black at the point ; and its head, neck, shoul- ders, wings, and the upper part of its breast, are of a brownish colour; its throat and forehead are ash-colour- ed; the back and rump are white ; the middle of its back is marked with a very large triangular black spot; the tail consists of twelve feath: rs, the lower half white, the upper black, and the tips white ; the quill-feathers are dusky, but from the third or fourth the bottoms are white, increasing to about the nineteenth, when the feathers are entirely of that colour. Its legs are short, and of a reddish-yellow, or orange-colour. These birds take their name from from their method of searching for food, by turning up small stones with their strong bills, to get at the insects that lurk under them. Ray and Pennant. Mr. Pennant mentions another species, which is the turnstone from Hudson's Bay, and the tringa interfires of Linnaeus; often shot in the north of Scotland and its islands, and also in North America. This bird is of the size of a thrush; the forehead, throat, and belly are white ; the breast black; the neck surrounded with a black collar, whence another bounds the sides of the neck, and passes over the forehead; the head and lower part of the neck behind white; the first streaked with dusky lines; the back ferruginou- mixed with black; the coverts of the tail white, crossed with a black bar; the tail black, tipt with white; and legs rather short, and of a full orange. TURN-UP CoMPASSES. See CoMPASSEs. TURNWRIST PLOUGH. See PLou GH. TURO, in Geografi.hy, a town of Naples, in the pro- vince of Bari ; 22 miles S.S.W. of Conversano. TUROE, a small island of Denmark, in the Little Belt ; 12 miles S.W. of Assens, in the island of Funen. TUROK, a mountain of Persia, in Khorassan; 15 imiles S. of Meschid, TURON, a sea-port town of Cochinchina, in a bay to which it gives name, and which is deeply indented, so as to afford shelter in some or other of its inlets from every blast of wind; the bottom is mud, and the anchor- age safe, with a smooth water throughout. N. lat. 16° 9'. E. long. 108° 6'. As this harbour affords a safe retreat for ships of any burden, during the most tempestuous season of the year, Mr. Barrow undertook to draw a plan of it agree- ably to geometrical admeasurement. The particulars of the operation and its result are detailed in Macartney’s Embassy to China, and minutely illustrated by means of a chart. This chart exhibits an irregular mountain- ous peninsula, inaccessible on every part of the coast, except that adjacent to the harbour, and at two small Sandy bays in the entrance. This peninsula was named New Gibraltar, on account of the local natural advan- tages which it possesses, and which renders it capable of being made, like our Gibraltar, impregnable. The natives call this peninsula Tien-toha. United to this peninsula is a level isthmus, from three-quarters of a mile to a mile in width, containing several small villages, and patches of ground, under cultivation, chiefly of Vol. XXXVIII. rice, tobacco, pulse, and sugar-canes. The chart presents also to view the principal town in the vi- cinity of the harbour, at which the market is held : the adjoining land is well cultivated ; and the name given to the place by the natives, as well as to the har- bour, is Han-san. Connected with the peninsula by a reef of rocks, unobserved at low water, is the northern point of a small island clothed with trees and thick brush-wood : and as the depth of water is three fathoms within a ship’s length of the southern extremity of the island, a convenient place might be prepared, at a small expense, for heaving down and repairing ships. The rocks might be the foundation of a pier or causeway, and thus an excellent dock might be constructed between the island and this peninsula. Such a place would be well adapted for a repository of naval stores, magazines, or warehouses. Other appendages to this harbour are described and represented in the chart; and particu- larly a valley with a small village, and about forty or fifty acres of land under tillage, mostly bearing rice ; a large village on the banks of a considerable river, meandring through an extensive and apparently fertile and populous valley, a cove with plenty of water for ships of any bur- den, good anchoring ground, well sheltered, especially from the north-east monsoon, and having at its head an extensive plain, with two villages separated by a small running stream, with forty or fifty acres employed in the culture of rice ; and a group of curious marble rocks, extending across the isthmus, one end being washed by the sea, and the other overhanging the river. The adjacent country is supposed to in general, healthy, the violent heat of the summer months be- ing tempered by regular breezes from the sea. Sep- tember, October, and November, are the season of rains ; which are also frequent in December, Jan- uary and February, attended at this time by cold north- erly winds. The inundations, which take place, gener- ally, once a fortnight, and last two or three days at a time, have an effect similar to that of the periodical overflowings of the Nile, in rendering the country one of the most fruitful of the globe. In many parts, the land produced three crops of grain in the year. Its most valuable produce, besides the precious metals, consisted in pepper, cinnamon, sugar, silk, and cotton, which the natives give in exchange for a variety of European man- ufactures. Not far from the harbour of Turon is the town of Fai-ſoo, a place of some note, and about eight miles E. of the thouth of a considerable river on the coast of Cochinchina, on the banks of which lies Fai- foo; and opposite to the said mouth of the river is Cat- lao, or, as the Europeans call it, Campello, the bearing of its highest peak from the harbour of Turon being about S.E., and the distance from it thirty miles. Staun- ton’s Emb. to China, vol. i. See CALLAo. TURONFS, or TURONI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of Gaul, described by Lucan (l. i. v. 437.) under the epithet of unstable. “Instabiles Turones circumsita castra coercent.” According to Ptolemy, they had a town, which he calls “Caesarodunum,” and he names the people “Turupii.” Their city was situated in the midst of the Loire, and they inhabited the territory that lay to the N.W. of it, and belonged to the third Lyonnese, of which their city became the metropolis. They had the character of not being fond of war: Tacitus calls them “Turones U imbelles,” T U R T U R imbelles,” and Sidonius Apollinaris says of them, “bel- la timentes defendit Turones.” When the Roman em- pire was destroyed in Gaul, the Visigoths became mas- ters of this city under the reign of Euric, and it belong- ed to them under that of Alaric in the year 506. But Clovis, having vanquished and killed this prince in 507, took possession of the whole territory from the Loire to the Pyrenées, and also of the city of Turones, the name of whein has been since changed to that of Tours; which see. * TURONILLA, in Ichthyology, a name given by some authors to the common little prickly fish called the stickle-back, or barnsticle. TUROOT, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in Lahore; 25 miles S.E. of Jummoo. TUROQUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, on the route from Bracara to Asturica, between Burbi- da and Aquae Celeniae. Anton. Itin. TUROWLA, in Geografthy, a town of Poland; 20 miles S.E. of Ploczko. • * TURPE, a town of Westphalia, in the bishopric of Paderborn ; 3 miles S.E. of Salzkotten. . TURPENTINE, TEREBINTHINA, a transparent sort of resinous juice, flowing either naturally, or by incision, from several unctuous and resinous trees: as the tere- binthus, larch, pine, fir, &c. Medical writers distinguish four kinds of turpentine ; as that of Chio or Cyprus, that of Venice, that of Stras- burgh, and the common turpentine. The turpentine of Chio or Cyprus, which is the finest genuineºkind, and that which gives the denomi- nation to all the rest, is generally about the consistence of thick honey, very tenacious, clear, and almost trans- parent, of a white colour, with a cast of yellow, and frequently of blue, of a warm, pungent, bitterish taste, and a fragrant smell, more agreeable than that of any of the other turpentines. - This is the produce of the common terebinth, or fistacia terebinthus of Linnaeus, (see PIstacIA), an evergreen bacciferous tree or shrub, growing sponta- neously in the Eastern countries, and in some of the southern parts of Europe. The turpentine brought to us is extracted in the islands whose name it bears, by wounding the trunk and branches a little after the buds have come forth : the juice issues thin and clear as water, and by degrees thickens into the consistence in which we meet with it. A like juice, exuding from this tree in the East, inspissated by a slow fire, is said by Kaempfer to be used as a masticatory by the Turk- ish women, for preserving the teeth, sweetening the breath, and promoting the appetite. 3. The turpentine of Venice is usually thinner than an of the other sorts, of a clear whitish or pale yellowish colour, a hot, pungent, bitterish, disagreeable taste, and a strong smell, without the aromatic flavour of the Chian kind. The true Venice turpentine is said to be obtained from the larch-tree, or finus lariac of Linnaeus (see PINUs,) growing in great abundance on the Alps and Pyrenées, and not uncommon in the English gar- dens. For this purpose, incisions are made at about two or three feet from the ground into the trunk of the trees, and into these they fix narrow troughs, about twenty inches long. The end of these troughs . is hollowed, like a ladle ; and in the middle is a small hole bored, through which the turpentine runs into a receiver placed below it. The people who gather it visit the trees morning and evening, from the end of May to September, to collect the turpentine out of the receivers. . When it flows out of the tree, it is clear, like water, and of a yellowish-white; but as it grows older, it thickens, and becomes of a citron colour. No trees, under twelve inches in diameter are tapped ; but vigorous trees will yield annually seven or eight pounds for forty or fifty successive years, or during the term of their life. Though this kind of turpen- tine bears the name of Venice, it is not the produce of the Venetian territories: it is brought from some parts of Germany, and one greatly resembling it, as it is said, from New England. It is also procured in great abundance in the neighbourhood of Lyons, and in the valley of St. Martin, near Lucern, in Switzer- land. The turpentine flowing naturally, and called by the peasants bijon, is a kind of balsam, not inferior in virtue to that of Peru. That drawn by incision, after the tree has ceased to yield spontaneously, is also of considerable use in several arts, and it is even of this that varnish is chiefly made. It must be chosen white and transparent; and care should be taken it have not been counterfeited with some other turpentine. In the shops, turpentine of Venice is often supplied by a composition of rosin, and the distilled oil of com- mon turpentine. Turpentine of Strasburg is generally of a middle consistence between the two former, more transparent and less tenacious than either, in colour yellowish- brown, in smell more agreeable than any of the other turpentines, except the Chian; in taste the most bitter, yet least acrid. This juice is extracted, in different parts of Germany, from the silver and red fir, (see PINUs Picea,) by cutting out successively narrow strips of the bark, from the height which a man can reach, to within two feet of the ground. In some places, a resinous juice is collected from certain knots, under the bark : this, called lacryma abiegna, and oleum abietinum, is accounted superior to the turpentine. Neither this turpentine, nor any thing under its name, is at present common in the shops. Common turpentine is about the consistence of ho- ney, of an opaque, brownish, white colour, the coarsest, heaviest, and in smell and taste the most disagreeable, of all the kinds of turpentine. It is obtained from the wild pine, (see PINUs Sylvestris,) which is extremely resinous; insomuch that, if not evacuated of its juice, it often swells and bursts. The tree is at its perfec- tion when between seventy and eighty years old; but is fit to yield turpentine at the age of forty. Those trees which are most exposed to the sun, and have the thickest bark, afford it in the greatest abundance. The operations for procuring it commence in the month of May; the outer bark is stripped off for six inches, so as to expose the inner smooth bark, near the foot of the tree, and a wound made with a sharp tool three inches square, and an inch deep. The resinous juice soon begins to exude in transparent drops, which fall into a hole previously dug at the foot of the tree: fresh incisions are successively made till September, when the cold begins to check the further exudation. The warmer the weather is, the greater quantity of tur- pentine is obtained; and a healthy tree may thus yield from six to twelve pounds of turpentine annually, for a century TURPENTINE. a century of years. Part of the juice concretes in the wounds, and is called gºalifot in Provence, and barras in Guienne ; but although it contains oil, yet it is not used for the purpose of procuring it. The proper turpentine is purified by being exposed to the sun’s rays in barrels perforated in the bottom, through which it filters when liquefied by the heat. 1 * The juice, as it issues from the tree, is sometimes received in trenches made in the earth, and afterwards freed of its grosser impurities by colature through wicker baskets. The cones of the tree appear to contain a resinous matter, of a more grateful kind than that of the trunk ; distilled while fresh, they are said to yield a fine essential oil, called by the Ger- mans carpathicum oleum, much superior to that of the turpentines, The oil of turfientine is obtained by distilling the rcsin with water in a common still, when the oil is found in the receiver swimming on the water, from which it is easily separated : the average proportion is 60 pounds of oil from 250 pounds of good tur- pentine. This process is carried on both abroad and at home ; but the oil drawn in this country is always preferred. * The Canada turpentine (see BALSAM) is obtained from a tree which is a native of North America, that flowers in May, and is brought to this country in casks, each of which contains about one hundred weight. It has a strong not disagreeable odour, and a bitterish taste ; it is transparent, whitish, and has the consis- tence of Copaiva balsam. Although Linnaeus, and several other writers on the Materia Medica, refer the common turpentine to the pinus sylvestris, and the terebinthina argen- toratensis, or Strasburg turpentine, to the silver fir- tree ; yet upon the authority of Murray, who follows Du Hamel and Haller, Woodville has ascribed the erebinthina vulgaris to the pinus picea, which pours out the turpentine so freely, that it is seldom ne- cessary to make incisions through the bark for the purpose. All these juices dissolve totally in rectified spirit, but give out little to watery menstrua: they become miscible with water into a milky liquor, by the media- tion of the yolk or white of an egg, and more effectu- ally by mucilages. Distilled with water, they yield a considerable quantity of a subtile, penetrating, essen- tial oil, vulgarly called &firit. Neumann says, that sixteen ounces of Venice turpentine, being distilled with water, yielded four ounces and three drachms of essential oil ; and the same quantity, distilled with- out water, yielded with the heat of a water-bath, two ounces only. The essential oil cannot without great difficulty be dissolved in spirit of wine : one part of the oil may be dissolved in seven parts of rec- tified spirit of wine ; but on standing a while, the greatest part of the oil separates, and falls to the bot- tom. After distillation of turpentine with water, a yellow or blackish resin remains in the still, which is the common rosin of the shops. See Rosſ N and Bur- gundy PITCH. - The essential oil, re-distilled by itselfin a retort, with a very gentle heat, becomes more subtile, and in this state is called ethereal ; a thick matter remaining be- hind, called balsam of turpentine. A like balsam is: also obtained by distilling with a stronger fire, the com- mon resin; from which there arises, first, a thin yellow oil, and afterwards the thicker dark-reddish balsam, a blackish resin, called colophony, remaining in the re- tort. • * All the turpentines are hot stimulating corroborants and detergents. They are given, where inflammatory Symptoms do not forbid the use of them, from half a scruple to half a drachm and upwards, for cleansing the urinary passages, and internal ulcerations in general, and in laxities of the seminal and uterine vessels. They seem to act in a peculiar manner on the urinary organs, impregnating the water with a violet smell, even when applied externally, particularly the Venice sort. This last is accounted the most powerful as a diuretic and detergent, and the Chio and Strasburg as corroborants. They all loosen the belly, but the Venice most ; and on this account they are supposed by Riverius and others to be less hurtful then such irritating diuretics, as are not accompanied with that advantage. Dr. Cullen re- marks, that terebinthinate glysters, in obstinate costive- ness, are much preferable to saline, as being more cer- tain and durable. When turpentine is carried into the blood-vessels, it stimulates the whole system ; and hence its use in chronic rheumatisms and paralysis. Turpentine readily passes off by urine, which it im- bues with a peculiar odour; also by perspiration, and probably by exhalation from the lungs: and to these re- spective effects are to be ascribed the virtues it may possess in gravelly complaints, scurvy, and pulmonic disorders. In all these diseases, however, and especially the last, this medicine, as well as some of the gums and balsams of the terebinthinate kind, by acting as stimu- lants, are often productive of mischief, as was first ob- served by Boerhaave, and since by Fothergill. Turpentine has been much used in gleats and fluor albus; its efficacy in the former of these disorders is as- cribed by Dr. Cullen to its inducing some degree of in- flammation of the urethra : in proof of which he says; “I have had some instances, both of turpentine and balsam of copaiva producing a manifest inflammation in the urethra, to the degree of occasioning a suppression of urine; but when these effects went off, the gleat which had subsisted for some time before, was entirely cured.” Of those turpentines which we have described, the Venice and Canada turpentines are more generally employed for internal purposes, the Chian not being easily procured ; and the common turpentine is offen- sive to most stomachs, so that its principal use is in some external applications, among the farriers, and for the distillation of the oil. * The oil is a most potent, stimulating, detergent diure- tic. It is sometimes given, in doses of a few drops, in rheumatisms and fixed pains of the joints; and some have ventured on much larger quantities. Cheyne re- commends (Ess. Gn the Gout, p. 199, ed. 10.), as a per- fect cure for sciaticas, though of many years standing, from one to four drachms of the ethereal oil, to be taken with thrice its quantity of honey, in a morning fasting, with large draughts of sack-whey after it, and an opiate at bed-time: this medicine is to be repeated, with the ccasional intermission of a day, if daily repetitions can- not be borne, for four or five days, or eight at farthest. It appears, however, says Dr. Lewis, highly imprudent to venture on such large doses at once, of a medicine so very hot and stimulating. Boerhaave, after recount- U 2 ing T U R TU R ing, not without some exaggeration, its styptic, anodyne, healing, antiseptic, and discutient virtues, when applied hot externally, and its aperient, warming, sudorific, and diuretic qualities, when taken internally, adds, that it must be used with great caution; that when taken too freely, it affects the head, excites heat and pain therein, and, violently urging a diabetes, brings on a flux of the semen and of the liquor of the prostates; and that in venereal runnings, in which it has by some been com- mended, it tends to inflame the parts, and increase the disorder. The oil of turpentine, taken in too large a dose, hath often very bed consequences; such as a strangury, bloody urine, and its total suppression, with a fever, vio- lent thirst, and vomiting. In the Medic. Ess. Edinb. vol. ii. art. 5. we have an account of such symptoms produced by the taking of two drachms of this oil in warm ale. The patient was cured by a warm bath, and drinking plentifully of Ful- Her’s emulsio Arabica. - The oil has lately been given with beneficial effect in unusually large doses for the expulsion of the tape-worm. It differs in its action from the other remedies which have been employed against tape-worms, by killing the worm before it throws it out, and hence it promises to be more permanently useful. The oil is useful when dropped into the ear in deafness occasioned by defect of wax. As a discutient, it is applied to indolent tumours, and is a useful primary application to burns. Turpentines are usually given in doses of grs. x to 3.j; either made into pills with powdered liquorice-root, or diffused in water by means of almonds, mucilage, or yolk of egg. The dose of the oil may be m x to 3.j, to produce its diuretic effect; but for the expulsion of taenia, it is necessary to give from f3ss to f.; if, repeated every eight hours till the worm is thrown out. In these large doses, it is more easily taken when exhibited un- combined. The officinal preparations of turpentine are, the “oleum terebinthinae;” the “emplastrum Galbani comp.;” the “unguentum elemi comp. ;” and of the oil, “linimentum terebinthinae.” This oil is generally used as a drier, to mix with the other oils; for which purpose it has greatly the advan- tage of drying-oil, with regard to colour, as it is perfect- ly transparent and white. It is used without any other preparation than mixing it, either alone or together, with drying-oil, with the other oils and colours. Turpentine is sometimes used with other bodies, to render spirit of wine a fit vehicle for colours. The balsam and the inspissated resins are used chiefly externally : the balsam is less pungent than the oil, and the resins much less so than the turpentines in substance. The common yellow resin, in taste considerably bitter, is sometimes given as an internal corroborant, in pre- ference to the turpentines themselves, as being divested of the stimulating oil. Turpentine, formerly much used as a digestive application, is, in modern surgery, almost wholly exploded. Lewis. Woodville. Thomson. Turpentine may be of use to preserve the bodies of insects. Mr. Boyle took clear Venice turpentine, and evaporating to two-thirds, obtained a reddish trans rent gum, clear of bubbles, easily soluble by heat, and easily rendered brittle by cold. Having first pulverized it, he melted it for use, with a gentle heat, and dipped the body to be preserved several times in it, till it ac- quired a case of due thickness. TURPENTINE, Balsam, Oil, and Shirit of. See TUR- PENTINE, supra. - - - TURPENTINE-Tree. See PISTACIA. This tree, besides its proper fruit, which succeeds the flowers in the usual way, is remarkable for producing what authors of little curiosity have named another fruit, called its horn. This horn is a membranous production, of the length and thickness of a man’s finger; and what surprised those authors who esteemed it a sort of pod, was to find that it produced, not seeds, but living animals, which they called flies. - The true history of this horn is, that it grows from the surface of the leaves, not from the stalks, in the man- ner of fruit, and is no natural production of the tree, but a mere accidental thing, occasioned by the wound of an insect on the leaf. A certain species of animals called pucerons, is pecu- liarly fond of the juices of the turpentine-tree, and al- ways takes its abode upon its leaves; and these horns are produced in the same manner with the galls of other plants. See PUCERon. TURPETH. See TURBITH. TURPIN, F. H., in Biography, a historical and bio- graphical writer, was born at Caen in 1709, where he became a professor, but afterwards removed to Paris, and employed himself as a copious writer. As he avowed free principles of government, he was under a necessity of quitting France for some time; but he died at Paris in a state of indigence, betraying neither impatience nor lº at the advanced age of 90 years. Nouv. Dict. ISt. TURPINIA, in Botany, according to De Théis, is a new genus, dedicated by Humboldt and Bonpland, in their 5th fasciculus, to the honour of M. Turpin, an able botanical draughtsman, as well as a distinguished natu- ralist, the author of several articles in the Annales du Musée d’Histoire JVaturelle. Respecting the characters, class, or order of this genus, we have no information; but the abilities of the person whose name it bears are conspicuous in the Flora Parisiensis, published by M. Poiteau and himself, in folio, with splendid plates, printed in colours, a work which unfortunately remains imper- fect, for want of encouragement. TURPNI, in Geografthy, a mountain of Silesia, in the principality of Teschen; 4 miles E. of Jablunkau. TURPO, a town of Peru, in the diocess of Gua- manga; 36 miles W. N. W. of Guanca Velica. TUROUOIS. See TURcois. TURRAEA, in Botany, received that name from Lin- naeus; but whether he designed to commemorate George à Turre, superintendant of the botanic garden at Padua, in the latter part of the 17th century or An- thony Turra, a botanist of his own time, remains uncer- tain. The former published at Padua, in 1685, a folio history of plants, without figures, entitled Dryadum, JAmadryadum, Cloridisque Triumphus, which Linnaeus, when he wrote his Bibliotheca Botanica, had never been able to meet with, and which, when he afterwards ac- quired it, certainly could contribute little to his infor- mation, being a mere compilation of obselete opinions. Anthony Turra, who lived at Vicenza, printed in 1765, a 4to. dissertation on the Farsetia, a genus now esta- blished by Mr. Brown in Ait. Horſ. Kew. v. 3.96. He also published, in 1780, a Florae Italica Prodromus, and is the author of an Italian dissertation on the febrifuge virtues of Horse-chesnut bark. We cannot but regret - - that T U R RAE A. that so distinct a genus, remarkable for its elegance as well as rarity, should not be more decidedly or satisfac- torily appropriated.—Linn. Mant. 2. 150. Sm. Plant. Ic. fasc. i. 10. Schreb. Gen. 285. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 555. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Cavan. Diss. 7. 360. Juss. 264. Lamarck Illustr. t. 351.-Class and order, De- candria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Trihilatae, sect. 1. Linn. Melide, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell- shaped, five-toothed, small, permanent. Cor. Petals five, linear, moderately spreading, very long, slightly dilated upward. Nectary a cylindrical tube, as long as the petals, or longer; its margin in ten acute spreading segments, sometimes divided. Stam. Filaments ten, very short, inserted between the teeth of the nectary; anthers erect, nearly ovate, emarginate. Pist. Germen superior, roundish, style thread-shaped, about the length of the nectary; stigma rather obtuse, corrugated. Peric. Cap- sule roundish, depressed, five-lobed, five-celled, with ten valves, bursting lengthwise. Seeds kidney-shaped, two in each cell. Ess. Ch. Calyx with five teeth. Petals five. Nectary cylindrical, bearing the anthers between its segments. Capsule superior, five-lobed, five-celled. Seeds in pairs. Linnaeus knew but one species of Turrata, sent him by Koenig. The writer of the present article has delineated that, with two new species, in his Plantarum Icones, and has now an opportunity of adding a fourth; making, with one described by Cavanilles, and another by Helle- nius, six speciesin all. The whole are of a shrubby habit, with alternate, stalked, entire, simple, mostly undivided, leaves, without stiftulas, and stalked, lateral flowers, re- markable for their great length. 1. T. virens. Evergreen Turraea. Linn. Mant. 237. Willd. n. I. Sm. Plant. Ic. fasc. 1. t. 10. Cavan. Diss. 361. n. 524.—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, emarginate, very smooth. Calyx and fruit silky.—Gathered by Koe- nig among the lava of extinct volcanoes in the East In- dies. This is an evergreen tree, or shrub, with scattered, divaricated, round, brown, leafy branches, slightly silky in their youngest state only. Leaves about three inches long, on short thick stalks, smooth and shining on both sides, terminating in a short, broad, notched point; fur- nished with a strong midrib, and innumerable finely re- ticulated veins; their under side much the palest. Flowers in little, short, axillary tufts, on angular partial stalks, and accompanied by a few small leaves, as well as manny linear silky bracteas. Calyx very small, silky, with five angles, and five small teeth. Petals and mec- tary smooth, slender and delicate, above an inch long; we should suppose them to be white, or pale flesh-co- loured; Linnaeus tilought the former, at least, were yellow, Cañsule a quarter of an inch in diameter, clothed with silky prominent hairs. 2. T. flubescens. Downy-leaved Turraea. “Helle- pius, in Stockh. Trans. for 1788. p. 296. t. 10. f. 3.” Willd. n. 2.-Leaves ovate, undivided or emarginate; downy beneath. Flowers aggregate. Calyx vilious—: Native of the island of Hainan. The fruit of this spe- cies has not been observed. We have never seen a spe- Cimen, nor are we possessed of that particular volume of the Stockholm Transactions, in which alone it is de- scribed and figured. Having formerly however examined that work, in order to contrast this with the other species, We iº, to doubt of its being well defined. * ''. inaculata. Spotted-leaved. Turraea. Sm. Flant. Ic. t. 11. Willd, fl. 3. (T. glabra; Cavan. Diss, 360. n. 521. t. 204.)—Leaves elliptical, smooth. Calyx fringed.—Gathered by Commerson in Madagascar. This appears to be a tree, with deciduous leaves, which are perfectly smooth, of a broad, elliptical figure, blunt- ly pointed, two inches or more in length; marked with pale blotches on the under side, especially near the ribs. Footstalks channelled, half an inch long. Flowers two or three together, on smooth simple stalks, hardly an inch long, erect. Calyz quite smooth, except its silky edges; the teeth short. Petals three inches long, yellow in the dried specimen, a little downy externally at the upper part. Mectary, about the same length, slightly dilated, or funnel-shaped, at the top, with undivided seg- IrientS. 4. T. sericea. Silky-leaved Turraea. Sm. Pl. Ic. t. 12. Willd. n. 4. (T. tomentosa; Cavan. Diss. 361. n. 522. t. 205. f. 2.)—Leaves elliptical ; villous on both sides. Calyx and flower-stalks downy. Seg- ments of the nectary divided.—Gathered by Commer- son in Madagascar. The leaves are densely clothed, especially when young, on both sides, with short, shaggy silky hairs, and stand on downy footstalks. Some of them, in our specimen, betray symptoms of being occa- sionally angular, or very slightly lobed. The flowers are even larger than the last, their fetals and nectary measuring each five inches. Their colour appears to be reddish, and both are externally downy. The seg- ments of the nectary, an inch long, are each divided half way down, into two almost capillary points. . The fruit of this, as well as the preceding, is unknown. * 5. T. Zanceolata. Pink and Green Turraca. Cavan. Diss. 361. n. 523. t. 205. f. 1. Willd. n. 5.-Leaves el- liptic-lanceolate, somewhat wavy, smooth. Teeth of the calyx downy, twice the length of its tube. Nectary longer than the petals, its segments bearing the anthers. —Gathered likewise in Madagascar, by Commerson. The leaves are quite smooth, rounded at each end, about two inches long, rather coriaceous; some of them wavy at the edge. Footstalks rather short and stout. Flower-stalks solitary or in pairs, erect, angular, Smooth, scarcely longer than the calyx with its teeth. Petals linear, an inch and half long; rose-coloured in their low- er half; yellow above; green and externally hairy at the extremity; they cohere in our specimen, forming a tube, so as to resemble some of the tubular-flowered Erica, whose stamens moreover are imitated by the pale, prominent, ribbed nectary, bearing the sessile anthers, about the middle of its taper-pointed segments. This peculiar insertion of the anthers, the apparently mono- petalous corolla, and our ignorance of the fruit, have always prevented our publishing this beautiful plant as a Tarraca, but Cavanilles seems to have found the fetals distinct, and we follow his example in admitting it here, though still with great scruples, on account of the an- thers. 6. T. heteroññylla. Various-leaved Turraea—Leaves ovate ; undivided or three-lobed, with downy veins. Ca- lyac downy, with short teeth. Petals somewhat spatu- late, longer than the nectary. Gathered on the Cape Coast of Africa, by Mr. William Brass, and communi- cated to us by the right honourable sir Joseph Banks, in 1798. This has slender, downy, leafy branches. Leaves two, or two and a half inches long, on shortish, downy stalks; some of them ovate, pointed, quite undi- vided ; others, rather the largest, wedge-shaped at the base, difat d beyond the middle, into two, more or less distinct, blunt, lateral lobes; all thin, copiously veined, paler T U R TU R paler beneath; their principal veins downy on both sides. Flowers red, smaller than any of the foregoing, on downy stalks not an inch long, standing in pairs on one shorter, more downy, axillary common-stalk, accom- panied by a few small bracteas. Calya angular, with broad, short, pointed teeth Petals scarcely an inch in length, much dilated upwards, palest on the inside. Wec- tary two-thirds as long as the petals, exactly cylindrical, smooth. It seems to have almost capillary marginal teeth, between which are seated the large tumid anthers, but our specimen is not in sufficiently good order to allow us to speak positively to this point. The stigma is club- shaped, large, and prominent. Fruit wanting. TURREBA, the Earth-Afiftle, in JWatural History, a name given by the people of Guinea, and some other parts of Africa, to a very fine kind of truffle, which they find in great plenty in their barren deserts, four or five inches under the sand. TURREFF, in Geografthy, a market-town in the district of the same name, and shire of Aberdeen, Scot- land; is situated on the banks of the Deveron, 34 miles N. by W. distant from Aberdeen, and 155 N. by E. from. Edinburgh. It is a free burgh of barony, by a charter of James IV. granted in 151 1, whereby it was entitled to hold a weekly market and two annual fairs: the mar- ket is well supplied ; and the number of fairs has been increased to seven. The principal manufactures are those of linen-yarn, thread, and brown linen; and here is a considerable bleach-field. The church was re- built in 1794. Here was formerly a hospital belonging to the knights Templars; and also one for twelve old men, founded in 1272 by Cumyn, earl of Buchan, and richly endowed in the succeeding century by king Ro- bert Bruce. The parish of Turreff extends round the town about 4% miles in every direction, except to the N. W. where it is bounded by the Deveron. Agricultural improvements have been lately introduced; and here are several considerable plantations. In the population re- turn of the year 1811, the inhabitants of the parish are stated to be 2227 ; the number of houses 502.—Beau- ties of Scotland, vol. iv. Aberdeenshire, 1806. Car- lisle’s Topographical Dictionary of Scotland, 1815. TURRETS, Moveable, in the Roman Art of War, were of two sorts, the less and the greater; those of the lesser sort were about 60 cubits high, with square sides 17 cubits broad; they had five or six, and sometimes ten stories or divisions, each of which was open on all sides. The greater turrets were 120 cubits high, and 23 cubits square, containing sometimes fifteen, some- times twenty divisions. They were of great use in ma- king approaches to the walls, the divisions being able to carry soldiers with engines, ladders, casting-bridges, and other necessaries. The wheels on which they moved were contrived to be within the planks, to defend them from the enemy, and the men who were to drive them forwards stood be- hind, where they were most secure; the soldiers within. were protected by raw hides thrown over the turrets, and guarding those parts that were most exposed. See To WER. - TURRET Island, in Geografthy, a small island in the Mergui Archipelago. N. lat. 10°24'. TURRETINI, BENEDICT, in Biografhy, an eminent. Protestant divine, was the descendant of an ancient fa- mily of Lucca, and born at Zurich in 1588, being the . son of a refugee from his country on account of his at- tachment to the principles of the Reformation; and in 1612 became a pastor and professor of theology at Ge. , neva. . He was employed in several successful missions, by the conduct of which he gained distinguished repu. tation; and died in 1631, with the character of an emi- nent theologian, and a man of prudence and moderation. His works were, “A Defence of the Fidelity of the Ger- man Version of the Bible,” written in French, and com- prised in 3 vols. 4to. 1618–20, with a sequel in 1626; a variety of theological disputations in Latin, on the Cal- vinistic system of divinity; and sermons in Italian and French. Moreri. His son, FRANCIS TURRETINI, was born at Gene- va in 1623, and received his education under several eminent German professors, also at Leyden, and after- wards at Paris, where he attended the lectures of Gas- sendi. Returning to Geneva, he was admitted to the exercise of his ministry. Having for some time offi- ciated as pastor of the Calvinist church at Lyons, he. became, on his return to Geneva in 1653, professor of theology, in which station he continued through life. He was employed in various departments of public. business, and died in 1687. Among other theological writings, didactic and controversial, he published “ In- stitutionum Theologiae Elenchticae Partes tres,” 1679. —1685, exhibiting a fair and candid view of the points that were controverted between the different commu- nions. Moreri. A son of the preceding, Jo HN ALPHONso TURRE- TINI, and the most celebrated of the name, was born at Geneva in 1671, and having, in consequence of dis- tinguished talents and application, the tuition of able masters, access to a well-stored library, and an ample patrimony, laid the foundation of learning at home, he commenced, in his 20th year, his travels, and at Ley- den studied ecclesiastical history under Spanheim. During his residence here he published in 1692 his “Pyrrhonismus Pontificius, sive Theses Theologico- Historicae de Variationibus Pontificiorum, circa Ec- clesiae Infallibilitatem.” designed to counteract the in- fluence of Bossuet's book “Les Variations des Egiises Protestantes,” by shewing that the Roman g y 3) Catholic church had been equally fluctuating in its opinions. At this time he visited England, and be- ing introduced to Burnet, Tillotson, and Wake, he la- boured to cancel the false notions that were entertain- ed by some English divines concerning the Genevan church. Upon his visit to Paris, he is said to have as- tonished the doctors of the Sorbonne, in a public dis- putation, by the purity of his. Latin, the depth of his reasoning, and his polite manner of arguing. When . he returned to Geneva, he commenced the exercise of his ministry in 1694, and was much admired as a preacher. The magistrates established for him, in 1699, a professorship of ecclesiastical history, the du- ties of which he discharged without any salary. These lectures were introduced with an oration, “De Sacrarum Antiquitatum usu et Præstantia;” and the substance of these lectures comprised a body of ec- clesiastical history, divided into more than 300 disser- tations. In 1701 he was chosen rector of the academy of Geneva; and in this station, which he occupied for ten years, he delivered ten annual discourses, display- ing eloquence united with erudition and excellent mo- ral sentiments. Upon being appointed to the office . of professor of theology in 1705, he delivered an inau- gural speech, “De Theologo Veritatis et * stu. OSO, --- T U R TU R dioso.” In his course of divinity lectures, he discuss- ed the most important topics of divinity, without the formality of system ; such as natural religion, the ex- cellence and evidences of the Christian revelation, the perfections of the Deity, the interpretation of Scripture, and similar subjects. It was very much the object of his wish to unite all Protestants; and with this view he took part with those German ministers who, in 1706, obtained a dispensation from the necessity of signing the formulary, intitled “Consensus,” introduced du- ring the violent disputes that had occurred concerning Grace and Predestination. Some other public offices were devolved upon him, which engaged his attention and occupied much of his time and labour. siduous exertions, together with the uneasiness that was occasioned by the perturbed state of Geneva, are thought to have shortened his life, which terminated in May 1737, at the age of nearly 66 years. His works in 3 vols. 4to. were published in 1737; and after his death appeared his Commentaries on the Epistles to the Ro- mans and Thessalonians. Moreri. Gen. Biog. TURRITIS, in Botany, so called, as Clusius says, from turris, a tower, in allusion to its pyramidal form of growth; whence also its English name of Tower- mustard.—Linn. Gen. 341. Schreb. 444. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 542. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Brown in Ait. Hort Kew. v. 4. 108. Sm. Fl. Brit. 715. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 29. Pursh 438. Juss. 238. Gaertn. t. 143:-Class and order, Tetradynamia Siliquosa. Nat. Ord. Siliquos de, Linn. Cruciferas, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four ovate- oblong, erect leaves, converging in a parallel manner, deciduous. , Cor. cruciform, of four ovate-oblong, ob- tuse, erect, unºvided petals, with erect claws. Stam. Filaments six, awl-shaped, erect, the length of the claws, two of them shorter; anthers simple. Pist, Ger- men the length of the flower, roundish, slightly com- pressed; style none; stigma obtuse. Peric. Pod re- markably long, straight, quadrangular, but with two opposite angles obsolete and flattened, of two cells, and two keeled ribbed valves, scarcely equal in length to the partition. Seeds very numerous, roundish, emar- ginate; their cotyledons accumbent. Ess. Ch. Pod very long and straight, linear, two- edged ; its valves ribbed and keeled. Calyx closed, erect. Corolla erect. All botanists, who have examined into the subject, have found great difficulty in distinguishing this genus from ARABIs (see that article;) the character of the four prominent scales, or nectariferous glands, in the latter, being very uncertain. The best attempt at discriminating these genera that has ever perhaps been made, is Mr. Brown’s, in the Hortus Kewensis, which is founded on the seeds of Arabis being ranged in a simple row in each cell, while those of Turritis compose a double one ; for this is, in fact, the only real difference in our learned friend’s characters. By his rule, Turritis hirsuta and alpina are removed to Arabis ; while Brassica arvensis and Sisymbrium Loe- selii, with probably some others, become species of Z’urritis. In the latter case, great violence is offered to natural affinity, but perhaps the character itself is inot clear in S. Loeselii, and its merit is therefore not invalidated by this species, whose close relationship to S. Irio we have noticed in the proper place. (See His as- - SIsrw.brium.) We are almost persuaded of the me- rit of the above distinction, in sending away to Arabis all the species of Turritis which have a simple row of seeds, and some of which have always been ambigu- ous. They meet in that genus with their natural allies. Nevertheless, as we have not yet treated of these species, we shall retain them here, for the pre- sent at least, indicating under each Mr. Brown’s alte- rations, for the guidance of those who may wish to judge of his sentiments, or hereafter to conform to them. On subjects connected herewith, the reader will find some remarks under TETRADY NAMIA. 1. T. glabra. Common Smooth Tower-mustard. Linn. Sp. Pl. 930. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 2. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 777. Curt, Lond, fasc. 4:... t. 47. FI. Dan. t. 809. (Turritis; Ger, Em. 272. Turrita vulgatior; Clus. Hist. v. 2. 126.)—Radical leaves toothed, hairy; the rest entire, clasping the stem, smooth.--Native of dry open gravelly places, in most parts of Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering early in summer. In England it is not one of the most common plants, being confined to a gravelly, chalky, or limestone soil. The root is annual, or biennial, tap-shaped. Stem simple, erect, wand-like, two or three feet high, round, smooth; covered with nume- rous, somewhat crowded or imbricated, erect very smooth, ovate, acute, glaucous leaves, arrow-shaped at their base; while the numerous spreading radical leaves are very rough with partly forked hairs, tooth- ed, or pinnatifid. Flowers cream-coloured, corym- bose, very numerous, their common stalk greatly elongated, after flowering, into a dense cluster of long, slender, smooth, erect, stalked fºods, each two inches long, and full of numerous small seeds, imbri: cated in two rows, as we have already mentioned, and not alternately crossing each other, so as to form a simple row. These seeds were formerly an article of the Materia Medica, being esteemed hot and dry, stimulating to the generative faculty, preserving against apoplexy, &c. virtues scarcely intelligible, or consistent. 2. T. laevigata. American Smooth Tower-mus- tard. Willd. n. 2. Muhlenb. Cat. 61. Pursh n. 1.- Leaves all smooth, glaucous ; radical ones obovate, stalked, serrated ; the rest linear-lanceolate, entire, clasping the stem.—Sent from Pennsylvania by the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg. On rocks from Pennsylvania to Virginia; rare; flowering in May and June. Very smooth and glaucous, about a foot high. Pursh. Root biennial. Stem quite simple. Radical leaves obtuse, slightly serrated; those of the stem arrow-shaped, the lowermost an inch long, lanceolate, obtuse, serrated at the extremity ; the rest smaller, narrower, entire. Flowers like the first species, but rather less. Pods erect. Willden ow. 3. T. stricta. Slender Tower-mustard. Allion Auctuar. 18. Willd. n. 3.-Leaves all smooth and shining; radical ones ovate, somewhat stalked, slightly toothed ; the rest lanceolate, strongly toothed, ses- sile.—In meadows, and rather moist pastures, in se- veral parts of Piedmont. Root white, woody. Stem two feet high, erect, quite simple, round, smooth, firm, clothed from top to bottom with alternate, close- pressed leaves, which are tapering, not arrow-shaped, at the base, Flowers small, white. Pods linear, flat, TURRITIS. flat, acute, erect, above an inch long, thin at the margin ; the lower ones on longish stalks, and least crowded. This species is akin to T hirsuta. Allioni. 4. T. hirsuta. Hairy Tower-mustard. Linn. Sp. Pl. 930. Willd. n. 4. Fl. Brit. n 2. Engl. Bot. t. 587. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 126. F1. Dan. t. 1040. Ehrh. Herb. 159. (T. n. 456; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 198. Ara. bis hirsuta ; Scop. Carn. v. 2, 30. Brown in Ait. n. 11. Erysimo similis hirsuta alba; Bauh. Prodr. 42. Barbaraºa muralis; Bauh. Hist. v. 2. 869.)—Leaves all rough, toothed in the middle. Stem hairy; the hairs simple and spreading. Branches straight, erect. Pod slightly quadrangular—Native of dry open pas- tures, and old walls, in most parts of Europe; not very common in England; flowering in May. The ºroot is strong, woody, and, we believe, perennial. Stems generally several, one of which is much stronger than the rest, erect, a foot or eighteen inches high, Ieafy, branched, round, clothed with thick-set, pro- minent, simple hairs, the flowering part only being smooth. Leaves toothed, chiefly about the middle, bluntish, all more or less hairy; the radical ones obovate, slender at the base, but not stalked; those on the stem sessile, or partly embracing it, rarely dilated at each side into a small auricle. Flowers numerous, small, white, not coloured. Pods forming a very long, close, erect cluster, all narrow, compressed, but the valves are more or less strongly keeled, so as to render the pod quadrangular ; its surface is smooth and shining, beaded, in a manner, with the projecting seeds, which though inserted, of course, alternately, in two rows, range in one simple series. When ripe the fºods droop a little. Linnaeus originally confounded with this his T. alſiina, whose leaves are all smooth on both surfaces; and also the following. 5. T. firøcor. Early Tower-mustard. (T. n. 2; Gerard Galloprov. 367.)—Leaves all rough, obtuse, toothed in the middle. Stem hairy; the hairs forked and depressed, like those on the leaves Brailclies straight, erect. Pod flat.—Native of Provence and Switzerland. Nearly out of flower when the hirsuta first expands, being full a month earlier than that spe- cies, from which, though very like in general habit, it differs in having larger flowers, tinged with purple in both calyz and fetals ; fºods nearly flat, their valves with scarcely any sign of a rib or keel; and the hairs of the stem forked, or branched, depressed and en- tangled, as are all those on the leaves. The late Mr. Davall of Orbe in Switzerland first distinguished this plant from the foregoing. 6. T. flatula. Spreading Tower-mustard. Ehrh. Beitr. v. 7. 159. Pl. Select n. 28. Willd. n. 5. (Tourrete cotoneuse ; Reyn. Mem. de la Suisse v. 1. 169. Arabis saxatilis; Allion. Ped. v. 1. 268.)— Leaves all rough with spreading forked hairs, ovate, toothed, clasping the stem. Bra...ches spreading.— Natives of rocks in Switzerland, in a southern expo- sure. Favrod. Root annual, tapering. Stem one, or more, erect, about a foot high, round, leafy, clothed with forked or starry hairs, intermixed with longer simple ones. Branches axillary, alternate, slender, loosely spreading. Leaves hardly an inch long, clasp- ing the stem with their heart-shaped base, hoary with minute, bristly, divided hairs, and bordered with tooth- iike serratures; radical ones contracted at their base, disappearing early. Flowers corymbose, very small, white. Calyx not always, as Ehrhart describes it, quite smooth : we find it sometimes tipped with fine hairs. Pods spreading, very slender, an inch and a half long, their valves without any ridge or keel. The general habit of this species, except the hods, is more like Draba muralis than any other Turritis. Allioni’s synonym, hinted by Reynier, is confirmed by a Piedmontese specimen from Dr. Moleneri. 7, T. flubescens. Downy Tower mustard. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 92. t. 163. Wilid. n. 6.—Leaves all rough with prominent hairs, coarsely toothed; those of the stem sessile. Branches spreading. Pods erect, downy.—Native of hills about Algiers, flowering early in the spring. This resembles T. hirsuta, but is less shaggy, rather larger, with more spreading branches, and downy, less crowded, fiods. The leaves are all more deeply serrated or toothed. 8. T. ovata. American Hairy Tower-mustard. Pursh n. 2. (T. hirsuta ; Muhlenb. Cat. 61.)—Radi- cal leaves stalked, ovate, toothed, obtuse, rough on both sides with starry hairs; those of the stem oblong, Somewhat arrow-shaped, serrated, smooth above. Hairs on the stem depressed. Pods flat, smooth, Scarcely keeled.—On rocks from Pennsylvania to Virginia, flowering in May and June. Biennial. Pursh. This also resembles T. hirsuta, to which we have formerly been disposed, like Dr. Muhlenberg, to refer it. The close-pressed hairs of the stem, less prominent keels of the fiods, and the smoothness of the upper surface of the stem-leaves, appear sufficient marks of distinction. 9. T. alpina. Alpine Tower-mustard. Linn. Syst. Veg. ed. 13. 502. Willd. n. 8. Sm. &pmpend. ed. 2. 101. Engl. Bot. t. 1746. (T. ciliata; Willd. n. 7. Schleich. Catal. 59. Tourrete ciliée ; Reyn. Mem. de la Suisse, v. 1. 171. Arabis ciliata; Brown in Ait. n. 10.)—Leaves somewhat toothed, smooth, distantly ſriuged and bearded ; the radical ones obovate ; the rest elliptical, half-embracing the stem.—Native of Gothland, Austria, Switzerland, and the west of Ire- land, flowering about July or August. It was first observed in the latter country by Mr. J. T. Mackay, who gathered this plant by the sea-side at Rinville, Cunnamara, in 1806. Linnaeus originally conside red his own Gothland specimens as a mere variety of hirsuta (see FI. Suec. 236.) but afterwards corrected that error. The root is apparently biennial. Stem one, or more, from two to twelve inches high, simple, erect, leafy, round, mostly smooth. Leaves all smooth on both sides, fringed with simple or forked, scat- tered, spreading hairs, a few of which are often clus- tered into a little tuft at the tips; the radical ones are frequently tinged with red. The more evidently the leaves are toothed, the less they seem to be fringed, as observed in Engl. Bot. Flowers white, larger than in T. hirsuta, forming a simple corymb, soon becom- ing a long cluster of narrow smooth hods, whose valves are very perceptibly keeled. Reynier’s original spe- cimen from Favrod proves his plant, and consequently that of Schleicher and Willdenow, to be the Linnaean T. alſhina. The T. caerulea of Allioni, Fl. Pedem. v. 1. 270. t. 40. f. 2, being considered as an Arabie by Wulfen, who is followed by Willdenow, St. Pl. v. 3, 537, . - Well T U R T U R $ we shall leave it there. sian empire. of Africa. well as by Mr. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 104, - However naturally allied this plant may seem to be to our last-described Tur- ritis, it is at least as much akin to 4. alſiina, bellidi- folia, and others of that genus. . . . . . TURRORAH, in Geography, a town of Hindoos- tan, in Goondwana; 20 miles S. W. of Coomtah. TURROW, a town of Hindoostan, in Bahar; 26 miles S. W. of Arrah. --" - TURRUNG, a river of Asia, which empties itself into a lake, 18 miles S. of Candahar. TURSHISH, sometimes written Terchiz and Ter- shiz, a town and district of Persia, in the province of Khorassan, 63 fursungs W. N. W. of Herat, lately taken possession of by the troops of his Persian ma- jesty. The old city, called Saltanabad, is small ; but to this a new one has been added, where the governor and his principal officers reside. They both together contain about 20,000 people, amongst which are 100 Hindoo families. The trade of this place arises prin- cipally from the importation of indigo, and other drugs, from the westward: wool and cloths, and rice, from Herat; and the chief export is iron wrought in thick plates. The trifling quantity of European goods re- quired is brought from Mazandéraun. Between this city and Herat the country is in general mountainous, wild, and uncultivated. Kinneir's Mem. of the Per- TURSI, a town of Naples, in the Basilicata, the see of a bishop, suffragan of Matera ; twenty-four miles south of Matera. N. lat. 40° 17'. E. long. 16o 30'. - TURSIO, in Ichthyology, a name by which Bello- nius, Scaliger, and several others, have called the fihocaena or porpesse, distinctively from the dolphin, with which it is confounded by the vulgar. See Port PEss E. - - TURSOSKA, in Geografthy, a town'of Hungary; 16 miles N of Bolesko. - TURTALA, a town of Sweden, in West Bothnia; 45 miles N. of Tornea. - . TURTEREBES, a town of Hungary; 14 miles N. N. E. of Zatmar. . TURTLE, in Ornithology. See Columb A. TURTLE, in Ichthyology, the name by which we commonly call the great sea-tortoise. See Tora- TOISE. - TURTLE-Shell. Shell. - .*. TURTLE Bay, in Geografthy, a bay on the W. coast S. lat. 14° 56'.—Also, a bay on the S. coast of New Ireland, so called by captain Carteret. Dampier before called it “ St George's Bay;” and from Bougainville it obtained the name of “Praslin Bay. 2 × . - - : - * - TURTLE Creek, a branch of the Monongahela river. [At the head of this creek, general Braddock engaged a party of Indians, the ninth of July, 1755, on his way to fort Du Quesne, (now Pittsburg) where he was repuised, himself, killed, his army put to flight, and the remains of the army brought off the field by the address of coloneſ (aferwards general,) Washington.] —Also, a township of Ohio, in the county of Warren, containing 3442 inhabitants. - TUR'rl E Intet, a channel between two small islands, VoI. XXXVIII. Basilicata; 40 miles S. of Potenza. See Tortoise and To RTorse- N. lat. on the coast of New Jersey. 399 2. W. long 74°. 47. TuRTLE Island, a small island in the East Indian S. lat. 6° 35'. E. long. 132° 5'1' –Also, a small island in the South Pacific ocean, surrounded by a reef of coral rocks. S. lat. 19° 50'. W. long. 1779 57. . . TURTLE Lake, a small lake of Canada. N. lat. 48° 34'. . W. long 71° 31'. TURTLE Point, a cape on the south coast of Java. S. lat. 7°42'. E. long. 109° 58'.—Also, a cape on the coast of West Florida, in the gulf of Mexico. N. lat. 29° 54. W. long, 89° 4'. ' . . TURTLE River, a river of the state of Georgia, which runs into the sea. N. lat. 3 19 12'. W. long. 819 40'. - . TURTON, a township of England, in Lancashire, with 1782 inhabitants; more than half employed in trade and manufactures; six miles south of Black- burn. TURTUCAIA, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria, on the Danube. In 1773, it was taken and burned by the Russians; thirty-four miles S. W. of Dristra. - TURTUR, in Ornithology. See Colum BA. w TURTUR, in Ichthyology, a name given by Paulus Jovius, and some other writers, to the fish called the fiastinaca marina. - TURTUR, the Turtle-shall, in Matural History, the name given by the collectors of shells to a very beau- tiful species of murex, common in the cabinets, but not found any where on the shores. This is owing to its having greatly altered its appearance in polishing ; for it is no other than the white and brown-mouthed murex, which is common in its rough state, with its outer coat taken off. - TURTURA, in Geography, a tewn of Naples, in - A. - TURTURANO, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto; five miles S. of Brindisi. TURUCHAN, a river of Russia, which rises from a lake, N. lat. 67° 42'. E. long 84° 14', and runs into the Enisei, a little south of Turuchansk. - TURUCHANSK, a town of Russia, in the go- vernment of Tobolsk, on the Enisei, formerly called “Mangasea.” According to an old tradition deli- vered down from father to son, a colony from Arch- angel built the old ostrog of Mangasea, before any other Russian town existed in Siberia. It derives its name from a Samoiedean tribe, who inhabited this coun- try, calling themselves Mangase; who, by promising to pay tribute to the Russians, occasioned the building of the town. Old Mangasea, which stood on the river Taz, gradually fell to decay; in 1600, the pre- sent town was built, and the inhabitants of the old ostrog were removed hither. This new ostrog was also called “Mangasea;” but as it lies at the mouth of the river Turukan, it had also the name of Turu- kansk, which it retains to this day. As this ostrog proved the means of several nations becoming tribu- tary to the Russians, it was probably on that account afterwards endowed with the privileges of a town. The houses in this town are not contiguous, and at most do not exceed one hundred. The greatest part of it is enclosed within a small wooden fortification, with four pieces of cannon; and in this stands the X - house T U S T US house of the governor or prefect, and the principal church ; and without it are two other churches. Most of the inhabitants have always been Cossacks; who were placed here, in order to subdue, or at least to check, the Pagan nations, of this country, particularly the Tungusians and Samoiedes; 724 miles N. E. of Tobolsk. N. lat. 65° 40'. E. long. 88° 44'. TURUNDA, a tent, so called in Surgery, is usually composed of a bit of lint rolled up, or else of a piece of common sponge, or prepared sponge. Its general use is to keep an opening from healing up too soon, in cases of abscesses, diseased bone, &c. Sometimes, also, it is used for dilating the aperture, by which means extraneous substances can be removed, without em- ploying the knife. Tents have even been used for dilating the meatus urinarius, and thus enabling the surgeon to extract stones of considerable size from the bladders of female subjects. TURUNGA, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in the circar of Ruttunpour; 24 miles N. of Raypour. TURZA, or TURCETA, in Ancient Geografthy, Bott- sha, a town of Africa, 6 leagues S.W. of Tunis, now a heap of ruins. TURZEC, in Geografi.hy, a town of Lithuania, in the palatine of Novogrodek; 24 miles E. of Novogrodek. TURZO, TRUzEA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Africa, mentioned by Ptolemy, situated eight leagues W. of Vicus Augusti. TURZONZA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan, on the side of a lake; 25 miles W. of Mechoacan. TUS. See MESCHID. TUSA, a fortress on the north coast of Sicily; 8 miles S. E. of Cefalu. TUSANTLU, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan. - - TUSBY, a town of Sweden, in Nyland; 15 miles N. of Helsingfors. .' TUSCA, the Zaine, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa, which separated Africa Propria from Numidia. Pliny. - TUSCAN, in Architecture, the first, simplest, and most massive of the five orders. The Tuscan order takes its name from the ancient people of Lydia, who, coming out of Asia to people Tuscany, first executed it in some temples, which they built in their new plantations. - Vitruvius calls the Tuscan the rustic order ; with whom agrees M. de Cambray, who, in his Parallel, says, it ought never to be used but in country-houses and palaces. M. le Clerc adds, that in the manner Vitru- vius, Palladio, and some others, have ordered it, it does not deserve to be used at all But in Vignola's manner of composition, he allows it a beauty, even in its sim- plicity; and such as makes it proper not only for private houses, but even for public buildings, as in the piazzas of squares and markets, in the magazines and granaries of cities, and even in the offices and lower apartments of palaces. * The Tuscan has its character and proportions, as well as the other orders; but we have no ancient monuments to give us any regular Tuscan pillºr for a standard. M. Perrault observes, that the characters of the Tus- can are nearly the same with those of the Doric; and adds, that the Tuscan is, in effect, no other than the Doric, made somewhat stronger, by shortening the shaft of the column; and simpler, by the small number, and largeness of the mouldings, Vitruvius makes the whole height of the order 14 modules, in which he is followed by Vignola, M. le Clerc, &c. Serlio, only makes it 12. Palladio gives us one Tuscan profile, much the same as that of Vitru- vius; and another too rich ; on which side Scamozzi is likewise faulty. Hence it is, that that of Vignola, who has made the order very regular, is most followed by the modern architects. See Column. . . Of all the orders, the Tuscan is the most easily ex- ecuted, as having neither triglyphs nor dentils, normo- dillions to cramp its intercolumns. On this account, the columns of this order may be ranged in any of the five manners of Vitruvius, viz. the pycnostyle, systile, eustile, diastile, or araeostile. For the parts and members of the Tuscan order, their proportions, &c. see CAPITAL, BASE, PEDESTAL, FREEZE, &c. - TUSCANY, in Geografthy, now called Etruria, (which see), a grand duchy or kingdom, long celebrated for the arts; the capital of which is Florence, which see. Pinkerton states its length at about 120 British miles, and its breadth at 90; and its area of 7040 square miles as containing about 1,250,000 persons. The revenue is computed at about half a million sterling ; but the forces do not exceed 6000 or 8000. Tuscany is one of the most beautiful and fertile regions of Italy, with a temperate and healthy climate. It abounds in corn and cattle, and produces excellent wines and fruit. The mountains in the Siennese, or southern part of Tuscany, contain valuable ores of antimony, copper which is wrought at Massa, and other metals, with slate and yellow marble. The serpentine of Impruneta, 7 miles S. from Florence, presents beautiful varieties used in ornamental architecture. Borax has been found in the lakes of Tuscany, near Sienna and Volterra. The Flo- rentine marble is remarkable for picturesque represen- tations of ruins, &c. caused by the infiltration of iron between the laminae. The river Arno receives many small streams; and the Ombrone is a considerable river which pervades the Siennese. TUSCAR AWA, a county of the district of Ohio, containing 3045 inhabitants.-Also, a township of Stark county, in the district of Ohio, containing 145 inhabit- alitS. TUSCARORA, a village of New York, inhabited by a tribe of Indians of the Tuscarora nation, consisting of about 300 souls, in the county of Niagara, about 2% miles E. of Lewiston. They have a good meeting-house and a Presbyterian clergyman; and also an English School. These Indians are sober and orderly in their general deportment, and many of them are respectable in point of wealth as well as moral conduct. This tribe came from the S. about the year 1712, and joined the Five Nations or Iroquois. The land on which they now live was given them many years ago by the Senecas. TuscaRoRA, a town of North Carolina; 20 miles S.E. of Halifax. TuscARoRA Creek, a river of Pennsylvania, which runs into the Juniatta, 12 miles S.E. of Lewiston. TUSCHAMA, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk; 28 miles N.N.W. of Ilimsk. 'i USCHAMSKA, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Irkutsk; 100 miles N.W. of Ilimsk. TUSCHGER SEE, a lake of Carinthia; 11 miles N. of Millstatt. TUSCHNITZ, a town of Bavaria, in the bishoptic of Bamberg; 10 miles N.E. of Lichtenfels. TUSCI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia, between mount Caucasus and the Ceraunian mountains, according to Ptolemy. TUSCOMARTEE T U S T U S “TUSCOMARTEE, in Geografthy, a town of Cur- distan, pleasantly situated to the north of the Tigris, at the foot of some hills, and well watered by several clear streams that flow from them. It commands a very fine prospect over an extensive vale to the south. In the summer season the sun is so powerful as to destroy all vegetation, except near the rivulets that flow from the mountains, where are found numerous flocks of sheep and herds of cattle. These, however, the shepherds are always obliged to drive to the town in the evening, on account of the wild beasts. In this vale no single habitation is visible for near 15 or 20 miles. Jackson's Journey from India, p. i 20. - TUSCULAN, in Matters of Literature, is a term which frequently occurs in the phrase Tusculan Ques- tions. Cicero’s “Tusculan Questions” are disputations on several topics in moral philosophy, which that great author took occasion to denominate, from Tusculum, the name of a country seat, or villa, where they were composed, and where he lays the scene of the dispute. They are comprised in five books; the first on the contempt of death; the second of enduring pain ; the third on assuaging grieſ; the fourth on the other pertur- bations of the mind; and the last, to shew, that virtue is sufficient to a happy life. TUSCULUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of La- tium, at a small distance from Rome, towards the S.E. Its origin was referred to the time of Ulysses, whose son Telegonus, by Circe, is said to have been its founder. Its inhabitants were distinguished for their courage, and placed themselves at the head of the allies in the war of the Latin people. It was afterwards subdued by Rome and became municipal. Its situation on a mountain and between the hills induced the rich inhabitants of Rome to select it as the scite of their country-houses. It had a citadel of no less importance with regard to this city than the Capitol with regard to Rome. It had also an amphitheatre and aqueducts. It was afterwards deno- minated Frescati or Frascati, which see. TUSCUM, or THUSUM Mare, the name of a part of the Mediterranean sea, which washed the coasts of Etruria, as far as the coasts of Sicily. TUSGEL, in Geografthy, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Caramania; 42 miles N.W. of Cogni. TUSHES, in the Manege, are the fore-teeth of a horse, seated beyond the corner teeth, upon the bars, where they shoot forth on each side of the jaws, two above, and two below, about the age of three, three and a half, and sometimes four; and no milk or foal-teeth ever come up in the place where they grow. See TEETH. TUSHETI, in Geografhy, a town of Asia, in Dag- hestan ; 80 miles S. of Teflis. TUSIAGATH, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in the interior of Mauritania Caesariensus, ac- cording to Ptolemy. TUSIS, in Geography, a town of the Helvetian re- public, in the Grisons, on the Rhine. In 1799, it was taken by the French; 5 miles S. of Coire. N. lat. 46° 32’. E. long. 9° 30'. TUSK, in Carpentry, a bevel-shoulder, made to strengthen the iron of the joist, which is let into the girder. TUSK, in Zoology, is used to denote the long tooth of a fighting animal; and in the same sense with tushes, as applied to other animals besides horses. TUSKA R in Geogra/hy, a small island, or rather rock, off the coast of the county of Wexford, Ireland, förming a conspicuous object for mariners. N. lat. 52° 3'. W. long. 6° lo’. TUSKAU, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pii- sen; 6 miles N.W. of Teinitz. -- TUSKAWARA, a township of Muskingum county, in the district of Ohio, containing l l 5 inhabitants. TUSO, in Ancient Geografiſhy, a river of India, on this side of the Ganges, into which it runs. TUSPA, in Geografthy, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan; 25 miles N.N.E. of Colima.-- Also, a town of Mexico, in the province of Tlascala, at the mouth of a river so called ; ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Puebla de los Angelos.—Also, a river of Mexico, which runs into the gulf of eMexico, N. lat. 21 ° 28′. W. long. 98°. TUSSER, John, in Biograſhy In Henry VIIIth’s time, when music was more cultivated in England titan it had ever been before, an arbitrary and oppressive power was given to the deans of cathedrals and colle- giate churches, to impress children possessed of good voices, in order to supply their several choirs with cho- risters. And John Tusser, the subject of this article, and the unfortunate author of the “Five Hundred Pointes of Good Husbandrie,” one of the most pleasant and in- structive poems of the time, tells us, that he was im- pressed from Wallingford college, in Berkshire, into the King’s chapel. Soon after, by the interest of friends, he was removed to St. Paul’s where he received in- structions in music from John Redford, an excellent contrapuntist, and organist of that cathedral. There eems, however, to have been care taken of the general education of boys so impressed, as we find that Tusser was sent from St. Paul’s to Eton school, and thence to Cambridge. He afterwards tried his fortune in Lon- don about the court, under the auspices of his patron lord Paget, where he remained ten years; then he retired into the country, and embraced the occupation of a farmer, in the several counties of Sussex, Suffolk, and Essex; but not prospering, he procured a singing-man’s place in the cathedral of Norwich; where he does not seem to have remained long before he returned to London. But being driven thence by the plague, he retired to Trinity College, Cambridge ; returning aſ- terwards, however, to the capital, he there ended his restless life in 1580; not, as has been said, very aged, if he was born about 1523. TUSSEY, in Geogra/hy, the name of mountains of Pennsylvania; 10 miles N. of Huntingdon. TUSSILAGO, in Botany, an ancient name, com- posed of tussis, a cough, and ago, to act upon, or cure ; in allusion to the reputed virtues of this herb, as a re- medy for coughs and other pectoral diseases.—Linn. Gen. 423. Schreb. 554. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1962. Mart. Mill, Dict. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 34. Sm. I’l. Brit. 878. Prodr. Ft. Graec Sibth. v. 2. 175. Pursh 53 l. Juss. 18 . Tourn. t. 276. Lamarck Illustr. t. 674. Gaertn. t. 170. (Petasites, Tourn. t. 258. Gaertn. t. 166.) . . Class and order, Syngenesia Polygamia-sufter - ſitta. Nat. Ord. Comfiosit & discoideae, Linn. Corymbi- Jerse, Juss. Gen. Ch. Common Calyx cylindrical, tumid at the bottom, of from fifteen to twenty linear-lanceolate, equal, somewhat membranous scales, the length of the disk. Cor. compound, various. Florets in some all perfect, tubular, funnel-shaped, with an acute, four or five-cleft, reflexed limb, longer than the calyx; in others such figrets are found in the disk only. Female florets when present either ligulate, very narrow, undivided, longer than the calyx; or tubular, and rather longer than the X 2 & perfect TUSSILAGO. *-* f perfect florets. Stam, in the perfect florets, Filaments Flowers radiated, somewhat like our common T. Far. five, capillary, very short; anthers more or less united fara, but much smaller. Sº into a cylindrical tube. Pist. Germen in the perfect florets, short; style thread-shaped, longer than the sta- mens; stigma thickish, emarginate : in the female ones Germen short; style thread-shaped, the length of the former; stigma deeply divided, acute. Peric. none, ex- cept the scarcely altered calyx. Seeds solitary, oblong, compressed, generaly abortive in the florets of the disk, or centre thereof. Down capillary, sometimes stalked. Recept, naked, dotted. - - • * Ess. Ch. Receptacle naked. Seed-down simple. Ca- lyx simple, of many, equal, sºmewhat membranous leaves; tumid at the base. " . . . . - Obs. Linnaeus remarks, that Petasites of Tournefort has no ligulate florets in the radius, though some female naked ones occur: Tussilago of the same author has always female florets in the radius, ſurnished with a li- gulate coroll: ; Anandria of Linnaeus himself, Am. Acad. v. l. 243, hassessile seed-down; and T. frigida va- ries with or without a radius. These circumstances are indeed variable at all times, but especially in the genus now under consideration. We have mentioned in F1. Brit. that some reputed species appear to be but diffe- rent sexes of one and the same. Of this, the British T. hybrida and Petasites are one instance. We shall indicate other similar cases, in which it seems Ehrhart has forestalled us, in his Beiträge, v. 3. His discove- lies are confirmed by Hoppe; and both these authors are followed by Willdenow, without any reference to the Flora Britannica, to which however the publication of Hoppe is three years posterior. We are well assured that this apparent neglect was not intentional, and the observations in question, having been made by each per- . son independently, derive from thence the more autho- rity. ' The whole genus of Tussilago is herbaceous, without any stem. Leaves stalked, simple, angular, toothed, more or less heart-shaped. Pubescence of the herbage cottony, dense, generally remarkable for its pure whiteness, and soft texture. Flowers white, or pale red; sometimes yellow ; either solitary, or densely pani- cled. Seed-down of a brilliant silvery white.—Willdenow reckons- up twenty-one species, but his first two, T. -Anandria and lyrata, will be found under our article. PER: IcIUM, sp. 3. and 4 ; his 7' lyrata being Gmelin’s t. 67. f. 2, mentioned under our Perdicium flo/ulifolium, 11.4, as a probable variety of Anandria. Willdenow’s 4th species, T. integrifolia, is Chafttalia tomentosa, Ven- ten. Jard. de Cels 61. Pursh 577. If not a good genus, it must be referred to Perdicium ; being certainly no Tussilago. Very possibly the third species of Willde- - now may also belong to Perdicium ; but this being a very uncertain plant, known from Plumier's figure only, we must leave it as we find it, amongst other species placed here by authors, but which to us are by no means free from doubt as to their generic characters; nor can that question be decided without an investigation and comparison of their fresh flowers. 1. T. dendata. Toothed West Indian Colt's-foot. Linn. Sp. Pl, 1213, Willd, n. 3. (Aster acaulos, hieracii villosis foliis; Plum. Ho. 28. t. 40. f. 2.)—Stalk single- flowered, naked. Flower radiated, erect. Leaves sessile, oblong, wavy, toothed, villous.-Gathered by Plumier, in the West Indies. . The root appears to be fibrous. Leaves numerous, three or four inches long, with an undulated strongly toothed margin. also numerous, though fewer, than the leaves, smooth. Flower-stalks 2. T. albicans. Whitish Jamaica Colt's-foot. Swartz Inds: Jcc. 1348. Willd. n. 5. (Leontodon tomentosum: Linn. Suppl. 847.)—Stalk single-flowered, naked; cot. tony at the top. Flower radiated, drooping. Leaves stalked, obovate, with slight reversed serratures; cottony beneath; tapering at the base.—Native of dry grassy in- land pastures, in the western part of Jamaica. Swartz. Sent to Linnaeus in Browne’s herbarium. Root fibrous, probably perennial, though marked annual. Leaves two or three inches long, of a narrow obovate form; green and nearly naked above; snow-white beneath; their margin slightly wavy, beset with minute distant teeth, all pointing backwards. Stalks few, often a foot high, round, reddish, destitute of scales or bracteas, clothed about the top, for near two inches, with dense cottony down. Flower white, drooping as it fades; according to Swartz's description it answers to the characters of this genus. Seed-down shining, with a reddish, or pink, hue. 3.T. fumila. Dwarf Jamaica Colt's-foot. Swartz Ind. Oce. 1350. Willd. n. 6.—Stalk single-flowered, naked, downy. Flower radiated, erect. Leaves obovate, with reversed teeth ; sinuated at the base; downy beneath.- Found on the lofty calcareous mountains of the south part of Jamaica, near Cold-shring, flowering in summer. Smaller than the last, to which it seems nearly allied; but the leaves, only an inch or two in length, are pinna- tifid in a lyrate manner. Stalk mostly solitary, from three to six inches high, roundish, cottony; purplish in the lower part., Flower small, white; erect according Willdenow, and the specific character of Swartz, though the latter calls it drooping in his description. Its struc- ture is that of a Tussilago. i - 4. T. nutans. Drooping Jamaica Colt's-foot. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1213. Am. Acad. v. 5, 406. Willd... n. 7. Ait. n. 1. Swartz Obs. 305. (Leontodon n. 1; Browne Jam. 3.10. Dens leonis, folio subtus incano flore purpureo; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 255. t. 150. f. 2. Aster primulae veris folio, flore singulari purpureo; Plum. Ic. 29. t 41. f. 1.) —Stalk single-flowered, naked, cottony. Flower radia- ted, pendulous. Leaves stalked, oblong-heartshaped, wavy, toothed ; cottony beneath; sinuated at the base. —Native of cultivated and grassy places in Jamaica. Swartz describes it as annual. Mr. Aiton marks it bien- nial, flowering in the stove in June and July. The much arger leaves, near a span long, pinnatifid in a lyrate manner, and the sta'ks twelve or fifteen inches high, distinguish this species from all the preceding. The jlower is pendulous, with a white disk and radius, but the slender points of the calyz-scales being tipped with purple, have, as it appears to us, been mistaken for a purple radius by Sloane, and even by the more learned professor Swartz When in seed, the stalk becomes erect. The down is rather tawny, or reddish. 5. T. trifurcata. Three-forked Colt's-foot. G. Fors- ter, Pl. Mägeh 28. Willd. n. 8.—Stalk single-flowered, scaly. Flower radiated, erect. Leaves spatulate, with three or more oblong segments, smooth —Native of dry hilly situations about the straits of Magellan. Root pe- rennial, somewhat tuberous. Leaves radical, tufted, an inch long, divided into three, four, or five, oblong, erect, finger-like segments, spreading, quite smooth and naked. Stalk from one to three inches high, round, clothed with awl-shaped scaly bracteas. Flower white, with all the characters of its genus. Inner scales of the calyx largest, with spreading horizontal points. . . . - 6. T. afflina. Alpine, Colt's-foot. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1213 . . - - Willd. TUSSILAGO. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 2. Jacq. Austr. t. 246. Curt. Mag. t. 84 (T. alpina secunda; Cius. Hist. v. 2. 1 13. As ºri- na; Matth. Valgr. v. l. 34. A. Matthioli; Ger. Em. 836.)—Stalk single-flowered, with oblong scattered bracteas. Flower without rays. Leaves kidney-shaped, toothed, smooth on both sides.—Native of the alps of Austria, Bohemia, Switzerland, &c. flowering in June and July. The root is perennial, tuberous, and creep- ing, brown, with many long fibres. Leaves few, radical, stalked, from one to two inches broad, bluntly toothed; quite smooth, and of a shining green, reticulated with depressed branching veins above; paler beneath, but equally smooth, except some hairs on the ribs or veins. Stalk solitary, a foot or more in height, erect, purplish, hairy, bearing a few distant, variously shaped, concave, upright bracteas. Flower erect, half an inch broad. Calyx purple, smooth. Florets white, sometimes pur- plish, all regular and five-cleft, with purple anthers and Stigmas. - 7. T. discolor. Two-coloured Colt's-foot. Jacq Austr. t. 247. Willd. n. 10. śit. h. 3. (T. alpina 3 ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1214. T. alpina prima; Clus. Hist. v. 2. 1 12. T. alpina; Ger. Em. 8 12.)—Stalk single-flowered, nearly naked. Flower without rays. Leaves kidney- shaped, toothed, downy and white beneath —Native.of the alps of Austria, Carniola, &c. growing along with the last, and flowering at the same season. This is ra- ther smaller than the preceding, usually with fewer bracteas. The under side of the leaves is clothed with dense white cottony down, which affords the most dis- tinguishing mark of the plant, and presumed by recent authors to prove it specifically distinct. Linnaeus thought it but a variety. 8. T. sylvestris. Lobed Alpine Colt's-foot. Scop. Carn. v. 2, 137. Jacq. Austr. V. 5. Append, 33, t. 12. Willd. n. 1 1.-Stalk mostly single-flowered, with dila- ted scattered bracteas. I lower without rays. Leaves smooth, kidney-shaped, many-lobed and toothed.—Na- tive of mountai:..ous, ci,icfiy beech, woods of Styria, Carinthia, Carnioia, &c. flowering in May. Allied to T. alſiina, with which its synonyms have been confound- ed by Scopoii, Hailer, and even Jacquin; but the last has the merit of subsequently distinguishing this very well-marked species. It is larger than alſiina, and the stem sometimes bears two or three flowers, scarcely diſ- fering from those of alflina or discolor. The bracteas however are broader, often terminating in a leafy ap- pendage, particularly the lower ones. The radical leaves are very different, being cut into about seven ra- ther shallow lobes, of which the middle ones more espe- cially have about three pointed teeth. The upper sur- face is green, sometimes roughish to the touch, slightly marked with veins: the under paler, peculiarly smooth and even, a little shining. We have not heard of this plant in any British garden, nor had Linnaeus a speci- IT CI]. 9. T. Farfara. Common Colt's-foot. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1214. Willd. n. 12. I'l Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 429. Curt. Lond. fasc. 2. t. 60. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 13. Bulliard Herb. de la Fr. t. 329. Fl. Dan. t. 195. (Tus- silago; Ger. Em. 8 11. Matth. Valgr. v. 2: 198. Ca- mer. Epit. 590, 591.)—Stalk single-flowered, scaly. Flower radiated. Leaves heart-shaped, angular, toothed; downy beneath.-Native of moist chalky shady situa- tions, throughout Europe, flowering in March or April, before the leaves appear. Dr. Sibthorp met with it about rills and inundated places in Greece, nor can there be any doubt of our Colt's-foot being the £zzlov of Dio- 12 l 4. scorides, of which l'ARFARA, see that article, is an at- cient synonym. The roots of this species are perennial, creeping to great extent. Stalks five or six inches high, erect, simple, downy, clothed with numerous, alternate, ovate, erect, purplish, nearly smooth scales, three-quar- ters of an inch long. Flower drooping before it expands, then erect, yellow, an inch broad; the radius of very numerous, long, narrow, spreading, ligulate florets, which Dr. Stokes has observed to be the only ones that ever perfect their seed. Indeed the plant increases so much by root, that scarcely any seeds are ever ripened. The leaves come forth on erect footstalks, after the flowers and their stalks have withered, and are from three to six inches wide, sharply toothed; very smooth, and rather glaucous above; covered beneath with dense, white, cottony down. They are mucilaginous and astrin- gent, slightly bitter, and are recommended either in in- fusion, or smoked like tobacco, as a cure for coughs. The latter mode of application is advised by Dioscorides in difficulty of breathing, dry cough, &c. and he pre- scribes these leaves bruised, with honey, as an external remedy for erysipelas, and otherinflamations of the skin. The cottony web of this herb serves extremely well for tinder, and to stanch the blood of slight wounds.-- Willdenow says there is a variety with perfectly smooth leaves. 10. T. jaftonica. Japan Colt's-foot. Linn. Mant. 113. Willd. n. 13. Thunb. Jap, 313. Banks Ic. Kaempf. t. 27. 28 (Arnica tussilaginea : Burm. Ind. 182. Doroni- cum tussilaginis folio, &c.; Pluk. Amalth. 71. t. 390. f. 6. Tswa; Kaempf. Am. Exot.827.)—Stalk with several ra- diated flowers, corymbose bracteated. Leaves roundish. heartshaped, toothed: slightly downy beneath.-Native of Japan, flowering in October. Root perennial, tube- rous. Stalks twelve or fifteen inches high, angular, fur- rowed, reddish, downy in the upper part, bearing a few scattered scaly bracteas, and terminating in from five to eight large yellow radiated flowers, on downy alternate partial stalks. Rays wedge-shaped. The seed-down is sessile, like the last. Leaves coming after the flow- ers, on long upright foot-stalks; their breadth three or four inches; length much less, their under side paler, but scarcely downy. The root, according to Thunberg, is bitter, and esteemed a counter-poison by the Japanese, Kaempfer says the stalks are used as a pot-herb. 11. T. frigida. Lapland Colt's-foot. Linn. Sp. Pl. FI. Lapp. ed. 2. 246. Willd n. 14. Ait. n. 5 Pursh n. 1. Fl. Dan. t. 6 1. (T. n. 128; Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 150. t. 70.)—Stalk with many radiated flowers, corymbose, bracteated. Leaves triangular-heartshaped, with deep triangular teeth; downy beneath.-Found by Linnaeus plentifully in woods and pastures among the Lapland alps, flowering towards the end of May, and scattering its seeds about a month afterwards. It occurs likewise in Norway and Siberia, as well as, according to Mr. Pursh, in Canada, and on the highest Peaks of the Vermont and New Hampshire mountains, at the same season. The root is somewhat tuberous and creeping, though less fleshy than the last, with copious long fibres. Leaves and flowers appearing nearly together, on St., 1%3 about equal in height, from ten to fifteen inches; the former remarkable for their very large angular teeth. The flower-stalk bears several alternate, large, tumid, smooth bracteas, sometimes ending in a small leaf. Flow- ers white; the florets of the disk tinged with pale purple, especially their large, club-shaped, hairy, prominent, but we believe useless, ſligmas. seed-down sessile, above an inch long, silvery. 12. T. : i : º : TUSSILAGO. 12. T. fragrans Sweet-scented Colt's-foot. Villars Actes de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, v. 1. 72. t. 12. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 6. Curt. Mag. t. 1388.-Stalk panicled, level-topped, somewhat leafy. Flowers radia- ted. Leaves roundish-heart shaped, obtuse, equally and finely toothed; rather hairy beneath.-Native of the neighbourhood of Naples, and of Sicily near Palermo ; introduced into England by Messrs. Lee and Kennedy in 1806. It flowers in the winter, or early spring. The leaves, which are green on both sides, rounded, obtuse, not at all lobed or cut, appear with the flowers. The latter are large, fragrant like Heliotroflium fieruvianum, with broad light-purple rays, and a white disk, the tu- mid stigma of whose florets is dark-purple. The fiani- cle is compound, rather dense ; its stalk taller than the foliage, clothed with very large inflated bracteas having leafy terminations. 13. T. laevigata. Smooth Straw-coloured Colt's-foot. Willd. n. 16. (T. scapo imbricato, floribus spicatis ra- diatis, foliis utrinque glaberrimis; Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 148. n. 126.)—-Stalk panicled, level-topped. Flowers radia- ted. Leaves heart-shaped, acute, slightly angular, toothed, smooth on both sides—Abundant about the banks and shallows of rivers in Siberia, flowering in spring, at which time all but the flowers is generally un- der water. Gmelin. Root fleshy, purplish, creeping to the extent of many feet, with many long, thick, sim- ple fibres. Leaves about two inches broad at the flow- ering period, but when full grown, eighteen inches in diameter; bright green and smooth on both sides, pur- plish at the edges, fleshy; copiously veined beneath; their margin irregularly and sharply toothed, sometimes angular. Footstalks smooth, a foot or more in length. Flower-stalk taller than the leaves, thick, succulent, reddish, striated, slightly cottony, bearing many large, inflated, sheathing bracteas, and terminating in a more or less compound, level-topped, or corymbose fianicle, whose downy stalks are furnished with many smooth, linear-lanceolate, flat, much smaller bracteas. Flowers from eight to twenty, scarcely half an inch broad, straw-coloured, with shortish rays. Willdenow's opinion of this being a very distinct species, is confirmed by Gmelin's own specimens in the Linnaean herbarium; which also, unless we are greatly mistaken, shew n. 127. t. 69, D, E, of the same author, to be the very same plant, totally different from the common T. Petasites, with which he compares it, in many other points besides the colour of the flowers. 14. T. alba. White Colt’s-foot, or Double-toothed Butter-bur. Linn. Sp. Pi. 1214. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 7. Fl. Dan. t. 524. (Petasites flore albo ; Camer. Epit. 593. P. n. 139 ; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 61 )—Panicle dense, level-topped. Flowers without rays. Leaves roundish-heartshaped, doubly and sharply toothed; white and shaggy beneath.-In mountainous woods, and about the banks of rivers, in the alpine parts of Europe, not rare in Switzerland, but unknown as a native of Britain. It appears to have been cultivated at Edinburgh in the time of Sutherland, 1683, and we obtained a specimen from the botanic garden there one hundred years after, under the erroneous name of T. hybrida. This is a large species, distinguished from all the rest, of those which bear many flowers on a stalk, by its strongly, doubly, and accutely- toothed leaves ; quite smooth above; very veiny and cottony beneath, when young, but afterwards the pu- bescence of that side becomes more grey, shaggy, and loose. The tall downy flower-stalk bears a great number of broad, concave, rather cottony bracteas, and terminates in a branched many-flowered corym- bose fanicle. The flowers are rather small, snow- White, without rays. Down sessile. Willdenow and other botanists have observed, that some individual plants have but very few, and others many, female Jlorets, in comparison to those furnished with both stamens and flistils; but the author just named has been misled by Villars to cite, as the female plant of this species, Gmelin's t. 69. f. D, E, which has yellow Jlowers; see our n. 13. 15. T. nivea. Snowy Colt's-foot, or White-leaved Butter-bur. Villars Actes de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Paris, v. 1, 73. t. 12. f. 2. Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 8. (T. frigida; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 175. T. paradoxa ; Retz. Obs, fasc. 2. 24. t. 3. Petasites n. 141 ; Hall. Hist, V. I. 62. P. minor, tusilaginis folio; Moris. sect. 7. t. 10. f. 4.)—Panicle dense, rather oblong. Flowers without rays. Leaves triangular-heartshaped, simply toothed, with spreading angular lobes; densely downy and white beneath.-Native of the mountains of Switzerland, Germany, Dauphiny, &c. flowering in April. Differs from the last in the snowy white- ness, and dense pubescence, of the under side of the leaves, as well as in their triangular form, and their simple series of marginal teeth. Flowers pale flesh- coloured. Common stalk clothed with similar large bracteas. Seed-down near an inch long. The female plant, termed fiaradora, as a distinct species, by Ret- zius, has but about three apparently perfect florets in each calyx, and of these the anthers are uncon- nected. In a remark on the sexes of this tribe of plants, at p. 431 of Engl. Bot. T. alba is inadvertently mentioned for nivea. - r 16. T. Petasites. Common Butter-bur. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1215. Willd. n. 19. Fr. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 431. Curt. Lond, fasc. 2. t. 59, Fl. Dan. t. 842. Bulliard Herb. de la Fr. t. 89 l. (T. major; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 199. Camer. Epit, 592. Petasites; Ger. Em. 814. Fuchs. Hist. 644. P. n. 138; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 61.) ~ 3. T. hybrida; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1214. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 430. (Petasites major, floribus pe- diculis longis insidentibus ; Dill. Eith. 309. t. 230. P. n. 140; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 61.)—Panicle dense, ovate- oblong. Flowers without rays. Leaves roundish- heartshaped, unequally toothed, slightly angular, with rounded converging lobes; paler and somewhat shaggy beneath.-Native of moist, boggy, shady -meadows, . the borders of rivers, pools, &c. throughout Europe. Dr. Sibthorp found it in Greece, but not common, except in rather mountainous, as well as watery situa- tions. There can, however, be little doubt of this plant being, as all botanists have thought, the rerozorilºg of Dioscorides, Our 3 grows with the common kind, though far less frequently. Both flower in Aprli, before the leaves expand, and are, of course, peren- nial. The root is thick and fleshy, creeping very far, and hard to be extirpated. Stalks a span high, thick, downy, clothed with oblong reddish bracteas, partly leafy at their extremity, and terminating in a dense ovate flanicle, of pale dusky flesh-coloured flowers. The florets are all tubular, furnished with united red anthers and a thick cloven stigma. The younger Linnaeus, and Hailer, have detected a few female ones, said 'T U S TU T. said to afford good seed; but many botanists have remarked that the Common Butter-bur never perfects seed, nor does even its seed-down make a very con- spicuous appearance. T. hybrida, which we have marked as a variety, because its leaves are rather smaller, and the fanicle rather longer, with smaller flowers, is allowed to be the female plant, or at least an individual in which that sex prevails. In this most of the florets are female, with a slender corolla, and a taper, acute, efficient stigma. One or two of the central ones only are male, having separate anthers, and a thick useless Stigma. The ſtanic/e when in seed is much elongated, and becomes cylindrical, conspi- cuous for its copious, brilliant, though short, seed- down, forming an elegant silvery plume, a foot or more in length. The leaves of the common T. Peta- sites are the largest of any British plant, being often three feet broad. They are grey or hoary beneath, far less white than those of T. nivea, as well as, more roundcd, and with their lobes approaching each other. 17. T. shuria. Cloven-lobed Butter-bur, or Colt’s- ſoot. Retz. Obs. fasc. 1. 29. t. 2. Willd. n. 20. (T. tomentosa; Ehrh. Beitr. v. S. 65.)—Panicle co- rymbose. Flowers without rays. Leaves triangular- heartshaped, simply and finely toothed, with spread- ing, angular, cloven lobes; densely downy beneath.— Native of Lapland, Scania, and Germany, about the banks of rivers. The general outline of the leaves, with their spreading acute lateral lobes, is most like nivea, n. 15, but those lobes are remarkable for being always divided, or double. The marginal teeth of the whole leaf are also more numerous, crowded, regular, and smaller, as well as more obtuse, than in nivea; the soft, cottony, very white downiness of the under side nearly accords with that species; the upper is green and quite smooth, except when young. A lowers corymbose, rather than panicled, cream-co- Iourcq, with linear bracteas. Authors have distin- guished two varieties; one with a more short dense inflorescence, and only three female florets, all des- titute of a corolla, which is Ehrhart’s to mentosa; the other with a more elongated corymb, and numerous female florets, each with an oblique tubular corolla, but whose stigma nevertheless is said to be small and barren ; this is the original haradoza. We presume the idea of the barren Stigma may be a mistake of Retzius ; that part, when imperfect, being, in this tribe of plants, always thickened ; but we have had no opportunity of examining living specimens of T. &furia, which is a stranger to the gardens of England. 18. T. sagittata. Arrow-leaved Colt's-foot. Herb. Banks. Pursh n. 2–4 Panicle dense, ovate, level- topped. Flowers radiated. Radical leaves oblong, acute, arrow-shaped, entire ; with obtuse lobes.”— Gathered by Mr. Hutchinson, at Hudson’s Bay. Pe- rennial. Pursh. 19. T. f. almata. Cut-leaved Colt’s-foot. Ait. n. 10. ed. 1. v. 3, 188. t. 1 1. Wild. p. 21.—Flowers corymbose, level-topped, radiated. Leaves seven- lobed, palmate, cut; downy beneath.—Native of New- foundland and Labrador. Introduced into England by Dr. Fothergill, in 1777. Perennial, flowering in April. The stalk and inforescence resemble the last. The flowers are light flesh-coloured, or pur- piish, with short obtuse rays. The leaves, which by Willdenow's account vary in the depth of their lobes, afford a clear specific difference from all the other species. - TussiLAGo, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the low, hardy, herbaceous, creeping-rooted perennial kinds; among which, the species most commonly cul- tivated in gardens for different purposes are, the com- mon tussilago or colt's-foot (T. farfara;) the moun- tain colt's-foot (T. alpina;) the Siberian colt's-foot (T. anandria;) the patasites, tussilago major, or com- mon butter-bur (T. petasites.) the hybridan German tussilago, greater colt's-foot, or long-stalked butter- bur (T. hybrida;) and the white alpine tussilago, or smaller butter-bur. (T. alba.) -* The first sort has a creeping perennial root, short, thickish stalk, with fine roundish hoary leaves; which are produced after the stem and flower; hence it is denominated one of the filius ante fatrem, or son be- fore the father, tribe or class of plants, or those in which the flowers rise before the leaves. It is not much cultivated in the garden manner, except in herbaceous collections as a medicinal herb for making decoctions and other mild balsamic drinks, and for the use of its leaves as a principal ingredient in the prepara- tion of the British herb tobacco, and other similar com- positions. Sometimes, however, it is employed for va- riety in patches in the borders and other parts of orna- mented grounds. In the second kind, there is a variety which has round hoary leaves. - - The fourth sort is also sometimes cultivated and em- ployed as a medicinal plant in different intentions. Method of Culture—They are all capable of being raised and increased by sowing the seeds of them in any proper and suitable soil and situation in the early spring. season, but not to too great a depth, when they will free- ly rise and become good plants. But the best and most expeditious method is that of parting the roots and planting them, which may be done either in the autum- nal or spring season, when the smallest slip will readily take root and grow, multiplying in a very quick man- I]CY". Most of the sorts possess the singular property of producing and sen ing up their ſlowers and stalks before the leaves are formed and seen. The plants mostly affect rather moist soils and situa- tions, but they will grow and succeed aimost any where, and may be employed for affording greater variety and ornament, as well as some of them for the purposes and intentions which have been suggested above. TUSSIS. See Cou GH. TU.SLENG, in Geography, a town of Bavaria; 4 miles W. S. W. of New Oetting. TU : , in Armory, &c. an imperial ensign of a golden globe, with a cross on it. TUT Bargain, among the Miners, denotes a bargain by the lump; as when they undertake to perform a piece of work at a fixed price, however it may prove. TUTACORIN, or TUn UcoRIN, in Geografiky, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic, where the Dutch have a factory; 25 miles E. of Palamcotta. TUTARY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland; 24 miles W. of Wexio. TUT BURY, or STUTESBURY, a market-town in the hundred of Offlow, and county of Stafford, England; is situated on the western bank of the river Dove, at the distance of 4 miles N. W. by N. from Burton-upon- Trent, TU 'I' TU T Trent, and 134 miles in the same bearing from London. It was erected a free borough at an early period, and the burgesses and other inhabitants were invested with a variety of privileges and immunities; but never had the right of sending members to parliament, though the town still retains the appellation of a borough. The parish-church is an ancient and spacious edifice, with a square embattled tower surmounted by four small pin- nacles; its principal entrance is decorated with fine spe- cimens of Saxon sculpture. A free school was founded and endowed by Richard Wakefield in the year 1730 : it was rebuilt in 1789. Here is also a meeting-house for Dissenters. According to the population return of the year 1811, the parish of Tutbury contained 242 houses, occupied by 1235 persºns. Wool-combing constitutes the principal business of the inhabitants; and a cotton manufactory, recently established, gives employment to a considerable number. Three fairs are held annually, and a market weekly, on Tuesdays. On the north side of the town are the remains of the castle of Tutbury, which was erected soon after the Conquest, by Henry de Ferrars, a noble Norman, to whom the Conqueror gave large estates in this county. In the family of Fer- rars it continued till the reign of Henry III., when, being forfeited by the attainder of Robert de Ferrars, earl of Derby, the king granted it to his second son Edmund, earl of Lancaster. It again reverted to the crown in consequence of the rebellion of Thomas, earl of Lancas- ter, who fortified it against F dward II., but was obliged to surrender. Having sustained considerable damage during this contest, and being afterwards suffered to fall into decay, John of Gaunt rebuilt the greater part of it upon the ancient scite in 1350. This castle, being the principal seat of the dukes of Lancaster, was long dis- tinguished as the scene of much festivity and splendour. So great was the number of minstrels resorting to it, that it was found necessary to adopt special regula ions for the preservation of order. Accordingly, one of their body was invested with the title of king of the minstrels, with officers under him for the due execution of the laws. A charter for that purpose was granted by John of Gaunt in 1381 : and a court was established for de- termining all controversy connected with minstrelsy. At this court, which was annually held with great for- mality, the king and his officers were appointed for the year ensuing; and the business of the day concluded with a bull running and baiting. This barbarous custom was abolished, by commutation, about the middle of the last century; but the court still continues to be held. Tutbury castle was twice the residence, or rather prison, of Mary queen of Scots; in 1568, and again in 1585. At the commencement of the civil war in the reign of Charles I. it was garrisoned by lord Loughborough, a zealous supporter of the royal cause; but was besieged and taken by sir William Brereton, one of the parlia- mentary commanders. The damage sustained by the castle on this occasion was very great ; but it was not doomed to total destruction till 1646, when, by order of the parliament, it was reduced nearly to its present ru- inous condition. What still remains, sufficiently declares its f rmer cztent and grandeur; the ancient gateway is tolerably entire; and towers, staircases, divisions of rooms, and fire-places, can yet be discovered in different parts of the walls, which appear to have been of im- mense strength and thickness: the whole was surround- ed by a broad and deep ditch, over which, Dr. Plott in- forms us, there was in his time an extraordinary timber- bridge, composed of distinct pieces of wood, none of them above a yard long, yet unsupported by any arch- Work, pillars, or other prop. Coeval with the castle, and founded by the same person, was a Benedictine pri- ory, largely endowed by king William Rufus. The SCite Was granted by Edward VI. to sir William Caven- dish. Scarcely a vestige of the ancient building is now left, and we know little more of its structure, than that it was of large extent, and contained a splendid monu- ment to the memory of the founder. A portion of the old priory church constitutes a part of the present pa- rish-church.-Description of the Castle and Priory of Tutbury, 8vo. 1796. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Staffordshire, 1814. TUTELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in Celtiberia, according to Martial. TUTELA, in Mythology, a goddess worshipped at Bourdeaux, of which city she was patroness, and where she had a magnificent temple. She is supposed by learned antiquarians to have been a divinity peculiar to sailors and merchants, who trafficked upon the rivers, as it was a common practice to put upon their ships the figures of certain gods, who gave names to them, and Were called by the ancients “Tutela Navis,” the tutelar divinity of the ship. TU ELARY, TUTELARIs, one who has taken some- thing into his patronage and protection. It is an ancient opinion, that there are tutelary angels of kingdoms and cities, and even of particular persons, called guardian angels. The ancient Romans, it is certain, had their tutelary gods, whom they called Penates ; which see. And the Romish church to this day, hold an opinion not much unlike it : they believe that every person, at least every one of the faithful, has, from the time of his birth, one of those tutelary angels attached to his person, to defend him from all temptations; and it is on this, principally, that their practice of invoking angels is founded. F. Antony Macedo, a Portuguese Jesuit of Coimbra, has published a large work in folio on the tutelary saints of all the kingdoms, provinces, and great cities of the Christian world; “ Divi Tutelares Orbis Christian,” at Lisbon, 1678. TUTELINA, or TUTILINA, in Mythology, the god- dess of corn, who had the care of it when deposited in the granary. She had a chapel on the Aventine mount, and a statue in the circus. TUTENAG, a name given in India to the semi-metal zinc. It is also sometimes applied to denote a white metallic compound, brought from China, called also Chin: se, or white copper, the art of making which is not known in Europe. It is the best imitation of silver which has been made : it is very tough, strong, mellea- ble, may be easily cast, hammered, and polished ; and the better kinds of it, when well manufactured, are very White, and not more disposed to tarnish than silver is. Three ingredients of this composition unay be discov- ered by analysis, viz. copper, zinc, and iron. See Alloys of CoPPER. - TUTESERAI, in Geography, a town of Hindoostan, in Lahore; 14 miles E. S. E. of Sultanpour. TUTIA, or TUTTIA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of H.ther Spain. TUTICUM, a town of Italy, in Samnium, called in the Itinerary of Antonine, “Equus Tuticus.” TUTLING, in Geography, a town of Bavaria; 10 miles N. of Passau. TUTOR, in the Civil Law, is one chosen to look to thc T UT T U X the person and estate of children left by their fathers and mothers in their minority. See GUARDIAN. By the custom of Normandy, the father is the natural tutor of his children. A person nominated tutor, either by testament, or by the relations of the minor, is to de- cline that office if he have five children alive; if he have any other considerable tutorage; if he be under twenty- five years of age; if he be a priest, or a regent, in a university; or if he have any law-suit with the minors, &c. -- - The marriage of a pupil, without the consent of his tutor, is invalid. Tutors may do any thing for their pu- pils, but nothing against them; and the same laws which put them under a necessity of preserving the interest of the minors, put them under an incapacity of hurting them. See PARENT. TU'i OR, Honorary. See Honour ARY. TUTOR is alsº used in our universities for a member of some c llege or hali, who takes on him the instruc- tion of young students in the art; and faculties. TU'ſ ORAGE, TUTELA, in the Civil Law, a term equivalent to guardianship in commºn law, signifying an office imposed on any one, to take care of the person and effects of on or more minors. See GUARDIAN. By the Roman law there are three kinds of tutorage. Testamentary, which is appºinted by the father’s testa- ... ment. Legal, which is given by the law to the nearest relation. And dative, which is appointed by the ma- gistrate. - But in all customary provinces, as France, &c. all tu- toragés are dative and elective; and though the father have by testament nominated the next relation to his pu- pil, yet is not that nomination of any force, unless the choice be confirmed by that of the magistrate, &c. By the Roman law, tutorage expires at fourteen years of age; but in France, not till twenty-five years. A minor quits his tutorage, and becomes free by marriage; in which case a curator is given him. TUTOVA, in Geografhy, a river of Moldavia, which runs into the Birlat, 4 miles S. of Birlat, in the province of Moldavia. TU SAN, in Botany. See HYPERICUM. TUTTI, in the Italian Music, is used to signify that all the parts are to play together, or to make a full con- Cert. In this sense, tutti stands opposed to soli or solo. It is often found expressed by omnes, ifie, o, choro, &c. TUTTI, in Geografthy, a town of Bengal ; 13 miles N. N. E. of Burwa, - * TUTTLINGEN. See DUTTLINGEN. TUTTUM, a town of Hindoostan, in Bundelcund; 20 miles N. E. of Chatterpour. TUTTY, Tutia Aerondrina, or Laſis Tutie, an argillaceous ore of zinc, found in Persia, formed on cy- lindrical moulds into tubulous pieces, like the bark of a tree, and baked to a moderate bardness. This ac- count of its original is supported by the authority of Teixeira and Douglas, and by its chimycal properties. That the common opinion of its being a sublimate pro- duced in the European founderies, where zinc is melted with other metals, is erroneous, appears from hence, that tutty is not found, upon strictitiquiry, to be known at those founderies; and b, its consisting, in a great part of an earth not capable of rising in sub imation. This, however, is probable, that sublimates, or the com- mon ores of zinc, are often mixed with argillaceous earths, and baked hard, in imitation of the genuine ori- ental tutty. . Vol. XXXVIII. Bontius, in his animadversions upon Garcias ab Orta, informs us that it is made of a glutinous or agillaceous earth, like clay, found in great quantities in a province of Persia, called Kirman, which the Indians, who gather o º * , º it, put into earthen pots made on purpose, and, adding water to it, stir it with a stick: these pots are then pla– ced in furnaces till the water is evaporated; afterwards removing the dregs which remain at "the bottom, they pick off from the sides of the pots the calcined earth or tutty, which they carefully preserve for sale. He adds, that it is used in India as a cosmetic for destroying hair, more especially by the women when they bathe. Tutty is generally of a brownish colour, and full of small protuberances on the outside, smooth and yellow- ish within, sometimes whiteish, and sometimes with a bluish cast. Like other argillace us bodies, it becomes harder in a strong fire; and after the zinc has been revi- ved and dissipated by inflammable additions, or extract- cd by acids, the remaining earthy matter affords with oil of vitroil, an aluminous salt. Tutty, levigated into an impalpable powder, is, like the lapis calaminaris and calces of zinc, a useful oph- thalmic and frequently used as such in ointments and collyria. Ointments for this intention are prepared in the shops, by mixing the levigated tutty with so much viper's fat as is sufficient to reduce it to due consistence, or, by add- ing one part to five parts of a simple liniment made of oil nd wax. See ZINc. - TUTUACA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the province of Hiaqui; 100 miles E. of Riochico. TUTULUS, among the Romans, a manner of dress- ing the hair, by gathering it up on the forehead into the form of a tower. TUTULUs likewise signifies a woollen cap with a high top. - TUTURA, in Geography, a town of Russia; in the government of Irkutsk, on the Lena ; 60 miles N. of Irkutsk. N. lat. 54° 40'. E. long. 105° 44'. TUTZIS, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Egypt, between Talmae and Pselcis. Anton. Itin. TUUE, in Geografthy, a lake of Norway, about 20 miles in circumference; 52 miles from Christians.ind. TUXAL, a town of Hindoostan, in the circar of Sir- hind ; 60 miles N. N. E. of Sirhind. - TUXFORD, a small market-town in South Clay division of the wapentake of Ba setlaw, in the county of Nottingham, En.land; is situated 24 miles N. E. by N. from the county-t, win, and 138 miles N. by W. from London. It was destroyed by fire September 8, 1702; consequently its appearance is more modern than that of many other towns in the county. Great part of it con is s o' farm-houses; agriculture leing the c ief employment of the inhabitants. Scarcely any tra' is carri d on here, except in hops, of which a con- siderable quantity is raised in this and the adjacent pa- rishes. A fair f r this article is annually held in Sep- tember; and another in May for cattl . Sheep, pigs, and poultry. A weekly market on Mondays is sell suppli- ed in pro-ortion to the population of the pºrish ; which, in the return to parliament in the year 1811, is stated to be 841, occupying 197 houses. The church is an ancient structure, cnd consists of a nave, side air les. and chan- cel; with a spire. It contains the mutilated rein ains of monuments and other sculpture of a remote period. A rude representation of St. Laurence on a gridiron is still entire : one man is employed i blowing the fire, another is turning the saint with tongs, and a third ap- +º pears T W A T W E pears to be a spectator, or director. A free grammar- school, still in high repute, was founded, and liberally endowed, by the will of Mr. Charles Read, dated the 30th of July, 1699. A manuscript copy of the regula- tions, as contained in the will, is preserved in the British Museum.—History of Nottinghamshire, by J. Throsby. 3 vols. 4to. 1797. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xii. Nottinghamshire. TUXIUM, ifi Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, and capital of Samnium. When Fabius Fabricianus pillaged this city he removed the statue of the victorious Venus, worshipped here, to Rome. Plutarch. TUY, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in Galicia, sit- uated on a mountain; near the north side of the Minho, opposite Valença, in Portugal; the see of a bishop, suf- fragan of Compostella. In a war between Spain and Portugal, this is one of the places of rendezvous for the Spanish troops; 50 miles S. of Compostella. N. lat. 42° 3. W. long. 8° 37'. Tuy, a navigable river of Caraccas, which discharges itself into the ocean, 30 leagues E. of the port of Guayra. It rises in the mountains of San Pedro, 10 leagues from Caraccas, and being joined by the Guayra, becomes na- vigable, and serves for the transportation of produce, abounding in the vallies of Aragoa, Tacata, Cua, Saba- na, Ocumara, St. Lucia, and St. Theresa, through which it passes, and particularly cacao, which is here of the best quality. TUYU, a country of South America, in Patagonia, to the south of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. TUZ-KURMA, a town of Curdistan; 50 miles S. S. W. of She rezur. TUZLA, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Caramania, situated at the western extremity of a lake, to which it gives name. The lake is 36 miles in length, and about 4 in breadth; 28 miles N. of Cogni.-Also, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 24 miles E. of Constanti- nople, f TWAGER, a town of Sweden, in the province of Halland; 28 miles N. N. W. of Halmstad. TWAITE, in Ichthyology. See SHAD. TwAITE, in our Old Writers, a wood grubbed up and converted into arable land. TWA-NIGHTS GESTE, in our Ancient Customs. See THIRD-might awn Hynde. If the tzva-night’s geste did any harm to any, his host was not answerable for it, but himself. TWARD ONICE, in Geography. See TURNITz. TWARSIMIRKA, a town of Silesia, in the principal- ity of Oels; 6 miles N. E. of Militsch. TWASHTA, or Twas HTI, in the Mythology of the Hindoos, a name of the sun, or of its regent Surya. The name occurs as of the Sun in the article SARASwA- r1. Other legends make Twashta the parent of Suran- uh, one of Surya's wives. In some points he corres- ponds with Vulcan, or Daedalus; being profoundly skilled in the mechanical arts, and hence deified in gra- titude for his useful inventions. He seems to be the same personage with Viswakarma : being, like him, called the “chief engineer of the gods.” Mr. Wil- ford’s learned essay on the sacred isles of the West, in the eleventh volume of the Asiatic Researches, contains many curious particulars of this deified person, proving his identity with some western fable. See SURANUH, SURYA, and Viswa KARMA. TWAT, in Geografthy, a country of Africa, in the great Desert. N. lat. 22° to 25°. E. long. 19 to 6°. **- TWEDA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland; 42 miles N.N.w.. of Calmar. TWEDS, a town of Norway, in the province of Christiansand; 4 miles N. of Christiansand. TWEED, a large river, which rises in the parish of Tweedsmuir, in the shire of Peebles, Scotland. It is re. markable, that from the base of the same hill three large rivers have their source. The river Annan rises on its south side, the Clyde on the north-west, and the Tweed on the north-east side. Taking a north-east di- rection, the Tweed runs a serpentine course of about forty miles through the county of Peebles. When it has reached the town of that name, which is about the centre of the shire, it has fallen nearly 1000 feet, as that town stands only about 500 feet above the level of the sea. In its course from Peebles, running nearly east, its stream is augmented by the Etterick near Selkirk, the Gala at Galashiels, the Leader near Melrose, and the Teviot at Kelso. A few miles below the latter town it leaves Roxburghshire, , and forms, for 22 miles, the boundary between Berwickshire and England, till it falls into the German ocean at the town of Berwick: its whole course is 102 miles, being the longest river in the South of Scotland. On the banks of the Tweed are many beautiful and romantic seats, embosomed in plantations of various kinds of trees: but small are the vestiges that now re- main of those extensive natural woods with which its banks were once adorned. Being near the southern borders of the kingdom, and exposed to the frequent incursions of the English, there is perhaps no river in Scotland, on the banks of which are to be seen so many places of defence against their hostile depredations. Still the ruins of castles and towers (as they are called) are visible; but they now only exhibit faint remains of their former magnitude, the wealth of their ancient in- habitants, and the depredatory spirit which formerly prevailed. The Tweed abounds with trout of every species: the salmon-fishery was formerly very produc- tive, but has been nearly destroyed through interested artifice. The Tweed is open to fishing from the 10th of January to the 10th of October. On this river, 4.1 different Salmon fisheries have been rented for several thousand pounds a year.—Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii. Tweeddale, 1805. Chalmers’s Caledonia, vol. ii. 4to, 18 . (). TWEEDMOUTH, a sea-port of England, in the county of Durham, separated only by the Tweed from Berwick. In 18 l l the number of inhabitants was 3917. TWEELING, an operation in weaving, which is performed by multiplying and varying the number of leases in the harness; by the use of a back harness, or double harness; by increasing the number of threads in each split of the reed: by an endless variety of modes in drawing the yarns through the harness; and by in- creasing the number of treddles, and changing the man- ner of treading them. When the number of treddles requisite to raise all the variety of sheds necessary to produce very extensive patterns would be more than one man could manage, recourse is had to a mode of mounting, or preparing the loom, by the application of cords, &c. to the harness; and a second person is neces- sary to raise the sheds required, by pul’ing the strings attached to the respective leases of the back harness, which are sunk to their first position by means of leaden weights underneath. This is the most comprehensive ap- paratus used by weavers for fanciful patterns of great extent, T W I T W I extent, and it is called the drawloom. In weaving very fine silk tweels, such as those of sixteen leases, the num- ber of threads drawn through each interval of the reed is so great, that, if woven with a single reed, they would obstruct each other in rising and sinking, and the shed would not be sufficiently open to allow the shuttle a free passage. To avoid this inconvenience, other reeds are placed behind that which strikes up the weft; and the warp threads are so disposed, that those which pass through the same interval in the first reed are divided in passing through the second, and again in passing through the third. By these means the obstruction, if not entirely removed, is greatly lessened. In the weaving of plain thick woollen cloths, to prevent obstructions of this kind, arising from the closeness of the set, and roughness of the threads, only one-fourth of the warp is sunk and raised by one treddle, and a second is pressed down to complete the shed, between the times when every shot of weft is thrown across. See WEAv1NG. a' TWELFTH-HIND, in our Ancient Customs, imports much the same with thane. - Among the English Saxons, those who were worth 12008. were called twelve-hindi ; and if any injury was done to them, satisfaction was to be made accordingly. See HINDEN1. Twelfth-Day, or Twelfth-tide, the festival of the Epiphany, or the manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, so called, as being the twelfth-day, exclusive, from the Nativity, or Christmas-day. - TWELVE MEN, duodecim homines legales, other- wise called jury, or inquest, is a number of twelve per- Sons, or upwards, as far as twenty-four, by whose oath, as to matters of fact, all trials pass; both in civil and cri- minal cases, through all courts of the common law in this realm. See JURY. Twelve Tables, Laws of the. See TABLE. TwPLVE Aftostles, in Geografthy, a number of small islands at the west extremity of the Straits of Magellan, on the coast of Terra del Fuego, between Cape Pillar and Cape Deseada. - TwPLVE Isles, or Twelve Añostles, islands on the south side of lake Superior. Twelve Pins, The, or Beannabeola, a vast ridge of almost perpendicular rocks in the western part of the county of Galway, Ireland, called Cunnemara. ' These mountains belong to the primitive formation. TWELVE-MILE CREEK, a river of South Carolina, which runs into the Salada, N. lat. 34° 50'. W. long. 81 ° 16'. - n TWELVE-MONTH, the space of a year, according to the calendar months. TWENTE, in Geography, a district of the state of Overissel, of which Oldenzel is the capital. TWENTY-FOUR MEN, men chosen every half year to redress the grievances of the mines and miners; but every man generally serves his year when chosen. TWENTY-MILE CREEK, in Geography, a branch of the river Tombigbee, in Georgia. TWICE-LAID CoRDAGE, is made of cast rigging, as Shrouds, stays, mooring and other cables, which, if not much worn, will make good ropes, &c. for many purposes, as small cable-laid ropes for warping ships, worming and woolding for cables, worming for large stays, netting for ships' sides, &c.; ratlings, scaffolding- ropes, spun-yarn for seizings, &c. To open a cable for making it into small ropes, hang the strand upon the three hooks in the tackle-board, stretch it out tight upon the hooks in the sledge, and heave till they are untwisted; then draw out the yarn. When the yarn of this worn stuff is overhauled, a little thin tar should be poured upon it, which will make it pliable, and lie better. The yarn unfit for knotting will pick into oakum for caulking. TWICKENHAM, in Geography, an extensive and populous village in the hundred of Isleworth, and coun- ty of Middlesex, England; is situated on the banks of the river Thames, at the distance of twelve miles W.S.W. from St. Paul’s cathedral, London. The parish extends about three miles and a half in length, one and a half in breadth, and is nine miles in circumference: it is bound- ed on the east and north by Isleworth, on the west by Hanworth, Hampton, and Teddington, and on the south by the river Thames. It contains about 1850 acres, of which, according to a survey taken in the year 1635, about 630 were arable, 490 pasture, 40 wood, and 690 common: which does not much vary from the present proportion, reckoning the fruit gardens, of which there are above 150 acres, among the arable land. The gar- dens have long been celebrated for good management and abundant produce, and they afford a constant sup- ply to the London markets: one gardener, Mr. West, has, in a good season, sent upwards of 4000 gallons of raspberries to a distiller within fifteen days. Twicken- ham is not mentioned in the Domesday record, as the whole of this hundred Scems to have been included, when that survey was made, in the manor of Isleworth. In ancient records, the name is written Twitham, Twit- tanham, and Twiccanham: and the most popular wri- ters of the early part of the last century often termed it Twitenham. The manor of Twickenham appears to have been possessed by the religious long antecedent to the Norman conquest; for the jurisdiction of the lord of Isleworth did not extend to church lands. This manor appears to have been vested in the crown in the time of Henry VIII., and by him annexed to the honour of Hampton-Court. By Charles I. it was settled as part of the jointure of his queen, on whose death, Charles II. settled it for life on his consort, Catherine. A lease un- der the crown has since been granted to several per- sons. The manor-house stands opposite to the church, and is traditionally said to have been the residence of Catherine of Aragon, the divorced queen of Henry VIII. The parish-church is situated near the river- side: the old church fell to the ground in the night of April 9, 1713; the tower, which is composed of free- stone, is still remaining; the body was rebuilt, and com- pleted in the year 1715. This is a brick fabric of the Tuscan order, with stone coignes and cornices, and was erected after the design of John James, architect, who likewise built the churches of St. George, Hanover- square, and St. Luke, Middlesex. The interior is spa- cious, with galleries on the two sides, and at the west end. The monuments, tablets, and other sepulchral memorials, are numerous. A chapel, called Montpe- lier, was built about the year 1720, and is the private property of the Rev. G. O Cambridge, archdeacon of Middlesex. Here is also a meeting-house for Wesleyan Methodists. A charity-school for boys, and a similar in- stitution for girls, were established many years back: an extensive and appropriate building has been recently erected by subscription; and one hundred boys and se- venty girls are now educated acćbrding to Dr. Bell’s plan. Thirty of the boys, and twenty-four girls, are likewise clothed. Here are also two Sunday schools. Six alms-houses were built in 1704, and six more in Y 2 1721. A. T W I T W I 1721. In the population return of the year 1811, this parish is stated to contain 685 houses, and 3757 inhabi- tants. The principal manufacture is that of gunpow- der: the powder-mills, formerly the property of Mr. Hili, but now of Mr. Butts, are seated on the small river Crane, which, rising in the vicinity of Harrow, is here augmented by an artificial cut from the olne. Acci- dents frequently occur in this dangerous business; one corning-house for graining powder was thrice blown up in the year 1796; in the months of January, July, and November. Fourteen lives were iost by the three ex- plosions. Five similar casualties have since happened, by which twelve men were killed Yet, notwithstanding the frequency of these accidents, and though the wages of the workmen is but small, employment in the mills is eagerly sought after: the only apparent reason is that the labour is light. Twickenham Park, Isleworth Park, or the New Park of Richmond. was, towards the end of the sixteenth century, the property of the great sir Francis, after- wards lord, Bacon, who passed in this retirement the earlier and more happy part of his life. He here en- tertained queen Elizabeth, on which occasion he pre- sented her with a sonnet in praise of her fovourite, the earl of Essex. The estate has recently been divided into lots, and the greater part purchased by Francis Gosling, Esq. The grounds contain some fine cedars: and it is believed, that the first weeping willow known in this kingdom was planted in this park in the early part of the last century Part of the mansion is in the palish of Isleworth: in the meadows, between this house and the river, was the original scite of Sion monastery, founded by king Henry V. in 1414. Twickenham has for a century past been the retreat of persons distinguished by their rank or literary fame; and has been embelli bed with various mansions and villas, to which a degree of celebrity has attached We shall breifly notice the most interesting. wº Marble Hill was built by king George II as a villa for his mistress, the countess of Suffolk. The purchase of the estate is said by lord Orford to have cost the king ten or twelve thousand pounds. The house was erected after a design of Henry, earl of Pembroke, who super- intended the progress of the structure. Its exterior is of a plain but well-proportioned character; the interior contains the principal attractions, and is finished in a de- licate, costly, and ornamental style. The great stair- case is entirely composed of mahogany, finely carved ; and the flooring of the best rooms are of the same wood. This seat is now the residence of Charles Augustus Tulk, Esq. - Pope’s Villa, as it has long been emphatically called, from its having been, for nearly thirty years, the resi- dence of our great poet Alexander Pope, was purchas- ed by him in the year 1715. The improvement of the house and gardens was for many years his favourite em- ployment; and he was particularly interested in the construction of a grotto, which he enriched with many curious spars and genns; from the grotto was a subter- raneous passage to the gardens. On the decase of Pope, which occured May 30, 1744, the estate was sold to Sir William Stanhope, who added wings to the house and enlarged the gardens. From him it passed to his son-in- law, WelboreeBllis, afterwards lord Mendip, who guard- ed every m. morial dº the poet as a sacred relic, particu- larly a fine willow planted by his own hand. This tree his lordship propped with assiduous care, but notwith- standing his utmost attention, it perished and fell to the ground in 1801, about the year before the death of its noble owner. The estate was afterwards sold to sir John Brisco, on whose decease it was purchased by baroness Howe in 1807; under whose direction the house has been taken down, and a new dwelling erected about a hundred yards distant from the scite. The grotto has been stripped of its most curious spars and minerals, by the zeal of those who wished to preserve a memorial of the poet. For a particular description of this celebrated villa, with a beautiful engraving, we refer to “The Fine Arts of the English School,” by J. Britton, F.A.S. See also a very interesting work by Messrs W. and G. Cookes, entitled “The Thames,” 2 vols. 4to. and 8vo. Strawberry Hill, the weil-known residence of the late Horace, earl of Orford, better known as Mr. Ho- race Walpole, was originally a small tenement, built in 1698, by the earl of Bradford’s coachman, and let as a lodging-house. Colley Cibber was one of its first tenants. Dr. Talbot, bishop of Durham, lived in it eight years; and after him Henry, marquis of Car- narvon. In 1747, Mr. Walpole bought the lease, and in the following year purchased the fee-simple of the estate. Having formed a design of enlarging his villa, and fitting it up in the old English style, he commenced his improvements in 1753 and completed them in 1776. The interior is arranged in s.rict ac- cordance with the outside of the structure ; the ceil- ings, screens, niches, and other decorations, even the more ordinary articles of furniture, are consonant in style with the leading features of the fabric. The extensive collection of curiosities and works of art, with which every apartment is stored, was progres- sively made by Mr. Walpole during the affluent lei- sure of a long life, which was chiefly devoted to the light parts of literature and the fine arts. The most considerable part consists of miniatures, enamels, and portraits of remarkable persons. The noble owner drew up a complete catalogue of his collection, to- gether with what he calls a description of the villa: this work occupied 1 13 quarto pages; of which more than twenty are filled with the contents of one small room, called the Tribune, or Cabinet. A private printing-press was fitted up by Mr. Walpole in 1757. Most of his own works, and several other books, were here printed under his inspection. Strawberry Hill' was be qucathed by lord Orford to the honourable Mrs. Damer for life, together with 2000l. for keep- ing the building in repair. . She resided here for se- veral years, but has lately declined possession in favour of the countess dowager of Waldegrave, in whom, and her heirs, the remainder was vested under his łordship's will - At Whitton, a hamlet in Twickenham parish, is a villa which was built about the year 17 1 by sir God- frey Kneller, and was his principal residence during the latter part of his life. It is a substantial brick mansion, now the property of Mr. Calvert. On the edge of Hounslow-Heath, within this parish, are two villas of considerable elegance, formerly in the possession of Archibald, duke of Argyle, now oc- cupied, one by sir Benjamin Hobhouse, bart. the other by George Gosling, esq.—Lysons’s Environs of London, 5 vols. 4to. 1792–1811. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. x. Middlesex, by J. N. Brewer, 18 16. TWIFALLOW, in Agriculture; a term used to signify a second stirring or fallowing of land. TWIFALLOWING T W I T w I Twifallowing, the operation or work of re- peating the tillage of land in fallowing, which is mostly - * - r. ‘It’. best performed about the middle of the summer. is sometimes written twyfallowing. . . . . . . . . TWIGGS, in Geografhy, a county of Georgia, in the United States, containing 3405 innabitañts. near the river Miami. Twi-HINDI, or Twy Hindi, among our Saxon an- cestors, were men valued at 2008. See HIND EN1. . . These men were of the lowest degree ; and if such Thus in Leg Hen. were killed, the mulct was 308. - I. cap. 9 “ de twibindi bomines interfecti, vera debet reddi secundum legem.” Where note, that this was - -- . and after he sets. the old, made in the reign of king Alfr d - TWILIGHT, in Astronomy, denotes the dubious or faiut iight wüich is reflected to us by me ins of the atmosphere, for some time before the sun rises, See CREPUso ULUM and ATMo- not an introduction of a new law, but a confirmation of SPHERE. . . . . . . . . The following table shews the duration of twilight in different latitudes; it is calculated on a supposition that the twilight begins and ends when the sun is 189 below the horizon : the letters c. d, signify that it is then continual day; c. m. continual night; w. n. that the twilight lasts the whole night. Alt. Pole o || 0 || 20 || 30 | 40 45 50 52} | 55 | 60 || 65 || 70 || 75 80 | 85 90 O enters H. Mla. MJH. M.H. M. H. M.H. M.H. M.H. M.H. M.H. M.H. M. H. M. H. M. H. M. H. M.H. W. || ga|l 18|i 2 || 28|| 4 ||2 8|2 39|w. m. w. m.w.. n iv. n.w.. m. c. d. | c. d. c, d. | c. d. c. d. II - all 6|| 19, 25|| 36|| 582 9|3 3|w n. V. n |w. n.w.. m. c. d. | c. d. | c. d. | c. d “...d.] $3 mg 13|l 15|l 29|l 28|| 43|| 55|2 122 25|2 4 |3 55|w. m. iv. n | w. n. c.d c. d. c. d. |cy, *|| | | 2 || 3 || 17| 24; 35|l 44|| 5 |2 2ſ2 10|2 383 + 4 is w. n. w. n. |w nºw. n. * * × m|| 3 || 141 '8|: 24 i 35|| 43|| 542 02 82 27|2 6|| 3 41 5 2. 17 32|w. m.w.. n. : £ || 16|| 17|| 2 || 281 40|| 492 1/2 82 18|2 433 26|| 1 38|| 1 || 4 to 328 38 c. n.] $ºf l 18|| 19|| 23|| 301 43|l 53|2 6|2 15|2 262 574 alo 24, 9 30| 7 46 c. n | c. n. -TWIN, in Geography, a township of Prebble county, in the district of Ohio, containing 719 inhabi- tants.-Also, a towns in of Ross county, in the same district, containing 1053 inhabitants. - Twin, JWorth, an island in James's Bay, Hudson’s Bay. N. lat. 53° 20'. W. long 80° 40'. . . . . Twin, South an island in James’s Bay, Hudson's Bay. N. lat. 53° 10' - plied to an early kind of white oat, which is very pro- ductive on deep good land, and which affords full crops on most sorts that are not too poor in quality. It commonly yields somewhat more than the pollard sort. See OAT. - T WINE. Bolt-rofte twine, used in sewing sails to their bolt-rope, is made of the long hemp, or from the long rough hemp unbeat. It contains two or three threads, is twisted slack, and wound into half-pound skains con aining two hundred yards. Eight threads are spun out of half a pound of hemp, each fifty yards long. . Seal-twine, for seal-nets, is made of twelve threads, two threads first twisted together, then six of them hardened together, and wound up into half-skains, or eighty yards. - - - Seaming or sail-maker's twine, for sewing the seams of sails, is made of the best long hemp, beaten, spun fine, and well dressed over a fine clearer: eighteen threads are spun out of half a pound of hemp, every thread being fifty yards in length : two threads are twisted together slack, and wound on a reel, in half- pound skains containing four hundred and fifty yards: but twine of three threads is used in the navy Sean twine is made from good long hemp, each thread spun fifty-four yards; three threads are laid together. When hardened and stretched, each cord stands fifty yards; nine hundred yards are wound on a reel, and eighteen cords weigh two pounds. & . W. ſong 8.9° 36' Twin Oat, in Agriculture, a name sometimes ap- Long’s Astron. vol. i. p. 238. Store twine, used by sail-makers for old work and on board of ships, is made froin good long hemp, well dressed. Fourteen threads are spun from half a pound ; two threads are twisted together, and wound into half-pound skains of three hundred and fifty yards. Turtle-twine, for turtle-nets, is made of good bar hemp, spun one hundred yards: three threads are laid together, stand ninety yards, and weigh one pound. Whiftſhing-twine, the same as bolt-rope twine. TWINING IRoNs, square bars with an ess-hook at one end, which grasp the porter or the shank of an anchor to turn it over. * * - … " TWINKLING of the Stars, denotes that tremu- lous, vibratory, intermitting motion, which is observed in the light proceeding from the fixed stars: Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher of the twelf: h century, consi- ders refraction as the cause of this phenomenon. Vitellio, in his Optica, published in 1270, p. 449, ascribes the twinkling of the stars to the motion of the air in which the light is refracted; and he observes, in confirmation of this hypothesis, that they twinkle still more when they are viewed in water put into IO, Otion. ‘. . . . . . Dr. Hooke (Mierogr. p. 23.1, &c.) very reasonably attributes this phenomenon to the inconstant and une- qual refraction of the rays of light occasioned by the trembling motion of the air and interspersed vapours, in consequence of variable degrees of heat and cold in the air, producing corresponſling variations in its rarity or density, and also of the action of the wind, which must cause the successive rays to fall upon the eye in different directions, and consequently upon dif- ferent parts of the retina at different times, and also to hit and miss the pupil alternately ; and this is also the reason, he says, why the limbs of the sun, moon, and planets appear to wave or dance. These tremors of the air are manifest to the eye by the tremulous motion of shadows cast from high & towers; TWINKLING. towers; and by looking at objects through the smoke of a chimney, or through streams of hot water, or at ob- jects situated beyond hot sands, especially if the air be moved transversely over them. But when stars are seen through telescopes that have large apertures, they twinkle but little, and sometimes not at all. For, as sir Isaac Newton has observed, (Opt, p. 98.) the rays of light which pass through different parts of the aperture, tremble each of them apart, and by means of their various, and sometimes contrary tremors, fall at one and the same time upon different points in the bottom of the eye, and their trembling motions are too quick and confused to be separately perceived. And all these illuminated points constitute one broad lucid point, composed of those many trembling points confusedly and insensibly mixed with one another by very short and swift tremors, and thereby cause the star to appear broader than it is, and without any trem- bling of the whole. . Dr. Jurin, in his Essay upon Distinct and Indistinct Vision, has recourse to Sir Isaac Newton’s hypothesis of fits of easy refraction and reflection for explaining the twinkling of the stars: thus, he says, if the middle part of the image of a star be changed from light to dark, and the adjacent ring be at the same time changed from dark to light, as must happen from the least motion of the eye towards or from the star, this will occasion such an appearance as twinkling. Mr. Michell (Phil. Trans. vol. lvii. p. 262.) sup- poses that the arrival of fewer or more rays at one time, especially from the snailer or more remote fixed Stars, may make such an unequal impression on the eye, as may, at least, have some share in producing this effect: since it may be supposed, that even a sin- gle particle of light is sufficient to make a sensible im- pression upon the organs of sight; so that a very few particles arriving at the eye in a second of time, per- haps not more than three or four, may be sufficient to make an object constantly visible. See LIGHT. Hence, he says, it is not improbable, that the num- ber of the particles of light which enter the eye in a second of time, even from Sirius himself, may not exceed three or four thousand, and from stars of the second magnitude they may, therefore, probably not exceed a hundred. Now the apparent increase and diminution of the light, which we observe in the twink- ling of the stars, seem to be repeated at not very unequal intervals, perhaps about four or five times in a second. He, therefore, thought it reasonable to suppose, that the inequalities which will naturally arise from the chance of the rays coming sometimes a little denser, and sometimes a little rarer, in so small a number of them, as must fall upon the eye in the fourth or fifth part of a second, may be sufficient to account for this appearance. An addition of two or three particles of light, or perhaps a single one, upon twenty, especially if there should be an equal deficiency, out of the next twenty, would, be supposed, be very sensible, as he thought was probable from the very great difference in the appearance of stars, the light of which does not differ so much as is commonly imagined. The light ºf the middle most star in the tail of the Great Bear deos not, he thinks, exceed the light of the very small star that is next to it, in a greater proportion than that ºf about 16 or 20 to 1 ; and M. Bouguer found, that a difference in the light of objects, of one part in sixty- six, was sufficiently distinguishable. g Since these observations were published, Mr. Micheli (as we are informed by Dr. Priestly, Hist. of Light, p. 495.) has entertained some suspicion, that the unequal density of light does not contribute to this effect in so great a degree as he had imagined; especially in con- sequence of observing that even Venus does sometimes twinkle. . This he once observed her to do remarkably when she was about six degrees high, though Jupiter, which was then about sixteen degrees high, and was sen- sibly less luminous, did not twinkle at all. If, notwith- standing the great number of rays, which without doubt, come to the eye from such a surface as this planet pre- sents, its appearance be liable to be affected in this man- ner, it must be owing to such undulations in the atmos- phere, as will probably render the effect of every other cause altogether insensible. - M. Muschenbroeck (Introd, ad. Phil. Nat. vol. ii. sect. 1741, p. 707.) suspects, that the twinkling of the stars arises from some affection of the eye, as well as the state of the atmosphere. For, he says, that in Hol- land, when the weather is frosty, and the sky very clear, the stars twinkle most manifestly to the naked eye, though not in telescopes; and since he does not suppose there is any great exhalation, or dancing of the vapour at that time, he questions whether the vivacity of the light, affecting the eye, may not be concerned in the phenomenon. - But this philosopher might have satisfied himself with respect to this hypothesis, by looking at the stars near the zenith, when the light traverses but a small part of the atmosphere, and therefore might be expected to af. fect the eye most sensibly. For he would not have per- ceived them to twinkle near so much as they do near the horizon, when much more of their light is inter- cepted by the atmosphere. Some astronomers have lately endeavoured to explain the twinkling of the fixed stars, by the extreme minute- ness of their apparent diameter; so that they suppose the sight of them is intercepted by every mote that floats in the air. To this purpose Dr. Long observes (Astron. vol. i. p. 170.) that our air near the earth is So full of various kinds of particles, which are in con- tinual motion, that some one or other of them is per- petually passing between us and any star which we look at, and this makes us every moment alternately see it and lose sight of it: and this twinkling of the stars, he says, is greatest in those which are nearest the hori- zon, because they are viewed through a great quantity of thick air, where the intercepting particles are most numerous; whereas stars that are near the zenith do not twinkle so much, because we do not look at them through so much thick air, and therefore the intercept- ing particles being fewer, come less frequently before them. With respect to the planets, it is observed, that they, because they are much nearer to us than the stars, have a sensible apparent magnitude, so that they are not co- vered by the small particles floating in the atmosphere, and therefore do not twinkle, but shine with a steady light. The fallacy of this hypothesis appears from the observation of Mr. Michell, that no object can hide a star from us that is not large enough to exceed the ap- parent diameter of the star, by the diameter of the pu- pil of the eye; so that if a star was a mathematical point, the interposing object must still be equal in size to the pupil of the eye : and, indeed, it must be large enough to hide the star from both eyes at the same time. The principal cause, therefore, of the twinklingº: the T W I sº T W O the stars is now acknowledged to be, the unequal re- fraction of light, in consequence of inequalities and un- dulations in the atmosphere. Besides a variation in the quantity of light, it may here be added, that a momentary change of colour has likewise been observed in Some of the fixed stars. Mr. Melville (Edinb. Ess. vol. ii. p. 81.) says, that when one looks steadfastly at Sirius, or any bright star, not much elevated above the horizon, its colour seems not to be constantly white, but appears tinctured, at every twinkling, with red and blue. Mr. Melville could not entirely satisfy himself as to the cause of this phenome- mon; observing, that the separation of the colours by the refractive power of the atmosphere is, probably, too small to be perceived. Mr. Michell’s hypothesis above- mentioned, though inadequate to the explication of the twinkling of the stars, may pretty well account for this circumstance. For the red and blue rays being much fewer than those of the intermediate colours, and there- fore much more liable to inequalities, from the common effect of chance, a small excess or defect in either of them, will make a very sensible difference in the colour of the stars. TWINS, two young ones delivered at a birth by an animal which ordinarily brings forth but one. It has been greatly disputed, which of two twins is to be esteemed the elder? The faculty of Montpelier have given it, that the latter born is to be reputed the elder, because first conceived: but by all the laws which now obtain, the first-born enjoys the privilege of seniority; and the custom is confirmed by the scripture instance of Esau and Jacob. But if two twins be born so intermixed, that one can- not distinguish which of the two appeared first, it should seem that neither the one nor the other can pretend to the right of primogeniture, which ought to remain in suspence by reason of their mutual concourse. In such case, some would have the decision left to the father, and others to the chance of a lot. In cattle, twins are seldom desirable, as they can rarely be well supported, though occasionally cows are capable of suckling two calves; but in sheep, it is of ten greatly desirable in different breeds or varieties. The frequency of twins in sheep is much influenced both by the condition of the ewes, and the state of vigour in the rams. Such flocks as are well fed, and pasture easily about the tupping time, usually produce a far larger proportion of twins, than those which have higher walks, or pastures which are of inferior quality. Twins too are the most frequent in the early part of the lamb- ing season: all which shew the propriety of keeping the ewes well supported, and of not letting the rams have too great a number put to them at such seasons. Nice attention is necessary to twins at the time of Hambing, by the person who has the charge of the bu- siness, to see that they are in every way properly taken care of. See SHEEP. Twins, in Astronomy. See GEMINI. Twins, in Geografthy, two small islands in the East Indian sea, near the island of Paraguay. N. lat. 9° 18'. E. long, 118° 3'.—Also, two small islands in the East Indian sea, near the north coast of the island of Flores. S. lat. 8° 2'. E. long. 122° 33'. TWIST of a Roſie, Cord, &c, See RoPE. Twist, again, is used for the inside, or flat part of a man's thigh, upon which a true horseman rests when on horseback. Twist a Horse, To, is violently to wring or twist his testicles twice about, which causes them to dry up, and º deprives them of nourishment, and reduces the horse to the same state of impotency with a gelding. TWISTE, in Geography, a river of Germany, which runs into the Erpe, near Valckmarsen, in the duchy of Westphalia. TWISTED Column. See Column, TwistED Silks. See SILK. Twisted Thumb-Band, in Rural Economy, a term, used to signify the band of hay or straw which is formed by means of the thumb and fingers, by twisting it with them, and employed in binding up trusses of these kinds for sale. See TRUss. TWITCH, in Agriculture, a name often applied to a very troublesome plant of the weed kind in tillage- land, of which there are several sorts, as the black, white, creeping, and some others. See Couch-Grass. Twitch-Rake, a name sometimes applied to a large tool of this kind, made use of in dragging and collecting the roots of couch together in arable land, by means of a horse. See Couch and RAKE. - - TWITE, in Ornithology. See LINNET. TWO BROTHERs, in Geography, two small islands in the Chinese sea. N. lat. 8° 30'. E. long. 105° 48'. –Also, two small islands in the East Indian sea, near the W. coast of Borneo. S. lat. 19 32'. E. long. 109° 13'--Also, two small islands in the East Indian sea, 27 miles from the E. point of the island of Madura. S. lat. 6° 50', E. long. I 14° 43'-Also, two small islands in the East Indian sea, near the W. coast of the island of Celebes. S. lat. 4° 40'. E. long, 119° 22'.— Also, two small islands in Cook’s Straits, near the N. E. coast of the southern island of New Zealand. S. lat 40° 5'. E. long. 184° 35'.—Also, two small islands in the East Indian sea, near the S. coast of Borneo. S. lat. 4° 10'. E. long. I 14° 4'.—Also, two small islands in the East Indian Sea, between the island of Borneo and the continent of Asia. S. lat. 9° 10'. E. long. 109° 24′. Two-Head Island, a small island near the S. coast of Ireland, and county of Kerry; 1 mile W. of Lamb’s- Head. Two-Headed Point, a cape on the S. W. coast of the island of Kodiak, in the North Pacific ocean, composing a small island which terminates to the N. E. by a low flat rocky point. South-westward from Two-headed island the coast is low, and appears to be compact; but immediately to the northward of it, the shores descend abruptly into the sea, appear to be much broken, and form an extensive sound, of which the flat rocky point may be considered as its S. W. point of entrance ; from this, its N. E. point being low projecting land, lies N. 58° E. at the distance of nine miles. The several branches that appeared to flow into the Sound, seemed to wind toward the base of a connected range of high snowy mountains, which no doubt gave boundaries to their extent. N. lat. 56° 54. E. long. 207° 5' . Two Hills, a small island among the New Hebrides, in the South Pacific ocean. S. lat. 17° 15'. E. long. l 600 38/ ºl Two-Hill Island, a small island in the Mergui Archi- pelago. N. lat. I 19 27'. Two Keys, two small islands in the bay of Honduras. N. lat. 17° 30'. W. long. 87° 52'. . - Two-Saddle Island, an Island in the Mergui Archi- pelago, about four miles long, and two broad. N. lat. 1 Oo 427. Two Sisters, two small islands in the East Indian sea, covered with wood, and surrounded by a reef of coral- rocks. S. lat. 5°. E. long. 106° 12'.-Also, two small * islands T Y. B T Y E islands in the Spanish main, near the Mosquito shore. N. lat. I 19 17". W. long. 82° 55'. - Two Shots, small islands in the bay of Honduras, surrounded with rocks. N. lat. 16° 40'. W. long. 88° 2O". TWOBILL, in Agriculture, the name of a tool com- monly employed in cutting up roots in the work of pa- ring and burning in the old mode. It is seen in fig. 7. in the plate on paring ploughs. It has sometimes the title of double-bitted mattock. TWO-FURROW PLough, a term sometimes ap- plied to that of the double kind. It is often useful for cross-cutting land in different cases, and in giving the last earth for turnip-crops. - TWO-FURROWING, a term used to signify dou- ble furrows, or the breaking up land by the double plough : it also implies trench ploughing and sod bury- II].9". •r Ér WO-MEAL CHEESE, in Rural Economy, a term applied to that sort which is made from the skimmed milk of the evening, added to the new milk of the meal of the morning; that made from the neat milk being termed one-meal. In some districts, as that of Glou- cester, two-meal cheese is made of one meal or por- tion of coward or clean milk, and the same of such as is skimmed ; but often two of the latter are used to one of the former. Hence this sort is sometimes called coward- cheese. TWO-MOULD-BOARDED Cleaning and Earth- ing Hoe for Potatoes, in Agriculture, a tool of some- what the plough kind, contrived for the purpose of cleaning and earthing up these crops with. It has a wheel before to direct the depth of its working, with handles behind to regulate it. There is a sharp hoe at- tached to a sort of coulter-bar in front, with a mould- board on each side, capable of being set to different dis- tances, by a kind of screw in the middle, by which means the ground is pared and laid to the crops. It is considered a tool that produces much saving and advan- tage in the culture of potatoes, and which performs its work very effectually. - t TWO PENCE, HERB, in Botany, a species of Ly- simachia ; which see. * TWO-THIRDS SUBSIDy. See DUTY and SUB- SIDY. TWUNT, in Geografhy, a town of Algiers, on the coast of the Mediterranean, defended by a fort; 30 miles N. W. of Tremecen. N. lat. 35° 18'. W. long. 19 2'. TWYBLADE, in Botany. See OPHRys. TY ACUL, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; 10 miles S. of Colar. TYAHTATOOA BAY, a bay on the coast of Owhy- hee, one of the Sandwich islands. N. lat. 19° 37'. E. long. 203° 54/. - TYANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cappa- docia, in the Tyanitide prefecture; the only one in this prefecture, according to Strabo; but according to Ptole- my, there were three others. It was known as the na- tive country of Apollonius Tyanaeus, the celebrated im- postor. TYANA, in Geography, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 25 miles S.W. of Sis. TYBEE, an island near the coast of Georgia, at the mouth of Savannah river: on it is a light-house. N. lat. 32°. W. long, 81°. - • TYBEIN. See Dur. § TYBER. See TIBERIs and TYBERINUs. The Tyber appears on the reverse of a medal of Vespasian, not on- ly as a divinity, but also as the patron and protector of Rome. When Æneas resided in Italy, he performed religious ceremonies to this river, gave himself up to his protection, and prayed that he might be propitious to him. - TYBERINUS, a king of Alba, and from this prince having drowned himself in the Albula, that river gained the name of Tyber, which it has ever since retained. TYBOINE, in Geography; a township of Pennsyl- vania; 100 miles W. of Philadelphia. n TYCHE, in Ancient Geography. See SYRAcuse. TY CHONIC System, or Hyſiothesis, is an order or arragement of the heavenly bodies, of an intermediate nature between the opernican and Ptolemaic, or parti- cipating alike of them both. See SystEM. - TYDAL, in Geograft hy. See RUDEN. - TYDII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia, who inhabited mount, Gaucasus, according to Pliny. - - TYE, DR. in Biography, the best English composer of church music, anterior to Tallis, that our country can boast; for though his name does not appear in the list of musicians of the chapel royal, or household establish- ment in the short reign of Edward VI., he was, doubt- less, at the head of all ecclesiastical composers of that period. Neither the state of the church, nor religious principles of its nominal members, were so settled as to render it possible to determine, in these times, who among quiet and obedient subjects were protestants, and who tatholics; for, during the conflict between the zealots of both religions, the changes were so voilent and rapid, that flexibility or great dissimulation must have been practised by those who not only escaped persecu- tion, but still continued in offices, either of church or state. The few who seem to have been truly pious and conscientious on both sides, suffered martyrdom in sup- port of their opinions; the rest seem to have been either unprincipled, or fluctuating between the two religions. One of the principal evils which the champions for re- formation combated, was the use of the Latin language in the service of the church; however, the best choral compositions produced by the masters of these times, that are come down to us, are to Latin words. Speci- mers remain of Dr. Tye’s clear and masterly manner of composing for the church in that language, when he was at least a nominal Catholic, either during the reign of Henry VIII, or queen Mary; and the late worthy Dr. Boyce has given an admirable example of his abili- ties in the anthem for four voices, “I will exalt thee, O Lord ” inserted in the second volume of his excellent “Collection of Cathedral Music, by English Masters.” There is hardly any instance to be found in the produc- tions of composers for the church during his time, of a piece so constantly and regularly in any one key, as this in the key of C minor, and its relatives; the harmony is pure and grateful; the time and melody, though not so marked and accented as in those of the best composi- tions of the last century, are free from pedantry, and the difficulty of complicated measures which this composer had the merit of being one of the first to abandon. That he translated the first fourteen chapters of the Acts of the Apostles into metre, in imitation of Sternhold’s Psalms, which were the delight of the court in which he lived, was doubtless an absurd undertaking, and was not rendered less ridiculous by the elaborate music . - - t whic & T Y. E. T Y. I which he set them, consisting of fugues and canons of the most artificial and complicated kind, Dr. Tye, however, if compared with his contemporaries, was perhaps as good a poet as Sternhold, and as great a musician as Europe could then boast: and it is hardly fair to expect more perfection from him, or to blame an individual for the general defects of the age in which he lived. TyE, in Geography, a river of Virginia, which runs into James river, N. lat. 37° 30'. W. long. 79° 8'. TYE, in Mining. See STREAMING. TYE, in Sea Language, denotes a sort of runner, or thick rope, used to transmit the effort of a tackle to any yard or gaff, which extends the upper part of a sail. The tye is either passed through a block fixed to the mast-head, and afterwards through another block mova- ble upon the yard or gaff intended to be hoisted; or the end of it simply fastened to the sail, yard, or gaff, after communicating with the block at the mast-head. Fal- coner. See JEERs. . - TYER, in Geography, a river of South Carolina, which runs into the Cangaree, N. lat. 34° 30'. W. long. 8 lo 45'. TYERS, JonATHAN, in Biography, the late proprie- tor, and indeed the creator of Vauxhall gardens, (see VAUxHALL.) deserves a place among our biographical articles on many accounts. His taste, liberality, and spirit in supporting and ornamenting this elegant place of amusement with paintings by Hogarth and Hayman; an excellent band of music; an orchestrain the form of a temple in the open air, with an organ equal in size and workmanship to many of the most noble instruments of that kind in our churches; and a constant succession of ingenious exhibitions; rendered it a public place more attractive, admired, and imitated by foreigners, than any one our country could boast. In every part of Europe a nominal Vauxhall has been established; nor was there a theatre on the continent thirty years ago, with scenery and ballot pantomimes, without an attempt at represent- ing Vauxhall. •r The proprietor began with a small band of wind-in- struments only, before he erected an orchestra, and fur- nished it with an organ; but in the summer of 1745, to render it still more attractive, he added, for the first time, vocal to his instrumental performances. Here the ta- lents of many of our national musićians were first dis- played and first encouraged; here Collet and Pinto on the violin, Snow on the trumpet, Millar on the bassoon, Worgan on the organ, &c. annually increased in merit and favour. Here Messrs. Arne, Lowe, and the elder Reinhold sung during many years, with great applause, Dr. Arne’s ballads, duets, dialogues, and trios, which were soon after circulated throughout the kingdom, to the great improvement of our national taste. During this first summer, his little dialogue of Colin and Phoebe, written by the late Mr. Moore. author of “Fables for the Female Sex.” was constantly encored every night for more than three months successively. But here the good sense, sound judgment, and good taste of the spirited proprietor of Vauxhall, deserve a record for the veneration and respect which he mani- fested for Handel; at a time when the health and favour of this great master were on the decline, and opposition had almost ruined him : it was then that Tyers erected, at his sole expense, the marble statue which still adorns the gardens; an honour which has seldom been confer- red on a subject and a professional man, during his life- time, in any country, since the flourishing state of the Greeks and Romans. And as this transaction does V OL, XXXVIII. honour, not only to the genius of Handel, but to the pub- lic spirit of his votary, we shall relate it as recorded i the registers of the times. * April 15th, 1738, in the London Daily Post, a para- graph says: “The effigies of Mr. Handel, the famous composer of music, is going to be erected at Vauxhall gardens, at the expense of Mr. Jonathan Tyers.” And on the 18th of the same month, “We are informed, from very good authority, that there is now near finished a statue of the justly celebrated Mr Handel, exquisitely done by the ingenious Mr. Roubillac, of St. Martin’s- lane, statuary, out of one entire block of marble, which is to be placed in a grand niche, erected on purpose in the great grove, at Vauxhall gardens, at the sole expense of Mr. Tyers, conductor of the entertainments there; who, in consideration of the real merit of that inimita- ble master, thought it justice and propriety that his effi- gies should preside in that place, where his harmony has so often charmed even the greatest crowds into the most profound Silence and attention. It is believed, that the expence of the statue and niche cannot cost less than 300l. ; the said gentleman, likewise, very gene- rously took at Mr. Handel's benefit, fifty of his tickets.” May 2d, we have a farther account of this species of apotheosis, or laudable idolatry, in the following words: “Last night at the opening of the Spring-gardens Vaux- hall, the company expressed great satisfaction at the marble statue of Mr. Handel, who is represented in a loose robe, sweeping the lyre, and listening to its sounds: which a little boy sculptured at his feet seems to be writing down on the back of a violoncello. The whole composition is in an elegant taste.” Soon after, the following verses appeared: “That Orpheus moved a grove, a rock, or stream, By music's power, will not a fiction seem; For here as great a miracle is shewn— A Handel breathing, though transform'd to stone.” TYFORY, in Geografthy, a small island in the East Indian sea; 45 miles W. of Gilolo. N. lat. lo 6. E. long. 126° 28′. TYGART’s VALLEY, a district of Pennsylvania, wa- tered by the Monongahela river. TYGER, in Zoology. See TIGER. TYGER’s Point, a cape of Asia, on the south-west coast of Ava, at the mouth of the Persaim. N. lat. 15 o 50'. E. long. 94° 45'." TYGER's Creek, a river of Kentucky, which runs into the Ohio, N. lat. 38° 22'. W. long, 83°. TYGER's Island, a small island in the Chinese sea, near the coast of Chiampa. N. lat, 10° 47' E. long. 107 45'.—Also, a small island in the Chinese sea, near the coast of Cochinchina. N. lat. 16° 5'1'. E. long. 1069 13'. TYGER Island, a small island in the Pacific ocean, at the entrance of the bay of Amapalla. N. lat. 139. 10'. TYGER’s Islands, a cluster of small islands and shoals in the East Indian sea; 30 miles E. from the island of Saleyer. TY-GWYN, a village of South Wales, in the county of Caermarthen, where Howel Dha, first monarch of ail Wales, had a palace: and in the year 942, a council was held, to form a body of laws. On this spot a Cister- tian monastery was founded, called Whetsand Abbey; 5 miles W of St. Clare. TYING, in Music. See LEGATE-JVote and Syncope. Z TYKOCZYN, T Y L T Y. L TYKOCZYN, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Bielsk. In 1705, Augustus II. institu- ted the order of the White Eagle in this town, 28 miles N.N.W. of Bielsk. TYLANGIUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of the Peloponnesus, in Triphylia according to Polybius. TYLE, or TILE, in Building, a sort of thin, factitious, laminated brick, used on the roofs of houses, or, more properly, a kind of fat clayey earth, kneaded and mould- ed of a just thickness, dried and burnt in a kiln, like a brick, and used in the covering and paving of houses. It is thus called from the French tuille, of the Latin regula, which signifies the same. Tyles are made, says Mr. Leyburn, of better earth than brick-earth, and something near akin to the potter’s earth. - - - By 17 Geo.III. c. 42. all combinations for enhancing the price of tyles and bricks, shall be void; and every tyle-maker, or brick-maker, offending, shall forfeit 201, and every clerk, agent, or servant, 101. ; half to the poor, and half to him who sues within six calendar months. By 43 Geo. III. c. 69, schedule (A.) and the 45 Geo. III. c. 30. in lieu of any duties of excise then subsisting, new duties were imposed. The said duties on bricks and tyles to be paid by the maker or makers thereof respectively. For the duties on exportation and importation, see the schedules annexed to the said act of 43 Geo. III. c. 69. Provided always, that tyles made for the sole purpose of draining land, 194% inches long by 13% inches broad, and bent into a semi-elliptical form, the inside of the crown of the arch thereof being not less than seven in- ches perpendicular, from a straight line drawn from the one to the other side thereof after the same is so bent, and such sides not being at any part thereof more than five inches distant from each other on the inside, and as nearly of the dimensions, and bent as nearly into the form aforesaid as may be, to be used for the purposes afore- said, shall not be subject to any of the said duties. 34 Geo. III. c. 15.-And the exemption is extended to tyles made for such purpose not less than nine inches long; such being in every other respect of the same descrip- tion and dimension as before prescribed. 42 Geo. III. C. 93. And by the 46 Geo. III. c. 138. it is further enacted, that semi-elliptic tyles not exceeding in inside width six inches, and the height of which from the outside of the crown of the arch in a perpendicular line to the extreme edge shall in all cases exceed the width, but with a foot from the bottom of the arch where necessary, not ex- ceeding two inches in breadth, made for draining wet or marshy lands, are exempted from the excise duty. And any person using any such tyle for any other purpose than above-mentioned, incurs the penalty of 6d. each tyle so used. - - - And every maker of bricks or tyles, before he begins to make, shall leave or give notice in writing at the next . excise office of his name and place of abode, and of the sheds, workhouses, or other places where such bricks or tyles are intended to be made; on pain of 100l. 24 Geo. TII. c. 24. sess 2. All bricks and tyies chargeable with the said duties shall be taken account of and charged by the officer whilst they are drying, after being turned out of the moulds, and before removed to the kiln or clamp for burning, for which purpose any officer may enter into the fields, sheds, or other places where making, and shall take an account thereof in writing, and leave a copy (if demanded) with such maker, on pain of 40s. : and if any person shall obstruct such officer, he shall forfeit 50/. - * The officer charging the duty shall allow ten for every hundred when charged in the field before burned, in compensation for all waste, loss or damages. And if the maker shall remove any bricks or tyles to the kiln or clamp or other place of burning from out of the field or place where they shall be put or placed to dry, before the officer shall havet aken an account thereof, he shall forfeit 50l. And all so carried away, and found in the possession of any maker, or trader therein, or person for his use, shall be forfeited and may be seized, or the value thereof shall be forfeited. 25 Geo. III. c. 66. Provided, that no such maker shall be subject to the said penalty, if the officer shall fail to take an account, on due notice given him three days before such removal. 24 Geo. III. c. 24. sess. 2. The maker shall keep the bricks and tyles unsurvey- ed separate from those that have been surveyed; on pain of forfeiting 50l. 25 Geo. III. c. 66. - And such maker shall, while the same are drying, place them in such manner as the officer may easily and securely take an account thereof; and if he shall place them in an irregular or unusual manner, with in- tent to make it difficult or unsafe for the officer to take such account, he shall forfeit 50l. If any maker shall fraudulently conceal or hide any bricks or tyles in any part of the operation of making, with intent to evade the duties, he shall forfeit the same, and also 20l. 24 Geo. I}I. c. 24. Sess. 2. Every such makershall once in every six weeks make entry in writing upon his oath, or on the oath of his chief workman, at the next excise office, of all bricks and tyles by him made within that time, on pain of 50l. And shall also, within six weeks after such entry, clear off all the duties then due thereon; on pain of double duty. And if any person shall carry away such bricks or tyles before the duty be cleared off, he shall forfeit double the value thereof. But such maker shall not for making such entry be obliged to go further than the next market-town.. And all tools, implements, and utensils used in making such bricks or tyles, in custody of the maker, &c. shall be liable to be seized for any debts or penalties, (arising or incurred under this act) whether the debtor or of fender be the lawful owner thereof or not. 28 Geo. III. c. 37. i. * - - Bricks or tyles for which the duties have been paid may be exported, and on security given before the ship- ping thereof that the same shall not be relanded, the per- son exporting the same shall be allowed a drawback of such duties; and in case such bricks or tyles shall be re- landed the same shall be forfeited to the use of his ma- jesty, over and above the penalty of such bond. 27. Geo.III. c. 13. sched. (F.) Ah penalties and forfeitures are to be sued for, levied, and mitigated as by the laws of excise, or in the courts at Westminster, and to be distributed half to the king, and half to him that shall sue. 24 Geo. III. c. 24. sess. 2. For the method of burning tyles, see BRICK. As to the applying of tyles, some lay them dry, as they come from the kiln, without mortar, or any thing else; others lay them in a kind of mortar made of loam and horse-dung. In some parts, as in Kent, they lay them in moss. There T Y L TY L There are various kinds of tyles for the various occa- sions of building; as filain, thack, ridge, roof crease, gutter, fan, crooked, Flemish, corner, hiſ, dorman or dormar, scalloft, astragal, traverse, flaving, and Dutch tyles. TYLEs, Plain or Thack, are those in ordinary use for the covering of houses. They are squeezed flat, while yet soft, in a mould. They are of an oblong figure, and by stat. 17 Edw. IV. c. 4. are to be ten inches and a half long, six and a quarter broad, and half an inch and half a quarter thick. But these dimensions are not strictly observed. - Plain tyles are not laid in mortar, but only pointed in the inside. TYLEs, Ridge, Roof, or Crease, are those used to co- ver the ridges of houses, being made circular, breadth- wise, like a half cylinder. These are what Pliny calls taterculi, and are by statute to be thirteen inches long, and of the same thickness with the plain tyles. TYLEs, Hifi or Corner, are those which lie on the hips or corners of roofs. As to form, they are first made flat, like plain tyles, but of a quadrangular figure, whose two sides are right lines, and two ends arcs of circles; one end being a little concave, and the other convex. The convex end is to be about seven times as broad as the concave end ; so that they would be triangular, but that one corner is taken off: then, before they are burnt, they are bent on a mould, breadthwise, like ridge tyles. They have a hole at their narrow end to nail them on by, and are laid with their narrow end upwards. By statute, they are to be ten inches and a half long, and of a con- venient breadth and thickness. .” These, as well as the ridge tyles, are to be laid in mor- tar, because they seldom lie so close as not to admit any water to pass between them. - TYLEs, Gutter, are those which lie in gutters or val- leys in cross-buildings. They are made like corner tyles, only the corners of the broad end are turned back again with two wings. They have no holes in them, but are laid with the broad end upwards, without any nailing. They are made in the same mould as corner tyles, and have the same dimensions on the convex sides. Their wings are each four inches broad, and eight long. These tyles are seldom used where lead is to be had. TYLES, Pan, Crooked, or Flemish, are used in cover- ing of sheds, stables, out-houses, and all kinds of flat- roofed buildings. They are in form of an oblong paral- Jelogram, as plain tyles, but are bent breadthwise for- wards and backwards, in the form of an S, only one of the archesis at least three times as big as the other, which biggest arch is always laid uppermost, and the less arch of another tyle lies over the edge of the great arch of the former. They have no holes for pins, but hang on the laths by a knot of their own earth. By 17 Geo.III. c. 42. they are to be, when burnt, not less than thirteen inches and a half long, nine and a half inches wide, and half an inch thick, on pain that the maker shall forfeit 10s. for every 1000. - Pan-tyles are laid in mortar, because the roof being flat and many tyles being warped in the burning, they will not cover the roof so well as that no water pass be-, tween them. TYLEs, Dormar or Dorman, consist of a plain tyle, and a triangular piece of a plain one, standing up at right angles to one si e of the plain tye, and swept with an arc of a circle from the one end, which terminates in a point. Of these tyles there are two kinds; the triangular piece, in some, standing on the right, in others on the left side of the plain tyle. And of each of these, again, there are two kinds, some having a whole plain tyle, others but half a plain tyle. But in them all, the plain tyle has two holes for the pins, at that end where the broad end of the triangular piece stands. - Their use is to be laid in the gutters, betwixt the roof and the cheeks or sides of the dormars, the plain part lying on the roof, and the triangular part standing per- pendicularly by the cheek of the dormar. They are excellent to keep out the wet in those places, and yet they are hardly known any where but in Sussex. The dimensions of the plain tyle part are the same as those of a plain tyle, and the triangular part is of the same length, and its breadth at one end seven inches, and at the other nothing. - TYLES, Scalloft or Astragal, are, in all respects, like plain tyles, only their lower ends are in form of an astra- gal, viz. a semicircle, with a square on each side. They are used in some places for weather tyling. TYLEs, Traverse, are a kind of irregular plain tyles, having the pin-holes broken out, or one of the lower corners broken off. These are laid with the broken end upwards, upon the rafters, where pinned tiles cannot hang. - TYLES, Flemish or Dutch, are of two kinds, ancient and modern. The ancient were used for chimney foot- paces; they were painted with antique figures, and fre- quently with postures of soldiers, some with compart- ments, and some with moresque devices; but they came greatly short, both as to the design and colours, of the modern ones. The modern Fiemish tyles are commonly used plas- tered up in the jambs of chimneys, instead of chimney corner stones. These are better glazed, and such as are painted (for some are only white) are much better performed than the ancient ones. But both kinds seem to be made of the same white- ish clay as our white-glazed earthen-ware. The ancient ones are five inches and a quarter square, and about three-quarters of an inch thick; the modern ones 6inches and a half square, and three quarters of an inch thick. When these tyles are set with good mortar they look beautiful, and cast a greater heat than stone: for, being very Symooth and glazed, the rays of heat striking upon them are all reflected into the work, especially when the sides of the chimneys are oblique, or in the form of cir- cular arches. But they are little used, Tyling is measured by a square of 100 square feet; and the number of tyles required for such a square de- pends on the distance of the laths, which, when six inch- es, requires 800 : when six and a half inches, 740; when seven inches, 690; when seven and a half inches, 640; and when eight inches, 600 tyles. - TYLE, in Assaying. See TILE. TYLER, one that covers or paves with tyles. Tylers and bricklayers were incorporated 10 Eliz. under the name of “Master and Wardens of the Socie- ty of freemen of the Mystery and Art of Tylers and Bricklayers.” See CoMPANY. - * TYLERs, Great, in Geografthy, a small island in the Gulf of Finland. N. lat. 59° 50'. E. long. 27° 12'. TYLERs, Little, a small island in the Gulf of Finland. N. lat. 59° 48'. E. long. 26° 54'. TYI.ERY. See TUILERIE. TYLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace, on mount Haemus. - • TYL PHORA, in Rotany, from rvaos, a wart or tubercle, and Øega, to bear, apparently in reference to #: z 2 VG T Y L T y M * five fleshy tumid leaves of the crown of the flower; though no explanation is given by the author.-Brown Tr. of the Wern. Soc. v. I. 23. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. I. 460.-Class and order, Pe, tantíria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Contortº, Linn. Aftocynea, Juss. Ascleſiadea, Brown. Ess. Ch. Corolla wheel shaped, in five deep segments. Crown of the stamens of five depressed fleshy leaves, whose inner angle is simple, without a tooth. Anthers terminated by a membrane; masses of pollen erect, at- tached by their base, with simple margins. Stigma pointless. Follicles smooth. Seeds comose. The plants of this genus have twining, either herba- ceous or shrubby, stems. Leaves opposite membranous, flat. Umbels standing between the footstalks. Flowers for the most part small. Four of the species are natives of New Holland, chiefly within the tropic, but extending as far as thirty three degrees of south latitude. As many are found either in the East Indies or the equinoctial parts of Africa, but of these four latter, none of them described in any botanical work, the learned author has favoured us with no account. We can therefore mere- ly give the characters of the New Holland species, from his Prodromus. It only remains for us to observe, that Tylofthora comes very near Hoy A, see that article; dif- fering scarcely in any part of the essential character, ex- cept the want of a tooth at the inner angle of each leaf of the crown; and with respect to habit, distinguished, from one only of the two species of that genus, by hav- ing membranous, not fleshy, leaves. - 1. T. grandiflora. Large-flowered Tylophora. Br. n. I.--Umbels nearly sessile, simple, of few flowers; their partial stalks smooth. Leaves heart-shaped, ovate, acute, downy as well as the branches.—Native of Port Jackson, New South Wales. 2. T. barbata. Bearded Tylophora. Br. n 2-Um- bels mostly in pairs; their common stalk shorter than the leaves. Corolla bearded. Leaves ovate, acute, very smooth.—Gathered near Port Jackson, by Mr. Brown hiſmself. 3. T. flexuosa. Zigzag Tylophora. Br. n. 3.-Um- bels alternate, sessile on a zigzag common stalk. Leaves heart-shaped, oblong, veiny. Corolla beardless.—Found by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of New Holland. 4. T. flamiculata. Panicled Tylophora. Br. n 4.— Panicles forked. Segments of the corolla ligulate up- wards. Leaves ovate, pointed, nearly smooth; the low- ermost somewhat 'heart shaped.—-Discovered in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson, by Mr. Ferdinand Bau- er, the botanical companion of Mr. Brown, to whose ex- quisite pencil the duty of perpetuating the acquisitions of their hazardous expedition, undertaken at the nation- al expense, was entrusted. Yet so little has the engage- ment to the public been fulfilled, that except a small but exquisite fasciculus of plates, and the excellent but incomplete publications of Mr. Brown, all the discove- ties of these naturalists have as yet remained fruitless: not, certainly, for want of their ability or inclination to. complete what they have undertaken, but because, as we presume, the due injunctions, as well as the necessa- ty aids, have been withheld. - - TYLOS, in ornithology, a name by which many au- thors have called the turdus iliacus, or redwing. . TYLOTICA, medicines supposed to promote the formation of callus. - TYLSEN, in Geografthy, a town of Brandenberg, in the Old Mark, on the Dichme; 5 miles S. W. of Salz- yedel. - TYLUS, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of the Pelo- - ponnesus, on the coast of the gulf of Messenia, between the isles Tyrides and the town of Leuctrum, according to Strabo ; it is called CEtyle by Pausanias, who places it between the port of Messa and Talama-Also, an island of the Persian gulf, at the distance of twenty-four hours’ navigation from the mouth of the Euphrates, ac- cording to Arrian.—Also Tylus minor, distant 10 miles in the same gulf from the greater ſylus; named Ara- dos by Strabo, and Arathos by Ptolemy. TYLWITH, in maters of Heraldry and Descent, is sometimes used for a tribe or family branching out of another, which the modern heralds more usually call the second or third house. TYLYDAN, in Geografthy, a river on the S. coast of the island of Java, which runs into the sea, S. lat. 7° 38' E. long. 108° 47'. TYMARA, a town of Hindoostan, in Bahar; 25 miles E. of Chuta Nagpour. TYMBA.ES, Fr. kettle-drums, instruments of per- cussion, consisting of two metalline globes covered with parchment; beaten with two drum-sticks, in the form of round hammers or mallets, from eight to nine inches long. The tone is short and dull. They are tuned 4ths to each other. The smallest drum produces the key- note of the compositions in which they are employed, and the largest, the 4th below ; as in the key of C the tones are these : =2#E pitch can be raised or lowered at pleasure. See DRUM, and KETTLE-Drum. TYMBER of Skins. See TIMBER. TYMBRA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Asia, in Pisidia. - - • TYMBRE, Fr. in Music, is a term used to express that quality of tone or sound which renders a voice or instrument rough or smooth, harsh or sweet, coarse or mellow in tone. Sweet-toned instruments seem always feeble, and harsh-toned too loud. A perfect voice or in- strument would be that which united force with sweet- ness. The quality of tone generally determines our idea of its force. The voice of Manzoli, at once ex- tremely powerful and extremely sweet, was miraculous. There are perhaps no instruments that can be at once loud and sweet, except those of the violin family, played with a bow; as the violin, tenor, and violoncello. - TYMENAEUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a mountain of Asia, in the vicinity of Phrygia. TYMES, a town of Africa, in Libya. TYMIUM, a small town of Asia, in Phrygia. TYMNISSUS, a town of Asia Minor, in Caria. TYMNUS, a town of Asia Minor, in Caria, which derived its name from the promontory called by Mela Tymnias. - TYMPAN, or TYMPANUM, in Architecture, the area of a pediment, being the part which is in a level with the naked of the freeze. Or it is the space included between the three cornices of a triangular pediment, or the two cornices of a circular one. - - Sometimes the tympan is cut out, and the part filled with an iron lattice, to give light: and sometimes it is enriched with sculpture, in basso-relievo, as in the west front of St. Paul’s, in the temple of Castor and Pollux at Naples, &c. - Tympan is also used for that part of a pedestal called the trunk or dye. There are braces, by which the TYMPAN, 'I' Y M T Y. M. TyMPAN, among Joiners, is also applied to the pannels of doors. * TxMPAN of an Arch, is a triangular space or table in the corners or sides of an arch, usually hollowed and en- riched, sometimes with branches of laurel, olive-tree, or oak ; or with trophies, &c.; sometimes with flying figures, as Fame, &c. or sitting figures, as the cardinal virtues. TyMPAN, in Anatomy, Mechanics, &c. PANUM. TyMPAN, among Printers, is a double frame belonging to the press, covered with parchment, on which the blank sheets are laid in order to be printed off. See PRINT- ING-Press. TYMPANA, rvarava, among the Athenians, a capi- tal punishment, in which the criminal, being affixed to the pole, was beaten to death with cudgels. Potter, Archaeol. Graec. lib. c. 25. tom. i. p. 34. TYMPANIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Peloponnesus, in the interior of the Elide. Ptolemy. TYMPANITES, in Medicine, from rvazovov, tym- fianum, a drum, a flatulent distension of the belly, which when struck, emits a sound which has been compared to the noise produced by that instrument. It has been call- ed, in English, the tymfiany, and windy dropsy. The tympanites is a swelling of the abdomen, in which the integuments appear to be much stretched by some distending power within, and they are equally stretched in every position of the body. The swelling does not very readily yield to any pressure; and so far as it does, being extremely elastic, it very quickly recovers its former state, when the pressure is removed. Being struck, it gives an obscure sound, somewhat like that of a drum, or other stretched animal membrane. No fluctuation within is to be perceived; and the whole feels less weighty than might be expected from its bulk. The uneasiness from the distension is partially relieved by the discharge of wind from the alimentary canal, either upward or downward. * * These are the characters, then, by which the tymfian- ites, or flatulent swelling of the belly, may be distinguish- ed from the ascites, or dropsy of that cavity, and from fihysconia, or solid tumours, sometimes occurring there; and many experiments shew that the tympanites always depends upon a preternatural collection of air somewhere within the teguments of the abdomen. But the situation which the air occupies in different instances is somewhat different; and this produces the different species of the disease which nosologists have described.' Qne species, and indeed the most common and cura- ble species, is that in which the collected air is confined within the cavity of the alimentary canal, and chiefly in that of the intestines. This species, therefore, has been named the tympianites intestinalis. (See Sauvages Nosol. Method. Class. x. spec. 1.) To this species, in- deed, which is the most frequent, the character above given especially belongs. - A second species is, when the air collected is not en- tirely confined to the cavity of the intestines, but is also present between their coats; and such is that which is named by Sauvages tympianites enteroflhysodes. " (Sauv. spec. 3.) This has certainly been a rare occurrence; and has probably occurred only in consequence of the tympanites intestinalis, by the air escaping from the ca- vity of the intestines into the interstices of the coats. It is, however, possible, that an erosion of the internal coat of the intestines may give occasion to the air, so con- stantly present in their cavity, to escape into the inter- See TYM- stices of their coats, though in the whole of their cavity there has been no previous accumulation. A third species is, when the air is collected in the sac of the peritoneum, or what is commonly called the cavi- ty of the abdomen, that is, the space between the perito- neum and viscera; and then the disease is named tym- flamites abdominalis. (Sauv. sp. 2.) The existence of such a tympanites, without any tympanites intestinalis, has been disputed; and it certainly has been a rare oc- currence; but from several dissections, it is unquestion- able that such a disease has sometimes truly occurred. A fourth species of tympanites is, when tympanites intestinalis and abdominalis are joined together, or take place at the same time. With respect to this, it is pro- bable that the tympanites intestinalis is the primary dis- ease; and the other only a consequence of the air esca- ping, by an erosion or rupture of the coats of the intestines, from the cavity of these, into that of the abdomen. It is indeed possible, that in consequence of erosion or rup- ture, the air which is so constantly present in the intes- tinal canal, may escape from thence in such quantity into the cavity of the abdomen, as to give a tympanites abdominalis, whilst there was no previous considerable accumulation of air in the intestinal cavity itself; but we have no facts by which to ascertain this matter properly. A fifth species has also been enumerated. It is when a tympanites abdominalis happens to be joined with the ascites, or dropsy of the belly; and such a disease there- fore is named by Sauvages tympianites asciticus. (Sauv. spec. 4.) In most cases of tympanites, indeed, some quantity of serum has, upon dissection, been found in the sac of the peritoneum; but that is not enough to constitute the species now mentioned ; and when the collection of serum is more considerable, it is common- ly where, both from the causes which have preceded, and likewise from the symptoms which attend, the ascites may be considered as the primary disease; and therefore that this combination does not exhibit a proper species of the tympanites. As this last is not a proper species, and as some of the others are not only extremely rare, but even, when oc- curring, are neither primary nor to be easily distinguish- ed, nor, as considered in themselves, admitting of any cure, it will be unnecessary to take any further notice of them; we shall therefore confine ourselves, in what fol- lows, to the consideration of the most frequent case and almost the only object of practice, the tympianites in- testimalis. - * * With respect to this, it does not appear that it arises in any peculiar temperament, or depends upon any predisposition, which can be discerned. It occurs in either sex, at every age, and frequently in young per- SO]].S. Various remote causes of it have been assigned ; but many of these have not commonly the effect of produ- cing this disease; and although some of them have been truly antecedents of it, we can in few instances discover the manner in which they produce the disease, and there- fore cannot certainly ascertain them to have been causes of it. The phenomena of this disease, in its several stages, are the following. * * - The tumour of the belly sometimes grows very quick- ly to a considerable degree, and seldom in the slow man- ner the ascites commonly comes on. In some cases, however, the tympanites comes on gradually, and is in- troduced by an unusual flatulency of the stomach and intestines, with frequent borborygmi, and an uncom- - monly TYMPANITEs. monly frequent expulsion of air upwards and down- wards. This state is also frequently attended with colic pains, especially felt about the naval, and upon the sides towards the back; but generally, as the disease advan- ces, these pains become less considerable. As the dis- ease proceeds, there is a partly constant desire to dis- charge air, but it is accomplished with difficulty; and when obtained, although it give some relief from the sense of distension, this relief is commonly transient and of short duration. While the disease is coming on, some inequality of tumour and tension may be perceived in different parts of the belly; but the distension soon be- comes equal over the whole, and exhibits the phenomena mentioned in the character. Upon the first coming on of the disease, as well as during its progress, the belly is bound, and the facces discharged are commonly hard and dry. The urine, at the beginning, is usually very little changed in quantity or quality from its natural state; but as the disease continues, it is commonly changed in both respects, and at length sometimes a strangury, and even an ischuria, comes on. The dis- sease has seldom advanced far, before the appetite is much impaired, and digestion ill performed ; and the whole body, except the belly, becomes considerably emaciated. Together with these symptoms, a thirst and uneasy sense of heat at length come on, and a con- siderable frequency of pulse occurs, which continues throughout the course of the disease. When the tumour of the belly arises to a considerable bulk, the breathing becomes very difficult, with a frequent dry cough. With all those symptoms, the strcmgth of the patient declines; and the febrile symptoms daily increasing, death at length ensues, sometimes probably in consequence of a gangrene coming upon the intestines. The tympanites is commonly of some duration, and to be reckoned a chronic disease. It is very seldom quick- ly fatal, except where such an affection suddenly arises in fevers. To this, Sauvages has properly given a dif- ferent appellation, that of meteorismus ; and it may per- haps always be considered as a symptomatic affection, entirely distinct from the tympanites which we are now considering. The tympanites is generally a fatal disease, seldom admitting of cure : but we shall mention what may be attempted in this way, after having endeavoured to ex- plain the proximate cause, which alone can lay the foundation of what may be rationally attempted towards its cure. . . . . . . - To ascertain the proximate cause of tympanites is somewhat difficult. It has been supposed, in many cases, to be merely an uncommon quantity of air present in the alimentary canal, owing to the extrication and de- tachment of a greater quantity of air than usual from the alimentary matters taken in. Our vegetable aliments probably always undergo some degree of fermentation; and in consequence, a quantity of air is extricated and detached from them in the stomach and intestines; but it appears, that the mixture of the animal fluids which our aliments meet with in the alimentary canal, prevents the same quantity of air from being detached from them that would have been in their fermentation without such mixture; and it is probable that the same mixture con- tributes also to the re-absorption of the air that had been before in some measure detached. The extrication, therefore, of an unusual quantity of air from the aliments, may, in certain circumstances, be such, perhaps, as to produce a tympanites; so that this disease may depend upon a fault of the digestive fluids, by which they be- come unfit to prevent too copious extrication of air, and unfit also to occasion that re-absorption of air, which in sound persons commonly happens. An un- usual quantity of air in the alimentary canal, whether owing to the nature of the aliments taken in, or to the fault of the digestive fluid, does certainly sometimes take place; and may possibly have, and in some mea- sure certainly has, a share in producing certain flatu- lent disorders of the alimentary canal; but cannot be supposed to produce the tympanites, which often occurs when no previous disorder had appeared in the system. Even in those cases of tympanites which are attended at their beginning with flatulent disorders in the whole of the alimentary canal, as we know that a firm tone of the intestines both moderates the extrica- tion of air, and contributes to its re-absorption or ready expulsion, so the flatulent symptoms which happen to appear at the coming on of a tympanites, are probably referred to a loss of tone in the muscular fibres of the intestines, rather than to any fault in the digestive fluids. These, and other considerations, lead us to conclude, that the chief part of the proximate cause of tympan- ites, is a loss of tone in the muscular fibres of the in- testines. But further, as air of any kind accumulated in the cavity of the intestines should, even by its own elasticity, find its way either upwards or downwards, and should also, by the assistance of inspiration, be entirely thrown out of the body; so when neither the re-absorption nor the expulsion takes place, and the air is accumulated so as to produce tympanites, it is probable that the passage of the air along the course of the intestines is in some places interrupted. This interruption, however, can hardly be supposed to pro- ceed from any other cause than spasmodic constric- tions in certain parts of the canal; and we may con- clude, therefore, that such eonstrictions concur as part in the proximate cause of tympanites. Whether these spasmodic constrictions are to be attributed to the re- mote cause of the disease, or may be considered as the consequence of some degree of atomy first arising, can- not with certainty be determined. Cure of Tymfianites.—Having thus endeavoured to ascertain the proximate cause of tympanites, we pro- ceed to treat of its cure ; which indeed has seldom succeeded, and almost never but in a recent case of the disease. It may be proper, however, to state what may be reasonably attempted; what has com- monly been attempted; and what attempts have some- times succeeded in the cure of this disease. . It must be a first indication to evacuate the air ac- cumulated in the intestines; and for this purpose it is necessary that those constrictions, which had especi- ally occasioned its accumulation, and continue to in- terrupt its passage along the course of the intestines, should be removed. As these, however, can hardly be removed but by exciting the peristaltic motion in the adjoining portions of the intestines, purgatives have been commonly employed; but it is at the same time agreed, that the more gentle laxatives only ought to be employed, as the more drastic, in the over- stretched and tense state of the intestines, are in dan- ger of bringing on inflammation. It is for this reason, also, that glysters have been frequently employed; and they are the more necessary, as the faeces col- lected are generally found to be in a hard and dry State. T Y. M. T Y. M. state. Not only on account of this state of the faeces, but, farther, when glysters produce a considérable evacuation of air, and thus shew that they have some effect in relaxing the spasms of the intestines, they ought to be repeated very frequently. In order to take off the constrictions of the intes- times, and with some view also to the carminative cf- fects of the medicines, various antispasmodics have been proposed, and commonly employed; but their effects are seldom considerable ; and it is alleged that their heating and inflammatory powers have some- times been hurtful. It is, however, always proper to join some of the milder kinds with both the purgatives and glysters that are employed; and it has been very properly advised to give always the chief of antispas- modics, that is, an opiate, after the operation of purga- tives is finished. In consideration of the overstretched and tense state of the intestines, and especially of the spasmo- dic constrictions that prevail, fomentations and warm bathing have been proposed as a remedy; and are said to have been employed with advantage : but it has been remarked, that very warm baths have not been found so useful as tepid baths long continued. Upon the supposition that this disease depends espe- cially upon an atony of the alimentary canal, tonic remedies seem to be properly indicated. Accordingly, chalybeates and various bitters have been employed; and, if any tonic, the Peruvian bark might probably be useful. But as no tonic remedy is more powerful than cold applied to the surface of the body, and cold drink thrown into the stomach; so such a remedy has been thought of in this disease. Cold drink has been constantly prescribed, and cold bathing has been employed with advantage; and there have been seve- ral instances of the disease being suddenly and entirely cured by the repeated application of snow to the lower belly. . - - It is hardly necessary to remark, that in the diet of tympanitic persons, all sorts of food disposed to be- come flatulent in the stomach are to be avoided; and it is probable, that the mineral acids and neutral salts, as antizymics, may be useful. r In obstinate and desperate cases of tympanites, the operation of the faracentesis (tapping) has been pro- posed; but it is a very hazardous remedy, and there is no satisfactory testimony of its having been prac- tised with success. It must be obvious, that this ope- ration is a remedy suited especially, and almost exclu- sively, to the tympanites abdominalis; the existence of which, separately from the intestinalis, is very doubtful, at least not easily ascertained, yet it is not very likely to be cured by this remedy: and how far the operation might be safe in the tympanites intesti- nalis, is not yet determined by any proper experience. There would be a danger, indeed, of converting the tympanites intestinalisinto the tympanites abdominalis, by allowing the air to escape through the puncture of the intestine into the sac ºf the peritona-um, and thus of converting a less disease into a greater, and, in fact, of producing irreparable mischief. • . . " TYMPANOTRIBA, among the Ancients, a de- signation given to an effeminate person, who could, do ..nothing but play on the tympanum. a x - TYMPANUM, in Anatomy. See EAR. TYMPANUM, Diseases of. The cavity of the drum of the ear is sometimes affected with a puriform icho- rous discharge, attended with a loss of hearing, pro- portionate to the degree of disorganization which this part of the ear has sustained. In general, on blowing the nose, air is expelled at the meatus auditorius ex- ternus : and, when this is the case, it is evident that the discharge is connected with an injury, or destruc- tion of the membrana tympani. However, when the Eustachian tube is obstructed with mucus, or matter, or when it is rendered impervius, and permanently closed by inflammation, the membrana tympani may not be perfect, and yet, it is clear, no air can in this state be forced out of the external ear in the above manner. An examination with a blunt probe, or with the eye, winile the rays of the sun fall into the passage, should therefore, not be omitted. If the membrane have any aperture in it, the probe will pass into the cavity of the tympanum, and the surgeon feel that his instrument is in contact with the ossicula. In this manner the affection may be discriminated from a herpetic ulceration of the meatus auditorius externus. The causes are various : in scarlatina ma- ligha, the membrana tympani occasionally inflames, and sloughs; all the ossicula are discharged, and, if . the patient live, he continues quite deaf. An ear- ache, in other words, acute inflammation of the tym- panum, is the most common occasion of suppuration in this cavity, in which, and the cells of the mastoid process, a good deal of pus collects. At length, the niembrana tympani ulcerates, and a large quantity of mafter is discharged; but, as the secretion of pus still goes on, the discharge continues to ooze out of the external ear. Instead of stimulating applications, inflammation of the tympanum demands the rigorous employment of antiphlogistic means Unfortunately, it is a too com- mon practice, in this case, to have recourse to acrid spirituous remedies. Above all things, the repeated application of leeches to the skin behind the external ear, and over the mastoid process, should never be neglected. As soon as the inflammation ceases, the degree of deafness, occasioned by it, will also disap- pear. This, however, does not always happen. When an abscess is situated in the cavity of the tympanum, Mr. Saunders seems to think, that the membrana tympani should not be allowed to burst by ulceration, but be opened by a small puncture. Some- times the disease, of which we are treating, is more insidious in its attack : slight paroxysms of pain occur, and are relieved by slight discharges. The case goes on in this way, until, at last, a continual discharge of matter from the ear takes place. The disorder is destructive in its tendency to the faculty of hearing, and it rarely stops until it has so much disorganized the tympanum and its contents, as to occasion total deafness. Hence Mr Saunders very properly defends the propriety of making attempts to arrest its pro- gress, attempts which are free from danger ; and he censures the foolish fear of interfering with the complaint, founded on the apprehension, that bad con- stitutional effects may originate from stopping the dis- charge. - - If the case be neglected, the tympanum is very likely to become carious ; before which change, the disease, says Mr. Saunders, is most commonly curable. Mr. Saunders divides the complaint into three Stages: T Y N Ty N stages: 1. A simple puriform discharge. 2. A pu- riform discharge complicated with funguses and po- lipi. 3. A puriform discharge with caries of the tympanum. As the disease is a local one, direct appli- cations to the parts affected are chiefly entitled to con- fidence. Blisters and setons may be advantageously employed in aid of topical applications. Mr. Saun- dºrs’s practice, in these cases, consists in administer- ing laxative medicines, and formenting the ear while inflammatory symptoms last, and afterwards injecting a solution of zincum vitriolatum, or cerussa acetata. In the second stage, when there are funguses, he removes or destroys them with forceps, afterwards touches their roots with the argentum nitratum, or injects a solution of alum, zincum vitriolatum, or ar- gentum nitratum. Ty MPANUM, in Architecture. See TYMPAN. TYMPANI, Chorda. See CHORD A. TYMPANUM, Tymfian, in Mechanics, is a kind of wheel placed round an axis, or cylindrical beam, on the top of which are two levers, or fixed staves, for the more easy turning the axis about, in order to raise a weight required. * The tympanum is much the same with the peritro- chium ; but that the cylinder of the axis of the peritro- chium is much shorter and less than the cylinder of the tympanum. See Axis in Peritrochio. TYMPANUM of the machine is also used for a hollow wheel, in which one or more people, or rather ani- mals, walk to turn it; such as that of some cranes, calenders, &c. - TYMPANUM, Lat. a drum, in Antiquity; but in mo- dern Music, it is equivalent with tymbales, or a pair of Kettle-drums; which see. See Likewise TIMPANo, Ital. for a kettle-drum. TYMPHAEI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of Thesprotia, towards the sources of the Peneus. Strabo. TYNA, a river of India, in the eastern part of the peninsula on this side of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy; marked by D’Anville to the north of Ma- liarpha. TYNAN, in Geography, a small post-town of the county of Armagh, Ireland; 69 miles N. by W. from Dublin. TYNDALE, WILLIAM, (named also Hitchins,) in Biografthy, a learned martyr to the Reformation, was born towards the latter part of the fifteenth century, on the borders of Wales, but the precise place of his Inativity is not known. He received part of his educa- tion at Magdalen-Hall, Oxford, where he imbibed the doctrines of Luther, which caused his being dis- missed from Wolsey’s new college of Christ-church, into which he had been admitted; so that he removed to Cambridge, where he took a degree. From hence, he removed to Gloucestershire, to take the charge of sir John Welch’s children; and, during his residence here, he translated Erasmus’s “Enchiridion Militis Christiani” into English, for the benefit of the family with which he resided, and he often preached in and about Bristol. By the company which visited sir John, Tyndale was reproached as a heretic, and articles were preferred against him by the chancellor of the diocess, so that he was under a necessity of removing to London, where he preached at St. Dunstan’s in the West. Desirous of being admitted one of bishop Tonstall's chaplains, he made application for that pur- pose, but was disappointed. In a retirement near Lon- don, he prepared a translation of the New Testament into English, which he accomplished, by unwearied assiduity, in about half a year; but the times would not admit of its publication. The author therefore withdrew to the continent, and at length took up his abode at Antwerp ; and here he completed his work, which was printed in 1526, 8vo., without a name. The number of copies was 1500, most of which were bought in England, and industriously circulated. The zealous papists were alarmed, and foreseeing the dif- fusion of error and heresy, obtained orders from War- ham, archbishop of Carterbury, and Tonstall, bishop, of London, that those who possessed any copies should deliver them up on pain of excommunication. Tonstall procured all that were unsold at Antwerp, and having purchased them, they were brought over and burnt at St Paul’s Cross. This circumstance favoured Tyndale’s design, who took occasion to pre- pare a more correct edition, which was printed in 1534; and cheaper editions increased the circulation. In order to discourage and restrain these measures for disseminating the Scriptures, sir Thomas More ridiculed Tyndale’s version in a dialogue in 1529, to which Tyndale replied : and the king, in a court of star-chamber in 1531, with the concurrence of the pre- lates, universities, and clergy, pronounced a severe condemnation of it, together with other heretical books. Tyndale, however, persevered with undaunt- ed resolution, and engaged in a translation of the five books of Moses from the Hebrew. But in a voy- age to Hamburg he was shipwrecked, and lost his books, papers and money . At Hamburgh, where he at length arrived, he met with Miles Coverdale, and co-operating in their labour, they completed the Pentateuch, and printed it in 1530. Tyndale pub- lished a translation of the prophecy of Jonah, with a prologue, in 1531, and thus ended his labour on the Old Testament. At Antwerp he took up his resi- dence in 1534, as a place of safety; but Henry VIII. and his council employed a person to betray him under the mask of friendship, and he was conveyed as a prisoner to Vilvorden, where he remained for a year and a half. At length, in 1536, he was brought to trial upon the emperor's decree at Augsburg; and here he was condemned, and strangled at the stake; and his body was reduced to ashes. He expired with uttering this prayer, “Lord, open the king of Eng- land’s eyes!” It is needless to make any reflections on the conduct of such savage persecutors, who thus treated a man of irreproachable manners, and who was pronounced, by the emperor’s procurator, who assisted in his condemnation, “Homo doctus, pius, et bonus,” for no other crime besides that of enabling Christians to peruse a book which is the only authori- tative directory of their faith and practice. Tyndale’s other works were introductions to, and comments upon, parts of Scripture. Biog. Brit. * . TYNDARIDAE, in Mythology, a name given by the poets to Castor and Pollux, the sons of Jupiter and Leda. - Though, according to the fable, Pollux and Helena proceeded from the egg which Leda had conceived by Jupiter, and were therefore immortal; whereas, out of another egg, which she conceived by Tyndarus, her T Y N T Y P her husband, came Castor and Clytemnestra, who were mortal. See CAston and Polluz. TYNDARIS, in Ancient Geografthy, Pandari, a town of Asia, in the Colchide, on the right bank of the Phasis, E. N. E. of Circaeum, and S. W. of Cyta, (Cutatis.) Pliny.—Also, a town of Sicily, towards the S. W., which was a Roman colony. It is called by Ptolemy Tyndarium. TYN DIS, D ANDA, a port of India, upon the coast of the country denominated Limyrica, according to the Periplus of the Erythraean sea. TyNDis, Yanaon, a river of India, in the peninsula on this side of the Ganges. Ptolemy. TYNE, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which rises a few miles S. of Dalkeith, crosses the county of Haddington, and runs into the German sea, N. lat. 56° 2'. W. long. 2° 38'. TYNE. See TINE. TYNEMOUTH, a township in the east division of Castle-Ward, in the county of Northumberland, Eng- land; is situated on the banks of the river Tyne, 9 miles E. N. E. from Newcastle, and 286 miles N. by W. from London. It is a place of remote antiquity; and recent discoveries have proved that the Rºmans had buildings here. It is chiefly noted for its ancient mon- astery, which is reckoned to be one of those founded by Oswald, the first Christian king of Northumberland. Great local sanctity was soon attributed to it, and several kings and other illustrious persons were buried here. St. Herebald, the companion of St John of Beverley, was abbot here at the beginning of the eighth century: but before the end of it, the monastery was plundered by the Danes, as it was again in the next century by the forces under Hunguar and Hubba, and a third time in the reign of king Athelstan. The old church seems to have lain desolate for a century, till a short time before the Norman conquest, when Tosti, earl of Northumber- land, rebuilt and endowed it. On the banishment of Tosti, the Conqueror gave his possessions to Robert de Mowbray, who then became earl; he refounded Tyne- mouth priory, and filled it with Black monks from St. Alban's, to which abbey the priory was subordinate. In his conspiracy against William Rufus, he converted the place into a fortress, which, after a siege of two months, was taken by storm. The priory progressively increas- ed in consequence. In 1244, the prior mediated a peace between England and Scotland; and soon after obtained a charter from Henry III, to hold a market in his manor of Bewicke. He also claimed a market for Tynemouth; but in a suit on that account judgment was given against him. Many privileges and immunities were, however, obtained for the inhabitants. At the surrendi:r of the priory, in 1539, its possessions were very large, having twenty-seven villas with their royalties, besides the im- propriations of many churches: its annual income being estimated at 706l. 10s. 84d. The chief remains are those of the church, at the east end of which is a neat little chapel or oratory. Till 1 - 59 the church was pa- rochial, but being decayed and damaged during the civil war, another was erected, and completed in 1668; but the old cemetery is still much used in preference to the new one. The castle, erected by earl Mowbray, ap- pears to have been a place of great strength. It was garrisoned in the reign of queen Elizabeth; and again in that of Charles I., when it was besieged and taken by the parliamentary forces. Little remains of this ancient fortress except a strong gateway, the approach to which has been recently flanked with bastions. The village of VOL. XXXVIII. Tynemouth is much frequented in the bathing season, and commodious warm and cold baths have been erect- ed. Here are some considerable salt works, and it is estimated that 700,000 chaldrons of coals are annually sent hence to London. In the population return of the year 1811, the number of houses in this township is stated to be 930; and of inhabitants, 5834—Beauties of England, vol. xii. Northumberland, by the Rev. —. Hodgson. TYNIDRUM, or Thunudronum Colonia, Hydrah, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, mentioned by Ptolemy, and placed by him two degrees W. of Sicca Veneria. TYNIECZ, or Tynez, in Geography, a town of Austrian Poland, on the Vistula; 4 miles S. W. of Cracow. * - TYNNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Asia, in the Lesser Armenia, and in the prefecture named Car taonia. Ptol.—Also a river of India, on this side ol. the Ganges, the mouth of which was in the country of the Avari. Ptolemy. TYNSBOROUGH, in Geography, a town of Mas- sachusetts, in the county of Middlesex, containing 704 inhabitants; 31 miles N. of Boston. TYONISTA, a river of Pennsylvania, which runs into the Allegany, N. lat. 41 ° 29'. W. long. 73° 39'. TYORA, in Ancient Geography, surnamed “Ma- tienna,” a town of the Aborigines, on the Coast of La- tium; distinguished by a very ancient oracle of Mars. TYPA, in Geografiny, a harbour on the coast of China, at the entrance of the river of Canton, formed by several islands. The anchoring place is N. lat. 22° 9'. E. long. I 13° 49'. TYP EA Mons, in Ancient Geography, a small mountain of Triphylia, near the banks of the rivet Alpheus. It was a law of the Eleans, that any female who was surprised in attendance at the Olympic games, should be precipitated from this mountain, the reason of which law is said to have been, that the Athletºe were naked in their exercises. TYPE, Typus, formed from rvºro; form, figure, & copy, image or resemblance, of some model. The term type is less in use than its compounds Pro- totype and archetype, which are the originals that are made without models. º Type is also a scholastic term, much used among di- vines, signifying a symbol, sign, or figure, of something to CO me. * In this sense the word is commonly used with relation to antitype, avtarvaros, which is the thing itself, of which the other is a type or figure. Thus Abraham's sacrifice, the paschal lamb, &c. were types or figures of our redemption; and the bra- zen serpent was a type of the cross, &c. º g Types are not mere conformities, or analogies, which the nature of things holds forth between them : not at- bitrary images arising merely from the casual resem- blance of things; but there is farther required a parti- cular institution of God to make a type, and a particular declaration of his that it is so. Gale divides types into historical and firofthetical.-- The first are those used by the ancient prophets in their agitations and visions: the second, those in which things done, or ceremonies instituted in the Old Testament, prefigure Christ, or things relating to him in the New Testament. Or, they are things which happened and were done in ancient time, and are recorded in the Qld Testament, and which are found afterwards to describe 2 A OT T Y. P. E. or represent something which befell our Lord, and which relates to him and his gospel. E. gr. Under the law, a lamb was offered for a sin-offering, and thus an atonement was made for transgressions. John the Bap- tist calls Christ “the lamb of God who taketh away the sins of the world,” and St. Peter tells Christians that they are redeemed “by the blood of Christ, as of a lamb.” Hence we infer and conclude that the lamb was a type of Christ; and upon considering it, we find that it has all that can be required to constitute a type; for it is in many respects a very just and lively repre- sentation of Christ. The lamb died for no offence of his own, but for the sins of others; so did Christ : the lamb could not commit sin by his nature, nor Christ by his perfection: the lamb was without bodily spot or blemish; Christ was holy and undefiled : a lamb is meek and patient; such was the afflicted and much in- jured Son of God. These types are useful to persons who have already received Christianity upon other and stronger evidence, as they shew the beautiful harmony and correspondence between the Old and New Testament; but they seem not proper proofs to satisfy and convince doubters, who will say perhaps, with the schoolmen, “theologia sym- bolica non est argumentativa.,’ Unless we have the authority of the Scriptures of the New Testament for it, we cannot conclude with cer- tainty that this or that person, or this or that thing men- tioned in the Old Testament is a type of Christ, on ac- count of the resemblance which we may perceive be- tween them: but we may admit it as probable. The ancient fathers, as well as the modern critics, have been greatly divided about the nature and use of the types and typical representations in the Old Testa- ment; and it is this makes one of the great difficulties in understanding the ancient prophecies, and in recon- ciling the New and Old Testament together. There is no denying but that there were some types which the divine wisdom instituted to be the shadows and figures of things to come ; and yet people run into an excess that way; some looking for types in every thing, like Origen, who discovered mysteries in the very cauldrons of the tabernacle. A prudent man should be contented with the more sensible and obvious ones, nor propose any without proving them as much as possible, and shewing that they were really intended for types, in order to justify the solidity of the reasoning of the apostles, who argued from them. An author, in reference to this subject, maintains, that not the fathers only, but St. Paul himself, was of the opinion, “that Christianity was all contained in the Old Testaument, and was implied in the Jewish history and law ; both which are to be reputed types and shadows of Christianity.” In order to which, he quotes Hebrews, viii. 5. x. 1. and Colos. ii. 16, 17. He adds, “that the ritual laws of Włoses, being in their own nature no other than types and shadows of future good things, are to be considered as having the effect of prophecies.” This is likewise the sense of Mr. Whiston, and others; but the same author even quotes our Saviour speaking in behalf of this typical reasoning in that passage, Matth. xi. 13. where he affirms that, “the law prophesies; and that he came to fulfil the law as well as the gospel.” (Matth. v. 17. Disc. of the Grounds, &c.) An ingenious divine takes this occasion to observe, that had the ancients, with the modern retainers to the typical way, expressly de signed to have exposed Christianity, they could not have done it more effectually than by thus making everything types and prophecies. Not that he denies the reality of such things as types. It is manifest there were many under the Old Testa- ment; such were Zcchariah’s staves, beauty, and bands, ch. xi. 7. 10. 14; such was Hosea's adulterous wife, chap. i. 2.; and such were his children, ver. 4, 6. The pro- phets designed by these to prefigure future events; but in these instances the reader is at ºnce, by the declara- tion of the prophet, made to understand as much, and not left to his own conjectures about them after the eVents al'e OVěr. In effect, all that is urged from Scripture for the typi- cal or allegorical interpretations of the Jewish law, his- tory, ceremonies, &c. it is asserted, may be set aside, without any violence to the Sacred Text, which may be explained on more natural and intelligible principles, and more consistently with grammar. The word rvzog, we have observed, literally denotes no more than a copy or impression of any thing; and ac- cordingly, in our translation, we find it sometimes ren- dered by firint, sometimes by figure, sometimes by Jashion, and sometimes by form. Hence also the word is figuratively applied to denote a moral pattern; in which sense it signifies no more than eacamſhle and similitude. Again, the word writvºros, antityhe, in Scripture, sig- nifies any thing formed according to a model or pattern; and thus, in the Epistle to the Hebrews, the tabernacle, and holy of holies, being made according to the pattern shewn to Moses, are said to be antitypes, or figures, of the true holy places. In the like sense, St. Peter, speak- ing of the flood and the ark, by which eight persons were saved, calls baptism an antitype to them; by which he expresses no more than a similitude of circumstances. The other words used in Scripture to imply a fu- ture event, prefigured by some foregoing act, are, droëtyaz, rendered by imitation and example ; and a ziz, Shadow. Such being the import of all the terms used in the New Testament writers, seeming to imply any pre- figuration of future events under the Gospel, it is ob- served, 1. That to argue from types, is only to argue from examples or similitudes; and, consequently, that all in- ſerences drawn from such reasonings are no farther conclusive than reasonings from similitudes are. The intent of similitudes is only to help to convey Some ideas more clearly or strongly; so that to deduce consequen- ces from a simile, or infer any thing from other parts of the simile, than what are plainly similar, is absurd. The same author also alleges, 2. That it cannot be proved, that the ceremonies of the Mosaic law were ever designed to prefigure any future events in the state of the Messiah’s kingdom. No such declared prefigura- tions are mentioned in the writings of the Old Testa- ment, whatever notions prevailed among the writers who immediately followed. It is granted, that the apostles argued from the rites in the Mosaic institution; but this (he says) appears to have only been by way of illustra- tion and analogy. There is certainly a general likeness in all the dispen- sations of Providence; an analogy of things in the natu- ral as well as the moral world, from which it is easy ar- guing by way of parity, and it is very just and usual so to do; but that one of these dispensations was therefore given to presignify another that was future, can never be proved, unless it be expressly declared. It i IS T Y P T Y. P. It is in the same way of similitude (he mentions) we are to understand St. Paul, where he says, “that Christ our passover is sacrificed for us.” Anu thus we are to understand John the Baptist, when he calls our Saviour the “Lamb of God.” There was this similitude of cir- cumstance, that Christ was slain on th same day with the paschal lamb; that he died about the same time of the day when the priests began their hillel; that not a bone of the one or the other was broken. Add, that as the paschal lamb was without blemish, so was Christ without sin. From these, and other circumstances, the apostle applied the term fassover to Christ. Thus, also, we are to account for what St. Paul calls the baptism of the children of Israel in the cloud, and in the sea; and for the comparison betwixt the high-priest entering the holy place every year, and Christ entering into heaven. Sykes's Essay on the Truth of the Chris- tian religion, 1725. Type, rvzoº, is also a name given to an edict of the emperor Constans II. published in 648, to impose a general silence both on the orthodox and the Monothe- lites. It had the name of type, as being a kind of formulary of faith; or rather a form on which men were to regu- late their conduct. The type owed its original to Paul, patriarch of Con- stantinople, who persuaded that emperor to take away the ecthesis, compiled and hung up in all the public places by Heraclius (as occasioning great complaints from the orthodox, by its favouring the Monothelites); and to publish an edict to impose silence on both parties, But such kinds of pacifications are held inexcusable in matters of religion; accordingly pope Theodore soon procured the patriarch Paul to be deposed; the type was examined in the council of Rome, consisting of a hundred and five bishops, in 649, and condemned ; and an anathema was pronounced against all such as admit- ted either the impious ecthesis or tyſius. TYPE, Tyſius, is also used to denote the order observ- ed in the intension and remission of fevers, pulses, &c. TYPE, among Letter-Founders and Printers, denotes the same with letter. See FoundERY. TYPHA, in Botany, Cat's-tail, or Reed-mace, rvøn of the ancient Greeks, from rºos, a bog or marsh, of which situations the plants of this genus are among the most conspicuous inhabitants. They are often vulgarly mistaken for the Bull-rush, a very different plant (See SciRPUs, sect. 2.)—Linn. Gen. 479. Schreb, 620. – Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4 197. Mart Mili. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit 959 Prodr Fl. Graec. Sibth. v 2. 225 Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 234. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl v. 1. 338. Pursh 34. Juss. 25. Tourn. t. 301, Lamarck Illustr. t. 748. Gaertn. t. 2.-Class and order, Monoecia Triandria. Nat. Ord. Calamaria, Linn. Typhae, Juss. .4roideae Brown. Gen. Ch Małe Flowers numerous, in a catkin at the top of the stem. Cal. Common Catkin cylindrical, very dense. Perianths of three setaceous leaves. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments three, varying to one or four, capilla- ry, the length of the calyx, combined at the base; an- thers oblong, pendulous. Female Flowers numerous, in a catkin surrounding the same stem, very densely crowded together. Cai. Perianth of many capillary bristles. Cor. none. Pist. Germen ovate, on a bristle-shaped stalk; style awl-sha- ped; Stigma capillary, permanent. Peric. none the nu- merous fruits form a cylinder round a common recepta- cle. Seed solitary, ovate, stalked, subtended, in the lower part of the stalk, by the permanent capillary calyx, as long as the style, forming a sort of down or wing. Ess. Ch. Male, Catkin cylindrical, dense, chaffy. Anthers about three on each filament. Female, Catkin cylindrical, inferior. on a feathered stalk. I. T latifolia. Great Cat's-tail, or Reed-mace. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1377. Willd n. 1. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1455. Pursh n. 1. Fl. Dan. t. 645. (T. major; Curt. Lond, fasc. 3, t. 61. Typha; Ger. Em. 46. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 216. T. palustris major; Bauh. Hist. v. 2. 539. Moris, sect. 8. t. 13. f. 1.)—Leaves linear, flat; very slightly convex beneath. Male and female catkins close together.—Common in pools, ditches, and slow streams throughout Europe and North America, grow- ing in the water, and flowering in July; after which the tall pole-like stems, with the enlarged female catkins, remain long, till the seeds are blown away. The creep- ing, stout, perennial roots run deep into the mud. The stems are six feet, or more, in height, straight, simple, round, Solid, smooth, leafy at the bottom. Leaves erect, as tall as the stem, linear, sharpish and entire at the edg- es; smooth on both sides; flat on the upper, slightly convex on the under side, at least in the lower part; from half an inch to an inch wide. Catkin uninterrupted ; the female part four or five inches long, dark brown, feeling like plush or velvet; male shorter, yellowish, ta- pering, with a membranous leaf, or sheath, at the base, and another about haif way up. Flowers crowded, innume- rable, horizontal, forming a dense mass, with hairs be- tween like a fine soft brush. Anthers quadrangular, two, three, or four on each compound filament, soon falling off, and leaving a naked stalk above the enlarged seed- catkin, till the seeds and their feathery stalks likewise fly away. 2. T. angustifolia. Seed solitary Lesser Cat's-tail, or Reed-mace. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1377. Willd. n. 3. FI. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1456. Pursh. n. 2. Brown n. I ? Fl. Dan. t. 815. (T. minor; Curt. Lond, fasc. 3. t. 62. T. palus- tris media; Bauh. Hist. v. 2. 540. Moris, sect. 8. t. 13. f. 2.)—Leaves flattish upwards; channelled and semicy- lindrical below. Catkins a little distant, leafless.—Much less common than the last, though like it a native of all parts of Europe, as well as of Pennsylvania and Virginia, flowering at the same season. Mr. Brown doubts whether his New Holland plant be the same species or not, its size exceeding what is found in Europe. He suggests that it may possibly be what Pursh has called T domin- gensis, in his Synopsis, v. 2. 532. This is a doubt we have no means of removing. Our angustifolia, though nearly as tall as the latifolia, is in every part much small- er and more slender. The leaves are more convex on their under side, and towards the base at least they are concave, or channelled on the upper. There is always a naked space between the male and female catkins. The roughness between the male flowers is rather chaf- fy than hairy, and seems to take place of the fierianths, The fruit-bearing catkin sometimes splits longitudinally, in growing, into four dismembered portions. The ori- ginal Linnaean names have been retained in Fl. Brit. and by subsequent writers, in preference to Mr. Curtis's major and minor, which latter might have led only to confusion. 3. T. minor. Dwarf Cat's-tail, or Reed-mace. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 1457. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Bauh. Hist. v. 2. 540. Lob. Ic. 81. (T. angustifolia g; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1378. Huds. 400. T. minima; Willd. n. 4. T. palustris minima, duplici clavā; Moris, sect. 8. t. 13. f. 3.)—Leaves linear; convex at the back. Cat- 2 A 2 kins F}. T Y P T y P kins a little distant; the male leafy; female short and turgid.—Native of Marshy, rather sandy, places in Eng- land, Switzerland, and Germany, flowering in July or August —The root is perennial and creeping, and the habit of the plant like the two foregoing species, but its size much smaller than either, the stem being only twelve or eighteen inches high, and very slender, sheathed with broad scales about half its length, which have been mis- taken for leaves. The real leaves spring, as described in English Botany, from a different parcel of similar scales, and are as tall as the stem, Scarcely a line in breadth, slightly channelled, convex at the back Cat- kins each about an inch long, a little distant from each other; the male with a leafy scale or two at its base, middle, or summit; the female somewhat elliptical, tu- mid, often divided. Anthers mostly solitary. Flowers not much interspersed with hairs or chaffy Scales.— There can be no doubt, from Willdenow’s description, of his T. minima being the same plant as minor, of which latter he was not conscious of having seen a spe- cimen.—T minor was found on Hounslow Heath in the time of Dillenius. We have not heard of it from any recent collector. TYPHAE, one of Jussieu’s natural orders, the eighth of his general series, the second of his second class. Its name is derived from one of the only two genera which constitute this order, (see TYPHA); the other being SPARGANIUM, which the reader will find in its proper place. The second of Jussieu’s classes is formed of monoco- tyledonous plants, whose stamens are inserted below the Their calyx is either of one or more leaves, germen. or wanting. Corolla (in Jussieu’s opinion) none. Sta- mems inferior, mostly definite in number. Germen Superior, simple ; style either, Qne or more, or wanting ; stigma simple or divided. SétáSolitary, naked or cover- ed; or the fruit is of one cell, with one or many seeds. Leaves mostly alternate and sheathing. Flowers some- times distinct in sex, by the failure of one or other of their organs of impregnation.—The orders are four; Aroideae, Tyfiſh ae, Cyfieroideas, and Gramined: ; for the two last, see CALAMARIAE and GRAMINA. The Aroidea consist of Amörosinia, Zostera, Arum, Calla, Dracon- tium, Pothos, Houttuynia, Orontium, and Acon us. The Tyſha are thus characterized. Flowers mo- noecious; the males aggregate, triandrous, with a three- leaved calyac ; females likewise aggregate, with a three- leaved (rather, we would say many-leaved) calyz : germen superior; style simple; seed solitary. Leaves all alternate and sheathing. Plants herbaceous and aquatic. Mr. R. Brown makes the Tyſhha of Jussieu but a sec- tion of his Aroideae. He observes that their seeds are pendulous; those of Sharganium each in a dry druña, those of Tyfiha in that kind of membranous close cafi- sule termed by Gaertner utriculus. TYPHIUM, a name used by some authors for colt's- foot. TYPHIUM,in Ancient Geografhy,annountain of Greece, in Boeotia. TYPHLE, or TYPHLINE, a name by which some au- thors have called the fish more usually known by the name of the acus. TYPHLINUS, in Zoology, the name by which the Greeks, and from them some others, have called the catcilia, or slow-worm. TYPHLOSIS, from rvºxes, blind ; blindness. TYPHODES, FEBRIs, in Medicine. See TypHUs. TYPHOMANIA, probably from rv40s, smoke, and Mayta, fihremsy, but the propriety of which is not very obvious, a term used by the older writers in medicine to denote a state of disease in which lethargy was com- bined with delirium, or, as seme have stated, an appa- rent Sopor with actual watchfulness: whence the appel- lation has been deemed synonymous with coma vigil. A more accurate pathology has discarded these vague distinctions; for every degree of morbid somnolency, from lethargy up to complete apoplexy, appears to be the same in kind, differing only in violence. See Apo- PLExy, CoMA, and LETHARGY. TYPHON, or TYPHOEUs, in Mythology, the name of one of the rebel giants. The fable of Typhon is one of the most mysterious among the ancient mythologists. The Greeks and La- tins, depending upon traditions received from the Egyp- tians, describe him as a horrid monster produced, as they say, from the Earth by the jealous Juno, in order to avenge herself of Latona, her ri, al. Hesiod says, that this giant was the son of Tartarus and Terra. Mani- lius expresses himself to this purpose :— Gé Merito Typhonis habentur Horrendae sedes, quem Tellus saeva profudit, Cum bellum Coelo peperit.” Apollodorus makes Typhon the most terrible of all monsters; describing him as having a hundred heads, and as issuing from his hundred mouths devouring flames, and howlings so dreadful, that he equally terrified gods and men. His body, whose upper part was covered with feathers, and the extremity entwined with serpents, was so vast, that he touched the skies with his head. His wife, says this author, was Echidna, and his offspring were the Gorgon, Geryon, Cerberus, the Hydra of Lerna, the Sphinx, and the eagle which preyed upon the un- fortunate Prometheus; in a word, all the monsters that were hatched in the country of fables. Hyginus adds, that Typhon no sooner sprung from the earth, than he resolved to declare war against the gods, and to revenge the overthrow of the giants. A contest took place be- tween Typhon and Jupiter, which, after various dreadful conflicts, terminated in the defeat of Typhon, who, being pursued by Jupiter and assailed with thunderbolts was at last driven into Sicily, and there buried under mount AEtna. The conjectures of modern authors in their at- tempts for explaining this fable have been very various. Some, among whom is G. Vossius, are of opinion that Ty- phon was the same with Og, king of Bashan. Bochartsup- poses that he was the same with Enceladus. Some au- thors think that Typhon was king of Sicily, and others that he was the same as Esau. Huet apprehends that Typhon was the legislator of the Hebrews, become ex- tremely odious to the Egyptians by the destruction of their first-born. Banier supposes, that Typhon and his brother Osiris were much more ancient than Moses; and that the idolatrous worship of the oxen Apis and Mnevis, consecrated to Osiris, was spread through Egypt before the Israelites entered there, since it was upon this mo- del, according to Selden, that Aaron made the golden calf which the Jews worshipped in the wilderness. A dispute arose betwen Typhon and Osiris, and he was drowned, as it is said, on the authority of Herodotus, in the marshes of the lake Serbonis, or killed in a battle fought with his nephew Orus, whence the Egyptian priests made the people believe, that the gods interested themselves in avenging Osiris, by destroying his perse- cutor with a thunderbolt. Thus, however, perished the cruel T Y. R. T Y. R. cruel tyrant of Egypt, and the kingdom was left to young Orus, under the regency of his mother Isis. For fur- ther particulars we refer to Banier's Mythology, vol. i. TYPHON, or Tyfiſho in Physics. See WHIRLwin D. TYPHONIS INSULA, in Ancient Geography, an isl- and of the Mediterranean sea, upon the coast of the Troade. TYPHUS, Febris Tyſhodes, in Medicine, a term used by Hippocrates to denote a fever of an inflamatory Acharacter probably derived from rvøoa, Inflame. The disease, however, not having been very distinctly descri- bed by that writer, other authors have applied the term to fevers of a nervous character, and it is now received as the appellation of ordinary low fever, a d stands in opposition to inflammatory fever. In short, by the word typhus, we now understand the common contagious fever of this and other northern climates which has received various appellations, according to the situations in which it has prevailed, or to some of its symptoms, or to the degree of its severity; such as hospital, gaol and ship fever; petechial, spotted, or purple fever; putrid, ma- lignant, infectious fever, continued fever, &c. This common fever, or typhus, differs essentially from the eruptive fevers, small-pox, measles, chicken-pox, and Scarlet fever, which affect any individual but once du- ring life; it differs from the plague of the East, which is accompanied with buboes, and from the yellow fever, the bilious remittent fever of hot climates; and from the remittent and intermittent fevers, the effect of marsh effluvia, in more northern latitudes; but, under all the circumstances and decominations above alluded to, it appears to be of the same nature, and is usually under- stood by physicians in Europe, when they speak of fever simply. As we have entered at great length into the nature of this disease, and the doctrines of pathologists respecting it, under its proper head, it would be super- fluous to enter more largely into the subject here. See FEveR. TYPIC FEveRs, an appellation given by medical writers to those fevers which are regular in their attacks, and in their general period: they are thus called by way of distinction from the erratic, which observe no regu- lar type, or determinate appearance. TYPOGRAPHY, formed from Tvros and yeapº, writing, the art of printing. TYPOLITES, or TYPolith.Us, formed of ryzoº, tyſie, and Atºos, stone in Matural History, names given to stones or fossils, on which are impressed the figures of various animals and vegetables. See STONEs, Adventitious Foss Ls, &c. TYR, in the Ethioftian Calendar, the name of the fifth month of the Ethiopian year. It commences on the 25th of December of the Julian year. TYR, in Mythology, a name given to a warrior deity, the protector of champions and brave men, invoked by the ancient northern nations. The third day of the week was consecrated to Tyr, from whom, it is said, the name given to it in most of the northern languages is derived : it is called in Dan. Tyrsdag, or Tisdag , in Sued. Tisdag'; in English, Tuesday; in Low Dutch, Ding's-tag ; and in Latin, Dies Martis ; whence it is inferred, that Tyr answered to Mars. The Germans, in High Dutch, call this day Erichs- tag, from the word heric or harec, a warrior, which comes to the same thing. Tyr must be distinguished from another deity called Thor-Mallet’s North. Ant. vol. i. p. 99, TYRA, in JAncient Geograft hy, a town of European Sarmatia, upon the banks of the river Thyras; some- times called Ophiusa. Tyna, in Geografthy, a river of Germany, which runs into the Kelm, one mile W. of Kelbra, in the county of Schwartzburg TYRAMBE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Asia- tic Sarmatia, 600 stadia from the riv r Rhombites, ac- cording to Strabo; but Ptolemy places it between Aza- bites Mitra and the mouth of the river Atticirus. TYRAN, or TYRON, in Geography, a small island in the Red sea. N. lat. 27° 4 v. E. long. 34° 28′. TYRANNICIDE, formed of tyrannus and caedo, I Kill, denotes the act of killing a tyrant TYRANNIO, in Biography, a Greek grammarian, was a native of Amisa, in Pontus, and a disciple of Dio- nysius of Thrace at Rhodes. Upon the conquest of the kingdom of Mithridates by Lucullus in the year B. C. 70, Tyrannio became a captive, but was liberated by Muraena, and taken to Rome, where he opened a school, in which he gave instruction to the son and nephew of Cicero, and also to Strabo. In this situation he acquired considerable wealth, and accumulated a library of more than 30,000 volumes. Among other valuable works which he possessed, he preserved the writings of Aristo- tle and Theophrastus, which he obtained from the libra- rian of Sylla, and which he afterwards imparted to An- dronicus of Rhodes. Tyrannio lived to an advanced age; but none of his works are extant. Bayle. TYRANNUS, in Ornithology, a name given by some to the lanius, or butcher-bird, a species of hawk not larger than a thrush, but a very fierce and fatal enemy to the small birds. See LANIUs. TYRANNY, in Political Government, is the exercise of power beyond right, to which nobody can have a right; and thus it is distinguished from Usurflation, (which see,) or the exercise of power which another hath a right to: and is it the use of power which any one possesses, not for the good of those who are subject to it, but for his own private separate advantage; when the governor, however, entitled, makes not the law, but his will the rule, and his command and actions are not directed to the preservation of the property of his people, but the satisfaction of his own ambition, revenge, covetousness, or any other irregular passion. It is a mistake to think this fault peculiar to monar- chies; other forms of government are liable to it as well as that. For wherever the power that is put in any hands for the government of the people, and the preser- vation of their property, is applied to other ends, and made use of to impoverish, haras", or seduce them to the arbitrary irregular commands of those that have it, there it becomes tyranny, whether those who thus use it are one or many. Accordingly we read of the thirty tyrants at Athens, as well as one at Syracuse; and the intolerable dominion of the decemviri at Rome was nothing better. Every wanton and causeless restraint of the will of the subject, whether practised by a monarch, a nobility, or popular assembly, is a degree of tyranny. º Whenever the constitution of a state vests in any man, or body of men, a power of destroying at pleasure, with- out the direction of laws, the lives or members of the subject, or of alienating their property, or of depriving them of their liberty at pleasure, such constitution is ty- rannical. In a word, wherever law ends, tyranny begins, if the law be transgressed to another's harm. And who- soever in authority exceeds the power given him º: 3 W T Y. R T Y. R. law, and makes use of the force he has under his com- mand, to compass that upon the subject which the law allows not, ceases in that to be a magistrate, and, acting without authority, may be opposed as any other man, who by force invades the right of another. The end of government, whatever be its name or nature, is the good of mankind; and upon this principle, whosoever uses force without right, as every one does in society who does it without law, puts himself into a state of war with those against whom he uses it; and in that state all former ties are cancelled, all other rights cease, and every one has a right to defend himself, and to resist the aggressor. If it be asked who shall be judge; whether the prince or legislative act contrary to their trus : The answer is obvious, the people shall be judge ; for who shall be judge whether the trustee or deputy acts well, and ac- cording to the trust reposed in him, but he who deputes him, and must, by having deputed him, have still a pow- er to discard him when he fails in his trust? If this be reasonable in particular cases of private men, why should it be otherwise in that of the greatest moment, where the welfare of millions is concerned; and also where the evil, if not prevented, is greater, and the redress very difficult, dear, and dangerous : Locke, of Civil Govern- ment, ch. xviii. and xix. in his Works, vol. ii p. 214, &c. TYRANT, TYRANNUs, among the Ancients, denoted simply a king or monarch. But the ill use several persons invested with that char- acter made of it, has altered the import of the word, and tyrant now carries with it the idea of an unjust and cruel prince, who invades the people’s liberty, and rules in a more despotic manner than the laws of nature, or the country, do allow. The term tyrant we are told, became odious among the Greeks, those zealous lovers of liberty, almost as soon as introduced ; but Donatus assures us, it was never taken so among the Romans till the latter ages of that empire. The motto of a tyrant is, Oderint dum metuant. Row- land contends, that this word, as well as the correspon- dent Greek and Latin, is derived from tir, Welsh and Erse, land, and rhanner, Welsh, to share ; q. d. tirhan- ner, a sharer or divider of land among his vassals. Johnson. - TYRANTS, THIRTy, an appellation under which the thirty persons, established by the Lacedaemonians in Athens, in order to enslave and keep it in slavery, are denominated. Thrasybulus formed the generous de- sign of driving them from Athens, and succeeded; upon which event Cornelius Nepos has remarked, that many have desired, and few had the happiness to rescue their country from a single tyrant' but Thrasybulus deliver- ed his from thirty. One of the means which these tyrants used for carry- ing on their scheme of enslaving the Athenians, was the ordering of the suffrages of the Areopagites to be pub- lic, that they might manage them as they pleased. See Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws, vol. i. p. 17. TYRAS, in Ancient Geography. See DNIESTR. TYRAWLEY’s Point, in Geography, the south- west extremity of Trevanion’s island, in the South Pacific ocean. S. lat. 19° 48'. E. long. 63° 41'. TYRBE, rvéºn, in Antiquity, a festival celebrated by the ancients in honour of Bacchus. TYRE in Ancient Geography, a city of Phoenicia, distant 23 miles from Sidon, its rival, according to the Itinerary of Antoninus. (See SIDon.) This city was anciently denominated Sor, whence it derived its name (See S. R), and was called the daughter of Sidon. It was situated upon the sea. Tyre has been distinguish- ed, in the order of time, into three cities; as Tyre on the continent, or Paele-Tyr (old Tyre.) Tyre on the island, and Tyre on the peninsula, after the island was joined to the main land. There were four different places in Phoenicia which bore the name of Tyre. Tyre, of which we are now speaking, had two havens, one looking towards Sidon, the other towards Egypt. These havens were formed by the isthmus which joined the island to the main land, and were called, the one open, the other close. The former looked towards Egypt, and was the most southern ºf the two: it was accord- ingly called the Egyptian port The sherif Edrisi says, that one of these ports had an arch over its entrance, through which the shipping passed; and that it was fortified with a chain drawn across it. These bays or ports are still pretty large, and, in part, defended from the ocean by a long ridge, resembling a mole, stretch- ing directly out on both sides from the head of the island; but whether these ridges are walls or rocks is uncer- tain; they were most probably walls. (See SUR) Tyre, including Palae-tyrus, was 19,000 paces in circumfe- rence, whence it is plain, that Tyre on the island, and old Tyre on the main, were considered as but one city, after the isthmus was thrown up between them ; and possibly they might have had buildings contiguous to each other. If Pliny’s numbers are right, the old city must have been by much the most extensive part of the whole, and especially as the place appears at this day. According to Pliny, the island was but 700 paces from the continent : whereas Strabo says that it was 30 stadia, or somewhat more than three of our miles from Palae- tyrus ; and according to the same geographer, Tyre was wholly an island, like Aradus, excepting the artifi- cial isthmus, which formed it into a peninsula. The city by itself, according to the statement of Pliny, measured only twenty-two furlongs, or not quite three of our miles, and this is too great an allowance, if we may rely on our modern accounts; which represent Tyre itself as a small city in extent, though it covered the whole island; and the scantiness of the space on which it stood, induced the inhabitants tº raise their buildings so high, which plan they would have otherwise avoided, from fear of earthquakes, that threatened them with destruction. At present the island appears to have been, in its natural state, of a circular form, hardly containing forty acres of ground; and the foundations of the wall which sur- rounded it are still to be seen at the utmost margin of the land. If it be true then, that the whole circuit of the old and new Tyre amounted to 19,000 paces, or 19 Roman miles, and that they were distant from each other but 33 stadia, or 3% of the same miles, it is evident that the old city stood upon a much greater space of ground than the new. A considerable part of the island was, what we call, made ground. The buildings were in general spacious and magnificent; and above the rest appeared the temples built by Hiram to Jupiter, Her- cules, and Astarte. The walls of Tyre were 150 feet high, proportionably broad, and firmly built of Iarge blocks of stone, bound together with white plaster. For its present reduced and ruinous state, see SUR. Herodotus ascribes to Tyre situated on the island a very ancient epocha : and its priests, according to his account, represent that their temple, which was of great- er antiquity than the city, subsisted about 450 years be- fore the Christian era. Josephus refers the foundation of this T Y. R. E. of this city to 1255 years B. C., whilst the Israelites were under the government of judges. But these dates can- not be applied to insular Tyre, which was more modern than that of continental Tyre, which is said to have been built and known before the Israelites took possession of Canaan. (See Joshua, xix. 29.) The Sidonians, with a view of extending their commerce, sent out a co- lony to ancient yre, which contributed very much to its augmentation; and hence it became powerful, eclip- sed the metropolis, and became itself the metropolis of several cities, which it furnished with colonies The Tyrians were not known in the time of the Trojan war, according to Strabo (lib xvi.) and Homer, who often speaks of the Phoenicians, mentions only the Sidonians, under which general appellation the Tyrians were pro- bably comprehended. Josephus and Theophilus Antiochenus begin the suc- cession of kings of Tyre with Abibal, upon the authority of Menander the Ephesian, and Dius a Phoenician, au- thors of credit. Abibal was contemporary with David, and his reign is referred to 1056 B.C. He was succeed- ed by his son, Hiram (1046 B.C.), who maintained an intimate friendship with David and Solomon: under this prince the kingdom of Tyre was very prosperous and flourishing; the city was enlarged, and by means of a dam, joined to the temple of the Olympian Jupiter, standing in an island. He also built two temples, one to Hercules and another to Astarte, enriching them with donations. Besides erecting a statue to Hercules, he repaired the temples of other gods, and endowed them to a very great value. Tatian relates, on the authority of three Phoenician historians, that he gave his daughter in marriage to king Solomon, who, by her influence, was induced to worship Astarte, the goddess of the Si- donians. Hiram, having lived fifty three years, and reigned thirty-four, was succeeded by his son, and a se- ries of other princes, until Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- bylon, laid siege to the city, in the reign of Ithobal II. 585 years B.C. This siege lasted thirteen years (see Ezekiel, xxvi. 8, &c.); and at last it was taken by Ne- buchadnezzar and utterly destroyed. Some Phoenician historians have said, that Ithobal was succeeded by Baal; nor is it improbable, that the inhabitants of Tyre, during the siege, retreated with their effects to an island about half a mile distant from the shore, where they built for themselves a new city : which, after the destruction of the old town, submitted to Nebuchadnezzar, who ap- pointed Baal to be his viceroy; and that, upon Baal's death, in order to render the government more depen- dent on the Assyrians, he changed the royal dignity into that of temporary magistrates, called suffetes, or judges, 562 years B.C. After Tyre had been thus governed for some years, the royal dignity was restored, and Ealator created king, 556 B.C. Both he,and his successors were dependent on, and tributary to the Assyrians for seventy years; at the expiration of which they recovered, ac- cording to the prophecy of Isaiah (ch. xxiii. 15. 17), their ancient liberty. In the year 480 B . ., under the reign of Marten, the Tyrians, as well as the other Phoe- nicians, were tributaries to the Persians, though they had a king of their own being favoured by the ersian monarchs on account of the services which they render- cd to them in their naval expeditions. About this time reigned Strato, whose accession to the throne, in conse- quence of an insurrection of the slaves, is particularly related by Justin, lib. xviii. cap 3. He was succeeded by his descendants, among whom was Azelmic, in whose reign happened the memorable siege and reduction of Tyre by Alexander the Great. This siege commenced about the year 333 B.C. which was rigorously carried on and as obstinately resisted by the lyrians. At length Alexander, having battered down the walls, took the city by storm, 332 B.C., after seven months siege, and fully executed the sentence which the Tyrians had, by their pride and other vices, drawn down upon themselves and their country. The city was burnt down to the ground, and the inhabitants, (those whom the Sidonians secretly conveyed away in their ships excepted), either destroy- ed or enslaved by the conqueror, who, upon his first en- tering the city, put 8000 to the sword, caused 2000 of those whom he took prisoners to be crucified, and sold the rest, to the number of 30,000, says Arrian, for slaves. His cruelty towards the 2000 that were crucified was highly unbecoming the character of a generous con- queror, and reflects eternal disgrace upon his fame. After the city was reduced, king Azelmic took sanc- tuary in the temple of Hercules, and was not only spared by the conqueror, but restored to the throne, af- ter Alexander had repeopled the place; for having cleared it of its former inhabitants, he planted it anew with colonies drawn from the neighbouring parts; and thenceforth styled himself the founder of Tyre, a city which he had most ungenerously destroyed. From hence, having unchained Apollo, whese statue the Tyrians had fastened, during the siege, with golden chains, to the altar of Hercules, returning him thanks for his intention of coming over to the Macedonians, and offered sacrifice to Hercules, Alexander continu- ed his march into Egypt. This city afterwards re- gained a considerable degree of power; for in the year 313 B.C. it sustained a siege against Antigonus of fifteen months, before it was compelled to capitu- late. It afterwards belonged to several masters, until Antiochus the Great, who took possession of it in the year 218 B.C. It afterwards became subject to the Seleucidae. Cassius, a Roman governor sold it to Marion, whose wealth enabled him to purchase the principality. Tyre, formerly called Tzor (Josh. xix. 29.), renowned for its trade and the numerous colo- nies which it transplanted into several parts of the world, and the wars in which its inhabitants valiantly engaged, was in all its glory when Alexander took it, about 300 years after its capture by Nebuchadnezzar. Tyre was still in great repute in the time of our Sa- viour. (See Matth. xi. 21. xv. 21. Mark, iii. 8. Luke, vi. 17.) It made a considerable figure in the reign of Herod Agrippa, who designed to wage war against it, if it had not secured peace by its deputies. (Acts, xii. 20.) When the apostle Paul travelled through this place, it had some Christian inhabitants. (Acts, xxi. 4.) In the second century it was a bishop’s see ; and St. Jerome tells us, that in his time it w is the most famous and most beautiful city of Phoenicia, &nd a mart for all the nations of the world. This ancient father aileges this circumstance as an objection … the accomplishment of Ezekiel’s propiecy (ch.xxv. 4.), and replies to it, that the prophet's declaration is be understood as intimating, that Tyre should no loº, ger be the queen of nations, and enjoy the same authority and domi..ion as it possessed under Hiram, and its other kings, but should be subject to the Chaldaens, Macedonians, Ptolemies, and at last to the Ro: ns. Others have supposed, that the prophet does not speak of the T Y. R. TY R of the ruin of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar, and Alexan- der the Great, but of its final destruction, of which the other events were forerunners. And indeed Tyre, as we have said, is now only a poor village, inhabited by fishermen (see SUR); so that the prophecy is ful- filled, which declared, “ that it should be a place for fishermen to dry their nets on.” Ezekiel may also be explained by the prophet Isaiah (xxiii. 15.), who limits the destruction of Jerusalem to 70 years. But the prophecy of Ezekiel may be more satisfactorily explained, with sir J. Marsham, Le Clerc, and other learned authors, who interpretit concerning Old Tyre, i. e. Palae-tyrus, which stood a little lower on the con- tinent, and the best materials of which were used by Alexander the Great, in making the isthmus which now joins Tyre to the continent. (See Q. Curtius, 1. iv. c. 2.) This Tyre was destroyed by Nebuchadnez- zar, and never rebuilt. The inhabitants, finding themselves upon the brink of destruction, removed, as we have already said, with their wives and children, and most valuable goods, to the island of Tyre, where they built a city of the same name ; so that Nebuchad- nezzar, according to the prophecy (Ezek xxix. 18.), was no gainer by his expedition. The Jews at Tyre, as Josephus informs us, suffered much from the Ty- rians. This city was formerly the metropolitan see of the province of Phoenicia. Tyre was transferred to the Arabians, with the rest of Syria; and before it was reduced to its present miserable state, it was twice be- sieged by the Christians in the time of the Crusades, viz. in l l 12, and again in 1124. It was unsuccessfully attacked by Saſadin in 1192; but in 1291, Kabil, sul- tan of the Mamelukes, obtained it by capitulation, and razed its forts. TYRESIO, in Geografthy, a sea-port town of Swe- den, in Sudermannland; 9 miles S. E. of Stockholm. TYRI, a lake of Norway, in the province of Ag- gerhuus; 15 miles N W. of Christiania. TYRIAEUM, in Ancient Geography, a considera- ble town of Asia, in Pisidia, called also Tyros. TYRINGHAM, in Geography, a town of Massa- chusetts, in the county of Berkshire, containing 1689 inhabitants; 140 miles W. of Boston. TYRIUM MARxio R, a name given by the ancients to a species of marble of a beautiful white, sometimes free from veins, and sometimes variegated with dusky blackish-grey ones. When pure, it was little inferior to the Parian, and often was used instead of it by the statuaries. See MARBLE. TYRNAU, in Geography. See TIRNAU. TYRNAU, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Ol- mutz ; 14 miles N. W. of Olmutz. TYRNITZ. See DYRNITz. TYRNSTEIN. See DIERNSTEIN. TYRO. See TYRO CINIUM. TYROCINIUM, TYRoc INY, formed of tyro, a raw beginner, a noviciate or apprenticeship in any art or SC16. In C6. We have several writings under the title of tyrocini- ums; tyrocinium chymicum, tyrocinium chirurgicum, &c. containing the rudiments of those arts, accommo- dated to the apprehensions of beginners. TYROL, in Geografhy, a citadel which gives name to the Tyrolese county ; 1 mile N. of Meran. N. lat. 46° 37'. E. long. 1.1.” * TYROLESE, or Uffier Austria, a county, bound- ed on the north by Bavaria, on the east by Salzburg and Carinthia, on the south by Italy, and on the west by Bavaria and the Grisons; in this circle are in- cluded the county of Tyrol Proper, the bishopric of rent, and the bishopric of Brixen. The bishopric of Trent is situated to the south; the bishopric of Brixen occupies the north east part; and the county of Tyrol the centre. This county is mountainous, and capable of making a powerful stand against an in- Vadilig enemy; but the Tyrolian mountains, though covered with snow to the very utmost summits of them, are also fertile ; where are found not only the finest woods, abounding in a variety of game, but also large and good corn-fields ; or, where these moun- tains are barren, there are, for the most part, mine works, or excellent marble, of all colours. Corn thrives well in many, nay in most places here ; and in some places flax. On the eminences grow also all sorts of fine fruits which Italy yields, and likewise small woods of chestnut trees, together with fine vines, Among the wild beasts here are chamois and wild goats. There are, likewise, in this county, several species of precious stones, as granites, rubies, ame- thysts, and emeralds, a species of diamonds, agates, cornelians, chalcedonies, &c. Hot baths and medi- cinal springs are found in several places; at Hall are profitable salt-pits. Not far from Schwatz is a mine of silver and copper; and some miles distant from the latter is also a mine work, which yields a very soft and malleable copper. The copper contains in it some silver and gold. Good lead, together with fine mineral colours, alum, vitriol, and fine silver ore, are also found here. The principal rivers in this county are the Ihn, or Inn, the Adige, the Lech, and the Iser. In this county are twelve towns and ten vil- lages, which have markets. The common people here, exclusive of the subsistence which the mines and Salt-works yield them, have not much to earn ; so that a great part of them seek for subsistence out of the country, either by trade or labour. Tyrol was formerly a part of Rhoetia, but, in the sixth century, the greatest part of it descended to the dukes of Ba- varia, and this was afterwards reckoned in Noricum ; but, over the southern part, the Longobards, at the same time, extended their dominion. The dukes of Bavaria appointed marggraves here ; but Henry the Lion, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, being, in 1180, put under the ban of the empire, by the emperor Frcde- ric I., this last dismembered the present province of Tyrol from Bavaria, investing therewith the marggrave Berchtold, under the title of duke of Meran. Otto II., grandson to this Berchtold, dying without male issue, in the year 1248, this county came to count Al- brecht III.. who resided at the citadel of Tyrol, gave up the title of duke of Meran, and styled the whole country the county of Tyrol. Tyrol had, afterwards, frequently princes of its own, of the house of Austria; the last of whom, named Sigismund Francis, died in in 1665, upon which the emperor Leopold received homage on that account, in person, at Inspruck; and by the peace of Presburg it was ceded to Bavaria. The high sovereign colleges over Tyrol, when sub- ject to the house of Austria, were seated at Inspruck; and towards the maintenance of the military state, it contributed yearly 100,000 florins. TYRONE, a county of Ireland, in the province of - Ulster, T Y. R O N E. Ulster, which is entirely inland, and very irregular in its shape. On the north it has the county of Derry; on the west, Donegal ; on the South, Fermanagh and Monaghan ; and on the east, Armagh, with Lough- Neagh. Its divisions from these counties are seldom marked by nature, but the river Blackwater bounds it for about 30 miles on the south-east and east, and the rivers Fin and Foyle for about 10 miles on the north-west The greatest length from east to west is 43 Irish miles, or 544 English ; and the greatest breadth 33 Irish, or 42 English. The area measures 467,700 acres, or 724 square miles Irish, which is equal to 751,387 acres, or 1 163 square miles English. Dr. Beaufort states the number of houses at 28,704, which, at 5% fier house, would give a population of near 158,000, or about 40 to each square Irish mile. As this was the statement in 1792, the increase must have been considerable. The number of parishes is only 35, and these have 38 churches. Most of these are in the diocess of Armagh, but there are some in the dioceses of Derry and Clogher. Tyrone is re- presented in the imperial parliament by two members for the county, and one for the borough of Dungan- non. The northern part of the county is rough and mountainous. The Cairntogher and Munterlony mountains occupy a large space ; and to the South of these are the high hills called “Bessy Bell” and “Mary Grey.” These produce very little, being in general wet and spongy. Where, however, gravel or any porous substance forms the substratum, the surface is dry and wholesome, and well calculated for pasture. The other parts of the county contain very good land ; and some districts are remarkable for their fer- tility, especially the neighbourhood of Dungannon, extending eastwards towards the Blackwater, and about Cookstown. The produce of this county, and the state of manufactures, agree in the leading fea- tures with those of the other northern ones. The farms, except in the mountainous districts, are usually small ; and the produce in general oats, barley, pota- toes, and flax. The linen manufacture is extensively carried on; and it gives a favourable idea of the indus- try of the inhabitants, to learn from the county sur- vey, that much cultivated ground has been gained from the bogs and mountains. “In all parts of this country,” said Dr. Beaufort in 1792, “cultivation is creeping, and that not slowly, up the sides of all the hills and mountains that are capable of improvement.” In this county, the culture of the grass called fiorin was commenced by Dr. Richardson at Clonfeale, near May, the excellencies of which have been laid before the public in various publications, and have attracted the attention of many eminent agriculturists. Many parts of Tyrone contain large quarries of lime-stone, though it is not generally used for manure. There are also many quarries of free-stone; and good mill- stones are hewn out of detached rocks. It is proba- ble that iron-ore is abundan: ; but without greater plenty of fuel, i can be of no use. Clay fit for bricks, and for various kinds of pottery ware, is also found in many places. But that mineral which has engaged most attention is coal. At Coal-Island, in the eastern part of the county, coal-works have been carried on With some success. Five pits were working in the year 1800, with the appearance of industry. There seemed, however, a want of encouragement; and the Vol. XXXVIII. - canal, which had been made from this place to the Blackwater, was choaked up with mud and weeds. A similar account may be given of the cºllieries at Drumglass, near Dungannon ; so that though above 140,000l. were expended from the national purse in making canals, independently of private exertions, the object has not been obtained ; and the Newry ca- nal, instead of conveying the Tyrone coals to that port, to be shipped for Dublin and other places, sup- plies the county through which it passes with En- glish an Scotch coal. At the time of making these grants, from 1751 to about 1770, there was a surplus of the revenue, which was spent on various public works, but not always to advantage and very seldom with economy. In the instance above mentioned, the object was to save the large sums sent annually out of Ireland for coal, or rather to procure a supply of that article on lower terms than it was usually obtain- ed. But though some advantage has arisen from the Newry canal, so great has been the expense attend- ing it, and so complete the failure of all the other parts of the speculation, except for the supply of the adjoining country, as seems to illustrate the opinion, that the interference of government in such plans sel- dom succeeds, and that the grants intended to en- courage them are too commonly abused and per- verted. It has been said, that there are indications of a rich coal-mine near the village of Drumquin, in the south-west of the county, and in a district abounding with iron-ore ; and as this is only 12 miles distant from Lough Erne, a canal has been recommended; but since the union, and especially since the taxes have pressed so heavily on all ranks, such speculations are not so readily adopted. The report of Mr. Grif- fith, the mining engineer of the Dublin Society. on the Ulster coal district, will throw much light on the subject; but his opinion, as expressed in his report on the Leinster district, is not favourable to the extent or value of that in the county of Tyrone. The rivers of this county are very numerous, so that it is well supplied with water for bleaching, &c. The principal river is the Mourne, which passes through the centre of the county from south to north. It rises in the mountains near Clogher, and receives several streams before it comes to Omagh, where it is joined by the Ca- meron from the south ; and a few miles lower, by the Po from the west. At Newtown Stewart the united streams of the Moyle, and another river from the moun- tains between Tyrone and Derry; and at Ardstraw the Derg, which flows from Lough Derg, in the county of Donegal, add their stores. Thence it runs to the town of Strabane, below which it meets the river Fin, from the county of Donegal; and they proceed together, under the name of Foyle, to the sea, being navigable for large boats. The river Blackwater, which is also navigable for about ten miles of its course, is of great service to the eastern pºrt of the county. The Ballinderry passes by Cookstown, and afterwards becomes the northern boun- dary, until 1t flows into Lough Neagh The other streams are inconsiderable, and there are no lakes which deserve notice. The towns of this county are not large. Omagh is the county-town, probably on account of its central situation; for it is inferior to Dungannon or Strabane. Dungannon was the principal residence of the O’Neils, when chieftains of Ulster. These towns, and Cookstown, May, &c. are mentioned under their re- 2 R spective T Y. R. T Y. R. spective names. The country and inhabitants near New- town-Stewart were much improved by the exertions of lord Mountjoy, who was killed at the battle of Ross in 1798, fighting against the rebels, at the head of his re- giment. His useful and benevolent plans have not, however, been neglected About Fintona good flooring and ridge tiles are made, and a great variety of crocke- ry ware for country use. Near Coal-Island is a pottery, supposed to be the best in Ireland for rough crockery ware, fire-bricks, and tiles for malt-kilns, which are of as good a quality as any imported The same clay made into small oblong pieces, and dried in the sun, is used for cleaning of leather &c. and is sent for this purpose to very distant places. Having thus given an account of the present state of Tyrone, with respect to its productions and manufac- tures; it may be added, that when O’Neil, the de- scendant of the kings of Ulster, was compelled to sub- mit to queen Elizabeth, he was created earl of Ty- rone; and when his rebellion, in the reign of James I., occasioned the forfeiture of his possessions, this was one the counties filanted, that is, alloted to settlers, chiefly from Scotland, whose descendants are at present the principal landed proprietors.—M’Evoy’s Survey of Tyrone. Beaufort’s Memoir of Map of Ireland, &c. TYRONE, a township of Í'ennsylvania, in the county of Adams, containing 648 inhabitants.-Also, a town- ship of Pennsylvania, in the county of Cumberland, con- taining 2604 inhabitants.-Also, a township of Pennsyl- vania, In Huntingdon county, containing 753 inhabitants. —Also, a township of Pennsylvania, in Fayette county, containing 989 inhabitants. TYi* OOT, a circar of Hindoostan, in the subah of Bahar, bounded on the north by Morung, on the east by Purneab, on the south by Boglipour. on the south-west by Hajypour, and on the west by Bettiah. Durbungah is the capital. TYROSIS, rvports, formed of rvpog, cheese, in Medi- cine, a coagulating or ctrlling of milk in the stomach, after the manner of cheese. TYRRELL, JAMEs, in Biografthy, a political writer and historian, was the son of Sir Timothy Tyrrell, knt.; of Shotover, near Oxford, by Elizabeth, the only daugh- ter of archbishop Usher, born at London in 1642, and ad- mitted, in 1657, a gentleman-commoner of Queen’s col- lege, Oxford. Devoting himself to the study of the law at the Inner Temple, he was called in 665 to the bar. But declining the practice of his profession, he resided at Oakley, in Buckinghamshire, and studied the history and constitution of his country, of which he entertained more liberal sentiments than those with which he com- menced his rescarches. In 1681 he published an answer to Sir Robert Filmer’s patriarchal scheme, under the title of “Patriarcha non monarcha; or, The Patirarch of the penal laws, and the test against popery. he was struck out of the commission of the peace by James II. As a zealous friend to the Revolution, he vindicated king William’s right to the crown in “Fourteen Politi- cal Dialogues,” printed from 1692 to 1695; which were after wards collected into one volume folio, with the title of “Bibliotheca Politica, &c.” in which all the chief arguments, both for and against the late revolution, are impartially represented and considered. He also composed an abridgement of bishop Cumberland’s work “De Legibus Naturae,” 1692, 8vo. of which work a second edition, corrected and enlarged, was printed in 1701. But his principal performance was “ The Gene. ral History of England, both Ecclesiastical and Civil, from the earliest Accounts of Time,” concluding with the reign of Richard II., and comprised in 5 vois, fol. 1700–1704. The political purpose of this work seems to have been to confute the leading doctrines of Dr. Brady, who maintained that all the liberties and privi- leges of the people of England were concessions from the kings, and derived from the crown; and that the re- presentation of the commons, as now existing, was not introduced before the 49th of Henry III. These points are still controverted, and serve to distinguish two par- ties in the state. Mr. Tyrrell died in 1718, in his 76th year. Biog. Brit. TYRREL, in Geografhy, a maritime county of North Carolina. It contins about 3364 inhabitants. TYR EL's Bay, a bay on the South coast of St. Vin- cent ; 2 miles E. of Kingstown. TYRREL’s Pass. See TERRIL’s Pass. TYRRHENIA, in Ancient Geography, that part of Italy which is now called Tuscany; but more extensive towards the north and south-east. This country has changed both its name and its inhabitants. The Umbrians were expelled by the Pelasgi, and these by the Lydians, under the conduct of Tyrrhenus, the son of the king of Lydia, whence the name Tyrrhe- nia. As the Tyrrhenians were a religious people, and offered many sacrifices, the Greeks called them Thusis, or Thusci, denoting sacrificers, from 9 va, to sacrifice. See ETRUR1A and TuscANy, TYRRHENUS SINUs, a gulf of Italy, on the coast of Etruria. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, this gulf was denominated “ Ausonius Sinus.” TYRTAEUS, in Biºgraphy, a Greek poet, is sup- posed to have been a native of Miletus, and to have re- sided at Athens, as a poet, musician, and school-master. Somewhat deformed in body, he possessed a manly and elevated soul. In a contest between the Lacedaemo- nians and Messenians, the former, having experienced some ill success, are said to have consulted the oracle of Delphi, B.C. 623, and to have been directed to seek a general at Athens. The Athenians, as some say in praise of valour and patriotism, animated the Spartans, so that they became victorious, and reduced the Mes- senians to subjection. He is said to have also given them uscful advice as a military leader, in consequence of which the Spartans conferred upon him the right of citizenship, and honoured him whilst he resided among them. His war-poems have been celebrated by the an- cients, and particularly by Horace, who joins him with Homer in his eulogy: “—- Post hos insignis Homerus Tyrtaeusque mares animos in martia bella Versibus exacuit.” Art. Poet. Besides these poems, he composed, also, “ Moral Precepts,” and a work “On the Polity of the Lace- daemonians.” Some fragments of his “War-Poems” are extant, which are published with the other minor Greek poets, and are said to be characterized by a masculine simplicity. Moreri. Anc. Un. Hist. Gen. Biog. TYRVANDO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Tavastland; 10 miles N.N.W. of Tavasthus. - TYRVIS, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo; 35 miles E.S.E. of Biorneborg. • TYRUS, T Y. S T Z. A TYRUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Pelo- ponnesus, in laconia. — Also, a town of Asia Minor, in Lydia.-Also, an island situated on the coast of Syria, near the continent, according to Ptolemy —Also, an island situated in the Persian gulf. Strabo. Tyrus, a word used by Some of th: barbarous writers for a serpent or viper. TYR WHITT, THoMA:, in Biografthy, a profound scholar and acute critic, was Lorn in 1730, sent to Eton school in 1741, and entered at Queen’s college, Ox- ford, in 1747. In 1755 he was elected fellow of Merton college, and in 756 acted as under secretary of war. In 1762 he became clerk to the house of commons, which post he retained till the year 768. A this time he retired to pursue those studies which were adapted to his genius and taste, and to the acquirements he had already made in the knowledge of ancient and modern languages, and of the old as well as modern writers of his own country. He commenced his publications with compositions in poetry; such were “An Epistle to Flo- rio,” and Latin versions of the “Messiah” and “Splen- did Shilling,” with an English one of “Pindar’s eighth Isthmian Ode.” In 1766 appeared his “Observations and Conjectures on some Passages of Shakspeare,” which enabled him to communicate ingenious remarks to Mr. Steevens and Mr. Reed, for their editions of the works of this great dramatist His “ Proceedings and Debates in the House of Commons in 1620 and 162 (, from an original MS. in Queen's College, Oxford,” appeared in the same year; and in 1768 he published a corrected and enlarged edition of “Elsynge's Vianner of holding Parliaments in England.” His first publication in criti- cal literature was “Fragmenta duo Plutarchi,” 1773, from one of the Harleyan $1SS. This was followed by a very valuable edition of Chaucer’s “Canterbury Tales,” in 4 vols. 8vo. 1773, which, besides corrections of the original text, contains an introduction and admirable essay on the author’s language and versification. In 1776, he further displayed his Latin erudition and criti- cal acumen, by a Latin dissertation on Babrius, one of the writers of the Esopean fables. In 1777 he gave a complete edition of the poems attributed to Rowley, with a preface and glossary. In a subsequent edition, which appeared in 1778, he expressed his full convic- tion, with the grounds of his opinion, that they were written solely by Chatterton, and he afterwards satisfied all unprejudiced judges with regard to this subject of literary controversy (See CHATTERTON.) We shall merely enumerate his remaining works, which were, an edition of a Greek poem, IIse, Auðay (on Stones), ascribed to Orpheus, together with a supplement to his disserta- tion on Babrius, 1781 ; “Conjecturae in Strabonem,” 1783; and a newly discovered “Oration of Isaeus against Menocles,” 785. Mr. Tyrwhitt was a member of the Royal Antiquarian Societies, and a curator of the British Museum. He died, much lamented, in 1786, in his 56th year; having established a character that was truly estimable. He bequeathed to the British Museum all those of his books which were not before in that re- pository. Nichols's Lit. Anecd. Gen Biog. TYSCA, in Ancient Geograf hy, a country of Africa, in which there were fifty towns. Massinissa and the Carthaginians disputed the possession of this country, and the dispute was referred to the senate of Rome, ac- cording to Appian. TYSERRA, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in 3ahar; 32 miles S. of Doesa. TYSHAS, among the Ethionians, the name of the fourth month of their year, commencing the 27th of November in the Julian year. TYSNASOE, in Geography, a small island in the North sea, near the coast of Norway. N. lat. 60°. TYSSENS, PETER, in Biografiſhy, was born at Ant- werp in 1645, and prºctised painting in portraiture and history with very great success. In the latter, however, he acquired the most substantial portion of his fame ; and after the death of Rubens, he was made director of the Academy at Antwerp in 1664. His compositions are rich and ingenious, and are conducted in a style more correct and grand than that of most of his countrymen, and his colour is clear and harmonious. Amongst the best of his works are his “ Martyrdom of St. Benedict,” in the church of the Capuchins at Brussels; the “Cru- cifixion,” at the Carmehtes; and the “Assumption of the Virgin,” at the church of St. James at Antwerp. He died in 1692, aged 67. leaving two sons, painters. TYSTED, in G ografhy, a town of Denmark, in North Jutland, situated on a river which runs into the Lymford gulf; 40 miles W. of Aalborg. N. lat. 57° 3'. E. lot.g. 8° 45'. TYTERSAARI, a round island of the Baltic, belong- ing to Russia : it is pretty high, but not above ten versts in circuit. It lies 18 versts to the S.E. of Hockland. As appendages, on the western side, or in the Sound, be- tween it and Hochland, it has four small isles, quite low, but pretty far asunder : Kleintitter, the two Viri, and Vaeotcalla, and on the Southern side a stony ground, seven or eight versts in length, to the Narva passage : hence, it is hardly possible to land on this island A third part of it is rock, another third is morass, and the remaining part an arid and sterile sand-hill The island has no springs. The seal-fishery is here considerable : the inhabitants live together in one village. TYTH, or rather Tithe S. e TITHE. TYTHING and Tything-man. See TITHING, DE- CINERS, TENMENTALE, !! UNDRED, WAPENTARE, &c. TZAGANUSKOI, in Geograft hy, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, on the borders of China; 48 miles S.S.W. of Selenginsk. TZAGONIA, a district in the south part of the Mo- rea, between Misitra and Cape Malio. TZAMAMENI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the government of Marasch ; 40 miles S.E. of Marasch. TZAMANDUS, in Ancient Geograſhy, a town of Asia, in the vicinity of the Lessºr Armenia. TZANATL, in Ornithology, the name of an Ameri- can bird described by Nieremberg, which, he says, has all over very long and beautiful feathers, of a fine green, and of the shining gloss of the feathers of the peacock. The upper side of the wings is black, but their under part is of a very fine and shaded green; it has a very beautiful crest on its head; its throat and breast are of fine scarlet ; the wing-feathers are very long, and very beautifully variegated with several colours. The Indians esteem the feathers of this bird more valuable than gold; they dress up the images of their gods with them. Ray's Ornithol. p. 303. TZANGAF, among the .4ncients, a kirid of Parthian garments, according to some; but others will have them to have been shoes set with precious stones, formed into the figure of eagles, and designed for the emperor’s use. TZANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Asia, in the vicinity of Armenia. According to Procopius, they were formerly independent, and lived a savage life: wor- 2 B 2 shipping T Z. E. T Z U shipping birds and other animals, and inhabiting moun- tains covered with thick and dark forests. They paid no regard to agriculture, and had neither corn nor pas- tures, so that the culture of the soil was wholly neglect- ed. They had no restraint on their liberty, till they lost it under Justinian, to whom they voluntarily surrendered themselves. In process of time they embraced Christi- anity, which produced a total change in their manners and habits. They afterwards served in the Roman ar- mies. Justinian contributed, by the regulations which he introduced, to civilize them. But some authors say, that at this day the Tzanians have no kind of religion; that they have neither temples, nor altars, nor priests, nor any worship. TZANPAU, in Ornithology, the name of an Ameri- can bird described by Nieremberg, and famous for the modulations of its voice, and is by many esteemed the female of the folyglotta avis, or cencontlatolli of the Indians. - TZAREVAGOR, in Geography, a town of Russia, in the government of Tobolsk, on the Tobol; 28 miles S. E. of Okunevsk. N. lat 55 ° 20'. E. long. 64° 34'. TZAREVOKOKCHAISK, a town of Russia, in the government of Kazan; 68 miles N. W. of Kazan. N. lat. 54° 50'. E. long 47° 54. TZAREVOSANGURSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Viatka; 100 miles S. W. of Viatka, N. lat. 57° 8'. E. long. 47° 54'. TZARI, a town of the principality of Georgia, in the province of Kaket; 95 miles S. E. of Teflis. TZARITZIN, a town of Russia, in the government of Saratov, on the Volga, defended by a ditch and ram- part ; with artillery and a considerable garrison; 18O miles S. of Saratov. N. lat 48° 35' E. long. 44° 34'. TZEKINSKOI, a fortress in Russia, in the govern- ment of Irkutsk, on the borders of China; 100 miles W. S. W. of Selenginsk. TZEPHETH. See SAFAD. TZERIMISH, a horde of tartars, pretty numerous, in the neighbourhood of Kazan. TZERNA, a river of Romania, which runs into the Mariza, near Tzernitz. TZERNITZ, a town of European Turkey, in Roma- nia, near the Tzerna; 32 miles N. N. E. of Adrianople. TZERVINKA. See ZERVINKA. TZETZES, JoHN, in Biografthy, a Greek poet and grammarian, flourished in the twelfth century, and was distinguished by his talents, natural and acquired, and particularly by a retentive memory, insomuch that he had the whole Scriptures by heart. He was the author of “Allegories on Homer,” and of “Miscellaneous His- tories,” in thirteen chiliads, written in that lax kind of verse which is called political, or popular. The cha- racteristics of this poet, says one of his biographers, ap- pear. to be tediousness and insipidity with arrogance. As a critic, he gave scholia upon Hesiod. His Allego- ries were published by Morel, Paris, 8vo. Gr. and Lat., with notes, 1616; and his Histories or Chiliads at Basil, fol. 1546. The brother of the preceding, Isa Ac TzEtzEs, pub- lished learned commentaries on Lycophron, which have been considered as the joint productions of both brothers: they are inserted in Potter's edition of Lycophron, Oxon. 1697. Moreri. Gen. Biog. TZICATLINA, in Zoology, a species of serpent, said to be found in America, and reckoned among the most beautiful of that kind of animals. It is nine inches long, about the thickness of a man’s little finger, and variegated with alternate swaths of white and red crossing its body. It is likewise one of the harmless kind of serpents. The name signifies the serfient of ants, because it lives always in their nests, and comes out along with them. TZIECHANOW, in Geography. See CIEKANow. TZIEL, a town of the duchy of Warsaw ; 35 miles W. of Posen. TZIGENO, a town of Croatia; 10 miles S. E. of Creutz. - TZIKIRSKOI, a fortress of Russia, in the govern- ment of Irkutsk; 120 miles W. S. W. of Selenginsk. TZILEI, a town of Walachia, on the Danube; 20 miles W. of Nicopoli. TZIMLIANKA, a town of Russia, in the country of the Cossacks, on the Don; 1 16 miles E.N.E. of Azoph. TZINITZIAN, in Ornithology, the name of a very beautiful American bird, described by Nieremberg, of the size of a small pigeon, and ornamented with various- ly-coloured feathers. The beak is short, crooked, and of a pale colour; the head and neck are like those of the pigeon, the breast and part of the belly are red; but that part which is next the tail is of a fine elegant blue, and a bright white, beautifully intermixed with one another; the tail is green on the upper part, and black underneath; the wings are variegated with white and black; the feet and legs are grey, and the shoulders of a very beautiful green. It is most frequent near the South Sea, and feeds on vegetables. It is kept in cages for its beauty, but never sings. The Indians make several beautiful works of its feathers. Ray’s Ornithol. . SO3. p TZIOURLY, in Geography. See TsorT.II. TZIVILSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Kazan ; 56 miles W. of Kazan. N. lat. 55° 40'. E. long. 47° 34'. TZNA, a river of Russia, which rises 20 miles S. of Tambov, and runs into the Mokscha, 20 miles N.W. of Temnikov, in the government of Tambov. . TZTACTZON, in Ornithology, an American name, under which Nieremberg has described a species of duck, remarkable for the variable and beautiful colours of its head, which are purple, blue, white, and green, and shine like satin; its body is variegated with black, grey, and white; its legs are red, and is eaten as the other water-fowl. It is common in the lakes of Mexico, and has feet much more adapted to swimming than to walking. Ray’s Ornithol. p. 299. TZURUCHATU, STARo1, in Geography, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, on the Argunia, on the borders of China. This is one of the towns in which a private trade is carried on between the Russians and the Chinese. It has a small garrison; 160 miles S.E. of Nertchinsk. N. lat. 49° 18'. E. long. 119° 32'. U and V. U. and W. V A A The twentieth letter in the alphabet, and the fifth vowel. Besides the vowel u, there is a consonant of the same denomination, wrote v or v. V consonant and U vowel ought to be considered as two letters; but as they were long confounded while the two uses were annexed to one form, the old custom still continues to be followed. U, the vowel, has two sounds; one clear, expressed at other times by eu, as obtuse; the other close, and ap- proaching to the Italian u, or English oo, as obtund. V, the consonant, has a sound nearly approaching to those of 6 and f. With b it is by the Spaniards and Gascons always confounded, and in the Runic alphabet is expressed by the same character with f, distinguished only by a diacritical point. The sound in English is uniform: it is never mute. V is also a numeral letter, and signifies five ; accord- ing to the verse, “V vero quinque dabit tibi, si recte numerabis.” When a dash was added at top, V, it signified 5000. V. R. among the Romans, stood for uti rogas, as you desire - which was the mark of a vote, or suffrage for the passing of a law. The following abbreviations sometimes occur; viz. V. A. for veterani assignati : V. B. vero bono ; V. B. A. viri boni arbitratu ; V. B. F. vir bona fidei ; V. C. vir consularis ; V. C. C. F. val, conjur charissime, Jeliciter; V. D. D. voto dedicatur ; V. G. verbi gratia ; V. L. videlicet : V. N. guinto monarum. V, on the French coins, denotes those that were struck at Troyes. V, in Music, besides its numerical import of five, in ancient madrigals implies quinta hars, a fifth part added to tie treble, counter tenor, tenor, and base. In instru- mental music it stands for violin, as V V do in the plural for violins V. S. are the initials of verto subito, Lat.; and volti subito, Ital, for turn over quick. VAAGEN, E • ST, in Geography, an island in the North sea, 20 miles from the coast of Norway. N. lat. 689 26'. VAAGEN, West, an island in the North sea, 30 miles from the coast of Norway. N. lat. 68° 12'. VAAGSOE, a small island in the North sea, near the coast of Norway. N. lat. 61° 57'. VAARSOE, a small island of Denmark, on the E. coast of Jutland, at the mouth of the gulf of Horsens. N. lat. 55° 53°. E. long. 10° 1'. VAAS, a town of France, in the department of the Sarte ; 21 miles S. of Le Mans. V A C VAAST, St. See St. Vaast. VABAR, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Africa, on the coast of Mauritania Caesariensis. Ptolemy. VABAR, Ash-oune-man-kar, a promontory of the eastern part of Mauritania Caesariensis. Ptolemy. The port Salda, mentioned by Strabo, lay S. E. of this pro- montory. VABBA, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, formerly sometimes denominated Julia Campestris. UABE, in Geography. See HILAU1. VABELIRAKE, an island in the Red sea. N. lat. 25o 8' VABRES, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron, at the union of two small rivers, which soon after run into the Tarn. Before the revolution, it was the see of a bishop, suffragan of Alby; 2 miles S.W. of St. Afrique.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Cantal; 4 miles E of St. Flour. VACAN, one of the small Philippine islands, near the N coast of Samar. N. lat 12° 47' E. long. 121° 15'. VACANCY, in Philosophy. See VACUUM. VACANcy, in Law, &c. a post or benefice wanting a regular officer, or incumbent. The canonists hold, that the kind of vacancy is to be expressed in the impetration of a benefice. A future vacancy, or voidance of a spiritual living, some writers call vacatura. Devolution is a species of canonical vacancy. VACANcy of the throne. REvolution VACAN i EFFECTs, Praedia Vacata, or Vacua, are such as are abandoned for want of an heir, after the death or flight of the former owner. In our law-books, vagantes terræ, for vacantes, ex- presses forsaken or uncultivated laids. A Romish benefice is said to be vacant in curia Ro- mana, when the incumbent dies in Rome, or within twenty leagues of it; though it be only ‘y accident that he was there. The pope nominates to all benefices va- cant in curia Romana, excepting those of the neighbour- ing bishoprics. º VacANT Cylinder, in Gunnery See CYLINDER. VA ARIA, Aucaria, or Caucaria in Ancient Geo- graſhy, a place of Africa Propria, on the route from Hippone to Carthage, between Vicus Augusti and u- burbſ, Miºus, according to the 'tinerary of A; tº ºne. Vaca RIA, in Geogroñhy, a town of Egypt ; 8 ſºliles N.E. of Habaseh. VACAR1CA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 18 miles S.E. of Bragança. VACAS, See Right of CRowN, and V A C VAC VACAS, a river of Mexico, which rises in the pro- vince of Guatimala, and runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 14° 22'. W. long, 9.2 ° 48'. VACAs Bay, a bay on the S. coast of Africa. S. lat. 34° 15'. * VACASA, a small island near the W. coast of Lew- is. N. lat. 58° '. W. long. 6° 57". VACAT AMA, a river of Peru, which runs into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 9 25'. VA . . ATING RF co::Ds, in Law. See IMBEzzLE. V AC AT (ON, Mºon-term, all the time included be- tween the end of one term. and the beginning of the next succeeding one. See TEl, Ms. This intermission was called by our ancestors far Dei, and eccesia: ; and sometimes, the time or days of the king's heace. A mong the Romans, it was called justicium or feria, or dies mºſasti. The time from the death of a bishop, or other spiri- tual person, till the bishopric, or other dignity be suppli- ed by another, is also called vacation. - During the vacation of a bishopric, the dean and chap- ter are guardians of the spiritualities, by the canon law ; and of common right they are so at this day in England, and the archbishop hath this privilege only by prescrip- tion or composition, to whom with us, during the vacan- cy of any see within his province, all episcopal rights of the diocess belong; and all ecclesiastical jurisdiction is exercised by him and his commissioners. But when an archiepiscopal see is vacant, the dean and chapter of his diocess are guardians of the spiritualties, and exercise the spiritual jurisdiction of his province. And the per- quisites that happen by the execution of such power be- long to the guardian, but the new-elected bishop may by law, after election and confirmation, execute the same. See CUST.os Shiritualium. The custody of the temporalities of every archbish- opric and bishopric within the realm, in the time of va- cation, belong to the king by his prerogative ; and upon the filling of a void bishopric, the king, and not the new bishop, hath the temporalities of it from the time that the same became void to the time that the new bishop shall receive them from the king: which the king eac gratia may grant him by his letters patent after his con- firmation, and before his consecration : but after he is consecrated, invested, and installed, he may sue for his temporalities out of the king’s hands by a writ directed to the estreator; the metropolitan testifying thetime of consecration. See Custos Temporalium. During the vacation of a benefice, the profits, by the common law of the church, were to be laid out for the benefit of the church, or reserved for the successor; and by special privilege or custom the bishop or a ch- deacon might have the same, wholly or in part: and it is said, the king might take the profits of a free chapel, and the patron those of a donative. But by statute 28 Hen. VIII. c 11. it is enacted, that the tithes and profits of spiritual promotions, offices, benefices, and dignities, during the time of their vacation, shall belong to the person next presented, promoted, instituted, inducted or admitted, towards the payment of his first-fruits. An- ciently, upon the death of an incumbent, the rural dean, without any formal sequestration, took the vacant bene- fice into his custody; but in process of time, the chan- cellors of bishops, or their arch-deacons, laid claim to this jurisdiction, and by forms of sequestration assigned vacant churches to the aconomi or lay guardians of the church; and now the ordinary way of managing the profits of vacation is by sequestration granted to the church-wardens, who are to manage all the profits and expenses of the benefice for the successor; whose right to the profits commences from the voidance of the benefice, and to whom the sequestrators are to accouut for such as they have received, deducting their reasona- ble expenses, and those of supplying the cure during the vacation. By 28 Hen. VIII. c. ii. an incumbent be. fore his death may make his testament of all the profits of the corn growing upon glebe lands which he has manured and sown ; but if his successor is inducted be- fore the severance of it from the ground, the successor shall have the tithe of it; otherwise, if the parson dies after the severance of it, and before it is carried off, the successor shall have no tithe. Where there is no pro- per lease of tithes, the person who receives them shall be accountable to the executor for those received by him, and which became due before the incumbent’s death, and to the successor for tithes which he received, and which became due after the incumbent’s death; but glebe lands, and tithes demised or leased, are compre- hended under statute II. Geo. II. c. 19. which enacts, that the executors or administrators of a tenant for life may, in an action upon the case, recover of the under tenant, if such tenant for life die on the day on which the ent was made payable, the whole, or if before such day, a proportion of such rent, according to the time such tenant for life lived, of the last year, or quarter of year, or other time in which the said rent was growing due. As to modus in lieu of tithes, which, if taken in kind, would have been due before the death of the in- Cumbent, whereas the modus for the same is not due till after his death, it seems that the executo, s are not enti- tled to the said modus, nor any part thereof, but that the whole shall go to the successor. Cicero, in his Orations, mentions a law, by which the priests werc exempted from service in all wars, except only in uproars, and civil tumults; which exemptions he calls vacationles. VACCA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Spain, in the Pyrenean mountains, according to Isidore. VACCA, Pagaº, Bata, or Wagense Ohſhidum, thus dif- ferently named by Sallust, Ptolemy, Plutarch, and Pliny, Bayjah, a town of Africa, in Numidia, 10 leagues from Meterense Oppidum. According to Sallust, it belong- ed to Jugurtha, and he says, that when it revolted, he es- tablished in it Italians. Metellus was sent to reduce it. VAccA, or Vacua, a river of Spain, in Lusitania, which pursuing its course from E. to W. passed to Tala. briga, and soon after ran into the sea. - VAccA, La in Geography, a small island in the Medi- terranean, near the S. coast of Sardinia; 3 miles S. of St. Antioco. VAccA, in Zoology, the female of the ox-kind. See Cow. VAccA Marina. See SEA-Cow. VACCARIA, in Botany, so named from vacca, a cow, because, according to Ambrosinus, cows are fond of the plant. His Vaccaria, like that of Dodºnaeus and Gerarde, is the Linnaean Safionaria Vaccaria, referred by the writer of this to Gypsophila, see that article; with which genusits bell-shaped angular calyx, roundish cap- sule, and whole habit, accoord so exactly, that we are at a loss to account for Linnaeus's having placed it eise- where. The Vaccaria of Tabernaemontanus is very different, being our Turritis glabra ; an herb agreeing with the former in the glaucous, Smooth, entire leaves, of its stem at least, but otherwise having no character or property in common there with, and certainly of too unfrequent V A C V A C unfrequent occurrence, as well as of too slender a habit, to afford much support for a dairy. The above Gyft- soft hila belongs to a natural order of plants to which far- mers have, as yet, scarcely recurred for any sort of fod- der, the Campion tribe. Might not the name before us authorize an experiment at least, upon the qualities of this plant, as well as on those of its near relation Silene inflata ? Shergula arvensis, one of this order, is re- ported to enrich the milk cows, but has not come into any general notice. See SILENE, sect. 2, and SPERGU- LA 9 n. I. * VACCARY, VAccARIA, in our Old Writers, a house or place to keep cows in ; a dairy-house, or cow-pas- ture. VACCEI, VAccEANs, in Ancient Geography, a peo- ple of the interior of Hither Spain, S. of that part of the country which was inhabited by the Asturi. Accord- ing to Diodorus, the Tacceans were the most gentle and polished of the Celtiberians. They were subjugated by L. Lucullus and Ch. Marcellus. It appears that they were a considerable people by the number of towns which Ptolemy assigns to them. VACC INATION, or the Cow-floz inoculation in Surgery, one of the greatest and most important disco- veries of modern times. The discovery of the circula- tion of the blood, made by the celebrated Harvey, has unquestionably been the source of infinite improvement in every part of the healing art, and produced incalcu- lable benefit; but vaccination, the discovery of another Englishman, the immortal Jenner, is a thing, which in its consequences certainly out-does every previous inno- vation in practice, since it may be said to save annually the lives of millions. Vaccinnation being the only known means of arrest- ing altogether the fatal ravages of the small-pox, the most depopulating contagion upon the face of the earth, mankind will probably for ever feel a deep interest in the subject. In fact, nothing less than the well-establish- ed total extermination and permanent cessasion of the Small-pox, could ever justify a diminution of the lauda- ble solicitude of the public for the continuance of vac- cination. For it is not to be presumed, that a still milder and Imore effectual means of rendering the hu- man body insusceptible of the effects of the small-pox contagion, will ever be discovered. A milder method, indeed, is hardly conceivable; since the symptoms pro- duced by it amount only to a very slight indisposition, which never has any fital or unpleasant consequences. Its efficacy also is now fully confirmed by abundance of evidence, collected from the united observations and ex- perience of the best informed practitioners, who, it is obvious, can have no interest in the success of vaccina- tiºn, but the general good of their fellow-creatures. Were medical men so base as to suffer their judgment to be influenced by mercenary considerations, they would decry with all their force the practice of vaccination, which occasions too trifling an indisposition to put many fees into their pockets; and they would necessarily praise the small-pox inoculation, by which afrequently long and lucrative attendance on their patients might be calcula- ted upon as a matter of certainty. A general account of the origin of vaccination has been delivered in the article Cow-pox, and on this inter- esting part of the subject we shall therefore merely re- Capitulate a very few particulars. As, however, it is an object of the first rate importance to be perfectſy ac- quainted with every criterion of the genuire disease, we mean to introduce into this article some valuable instruc- tions, which have been published by the latest and best medical writers, or which have been circulated by the National Vaccine Establishment, respecting the appear- ances of the true affection, and of some others, which are either spurious, or not to be depended upon. In this account will be comprehended a brief explanation of the method of practising vaccination. The rest of the article will be principally devoted to the considera- tion of the occasional failures to which the practice is liable. - It was an observation made long ago in several of the dairies in England, particularly in those in Gloucester- shire, that the milk cows were frequently affected with an irruption upon their udders and teats, which was com- municated not only from one cow to another, but fre- quently also to the hands of the milkers; and farther, that such of the milkers as had been thus affected, were never afterwards infected with the small-pox, either by inoculation, or by exposure to the most virulent conta- gion of that disease, even although such persons had not previously undergone that dreadful malady. It is curious, that the knowledge of a fact of so singu- lar a nature, and one of so much importance to the gen- eral interests of society, should have been confined, from time immemorial, almost entirely to those occupied in the business of dairies, without being fully investigated by such persons as could duly appreciate its value. Dr. Jenner, a physician at Berkley, in Gloucestershire, was the first person who set himself about examining this subject with that care and attention which its im- portance seemed to demand. In the year 1798, after much diligent labour and in- vestigation, Dr. Jenner published “An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae;” and his observations soon excited the attention of the whole me- dical world. For a considerable time, the accuracy of the account was received among medical men with he- sitation. The character, however, of Dr. Jenner, and the Singularity and important nature of the ailment, led to farther investigation; and although many arguments were urged, and circumstances stated, which seemed adverse to the plan of the general introduction of cow- pox among mankind, yet the great utility of it was at last clearly evinced. Every statement made by the ac- curate Jenner was confirmed, and the credit of the cow- pox, as a preventive of small pox, was established on a basis too firm to be shaken by the shafts of envy, malice, or ignorance—the basis of immutable truth. - -Dr. Jenner, not satisfied with the assertions of the dairy famers and servants, that persons who had been affected with cow-pox were rendered thereby secure against the attacks of small-pox, determined to ascer- tain the truth of this fact by the test of experiment. He inoculated for small-pox many persons who had former- ly undergone the cow-pox, some so long as thirty and even fifty years previously; and these he uniformly found as had been predicted to him, completely resisted that disease. & So far the nature of cow-pox was known to others be- fore it was knowl, to Dr. Jenner. In the year 1796, however, this ingenious gentleman pushed his investiga: tion farther ; and on the 14th of May, he first intention- ally infected the human constitution with the virus of cow-pox by innoculation, with the design, as he informs lis, of observing more accurately the progress of the , infection. The experiment succeeded; and the affec- tiºn, tº "gh remarkably slight, was clearly marked in all its stages. - Dr. Jenner VACCINATION. …” Dr. Jenner next conceived the idea of inoculating this person with the virus of small-pox, in order to as- certain whether so slight an affection as had taken place from the cow-pox, could possibly give security from that dreadful disease. Several slight punctures and incisions were accordingly made in both arms, and the virus of small-pox was carefully inserted, but no disease followed. Some months afterwards, the same person was again in- oculºted for small pox, but still no sensible effect was produced upon the constitution. This is to be reckoned the first discovery of Dr. Jen- ner respecting the nature of cow-pox, viz. that the mat- ter of cow-pox, taken from the vesicles on the cow, and intentionally inserted into the human subject, produ- ces an affection, which, at the same time that it is more mild in its symptoms than that produced by accidental infection, does nevertheless still operate such a change in the constitution as renders the person infected unsus- ceptible of the small-pox. The want of vaccine matter now prevented Dr. Jenner from prosecuting his experiments until the spring of the year 1798, when the cow-pox again be- tame prevalent among the cows in the dairies in his neighbourhood, and afforded him an opportunity of investigating farther this interesting subject. With matter taken from cow-pox vesicles on the teats of a cow, Dr. Jenner now inoculated several per- sons; and from these persons he propagated the affec- tion to others, also by inoculation, even so far as the fifth change, without recurring to the orignal source, the vesicles on the teats of the cow. The experi- ments were completely successful. The affection, in all those inoculated, was regularly produced. All the persons who had been thus infected, were after- wards subjected to inoculation with the virus of the Small-pox, but ineffectually, no disease in any instance succeeding to this operation. See Jenner's Inquiry, p. 43. From these experiments, we derive another most important fact concerning the nature of the cow-pox, viz. that the virus of cow-pox may be propagated from one human subject to another, through several gradations, and still retains the power not only of pro- ducing the affection, regular in all its stages, but also of rendering those constitutions which are infected, Secure against the attacks of small-pox. By unweari d attention to all the circumstances under which he was accustomed to observe this ail- ment, Dr. Jenner was led to conclude, that persons who have already had the small pox, are still susceptible of the action of cow-pox, though not to such a degree as these who have never been subjected to that of Small-pox. That in the cow-pox no eruption takes place, un- less on the part where the virus is applied to the skin. That the cow-pox, even under the most unfavoura- ble circumstances, has never proved fatal. That the cow-pox cannot be propagated by conta- gion, but only by actual contact, or inoculation with the virus. - That the virus of the cow-pox, inserted into the hu- man body, may produce an affection which is merely local, the general constitution remaining unaltered; and that, in such cases, the person is still liable to be infected with the small-pox. f * Soon after Dr. Jenner's publication appeared, viz. in November, 1798, Dr. George Pearson published “An Inquiry into the History of Cow-pox, princi- pally, with a View to supercede and extinguish the Small-pox.” In this treatise, the positions and con- clusions of Dr. Jenner are examined with that can- dour and attention, which their importance demand. The evidences adduced are numerous and r-specta- ble, and the result is highly favourable to the general introduction of inoculation for the cow-pox among mankind, not only as a preventive of small-pox, but also as a certain mode of ultimately extinguishing that loathsome malady. r In May, 1799, were published “Reports concerning a Series of Inoculations for Cow-pox, with Remarks and Observations on this Disease, considered as a Substitute for Small-pox, by Dr. Woodville, Physi- cian to the Small-pox and Inoculation Hospital in London.” The account here given by Dr. Woodville is very different from that giyen by Dr. Jenner, and by no means favourable to the general introduction of the new inoculation as a substitute for small-pox. Such a report, coming from a man of Dr. Woodville’s known character and reputation as an accurate ob- server, naturally produced a strong sensation in the minds of medical men concerning the discoveries of Dr. Jenner. The circumstance, however, under which Dr. Woodville’s observations were made, and upon which his reports were founded, were such as led him to be much deceived respecting the true nature of the cow-pox, This report of Dr. Woodville, so very different from the general statement of Dr. Jenner, naturally called for a reply from the latter, who accordingly, in 1800, published “A Continuation of Facts and Ob- servations relative to the Variolae Vaccinae.” . In this publication, Dr. Jenner is anxious to recover his fa- vourite'subject from that degree of shade, which had been thrown upon it by the hasty reports of Dr. Woodville; and this he appears to have done with great success, both by farther observations of his own, and by the concurring evidence of many respectable correspondents. See Bryce’s Practical Observations on the Inoculation of Cow-pox, chap 1. edit. 2 With regard to Dr. Woodville’s publication we shall merely add in he present place, that the cases reported by him as examples of inoculated cow-pox, attended with many severe symptoms, and particular- ly with an eruption over the body, have been fully proved, and indeed have been since allowed by that respectable physician himself, to have been in fact cases of genuine small-pox, the infection having been contracted in the place where the patients were inocu- lated with cow-pox virus, before this latter affection had produced the effects and changes in the constitu- tion, which render it a preventive, of the other loathsome malady. - For additonal particulars relative to the first pro- gress of vaccination, we must refer to the article Cow- Pox : suffice it here to say, that every objection to the practice was gradually removed ; the public became convinced of its value and beneficial consequences; the great founder of it received an honourable remunera- tion from his country; both neighbouring and remote nations soon took a deep interest in the subject, and imitated our example ; public institutions for the gratuitous VACCINATION. gratuitous inoculation of the poor were in a short time established in every civilized country , and the great benefits of the new plan were quickly extended to all the four quarters of the globe. Description of the regular vaccine Vesicle.—When vaccination succeeds, a small red spot is observable on the third day, the day upon which the operation is performed being reckoned the first. If the spot be touched, an elevation is felt ; and if examined with a magnifying glass, the little tumour appears to be sur- rounded by a very slight efflorescence. The spot gradually enlarges; and between the third and sixth day, a circular vesicle appears. The edge of the vaccine vesicle is elevated ; the centre depressed. The colour is at first of a light pink, some- times of a blueish tint, and changes by degrees to a pearl colour. The centre is somewhat darker than the other parts. The vesicle is hard to the touch. In its internal structure it is cellular, the cells be- ing filled with transparent lymph. The vesicle commonly augments, till the tenth or eleventh day. In the early stages, there is usually round the base an inflamed ring: or this takes place on the seventh or eighth day. About the ninth, it spreads rapidly : and near the tenth, it forms an areola of an inch and a half in diameter. This areola is of the usual colour of inflamed skin ; it is hard, and accompanied with some degree of tumefaction. - - It continues out for a day or two, and then begins to fade, sometimes forming two or three concentric circles. - After the areola is formed, the vesicle begins to de- cline. The centre first turns brown, and the whole gradually changes into a hard smooth scab, of a very dark mahogany colour. This dry crust usually drops off about the end of the third week, leaving a perma- nent circular cicatrix, about five lines in diameter, and a little depressed ; the surface being marked with very minute pits, or indentations, denoting the num- ber of cells of which the vesicle had been composed. Varieties in the Progress and Afflearance of the vaccine Vesicle, not fireventing the Success of Vacci- nation.—T he first appearance is seldom earlier, but often later, than has been described. In some rare instances, the vesicle commences even a fortnight or three weeks after vaccination; and if the progress is then regular, it is equaliy efficacious. When the vesicle is ruptured at an early period, if the progress continue regular, success is not prevent- ed; nor is it when the crust of a regular vesicle is rubbed off in the decline of the disease, though ulce- ration should ensue. - Of irregular and imperfect Vesicles and Pustules, which are not to be defended uſion.—In these devia- ations, there is usually a premature itching, irritation, inflammation, vesication, or suppuration; or the pro- gress of the vesicle is too rapid, its texture soft, its edge not well defined, its centre elevated, and t e con- tents discoloured or purulent; or, instead of a proper areola, a premature efflorescence of a dusky purple hue takes place, and uhe scab is of a light brown or amber colour. * The irregular vesicle or pustule is more liable to be broken than the other, both frcm its more pointed Vol. XXXVIII. crusta lactea, area, achores, and favi. form and softer texture, and also from its being usually so irritable as to provoke scratching. When broken, or even without this happening, ulceration often en- SUl CS, - - A vesicle, apparently regular at first, sometimes does not augment to the proper size, but dies away without completing the regular process. This usually leaves no cicatrix, or one which is almost impercep- tible. - When these, or any other considerable deviations from the regular course of the disease, take place, no dependence can be placed upon the operation, and vaccination should be repeated. Probable Causes of irregular Vesicles and Pus- tules —These accidents may be occasioned by matter or lymph being taken from an irregular vesicle or pustule at any period, or from a regular vesicle, at too late a period ; or by lymph, though originally pure, which has been injured by long keeping, by heat, or otherwise. Or it may be caused by perform- ing the operation with a rusty or unclean lancet, or in a rude manner, or by destroying the vesicle at an early stage, and thereby exciting too much inflamma- tion, or interrupting the regular progress of the dis- ease. Herpetic eruptions, and other cutaneous af- fections, have also been supposed to be the cause of these irregularities; and occasionally to prevent the vaccine lymph having any effect. As Dr. Bateman observes, there are two causes for these imperfect inoculations : “the one is the insertion of effete or corrupted virus; and the other the pre- sence of certain cutaneous eruptions, acute and chronic. “ The lymph of the vaccine vesicle becomes altered in its qualities, soon after the appearance of the in- flamed areola ; so that if it be taken for the purposes of inoculation after the twelfth day, it frequently fails to produce any effect whatever; and in some eases, it suddenly excites a pustule, or ulceration ; in others, an irregular vesicle ; and, in others, erysipelas. If taken when scabs are formed over the vesicle, (as in the case of pustules of small-pox,) the virus is occa- sionally so putrescent and acrid, that it excites the same violent and fatal disease which arises from slight wounds, received in dissecting putrid bodies. “Again, the lymph, although taken from a perfect vesicle, on the sixth, seventh, or eighth day, may be so injured, before its application, by heat, exposure to the air, moisture, rust, and other causes, as to be rendered incapable of exciting the true disease. “The most frequent cause of these imperfections, however, seems to be the presence of chronic cutane- ous eruptions, or the concurrence of eruptive fevers, or even of other febrile diseases. The chronic cuta- neous diseases, which sometimes impede the forma- tion of the genuine vaccine vesicle, have been descri- bed by Dr. Jenner under the ordinary indefinite term herpes and tinea capitis. In the more accurate phraseology of Dr. Willan, they are herpes,(including the shingles and vesicular ring-worm,) psoriasis, and impetigo (the dry and humid tetter); the lichen, and most frequently the varieties of porrigo, comprising the contagious eruptions denominated by authors Dr. Willan thinks that the itch and prurigo likewise have the same influence. “Of the interference of eruptive fevers, measles, 2 C scarlet VACCINATION. scarlet fever, and chicken-pox, with the progress of the vaccine vesicle, when they occur soon after vac- cination, numerous instances have been recorded. The suspension of its progress, indeed, would be ex- pected, under such circumstances, from the known facts respecting the reciprocal action of these con- tagious fevers on each other. But the action of the vaccine virus is not only supended by these fevers, so that the vesicle is very slow in its progress, and the areola not formed till after the fourteenth day, or later, and sometimes not at all ; but it is occasionally rendered altogether inefficient. Even typhous fever, and the influenza, have been observed to produce a similar interruption in the progress of vaccination. “Finally, the vesicle without an areola, takes place if the person inoculated have previously received the infection of small-pox, or if he be affected with some other contagious disease during the progress of vacci- nation. “Other irregularities may probably have occurred. At all events, though the constitution is sometimes fully secured from the infection of small-pox, even by the irregular vesicles; yet as it is more commonly but imperfectly guarded by such vesicles, the propri- ety of Dr. Jenner’s caution is obvious, that, when a deviation arises, of whatever kind it may be, common prudence points out the necessity of re-inoculation.” See Bateman’s Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases, p. 219–22 l. edit. 3. The Methods of taking Vaccine Lymph for Vacci- nation.—The lymph of a regular vesicle is efficacious from the time it is secreted, till the areola begins to spread. It may, therefore, commonly be taken till the ninth day ; but not after the areola is fully formed, The lymph is to be taken by small superficial punc- tures made in the vesicle, with a point of a lamcet in- troduced horizontally. Time should be allowed for the liquid to exude, which will form small pelucid drops. When requisite, a very slight pressure may be cau- tiously applied with the flat surface of the lancet. Great delicacy is requisite in this operation ; for if the vesicle is rudely treated, or too much opened, in- flammation and ulceration may ensue. Lymph intended to be used immediately, or in a few days, may be received on a lancet; but this is an improper instrument for preserving it longer; for the lymph soon rusts the lancet and it is then liable to be inefficacious, or injurious. Quills and tooth-picks succeed ; but small bits of ivory, shaped like the tooth of a comb, and properly pointed, are the most con- venient instruments; and to render them more certain, they should be charged repeatedly. In order to preserve lymph for a long period, the best method is by two bits of square glass. The lymph is to be received on the centre of one of them, by applying it to a punctured vesicle. When fully charged and dry, it is to be covered with another bit of glass of the same size, and wrapped up in paper or in gold-beater’s skin. In whichever way the lymph is taken, it should be al- lowed to dry without heat, in the shade, and be kept in a dry and cool place. When enclosed in a letter, if great care is not taken, it may be injured by the heat of the melted wax in sealing the packet. The mode of Vaccinating.—Liquid lymph is better than dry, because it seldomer fails, and the operation is more lightly and quickly performed. Therefore in every instance, where it is practicable, the patient from whom the lymph is to be taken should be present, and the lymph should be transferred immediately from him to the person who is to be inoculated. Vaccination is generally performed in the arm, near the insertion of the deltoid muscle; but in order to hide the scar, and in adults who are likely to use the arm much, it may be adviseable to vaccinate the outside of the leg, a little above or below the knee. The lancet being charged, the skin should be stretch- ed, and a small superficial puncture made with the point of the lancet, held nearly in a horizontal direction. The lancet should be dipped in water and wiped after each operation, even when several successive inocula- tions are to be performed. Dry lymph on glass may be moistened with a very little cold, or tepid water, on a point of a lancet, allow. ing it some time to dissolve, and blending it by a little friction with the lancet. It must not be much diluted, but ought to have a thick consistence; it is to be insert- ed in the same manner as the recent fluid. When quills, ivory lancets, or tooth-picks charged with dry lymph are used, the lymph should not be dilu- ted, but a puncture having been first made with a com- mon lancet, the point of the instrument is to be inserted, and held in the puncture half a minute or more, that the lymph may gradually dissolve and remain in the wound. If the part of the instrument which is charged be afterwards wiped repeatedly upon the edges of the puncture, it will tend still farther to ensure success. Vaccinated patients must be cautioned not to wear tight sleeves, nor to injure the vesicle by pressure, fric- tion, or any other violence, lest inflammation or ulcera- tion should ensue One perfect vaccine vesicle is sufficient; but for va- rious reasons it may often be prudent to make two or three punctures, especially when the danger of receiving the small-pox is imminent, the lymph dry, or the patient’s residence distant. Besides, greater security is obtained against a chance of failure from the derangement or de- struction of one vesicle by accidental injury, or by the taking of matter for vaccination. When two punctures are to be made in one limb, they should be at least two inches asunder on account of the irritation they may oc- casion. And one of then should be always permitted to go through its course undisturbed. Lancets for vac- cination should be kept clean and bright. Constitutional Symptoms.-Constitutional symptoms sometimes occur at a very early period, but more com- monly from the seventh to the eleventh day. These are drowsiness, restlessness, a chilliness succeeded by heat, thirst, head-ache, and other marks of febrile affection. Now and then sickness or vonmiting takes place, especi- ally in infants. -- The constitutional symptoms are in general slight and transient, and such as require no remedy. In a great proportion of cases, there is no perceptible indisposition; nevertheless, the person vaccinated is not the less secure from the future infection of the small-pox, provided the progress of the vesicle has been regular and complete. Care should be taken not to confound the symptoms of other diseases with those produced by vaccine inocu- lation. Medical Treatment.--In general, no medicine is re- quired in this mild affection; but if the symptoms hap- pen to run a little higher than usual, the same remedies. 3 T€ * VACCINATION. are to be applied, as if they proceeded from any other Căti SC. No preparatory medicines are necessary before vac- cinating, and commonly no cathartics need be given af- terwards. Should the local inflammation exceed the usual bounds, which rarely happens, unless from tight sleeves, pressure or friction, it may soon be checked by the fre- qu, nt application of compresses of linen dipped in water, in aqua lithargyri acetati composita, or in a solution of one drachm of cerussa acetata in a pint of water. These are to be applied cold. If the scab be rubbed off prematurely, and ulceration take place, cooling and astringent applications may be used ; such as a drop of aqua lithargyri acetati, which should be allowed to dry on the part, and then be cover- ed with compresses dipped in water, or in either of the preparations of lead above-mentioned, and frequently re- newed. When the ulceration is deep or extensive, a poultice either of bread and milk, or of bread with any of the preparations of lead, may be applied, as the case seems to require. They must never be applied till they are nearly or quite cold. In such foul and obstinate sores as resist the foregoing applications, the unguentum hydrargyri nitrati, mixed with an equal quantity of unguentum cerae, or other si- milar applications, may sometimes be resorted to with advantage. And at other times, these sores may be healed with the unguentum cerussae, acetatae or the mildest applications. The irregular vesicles and pustules are frequently fol- Howed by ulceration at an early period, and this ulcera- tion is to be treated in the same manner, as if it proceed- ed from the regular vesicle. º When the patient has been previously exposed to the infection of small-pox, this disease will be either super- seded or not, according to the time which may have elapsed before vaccination. Observations on the occasional Inefficacy of Vaccina- tion.—When the vaccine vesicle possesses the above- described characters, and passes through the regular gradations, whether accompanied with any perceptible disorder of the constitution or not, it effectually and per- manently secures the individual from the danger, and almost universally from the contagion of the small-pox. It is now nearly twenty years since the first promul- gation of Dr. Jenner's discovery; and yet the truth of the preceding observation remains unimpeached. As a well-informed physician has remarked, the very excep- tions to this statement may be said, without a solecism, to corroborate it. For, in the very small number of cases, (such as that of the son of earl Grosvenor,) where an extensive eruption of small-pox has occurred subse- quently to vaccination, the controlling influence of the cow-pox has been invariably and strikingly manifested, by the sudden interruption of the small pox in the mid- die of its course, and the rapid convalescence of the pa- tient See Bateman’s Synopsis, p. 216. With very few exceptions, indeed, persons who have undergone both the local and constitutional affection of cow-pox, are thereby rendered unsusceptible of small- pox. It is not meant to assert, however, as has been too generally imagined, that every person who has been inoculated for the cow-pox, is rendered secure against the contagion of small-pox. As Mr. Bryce has ably explained, there are many circumstances, besides the mere inoculation, absolutely necessary to be ascertain- ed, before this security can be guaranteed. Again, says Mr. Bryce, it is well known, that a per- son having undergone the small-pox is not absolutely secure from a future attack of the same malady, as well authenticated instances are recorded, where the same person has undergone this disease a second time, and these attacks were neither of them local, but very cer- tainly general constitutional affections. See the case of Mr. R. Langford, recorded in the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Medical Society of London. This gen- tleman was infected with the small-pox at a very early period of life, and was much marked from the severity of the disease. Many years afterwards, he was again infected with the small-pox, which was of the confluent kind, and proved fatal on the twenty-first day from the attack. See also Dr. Woodville’s History of Inocula- tion, p 217; Mr. Ring’s Answer to Dr. Moseley, where many such cases are recorded : and the case of lord Westmeath’s child, published in the Medical and Physi- cal Journal, vol. xiv. p. 256. Now, as Mr. Bryce remarks, with regard to the cow- pox, it may also happen, that a person who has under- gone that affection, may yet be afterwards affected with small-pox ; but, as is well known in the former case re- lative to small-pox, so also in the latter relative to cow- pox, the instances of the second attack from small-pox, or of the failure of the cow-pox to prevent the small-pox are so very rare, as by no means to affect the general established rule; that persons who have once under- gone the small-pox, or the cow-pox, as a constitutional affection, may thenceforth be reckoned secure against all future attacks of variolous contagion. (See Bryce's Practical Observations on the Inoculation of Cow-pox.) Besides the examples of the recurrence of small-pox a second time in the same individual, to be found in the publications already specified, additional instances are recorded by Dr. Jenner himself, Mr. Bryce, and in the Reports of the National Vaccine Establishment. We shall here present the reader with the history of two remarkable cases published by this last institution; the one illustrating the occurrence of small-pox a se- cond time in the same person, the other exemplifying the equally uncommon circumstance of an individuaſ who had perfectly undergone vaccination, being after- wards affected with the small-pox. Dr. Bree was called to visit Miss Sarah Booth, of Co- vent Garden theatre, on Monday. June 25th, 1811. She was said to be ill with the small-pox, and the following circumstances were reported by the mother and sisters, Miss Booth was then eighteen years of age. She had been inoculatcd for the small-pox at five years of age, and had been affected with the usual degree of fever. The arm had been violently inflamed and an eruption of small-pox pustules had appearcd round the inocu- lated part, from which matter had been taken by Mr. Kennedy, the surgeon who attended her. Mr. Kennedy expressed himself satisfied that Miss Booth had passed regularly through the disease. The usual scar of small-pox ino ulation was perfectly evident on the arm. On Thursday June 20th, 1811, Miss Booth was seiz- ed with fever, distinguished by vomiting, violent head- ache, and pains in the back and loins. The symptoms continued till Saturday, June 22d, in the evening of which day, some pustules came out on the forehead and scalp. Sunday, June 23d, a more complete eruption appear- 2 C 2 edi Oll VACCINATION. ed on the face and neck, and she was relieved from the violence of the fever. The vomiting however continued, the throat became very sore, and a salivation began. Monday, June 24th, the eruption extended itself on the body, the fever was still more abated, but the Saliva- tion, Soreness of the throat, and vomiting, were urgent Symptoms. - Tuesday, June 25, the fourth day of the eruption, the salivation and retching continued, with Soreness of the throat. Wednesday, June 26th, fifth day of the eruption, pus- tules were noticed on the lower extremities, those on the face advanced, the eyes were swelled ; and the number of pustules on the head and face was about two dozen. Thursday, June 27th sixth day of the eruption, the pustules on the face began to turn. She still suffered from Sore throat and salivation. Friday, June 28th, the pustules on the face turned, those on the lower extremities were few in number but well filled, and not yet changed. Saturday, June 29th, eighth day of the eruption, she only complained of sickness. After this day the pus- tules turned and dried on the lower extremities, and no complaint remained. - Dr. Bree considered this as a mild case of distinct small-pox. On Sunday, May 26th, 1811, the Hon. Robert Gros- venor, who was recovering from the hooping-cough, be- came much indisposed and threw up his dinner. Fever followed, and he complained most particularly of excru- ciating pain in his back. He dwelt on this symptom until Thursday, when he became delirious, and there were observed on his face about twenty spots. He had been vaccinated by Dr. Jenner, in his infancy, about ten years ago, and the mark left in his arm indica- ted a perfect disease. On Friday morning, the eruption had not increased materially in point of number, but the appearance of the spots and the previous symptoms, suggested strongly a suspicion that the disorder was the small-pox. Sir H. Halford had occasion to go to Windsor in the aſternoon of Friday, and did not see Mr. Robert Grosve- nor until the Monday following, (June 2d,) but he learn- ed from sir W. Farquhar, who attended him most care fully during sir Henry’s absence, and subsequently, that the eruption had increased prodigiously in the course of Friday ; that on the evening of that day, Mr. Robert Grosvenor began to make bloody water, and that he con- tinued to do so until Monday morning. On the tenth day of the disease, the pustules began to dry upon the face, which was swollen to a considera- ble degree, but not to the extent of closing his eyes, and was attended by a salivation which lasted several days. Petechiae had occurred in the inte stices of several of the spots, particularly on the limbs, and there was that par- ticular smell from the whole frame which is remarkable in bad cases of confluent small-pox. It was obvious that the first symptºms of which Mr. Grosvenor complained, were such as indicated a violent disease about to follow, and sir Henry confesses that he entertained a most unfavourable opinion of the issue of such a malady, when it was fully formed; having never seen an instance of recovery under so heavy an eruption attended by such circumstances. It seemed, however, that the latter stages of the disease were passed through more rapidly in this case than usual, and it may be a question whether this extraordinary circumstance, as well as the ultimate recovery of Mr. Grosvenor, were not injuenced by previous vaccination. The Board of the National Vaccine Establishment are of opinion, that the case of the Hon. Robert Gros- venor was a case of confluent small-pox ; that the at- tack and progress of the disorder were attended by symp- toms which almost invariably announce a fatal termina- tion. But they observe, that the swelling of the face, which is generally so excessive as to close the eyes, and is considered as a favourable symptom, was slighter than usual; that on the tenth day the pustules began to dry upon the face, and that from that time the disease passed with unusual rapidity through the period when life is generally esteemed to be in the greatest hazard. Those who are acquainted with the nature of the con- fluent small-pox, are aware that this peculiarity cannot be attributed to the effect of medical treatment. In most cases of small-pox which have succeeded to vaccination, the pus’ ules have been observed to dry more rapidly, and the disorder has concluded at an earlier pe- riod than usual. If allowance be made for the relative periods in which the confluent and distinct smail-pox compiete their course, the rapid progress towards recovery through the latter stage of confluent small-pox, as exhibited in the case of Mr. Grosvenor may be compared with the ra- pid desiccation of the pustules in the distinct and pecu- liarly mild form of the disorder which is considered as small-pox modified by vaccination. Both forms of the disorder proceed in the usual course, the one attended with violent, the other with mild symptoms, till they ar- rive near to th: height, when they appear to receive a check, and the recovery is unusually rapid. From this correspondence of circumstances, the board are induced to infer that in the case of Mr. Grosvenor, which has been more violent than any yet submitted to them, the progress of the disease, through its latter stage, and the consequent abatement of symptoms, were influenced by an anti variolous effect produced upon the constitution by the vaccine process. The occurrence of small-pox after vaccination, has been foreseen and pointed out in the report on vaccina- tion mºde to parliament, by the College of Physicians, in the year 1807, to which the Board are desirous of call- ing the attention of the public; in which it is stated, that, - - “The security derived from vaccination against the small pox, if not absolutely perfect, is as nearly so as can perhaps be expected from any human discovery; for amongst several hundred thousand cases, with the results of which the College have been made acquaint- ed, the number of alleged failures has been surprisingly small ; so much so, as to form certainly no reasonable objection to the general adoption of vaccination; for it appears that there are not nearly so many failures in a given number of vaccinated persons, as there are deaths in an equal n mber of persons inoculated for the small- pox. Nothing can more clearly demonstrate the supe- riority of vaccination over the inoculation of the small- pox than this consideration; and it is a most important fact, which has been confirmed in the course of this in- quiry, that in almost every case in which the small-pox has succeeded vaccination, whether by inoculation, or by casual infection, the disease has varied much from its ordinary course; it has neither been the same in vio- lence nor in the duration of its symptoms; but has, with very few exceptions, been remarkably mild, as if the small-pox had been deprived, by the previous vaccine disease, of its usual malignity.” Report of the College of Physicians, p. 4. The VACCINATION. The peculiarities of certain constitutions with regard to eruptive fevers, form a curious subject of medical history. Some individuals have been more than once affected with Scarlet fever and measles; others have been through life exposed to the contagion of these dis- eases without effect; many have resisted the inoculation and contagion of small-pox for several years, and have afterwards become susceptible of the disorder, and some have been twice affected with small-pox Among such infinite varietics of temperament, it will not appear extraordinary, that vaccination, though so generally successful, should sometimes fail of rendering the human constitution unsusceptible of small-pox; es- pecially since it has been found that in several instances small-pox has occurred to individuals over whom the smail-pox inoculation had appeared to have produced its full influence. Three instances of this kind have taken place within the lºst month; and, in another instance, the natural small-pox has occurred a second time. See Re- port of the National Vaccine Establishment, July 1811 It has been imagined by some, that although the hu- man constitution is apparently shielded from the action oi small-pox by having undergone the cow-pox, yet ti, at this security may not be permanent; but that, at the end of a certain period of time, the person will again be- come susceptible of small-pox. This objection, how- ever, must now have little weight; for Dr. Jenner him- self inoculated with the virus of small-pox persons who had been affected with the cow-pox twenty-five, twenty- seven, thirty-one, and fifty-three years before; but who had never been infected with the small-pox, and the se he found completely resisted this disease. For further evidence and reasoning on this point, see Fermor’s Reflections on the Cow-pox; Edin. Rev. No. XV II. ; and Bryce's Practical Obs on the Cow-pox. Experience has proved that, in certain instances, the cow-pox virus has merely a local action, and such cases have been mistaken for the regular constitutional affec- tion; a thing very likely to happen, when it is remember- ed th t the general ailment of the system is seldom mark- ed by any very strong symptoms; and that, in the cases al- luded to, the local appearances would pursue a regular progress. Yet, in these circumstances, the patient is left unprotected from an a tack of small-pox. As Mr. Bryce has pointed out, the refore, a certain test of the constitution being really affected in every inoculation of cow-pox must be a most important desideratum. In- deed, until there be demonstrated and generally known some unequivocal mark of a constitutional affection, which does constantly occur during the course of cow- pox when effectual, and which may be as easily distin- guished as the fever and eruption consequent to the in- oculation for small-pox, this new inoculation ought never to be performed, excep by persons well acquainted with every appearance of the ailment. For, as much as it is more difficult to distinguish between the cow-pox and some other affections, and also clearly to ascertain the presence of a constitutional affection than to form a si- milar judgment in the Inoculated small-pox, the more does the cow-pox inoculation require attention to every symptom which may occur during its progress, in or- der that mankind may reap every advantage which has been promised from the general adoption of cow-pox as a preventive of small pox. Mr Bryce has endeavoured to discover a criterion of the patient being constitutionally affected with the coy- pox, and the following observations upon this important subject merit particular attention. “I recollected (says he) Some experiments which had been made with re- gard to the inoculation of small pox. It was found, that if the same person was ino ulated every day, until the fever induced by the first inoculation supervened, all the other punctures quickly advanced in their progress; and that, in the course of a day from the time the fever or general affection began, even that puncture which had been last made, perhaps only twenty-four hours be- fore, equalled in maturity the one first made, perh, ps eight or nine days before, and from which the fever had a FIS&T). - “In this case it appears to me evident, and I think it must be admitted by every person, that even had no other pustuies appeared on the body but those occasion- ed by the repeated inoculations; nay, had there even been no fever observed in consequence of the inocula- tion; yet as the pustule occasioned by the last puncture had been suddenly accelerated in its progress to matu- ration, at the time the gener l or constitutional affection should have appeared; this alone was sufficient proof of the presence of the variolous action in the system. “Judging again from analogy, I expected that the same thing, which thus happened in the small-pox ino- culation, might also take place in that for the cow-pox; and the unexpected appearance of one or two vesicles upon children that I had inoculated, which vesicles were quite characteristic of the ailment, and the appearance of which I could only account for from a second and ac- cidental inoculation during the course of the disease, strengthened my hopes. And certainly, if we find in cow-pox, where the inflamed and hard areola does not take place, at least in the regular course of that affec- tion, until the end of the seventh, or beginning of the eighth day from inoculation, that a second inoculation, performed, for example, at the end of the fifth, or be- ginning of the sixth day, is so much accelerated in its progress, about the time the general affection of the system usually takes place, as to have an areola formed within a few hours, or very shortly after the first, and that this areola increases with the first, and again fades at nearly the same time, we must be struck with the similarity. and be forcibly led to draw the same conclu- sions in this case as in the former, respecting the small- pox, viz. that although the inoculated affection had ap- peared very slight and no fever had been observed, yet that a certain action had been excited in the constitution. That this was the true constitutional affection of cow- pox, may be judged by the acceleration of the second vesicle to a state of maturity five days before this could have happened, had there been no consentaneous general action, or change in the system.” Mr. Bryce next details a series of experiments, which tend to prove, that if, during the regular progress of cow-pox, a second inoculation be performed a certain number of days after the first, the affection produced by this second inoculation will be accelerated in its pro- gress so as to arrive at maturity, and again fade at nearly the sa:me time as the affection arising from the first ino- culation ; and that this will take place, although the constitutional affection be so slight as otherwise to pass unnoticed. - From several examples related by Mr. Bryce, and a great many other cases, in which the second inoculation was performed at different periods of the primary affec- tion, it is concluded, that the naost proper time for per- forming the second inoculation, is about the end of the fifth, or beginning of the sixth day, from the first inocu- . lation; reckoning each day to consist of twenty-four hours. V AC V AC hours. Thus, if the first inoculation be performed on Wednesday at noon, the second inoculation shou (i be performed on Monday, at the same hour, at which time the fifth day is considered to be finished, and the sixth day to begin. If the second inoculation be delayed beyond the sixth day, the affection produced by it will be very indistinct, and of short duration ; and if per- formed at an earlier period than the fifth day, the con- trast between the progress of the two affections, with regard to duration, will not be so great as may be thought necessary. “These observations, however, (says Mr. Bryce,) are applicable to those cases only, in which the first inocu- lation advances by a perfectly regular course, and in which the areola begins to form about the end of the se- venth, or beginning of the eighth day; for in those cases, in which the first inoculation is from certain causes ac- celerated or retarded one or two days, as frequently hap- pens, then the second inoculation should be performed at a more early or late period accordingly. “In short, my observations on this point lead me to conclude, that in order to obtain the proposed criterion in the greatest perfection, the second inoculation should be performed between thirty-six and forty-eight hours before the areola of the first inoculation begins to appear. This is necessary in order that the secondary affection may have proceeded some length, and that a small vesi- cle containing virus, may have been formed by it, be- fore the constitutional action from the first inoculation begins, otherwise no areola, but merely a slight degree of hardness will take place from the second puncture. “As, on the one hand, the acceleration of the second inoculation in the manner above-mentioned, is to be re- garded as a certain mark of a constitutional affection in cow-pox, so on the other, if it shall be found that no such acceleration takes place, but that the second inocu- lation proceeds by a slow progress through all the sta- ges, and has the duration of a primary affection, it is to be concluded that no constitutional action has taken place from the first insertion of the virus; and when this is the case, the second inoculation must be regarded as a primary affection, and a third puncture be made according to the plan laid down for conducting the se- cond inoculation; and thus we may go on until the proper test be obtained, or until we be satisfied that the constitution completely resists the action of cow-pox.” See Bryce’s Practical Observations on the Inoculation of Cow-pox, edit. 2. Many other particulars relating to the subject of vacci- nation will be found in another place (see ow-pox,) and we shall therefore merely add, that the new practice is on every account deserving of the confidence and en- couragement of the public. The cow-pox is greatly milder than the small-pox, even under the most ap- proved mode of treatment; being never attended with danger, Scklom with sickness, and never producing pustules generally over the body, nor indeed any dis- figurement of the skin, except at the part where the virus has been directly inserted by the inoculator. The Small-pox is one of the most contagious diseases to which the human race is subject; and, when propagated in this way, it is one of the most fatal. On the other hand, the cow-pox is not at all contagious, and can only be communicated by the application of the vaccine virus to the part affected, as happens in the accidental inocula- tion of the hands of milkers, and the ordinary practice of VaCC1ſlatiol). Many hundreds of thousands have now been vaccina- ted in these kingdoms, and yet there is not on record a single unequivocal instance of the cow-pox having proved fatal. Corresponding agreeable accounts are also received from every part of the civilized world.— The weight which this consideration ought to have may be well conceived, when it is remembered, that in Great Britain and Ireland alone, the yearly mortality arising from the small-pox used to be estimated at about 45,000 persons. In the Russian empire, and other cold coun- tries, the ravages of the small-pox were far more dread- ful, and this contagion sometimes broke out in such re- gions with a degree of fury far exceeding anything ever heard of the plague itself. See INoculation. V ACCINIA, the new scientific name of the cow-pox, and which is now adopted by all the latest and best me- dica, writers. See Cow-Pox, and VAccINATION. VACCINIUM, in Botany, an ancient Latin name, whether of a flower or a berry has always been a point in dispute among critics, as well as the etymology of the word. Some conceive it to have been derived from the Greek Jazy864, and therefore to be either precisely synonimous with the Latin Hyacinthus, or at least to be- long to something agreeing with that plant in colour, The line of Virgil, “...Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia migra leguntur,” has afforded scope for the commentators, being equally obscure, whether we suppose ligustra to mean the flowers of the privet, and vaccinia, its black berries, (which, by the bye, are not gathered by any body,) or whether, as is the most general opinion, the latter word nay ºxpress our Bilberry, or any other black or dark berry in general use. We have already observed, in its proper place, that our Privet is not the original LIGUS- TRUM ; see that article. Linnaeus however declares, very easonably, that no future contentions or discove- ries of the learned shall unsettle his name of Vaccinium, as applied to the Bilberry or Whortleberry tribe, for which this generic appellation is now universally adopt- ed.—Linn. Gen. 19 1. Schreb. 258. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 348. Viart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 414. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 255. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 355. Pursh 284. Juss. 162. amarck Illustr. t. 286. Gaertn. t. 28. (Vitis idae; Tourn. t. 377. Oxycoccus; Tourn. t. 431. Pursh 263.)—4 iass and order, Octan- dria Monogy ia. (Decandia Monogynia, Pursh.) Nat. Ord. Bucornes, Linn. Erica, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth superior, of one leaf, small, permanent. Cor. of one petal, bell-shaped, more or less deeply four-cleft; the segments revolute, Stam. Fila- ments eight, simple, inserted into the receptacle ; an- thers two-horned, bursting at the summits, and some- times furnished at the back with two spreading spurs, or bristles. Pist. Germen roundish inferior; style simple, longer than the stamens; stigma obtuse. Peri Berry globºse, depressed at the top, of four cells. Seeds few, small. Ess. Ch. Corolla of one petal. Stamens inserted into the receptacle. Anthers with two terminal pores. Ber- ry inferior, of four cells, with several seeds. Obs. Linnaeus remarks, that “one fifth is often added to every part of the fructification ;” hence Mr. Pursh has removed Vaccinium to the class Decandria. The Swedish naturalist also mentions, that “the calyz, four- cleft in many of the species, is entire in W. Myrtillus ; and that almost the wi.ole of the fresh corolla of W. Oxy- coccus is rolled back to its base ’’ The latter character caused V ACCINIUM. caused Tournefort, who relied so much on the corolla, to separate Oxycoccus as a genus, in which Pursh, with one or two other botanists, have followed him. But Tournefort erroneously supposed this flower to have four distinct petals a mistake corrected by Linnaeus; see Fl. Lapp. n, 145 y, where sufficient reasons appear for considering the plant as a Paccinium. The charac- ter of the tubular deeply divided anthers in Oxycoccus, superadded by Mr. Pursh, tends only to deceive, being found in several indubitable species of Vaccinium. The genus before us, mostly confined to Europe and North America, is peculiarly abundant in the latter country. Is is very remarkable that, as no Erica oc- curs in America, so no Vaccinium has been found at the Cape of Good Hope. These genera, similar in many of their flowers, differ no less widely in the situation of their germens, and texture of their fruits, than in the insertion and habit of their fo iage, which in Wacc mium is scattered, dilated, generally membranous and deci- duous; always indeed simple and undivided ; but total- ly unlike the narrow, whorled, evergreen leaves of Eri- ca. The flowers in Vaccinium are copious, stalked, either solitary, simply racemose, or tufted, drooping inodorous, generally very elegant, tinted with various shades of red or pink, never blue, scarcely yellowish Berries black, purple, blueish or red, generally eatable, though not pleasant, nor always wholesome, in a crude state. Stem. shrubby, bushy, of humble stature Stiftulas none. The species of Vaccinium were ill understood by Linnaeus, but we hope to trace the origin of many of his errors, which have never been cleared up, and have led all following authors astray. Murray defines but fifteen species in the fourteenth edition of Syst. Veg.; Wilde- now has twenty-seven, of which five are European, three natives of Japan, one of Otaheite, one of Jamaica, the rest of North America. Pursh has twenty-five species of Vaccinium, besides three of Oxycoccus, from North America only. In reviewing the whole of the genus, we find something to add, though we have many specimens that are dubious. We are obliged to follow the distri- bution of Linnaeus, by which the evergreen species are separated from those which are deciduous, though some uncertainty must always attend that character, respect- ing species known from dried specimens only. Sect. 1. Leaves deciduous. 1. V. Myrtillus. Common Bilberry, or Bleaberry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 498. Wild. n. 1. Fl Brit n. 1 Engl. Bot. t. 456. Fl. Dan. t. 974. (Vaccinia nigra; Ger. F.m. 14 5. Myrtillus; Matth. Valgr. v. 1-2 O. Camer. Epit. 135.)—Stalks solitary, single-flowered. Leaves deciduous, Serrated, ovate, smooth Stem acutely an- gular. Calyx scarcely divided.—Native of heaths, stony moors, and mountainous woods, throughout most parts of Europe, especially the more northern, flowering in May. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it also on the Bithynian Olympus. The root is woody. Stem from six or eight inches to two feet high, erect, bushy, smooth; the young green branches leafy, a little zigzag, furnished with very acute dilated angles. Leaves about an inch long, on short footstalks, pellucid, veiny, rather acute, copiously serrated; paler beneath. Flowers pendulous on sim- ple, naked, smooth, axillary stalks. Calyx dilated, an- gular, seldom so much lobed as in Engl Bot. Corolla globose, generally five-cleft, of a very delicate waxy pink hue. Anthers horned. Germen glaucous. Berry the size of a currant, blueish-black, acid, eaten in tarts, or with cream, in the north and west of England. In the eastern counties this plant is not plentiful. Its fruit is Sometimes sent into Norfolk from Devonshire. Mr. Menzies brought, from the west coast of North Ameri- ca, what we can scarcely make more than a gigantic variety of this species, seven or eight feet high, larger in every part, with less distinctly serrated leaves. 2. V ovalifolium. Oval-leaved Bilberry.—Stalks Solitary, single-flowered Leaves deciduous, elliptical, obtuse, pointless, entire, smooth, strongly veined be- neath. Stem angular Calyx scarcely divided.—Brought by Mr Menzies from the west coast of North America. A shrub ten or twelve feet high, whose smooth branch- es are lºss acutely angular than in the foregoing, and whose leaves are very essentially different being either perfectly elliptical, or slightly ovate, blunt, and quite en'ire, about an inch and a half long, copiously re- ticulated with fine veins, quite smooth on both sides ; rather paler beneath. Flowers solitary at the base of each tuft or budding leaves, drooping, each accompa- nied, at the base of its stalk, by a large ovate, acute, coloured bractea. The fow rs seem to agree with those of P. Myrtillus in size, colour, and structure, except that the coroëla is more ovate. The berries are black, crowned with the cup-shaped, slightly four lobed, calyx. 3. V. flarvifolium. Sumall-leaved Red Bilberry.— Stalks solitary, single-flowered. Leaves deciduous, elliptical, obtuse, pointed, entire, smooth ; glaucous, and slightly veiny, beneath. Stem acutely angular. Calyx scarcely divided. Stalk of the fruit club sha- ped.—Gathered by Mr. Menzies on the west coast of North Annerica. The shrubby stem is eight or feet high, with smooth zigzag branches, whose an- gles are as much dilated and prominent as in our first species. The leaves most agree with those of ovali- Jolium in shape, but are at their full growth scarcely a quarter so large, and each tipped with a small point ; their under side rather glaucous, with less copious, and far less prominent, veiny reticulations. We have seen no flowers. The berries are red, and make ex- cellent tarts. They appear to be smaller than the last, crowned with a similar calyac, but their stalk is shorter, measuring scarcely half an inch, more droop- ing, and very remarkably swelling upward, so as to be quite club-shaped, contracted at the summit, of which the foregoing shews but slight traces. There is no doubt of these two species being very distinct from each other, as well as from all hitherto described by authors. 4. V. ſhallidum. Pale Whortle-berry. Ait. n. 2. Willd. n. 2. Pursh n. 6.—“Clusters bracteated, Corolla cylindrical-bellshaped. Leaves ovate, acute. finely serrated, deciduous.”—Native of North Ameri- ca, from whence it is said to have been sent to Kew garden in 1772, by Dr. Samuel Martin. Mr. Pursh never met with this species, nor was he able to ascer- tain it, even by a strict examination of the Banksian herbarium. Neither are we furnished with a speci- men, nor with any information concerning this plant, which, on account of its inforescence, seems here mis- placed. 5. V. hirtum. Hairy Japan Whortle-berry. Thunb. Jap. 155. Willd. n. 3 —Stalks solitary, single-flow- ered. Leaves deciduous, ovate, serrated, hairy all over as well as the young branches.—Gathered on hills be- tein tween Miaco and Jedo in Japan, by professor Thun- A taller &AErzl & berg, one of whose specimens is before us. VACCINIUM. shrub than our Myrtillus, flowering in April. The branches are round. Leaves like that species in size and shape, but covered with soft hairs; their under side rather pale. Flowers drooping, on very short Stalks. - - 6. V. uliginosum. Great Bilberry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 499. Willd. n. 5. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 581. Fl. Dan. t. 231. Pursh n. 15. (Vitis idaea magna quibusdam, sive Myrtillus grandis ; Bauh. Hist. v. 1. 518. Raii. Syn. 457. V. idaea foliis subrotundis major; Ger. Em. 1416.)——Stalks somewhat aggregate, sin- gle-flowered. Leaves deciduous, obovate, entire, smooth. Branches round.—Native of marshy moun- tainous heaths, and alpine bogs, in Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Savoy, Scotland, and the north of En- gland ; as well as in the more northern parts of Ame- rica, and on its west coast ; flowering in April or May, and ripening the berries, which are eatable, but not either very grateful or wholesome, in August. Talier than the Common Bilberry, and of a more glaucous hue. Leaves smooth and even above; veiny and glaucous at the back; quite entire, by which this species is readily distinguished from all that in other respects bear any resemblance to it, Flowers drooping, flesh-coloured, mostly four-cleft, with eight long-horned stamens. Calyx short and blunt. Berry large, juicy, black, with a glaucous hue. Seeds finely striated. A variety with slightly pointed leaves, was published by an apothecary at Berne, in 1787, as V. mucro matum, an imaginary species, of which we shall speak at the end of our eighth. 7. V. calycinum. Large-cupped Whortle-berry — Stalks solitary, single-flowered. Leaves deciduous, obovate, serrated, smooth, with downy ribs. Branches angular. Segments of the calyx deep, ovate.— Gathered by Mr. Menzies, in woods, upon lofty mountains, in the Sandwich islands. This appears to be of a much taller stature than the preceding. The leaves at the flowering season are an inch and a quºr- ter long, near an inch wide, pliant, with fine, copi- ous pointed, incurved serratures, and a small, blunt, terminal point; their under side palest. Flowers about the lower part of each young leafy branch, axil- lary, drooping, each on a simple, naked, slightly downy stalk, an inch long. Calyz in five, rather un- cqual, deep. ovate, entire, bluntish, smooth, finely re- ticulated segments, exceeding the germen in length. Corolla oblong, with five angles, enclosing the anthers and style. Of the fruit we have no knowledge 8. V. stamineum. Green-wooded Whortle-berry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 498. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. Pursh n. 1. Andr. Repos. t. 263. (V. album ; Pursh n. 2, ex- cluding the synonym of Willdenow. Arbuscula ame- ricana baccifera, flosculis comosis, &c.; Pluk. Mant. 22. Phyt. t. 339. f. 3.)—Clusters downy, with oval bracteas as long as the flowers. Anthers twice as long as the spreading bell-shaped corolla. Leaves elliptical, acute, entire ; glaucous and rather downy beneath.-Common in dry woods, from New En- gland to Florida, flowering in May and June. The trunk is firm, about two feet high, with numerous green branches, downy when young. Leaves an inch and a half or two inches long at the flowering season, on very short downy stalks. Flowers copious, white, with remarkably conspicuous, tawny, linear anthers, cies as racemose. spurred near the base. Corolla broader than long. Berries greenish, or white, called Deer-berries. Ana- logy leads us to consider the inflorescence of this spe- - Indeed the bracteas, though re- sembling the leaves in every respect but size, are usually but one-fourth as large, and sometimes not a quarter of an inch in length. Mr. Pursh’s album can scarcely, by his definition or Andrews’s figure, be marked even as a variety, though he says the flowers are larger, and berries more globose, than in the com- mon stamineum. That his plant is not the Linnaean album, appears from the original specimen, sent by Kalm to Linnaeus, under the denomination of “a Vacci- nium with white berries ;” but which proves Xyloste- um cilliatum 3, Pursh 161. No wonder that no subse- quent investigator could ever ascertain V. album ! We must notice another error of Linnaeus, to prevent mis- take. He cites under V. stamineum, the proper figure of Plukenet, but with a wrong synonym or definition. Here also it falls to our lot to correct our great master respecting another of Kalm’s plants, P. mucronatum, which has ever remained as unintelligible as the al- bum. His described specimen is certainly one of the Mesfi ilus or Pyrus tribe, but not in a condition for us precisely to ascertain the species, nor can we refer it to any thing in Mr. Pursh’s werk. 9. V. arboreum. Shining-leaved Tree Whortle- berry. Marsh. in Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. i. 230. Pursh n. 3. (V. diffusum ; Ait. n. 5. Willd. n.8)— Stalks axillary and solitary, or terminal and racemose, naked. Leaves ovate, acute, with slight glandular ser- ratures; polished above ; rather downy beneath. Co- rolla bell-shaped, acute. Stamens the length of its tube.-In dry woods, on the rocky banks of rivers, from North Carolina to Florida, flowering in May and June. A large shrub, sometimes twenty feet high, very elegant Flowers white, tinged with red. Ber- ries globular, black, almost dry. Pursh. Our nume- rous wild as well as cultivated specimens, compared with the Banksian herbarium, and answering to every particular of the published accounts of this plant, leave no doubt of its identity, and therefore we do not scruple to adopt Michaux’s name, in preference to the oider one, diffusum, the latter being founded in some mistake. The branches are round, downy when young. Leaves peculiarly shining, and strongly reticulated with veins. Flower-stalks an inch long, augular, marked with two or three glands; some of them axillary, solitary, from several of the lower leaves of each branch; others forming a nearly leaf- less cluster, at the end of each branch. In one in- stance we find two such clusters, with a small leafy bractea, or two in the middle, terminating a short late- ral branch whose leaves are fallen. This proves that Nature has drawfi no precise line of demarcation be- tween the racemose and the solitary inflorescence of this genus, which in many species, by the ambiguous nature of their floral leaves, run into each other. 10. V. angustifºlium. Narrow-leaved Whortle- berry, or Bluets. Ait. n. 6. Wild, n. 9 (V. myr- tilloides; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1, 234. Pursh n. 16.)—Stalks scattered, mostly solitary, single-flow- ered, naked. Leaves lanceolate, nearly entire; downy at the ribs and margin.—In Canada, about Hudson's Bay and Labrador, flowering in April and May. Ber- ries WACCINIUM. ries large, blueish-black, known by the name of Blu- ets. Pursh Michaux says this species has the habit of V. Myrtillus ; its leaves being membranous, of a narrow lanceolate form. We have seen no speci- men. Dr. Solander’s original name, in Hort. Kew. and Willdenow, appears preferable to that of Michaux adopted by Pursh. 1 I. V. dumosum. Bushy Whortle-berry. Ait. n. 7. Pursh n. 4. Curt. Mag. t. 1 106. Andr. Repos. t. 1 12. (V. frondosum ; Michaux Boreal.-Amer v. 1. 230. V. hirtellum ; Ait. n. 12, according to Pursh, from a comparison with the Banksian herbarium.) —Clusters downy, with oval bracteas partial stalks with two lanceolate ones. Leaves obovate, pointed, entire, downy and viscid. Germen, hairy. Corolla bell-shaped, obtuse, longer than the stamens.—In dry Sandy woods, particularly pine forests, from New Jersey to Florida, flowering in June and July. A low bushy shrub, with round branches. Leaves an inch and a half long, varying in breadth, reticulated with veins; paler beneath, but not at all glaucous; covered all over, especially when young, with short viscid pubescence, and glandular dots, as are also the branches, stalks, and bracteas. The latter are as long as the flowers, and leafy, like those of W. &tamineum, H. 8 ; but each partial flower-stalk bears also, about its middle, two smaller, lanceolate, sometimes co- Houred, partial bracteas. The germen is particularly shaggy. Segments of the calya deep, ovate, fringed, coloured. Corolla white, tinged with pink, rather large. Berries black, globular. A comparison of the two figures above cited will shew the ambigious nature of the inflorescence, and account for this spe- cies having been described twice in the accurate publication of Mr Aiton. à 12. V. caespitosum. Dwarf Tufted Whortle-berry. Michaux Boreal. Amer. v. 1. 234. Pursh n 17.- Flowers lateral, solitary, nearly sessile. Leaves some- what wedge-shaped, rounded, obtuse, serrated, mem- branous, very smooth.-In the more northern regions of America, particularly about Hudson’s Bay. A little shrub, with many crowded stems, from two to four inches high, very smooth in every part Corolla of a short pitcher-shape. Berry nearly sessile, glo- bose, glaucous-black. Michaux. 13. V. corymbosum. Naked-flowering Whortle- berry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 499. Willd. n. 10. Pursh. n. 8. (V. amoenum; Ait. n 13. Willd. n. 18. Pursh n. 9. Andr. Repos. t. 138. V. disomorphum ; Mi- chaux Boreal.-Amer. V. I. 231.) & V. virgatum ; Ait n. 14. Willd. n. 19. Pursh n. 10. Andr. Repos. t. 181. 2. V. fuscatum ; Ait n. 8. Willd, n. 13, Pursh n. 11. (V. formosum ; Andr. Repos. t. 97.) Flowering branches nearly leafless. Clusters co- rymbose, drooping. Bracteas membranous, shorter than the downy flower stalks. Leaves ellipuical, acute, minutely serrated, smooth, with downy rios.--Native of swamps and wet woods, from Canada to Carolina and Georgia, flowering in May and June. A tall shrub, sometimes seven or eight feet high, with nu- merous roughish round branches ; somewhat angular and downy when young. Leaves for the most part following the flowers, an inch and a half or two inches long, elliptic-oblong, acute at each end, various in breadth, veiny, but not strikingly reticulated; very Vol. XXXVIII. minutely, more or less evidently, serrated; tipped with a glandular point ; smooth, except the rib and veins, which are finely hairy or downy, especially at an early period. Footstalks short and broad, downy. Clusters from branches of the preceding year, seldom accompanied with leaves, alternate, about an inch long, and rather compact, often corymbose, of six or eight drooping flowers, whose partial stalks are finely downy, with short curved hairs, and furnished at the base with membranous, reddish, smooth, fringed, deciduous bracteas, varying in length and acuteness, but, mostly much shorter than their corresponding stalks. Segments of the calyz broad and shallow. Corolla white or reddish, cylindrical, somewhat an- gular, contracted at the mouth, with five shallow, spreading marginal segments. Stamens ten, downy. •Anthers within the corolla, having a double pouch at the base, but no spurs. Style sometimes, but not always, a little prominent. Berries black, insipid. Some apology may seem necessary for our thus uniting four reputed species, a measure of which Mi- chaux first, in part, suggested the propriety. With respect to the corymbosum and amanum, original specimens of each, and the total want of any destinc- tive character in authors, will abundantly justify us, The calyx spreads equally in both. Indeed the for- mer being always unknown, by name, in our gar- dens, and its specific character in Linnaeus being in- sufficient, if not incorrect, that species could be ascer- tained by his herbarium only, which in this instance was neglected, and the same plant appeared in the first edition of Hort. Kew. under the name of amaenum, acquired in England. It had here once been called elevatum, as appears by a specimen given to the younger Linnaeus. Some gardeners subsequently transferred to stamineum the name of amaenum, and hence perhaps when the latter appeared afresh from America, it received the new appellations of virga- tum and fuscatum, perpetuated likewise in Hort. Kew., between the original specific characters of which there can be little discovered that is essential. In Mr. Andrews’s plate of virgatum indeed the clusters are accompanied by leaves, of which we have seen no example in corymbosum, and the flowers are smaller than usual in this latter; but Mr Pursh, under the name of amat num, allows, that it “ has a number of varieties in size, shape, and colour.” The elegant fuscatum, as figured by Mr Andrews, evidently be- trays a close affinity to corymbosum, colour being avowedly of no importance, and the erect calyar we have good reason to mistrust. Having formed our opinion from the best materials in our power, we leave its refutation or confirmation to those who may have opportunities of future inquiry, without any in- tentional disrespect to the great authorities from which we dissent. 14. V. bracteatum, Bracteated Japan Whortle- berry. Thunb. Jap. 156. Willd. n. 1:...—Clusters axillary, longer than the smooth, acute, Serrated leaves. Bracteas lanceolate, Serrated : partial stalks with two smaller awl-shaped ones –Gathered by Thunberg in the island of Niphon, Japan, flowering in June. The branches are always smooth, leafy, slightly angular when young. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acute at each end, an inch and a half long, on short stalks, sharply but not deeply Serrated, very smooth on both 2 D sides : VACCINIUM. sides; paler, and most reticulated, beneath. We should suspect them to be evergreen, as they accom- pany the flowers, on what seem to be last year's shoots; but having no particular information, We, like Willdenow, place this species among those to which it appears to be naturally related. Clusters two or three inches long, axillary, solitary, simple, slender, many-flowered, very smooth. Partial stalks short, drooping, turned all one way, each having at its base a lanceolate, acute, smooth bractea, mostly twice its own length, and about the middle two others of a very small size. Segments of the calyac short, acute, spreading. Corolla cylindrical, white. Nothing is known of the fruit. The Japanese call this plant ...Ki Fusi. - - 15. V. Ciliatum. Hairy-ribbed Japan Whortle- berry. Thunb. Jap. 156. Willd. n. 12.-Clusters axillary, longer than the ovate, bristly, nearly entire leaves. Bracteas lanceolate, smooth —Native of Ja- pan, where it is called Sasjebu. The stem is smooth, ash-coloured, with upright villous branches. Leaves ovate, acute, unequal, from one to two inches long, ribbed ; the ribs hispid all over. Flowers red, turn- ed one way, in terminal, solitary, bracteated clusters as long as the finger. Bracteas about one-third of an inch in length. Calyx very short. Thumberg. We formerly examined this species in professor Van Ro- yen’s herbarium, but are not possessed of a specimen. It must be presumed that by “folia integra” is not meant undivided leaves, the true sense of that ex- pression; because no Vaccinium has any other. The learned author evidently contrasts this phrase with the folia serrata of the preceding species, and means that the leaves are nearly entire ; in contradistinction to integerrima., - 16. V. galiformis. Larger Gale-leaved Whortle- berry. (V. galezans; Miichaux Boreal.-Amer. v 1. 232. Pursh n. 12.)—“Flowers on very short stalks, in sessile tufts. Leaves in Sessile, lanceolate-wedge- shaped, slightly serrated, downy. Calyx pointed. Corolla ovate, much contracted at the mouth. Style prominent.”—Found in the shady woods and swamps of Virginia and Carolina, flowering in May and June. Flowers small, yellowish-white. Berries small, glo- bular, black. Pursh. Michaux describes this shrub as having the aspect of Myrica Gale, with slightly downy branches. Leaves veiny. The flower-stalks shorter than the flowers, burst from a bud, composed of numerous crowded scales, but become naked and corymbose as the fruit advances. We trust that we need not labour under the necessity of precisely re- taining the original specific name. V. tenellum of Hort. Kew., cited doubtingly by Michaux, is not known to us; but Mr. Pursh describes it as distinct from the present species; see n 20. 17 V. frondosum. Blunt-leaved Whortle-berry or Blue Tangles. Linn. Sp. Pl. 499. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 9. Pursh n, 5. Andr. Repos. t. 140. (V. glaucum; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 231. 8. V. Venustum ; Ait. n. 10. Willd. n. 15. Herb. Banks. Pursh —Clusters lax. Bracteas obovate, not half so long as the slender partial flower-stalks, which bear two smaller linear ones. Leaves obovate- oblong, pointless, entire, smooth.—In open woods, on a sandy soil, from New Jersey to Carolina, flowering in May and June. About three feet high. Flowers small, almost globul...r, white. Berries large, blue, globular, eatable, called by the country people Blue Tangles. Pursh. The branches are round, smooth, and slender. Leaves from two to three inches long, thin and pliant, generally obtuse, but in the variety g acute ; bright green above ; glaucous beneath, sprin- kled with minute resinous dots, and reticulated with copious veins. Clusters lateral, from the last year's wood, about the length of the leaves, loose, slender, and spreading. Partial flower-stalks about an inch long, with a small obovate, pointed, entire bractea, covered with resinous dots, at the base, and two, much smaller and narrower, deciduous ones about the mid- dle. Flowers drooping, greenish-white, shaped like Lily of the Valley, but smaller. Segments of the calyz broad, deep, nearly triangular. 18. V. ligustrinum. Privet-leaved Whortle-berry. Michchaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 233. Pursh n. 13, excluding the synonym of Willdenow.—“Flowers nearly sessile, in sessile tufts. Leaves nearly sessile, erect, lanceolate, pointed, finely serrated, veiny downy. Corolla longish-ovate, Branches angular.—In dry woods, from Pennsylvania to Virginia; common on the mountains, flowering in May and June. An up- right straight shrub. Leaves membranous, furnished with conspicuous, often purplish, veins. Scales of the flower-buds also purplish. Tufts of flowers sometimes springing leafless from the branches, sometimes axil- lary. Corolla purplish-red. Berries black. The leaves vary extremely in shape and size. Pursh, Michaux. We adopt this species, which we have never seen, from the authors quoted, under the name by which they have distinguished it. But the Linnaean V. ligus- trinum is a nonentity, or rather no Vaccinium, being the very same plant with Andromeda fian culata ; Linnaeus having received it in flower, from Kaſm, as a Waccinium, and in fruit, as an Andromeda. The lat- ter specimen, having flowers of another species an- nexed, could not but mislead him, though we must allow that he too implicitly trusted his pupil, in all the strange blunders, which we have had, the mortification of recording and explaining, relative to this genus. 19. V. resinosum Clammy Whortle-berry. Ait. n. 11. Willd. n. 17. Pursh n. 7. Curt. Mag. t. 1288. (V. parviflorum ; Andr. Repos. t. 125. “Androme- da baccata; Wangenh. Amer. t. 30. f. 69.”)—Cius- ters leafless, viscid, downy, with lanceolate, bracteas on the partial stalks. Leaves obovato-lanceolate, bluntish, pointless, entire covered with resinous dots. Calyx in five deep ovate segments, longer than the germen.—In woods and on mountains frequent, from Canada to Carolina, flowering in May and June. From two to four feet high. Berries black, eatable. Pursh. The branches are round; downy when young. Leaves usually an inch and half long, bright green on both sides, more or less obtuse, viscid ; veiny beneath. Clusters lateral, from last year’s wood, drooping, lax, shorter than the leaves. Flowers small, either red or tawny, or of a greenish-yellow. Calyz reddish or brown, remarkably large in proportion to the germen, not well expressed in either of our English figures. 20. V. tenellum. Gale-leaved Dwarf Whortle-berry. Ait. n. 15. Willd. n. 20. Pursh n. 14. (V. pensyl- vanicum ; Lamarck Dict. v. 1. 74. Michaux Boreal.- Amer. V. I. 232.)—Flowers in dense sessile tufts. Leaves v.AccINIUM. Leaves nearly sessile, ovato-lanceolate, pointed, finely serrated, smooth, except the rib and margin. Branch- es angular, with a downy line at each side. Calyx in five deep acute segments.--On dry hills on a gravelly soil, from New England to Virginia, flowering in May. A low, very branching shrub. Flowers pale red. Ca- tyr green. Berries large, blueish-black, extremely sweet and agreeable to eat. The mountains of Penn- sylvania produce an immense variety of this species, in size and shape of the fruit, leaves, and flowers. Pursh. Specimens from the late Rev. Dr. Muhlen- berg, which we cannot but refer to this, have green rather warty branches, distinguished by a fine downy line along each side. The leaves are an inch long, resembling those of some dwarf Willows, beautifully reticulated, sometimes purplish; most shining beneath ; their serratures minute, grandular, downy, as well as the mid-rib. Flowers few, in tufts, from scaly axillary red buds, about the tops of the branches. Calyx very smooth. * 21. V. Arctostaſhhylos. Oriental Bear-berry, or Whor- tle-berry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 500. , Willd. n. 21. (Vitis. idaea orientalis maxima, cerasi folio, flore variegato; Tourn. Cor. 42. Voyage v. 2. 98, with a figure.)- Clusters lateral. Bracteas all at the base of the partial stalks. Leaves elliptical, acute, minutely serrated; hairy beneath. Stamens as long as the bell shaped co- rolla, with very hairy filaments. Calyx slightly five- lobed.—Gathered on the coast of the Black Sea, by Tournefort, two of whose specimens are before us. He describes this shrub as the height of a man, with a trunk as thick as one’s arm. The young leafy branches are downy on two opposite sides, like the foregoing, but more broadly. Footstalks extremely short and broad, hairy. Leaves pliant, broadly elliptical, tapering at each end, two inches and a half long, and nearly one and a half broad, bright green, sometimes reddish above, and quite smooth except the mid-rib, on that side; paler beneath, and besprinkled with short prominent hairs, especially about the lower part of the rib, their margin furnished with copious, but blunt and shallow, Serratures. Clusters from the wood of the preceding year, below the fresh leafy shoots, drooping, one and a half or two inch- es long, somewhat hairy, composed of eight or ten pendu- lous flowers, of a dirty white, striped or stained with purple. Bracteas several at the base of each partial flower-stalk, fringed; one of them large, ovate, often half an inch, or more, in length; the rest linear-lanceo- late, touch smaller, one or two in number. Scarcely more, being analogous to those found about the middle of the partial stalks, in several species already described, though differently situated in the present species and its allies Calyac with five shallow, more or less evident, marginal segments, smooth Corolla bell shaped, five lines long and four wide, with five shallow, recurved, marginal segments. Jilaments ten, nearly half as long as the corolla, stout, gibbous, extremely hairy at the back. Anthers longer than the filaments, yellow, smooth, and tubular above, furnished with two granu- lated pouches, descending much below their insertion, at the inner side of the filament, and with two small dor- sal spots, at the base of the tubes above those pouches. Style shorter than the corolla. The berries were seen by Tournefort in an unripe state only. He judges this plant, with great probability. to be the cºexios 22 v2.0%, or 13ear-grape of Galen. &W hat the variety of 3 of Linnaeus may be, we know not, as iotising answerable to his reference is to be found in Tournefort’s Corollarium. beech forests of that neighbourhood. 22. V. hadifolium. Madeira Whortle-berry. (v. Arctostaphylus; Ait. n 16. Curt. Mag. t. 974. Andr. Repos. t. 30. Pallas Ross. v. 1. p. 2. 45.)—Clusters lateral. Bracteas all at the base of the partial stalks. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, acute, finely serrated, smooth on both sides, except the mid-rib. Stamens nearly as long as the bell-shaped corolla, with smooth, slightly fringed, filaments. Calyx five-lobed.—Native of the loftiest parts of the island of Madeira, where it forms impenetrable thickets, flowering in July, according to Mr. Masson, who sent a specimen to the younger Lin- naeus in 1777. This so precisely agrees with Mr. Ed- wards's figure in Curtis's Magazine, drawn from a plant obtained from mount Caucasus, by Mr. Loddiges, that we cannot doubt its being what Pallas found in the alpine The younger Linnaeus obtained a specimen of the same from the English gardens, and we received one in flower, from the present duke of Marlborough's garden, at Wiite Knight's, in June 1806. So far therefore our cultivated plant is identified, nor can any thing be more clearly distinct from the true V. Arctostaňhylus. The leaves, well compared by Pallas to those of the Bird-cherry, are of a more firm rigid texture, and not half so large as the former; they are more rounded at the base ; their serratures, though small, more evident; under surface quite smooth, except at the very base about the mid-rib, which is also a little hairy on the upper side. Footstalks longer. Calyx more decidedly five lobed, though it appears to vary in the depth of its segments. Corolla larger, pale green, with a purple tinge ; sometimes it seems to be all over purple externally. Partial or in- ternal bracteas rather broader. Germen very glaucous. The filaments differ essentially, in being flat, quite smooth at each side, and only slightly fringed in the margin, especially about the top. We can discern no spurs on the anthers, which moreover are rather shorter with respect to the corolla. The style is sometimes a little prominent, but not constantly. Pallas says the berries are black, juicy, eatable, gratefully acid. Some- times, though very rarely, he found the flowers four- cleft. 23. V. cylindraceum. Azorian Whortle-berry.— Clusters lateral. Bracteas serrated, aii at the base of the partial stalks. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acute, finely serrated, quite smooth, except the base of the mid-rib. Stamens hall the length of the cylindrical corolla, with hairy filaments. Calyx slightly five-lobed.—Native of -mountains -in-the-Azores, where this species is called Uva de serra, or Mountain Berry. We believe our specimen to have been gathered by Mr. Masson. The stem appears to be arborescent. The branches are stout, round, those only of the present year leafy, and finely downy at the two opposite sides. Leaves like the last, but rather larger, more tapering at the base, and quite smooth, except a little short down at the bottoni, about the mid-rib and footstalk. Clusters numerous, on the leafless branches o the preceding season, under the leafy shoots of the present year, spreading the length of the leaves, with smooth, angular, reddish stalks ; and deciduous bracteas, of which the inner ones are lanceo- late and sharply toothed. Flowers drooping, nearly an inch long, apparently red or purple. Calyx with a dilated border, very slightly and obtusely five-lobed. Corolla twice as long as the last, cylindrical, with five crect, short, marginal segments. Stamens but half the length of the corolla; their filaments loosely hairy all over; anthers shorter than the filaments, destitute of 3 p 2 spur; VACCINIUM. spurs. Style rather longer than the corolla. Of the fruit we have no account, nor do we know whether this species has ever found its way into the English gardens. Sect. 2. Leaves evergreen. 24. V. meridionale. Jamaica Whortle-berry. Swartz Ind. Occ. 676. Willd. n 22. Ait. n. 17.-Clusters erect, downy. Bracteas solitary, ovate. Leaves ovate, crenate, permanent, smooth. Stem arboreous.—Native of the lofty Blue mountains in the southern part of Ja- maica, flowering in February, and ripening, fruit in Au- gust. This is from ten to thirty feet high with a very straight smooth trunk, and hard wood. Branches straight, spreading, leafy, round; downy when young. Leaves rigid, an inch or rather more in length, on short, broad, downy stalks, flat, and somewhat shining, veiny 5 paler beneath. Clusters solitary near the end of last year's branches, twice as long as the leaves; their far- tial stalks naked, except a large, solitary, ovate, smooth, coloured, deciduous bractea, at the base of each, and equal to it in length. Flowers drooping, reddish-white. Calya in four broad, acute, permanent segments. Co.: rolla ovate, quadrangular before expansion, contracted at the mouth, with four acute, recurved, marginal seg- ments. Stamens eight, as long as the corolla, their ſila- ments hairy in the middle. Dr Swartz mistakes the tubular points of the anthers for horns or spurs. Style the length of the corolla. Berry roundish, jucy, plea- santly flavoured, pale red, resembling that of W Vitis idea. The flowers are very rarely five-cleft and de- candrous. 25. V. cereum. Otaheité Whortle-berry. Forst. Prodr. 28. Willd. n. 25. (Andromeda cerea; Linn. Suppl. 238.)--Stalks axillary, solitary, single-flowered, with two lanceolate bracteas about the middle. Leaves roundish-ovate, serrated, smooth, permanent. Calyx in five broad pointed segments.-Gathered by Forster in Otaheité. The branches are round, smooth, leafy; slightly downy when young. Leaves about an inch long, pointed, coriaceous, veiny, twice the length of the smooth simple flower-stalks. Corolla ovate-oblong, with five angles, and five erect small segments. Anthers, according to Linnaeus, with two dorsal horns. 26. V. Vitis idaea. Red Whortle-berry, or Cow- berry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 500. Willd. n. 24. Fi. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 598. Pursh n. 18. Fl. Dan t 40. (Vaccinia rubra; Ger. Em. 415. Vitis idaea rubra ; Camer. Epit. 136.)—Clusters terminal, drooping; with ovate concave bracteas, longer than the flower-stalks. Leaves obovate, revolute, minutely toothed; dotted be- neath. Corolla bell-shaped.—Native of dry barren stony woods and heaths, in the north of Europe, plenti- ful in Scotland, Westmoreland, Derbyshire Wales, &c. flowering in June, and ripening fruit in August. Mr. Pursh says it occurs on rocks near the sea-coast, from Canada to New England, but the American plant is more robust than the European, with considerably larg- er leaves. The roots are creeping, woody. Stems ascending, in England about a span high, wavy, but little branched, smooth, leafy; young branches round, downy. Leaves evergreen, somewhat like box, but darker on the upper side, smooth and shining. Flowers pale pink, four-cleft, in elegant, dense, solitary, pendulous clusters. Calyz in four deep, broad, ovate, red segments. Anthers without horns. Stigma small, slightly notched. Bºrries blood-red, acid, austere and bitter, less palatable in tarts than either the Cranberry or Bilberry, but excellent in a rob or jelly, for colds and sore-throats, as well as to eat with roast meat, to which latter purpose this jelly is uni- versally applied by the Swedes. 27. V. myrtifolium. Myrtle-leaved Black Whortle- berry. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 229. Pursh n. 19– “Creeping, quite smooth. Leaves stalked, oval, shining, revolute, sparingly and minutely toothed. Cluste; axillary, nearly sessile, of few flowers. Corolla bell- shaped, somewhat inflated minutely five-toothed. An- thers without dorsal horns”—Found by Michaux only, in Carolina. He describes the berries as Small, globose, crowned with the calyx, black, on short stalks. 28. V. crassifolium. Thick-leaved Whortle-berry. Andr. Repos t. 105. Ait. n. 19. Pursh n. 20. Curt. Mag. t. 1152.-Clusters lateral and terminal, corymbose. Br cteas shorter than the flower-stalks. Leaves ellipti- cal, crenate, smooth; paler and v.iny beneath. Corolla bell-shaped. Stem diffuse.—Brought by Mr. Fraser from Carolina, in 1787. It flowers in May and June. A trailing evergreen species, requiring some shelter from our variable winters and springs. The leaves are not an inch long; their upper surface very smooth and even, with a little minute pubescence on the mid-rib and footstalk Flowers five-cleft, prettily variegated with pink and white, drooping, on red corymbose stalks. Stamens hairy. We have no account of the fruit, 29, V, villosum. Hairy Mexican Whortle berry.— Clusters longer than the leaves. Flower-stalks, calyx, corolla and lanceolate bracteas densely hairy. Leaves elliptical, entire, revolute, coriaceous, with a blunt point; hairy on the upper side.—Sent by Mutis to Linnaeus from Mexico. The branches are round, leafy, densely hairy when young. Leaves crowded, an inch long, on thi k downy footstalks ; their upper side convex; under paler, veiny, scarcely hairy except the rib. Clusters towards the ends of the younger branches, axillary, dense, drooping, nearly twice as long as the leaves, very hairy all over, the germen particularly. Bracteas coloured, internally smooth; those of the pºrtial stalks very nar- row. Calyx in five deep, lanceolate, densely finged segments. Corolla purplish, oblong, with five hairy angles, and as many small recurved teeth. Fruit un- known, but the habit, and the inferior germen, suffici- ently announce the genus. 30. V. reticulatum. Reticulated South-sea Whortle- berry-Stalks axilliary, solitary, single-flowered, downy. Leaves obovate, more or less serrated, coriaceous, with a blunt point; strongly reticulated on both sides and nearly smooth. Germen hairy.—Gathered by Mr. Menzies, in woods on high mountains, in the Sandwich islands.-The branches are leaſy; when young angular and finely downy. Leaves an inch long, remarkable for their reticulated veins, prominent on both sides; their margin somewhat revolute, strongly serrated, but some- times nearly entire. Flower-stalks numerous, erect, about an inch long, swelling upwards, without bracteas ; reflexed as the fruit advances. Calyx in four or five deep oblong, ribbed, downy, coloured segments, at length involute. Corolla cylindrical, thrice as long as the calyx, purple, slightly hairy, with four or five upright blunt teeth. Style hairy, shorter than the corolla. Ber- ry globular, depressed, nearly or quite smooth. 31. V. dentatum. Toothed South-sea Whortle-ber- ry.—Stalks axillary, solitary, single-flowered, smooth. Leaves obovate, with sharp tooth-like serratures. cori- aceous, veiny, very smooth. Calyx longer than the smooth germen.—Found by Mr. Menzies, in woods on the lofty mountains of the Sandwich Islands. The branch- es of this are angular, always smooth, like every other part. VACCINIUM. part. Leaves rather longer than the last, more strongly and uniformly toothed, with less prominent veins. Flow- er-stalks naked and smooth; recurved when in fruit. Calyz in five deep, oblong, obtuse, smooth, keeled seg- ments, longer than the germen, even after the corolla is fallen, which latter is wanting in our specimens. 32. V. mitidum. Glossy Whortle-berry. Andr. Repos. t. 480. Pursh n. 21. Ait. Epit. 376. Curt. Mag. t. 1550.—Clusters terminal, corymbose. Brac- teas shorter than the flower-stalks. Leaves elliptic- obovate, acute, crenate, smooth and shining. Corolla cylindrical.—Native of Carolina, flowering in May and June. The stem is of humble growth, either erect, as in Andrews's figure, or diffuse, as in the Botanical Magazine; the young branches downy on two opposite sides. Leaves evergreen, from half an inch to an inch long, numerous, very smooth; paler and veiny beneath; on very short red footstalks. Flour-stalks, bracteas, and calyx very smooth, of a shining red or purple. Calyar in five broad, rather shallow, Segments. Co- rolla ovate-oblong, white or pink, with five slight spreading teeth longer than the style. This species bears the same affinity to the following, as well as to erassifolium n. 28; but differs from the latter essenti- ally, as Mr. Pursh observes, in the shape of its corolla ; to which may be added the form and polish of its leaves, and the young branches being downy on two sides only. 33. V. myrsinites. Small-leaved Whortle-berry. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. l. 233. Pursh n. 22.- “Flowers in terminal and lateral scaly tufts, nearly sessile. Leaves sessile, oval, pointed, obscurely serra- ted; smooth and shining above; somewhat hairy and dotted beneath. Stem erect, much branched. Corolla oblong-ovate.”—In the dry sandy woods of Carolina and Florida, flowering in May and June. A beautiful little shrub, with slightly downy branches. Leaves glan- dular beneath; varying either to roundish-obovate, or to lanceolate, acute at each end. Tufts axillary, with pur- ple scales. Segments of the calyx scarlet. Corolla of a fine purple, five-toothed Michaux, Pursh. 34. V. burifolium. Box leaved Whortle-berry.— Salis. Parad. t. 4. Ait. n. 18. Pursh n. 23. Curt Mag. t. 928. (V. brachycerum; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 234.)— Clusters axillary, of few flowers. Leaves stalked, obovate, toothed or crenate, smooth on both sides. Stems tufted. Corolla roundish-ovate. Fila- ments glandular. Stigma capitate.—In dry woods, on lime-stone rocks, in the western parts of Virginia, near Winchester and the Sweet-springs, flowering in June. Pur. h. A handsome little shrub, in stature and general aspect resembling V. Vitis idaea, n. 26. The leaves however are smooth, even, and not dotted, on the under side. Clusters shorter, but more numerous. Flowers five-cleft. Corolla globular, contracted at the mouth, not bell-shaped. Anthers with shorter horns, discharg- ing their pollen by lateral, not terminal, apertures. Stig- ana dilated, or capitate. Of the berries we have no ac- count. The flowers are white, delicately striped with red. Anthers without spurs. 35. V. ovatum. Ovate Whortle-berry. Pursh n. 24.—“ Leaves stalked, ovate, acute, revolute, Serrated, smooth, coriaceous. Clusters axillary and terminal, bracteated, short. Corolla cylindrical. Calyx acute.” —Found by governor Lewis, on the Columbia river; by Mr. Menzies on the north-west coast of America, flower- ing in May Pursh. 36. V. obtusum. Blunt Whortle-berry. Pursh n. 25.-‘Stem creeping. Leaves small, oval, rounded and blunt at each end, pointed, entire, coriaceous, smooth. Stalks axillary, solitary, single-flowered.”— Gathered by Mr. Menzies, on the north-west coast of America; seen in the Banksian herbarium, without flowers. Pursh. We can find nothing, amongst our specimens from Mr. Menzies, that answers to the characters of either of these two last species. Our farvifolium, n. 3, agrees in Some points with the description of the last, but the stem is rather arborescent than creeping, and the leaves are certainly neither coriaceous nor evergreen. 37. V. Orycoccus. Common Cranberry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 500. Willd. n. 25. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 319. Fl. Dan. t. 80. Lamarck f. 3. (Vaccinia palus- tria; Ger. Em. 1419. Lob. ſc. v. 2. 109. Oxycoccum; Cord. Hist. 140. 2. f. 1. Oxyceccus vulgaris; “Pers. Syn. v. 1. 419.” Pursh 263.) Corolla deeply four-cleft. Leaves ovate, entire, revolute, acute, smooth. Stems creeping, thread-shaped. Flowers terminal.—Native of turfy mossy bogs in the mountainous parts of Eu- rope ; common in Switzerland, Russia, Scotland, Ire- land, and the north of England, as well as in Lincoln- shire, and the neighbouring part of Norfolk, flowering in June. Mr. Pursh speaks of it as common on the boggy mountains of North America, from Canada to Pennsylvania, flowering from May to July. Few plants are more elegant. The wiry shrubby stems creep among bog-moss, with long, branching, fibrous roots, which often appear to imbibe nourishment from the clear water alone. Branches scattered, procumbent, smooth, reddish, leafy. Leaves evergreen, stalked, from a quarter to half an inch long, coriaceous; convex and of a dark shining green above; glaucous beneath. Flower-stalks few together about the tops of the branches, somewhat corymbose, above an inch long, simple, red, slightly hoary, bearing two minute brac- teas in the lower part, and a solitary, drooping, very beautiful, four-cleft flower at the top. The germen is smooth. Calyac-lobes broad and shallow. Corolla pink, with reflexed oblong segments, a quarter of an inch in length. Filaments purple, downy. Anthers yellow, converging, without spurs. Berry pear-shaped or globular, often spotted, crimson, of a peculiar flavour, somewhat like black currants, with a strong acidity, grateful to most people, in the form of tarts, for which purpose they are largely imported from Russia. We can remember Cranberries from Lincolnshire, and the north-west corner of Norfolk, being sold in cart-loads about the streets of Norwich ; but the extensive enclo- sures have, in many parts, destroyed and drained their native bogs. Lightfoot records that at Longtown, on the borders of Cumberland, not less than twenty or thirty pounds-worth were sold each market-day, for five or six weeks together, and dispersed over differ- ent parts of the kingdom. In Sweden these berries serve only to boil silver plate to its due degree of whiteness, their sharp acid corroding the superficial particles of the copper alloy. 38. V. macrocarſion. American Cranberry. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. I. v. 2. 13. t. 7. ed. 2. n. 2 ... Wild. n. 27. Lamarck f. 4. (V. Oxycoccus 3 ; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 228. “V. hispidulum; Wangenh. Amer. 108. t. 30. f. 67.” Oxycoccus man crocarpus; Pursh 263.)—Corolla deeply four-cleft. Leaves elip- tic-cblong, entire, slightly revolute, obtuse, smooth. Stems ascending. Flowers lateral.—In bogs princi- pally in a sandy soil, and on high mountains, frequent, from Canada to Virginia, flowering from May to July, A iarger and more upright plant than . .e :ast, Wich ro p less convex, more obiong, much larger leaves. Several 3. § 5 ..flowere V A C V AC flowers come forth at the ends of the last year's branch- es, surmounted by the shoots of the present year. Their &racteas are situated towards the top of each stalk, and, as well as the segments of the corolla, are larger than in the Common Cranberry. The filaments however are shorter in proportion to their anthers, which are unusually long. The berries are larger, and of a brighter red, than the last, collected in great abundance, for making tarts, in America, and exported from thence to Europe; but they always prove here far inferior in quality to the Russian Cranberries, however excellent in America. The best method of having American Cranberries in Europe, is by cultivation in an artificial bog, with great plenty of water, as first contrived by Sir Joseph Banks. A very few square yards of ground thus employed, will yield as many Cranberries as any family can use. If allowed to hang till they are full ripe, as late as October, they are even better than the Oxycoccus, and may be kept dry in bottles throughout the year. Our wild Cranberries have generally been gathered too early ; as may also be the case with those brought from America. - 39. V. en ythrocarpum. Scarlet Carolina Cranberry. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 227. (Oxycoccus erectus; Pursh 264.)—“Corolla deeply four-cieft. Leaves oval, pointed, finely serrated, fringed. Stem erect. Flowers axiliary.”—On high mountains of Virginia and Caro- lina, flowering in June. Berries scarlet and quite transparent, of an exquisite taste. Pursh. The stem is shrubby, erect, generally with divaricated zigzag branches. Leaves rather large, thin and membranous, somewhat hairy at the ribs on each side. Calyac minute, sharply four-cleft. Corolla before expansion long and conical ; finely revolute. Anthers prominent, without spurs. Berry globose, shining. Michaux. We have seen no specimen of this species. Its fruit might be an acquisition to our tables, if raised in the same mode as the iast. In the above ample detail of the genus Vaccinium, which we trust will prove acceptable to those who have ever attended to its former confusion, we have removed eight of Willdenow’s species. Four of these are album, 7mucronatum, ligustrinum and his/hidulum of Linnaeus, the latter being referred by Mr. Pursh to GAULTHERIA by the name of serflyllifolia ; see that article, where this species should be introduced next to ſirocumbens, with the following character. “Stem creeping, hispid. Leaves roundish-oval, acute. Flowers four-cleft, axilia- ry, solitary, nearly sessile. Corollabell-shaped.” (Vac- cinium hispidulum ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 500. Wilid. n. 26. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 228. t. 23.)—In mossy Swamps, particularly where Cedars and other ever- greens abound, from Canada to Pennsylvania, flºwering in April and May. A small creeping plant. Berries white, very sweet, and agreeable to eat. Pursh. The other four discarded species of Willden, w arefuscatum, venustum, am &num and virgatum of Dr. Solander, in Ait. Hort, Kew, ed. 1; the reasons of which rejection are to be found under our 13th and 17th species.—On the other hand, we have augmented this genus with seven entirely nondescript species, for most of which we are obliged to the bounty of our often-mentioned friend Mr. Archibaid Menzies; as well as with twelve others from Michaux, Pursh, and our several English garden botanists and publishers. On this subject we would particularly direct our fellow-labourers to the plants hitherto confounded under V. Arctostaſhylos, and the still-supposed varieties of that interesting spe- &c. cies; relating to which discoveries are probably yet to be made, in the wilds of Tartary and the Levant, and possibly even in the greenhouses of France and Eng- land. - - - * * - VAccINIUM, in Gardening, comprehends many sorts of hardy, dwarf, under-shrubby, ligneous, evergreen, and deciduous plants, among which the species most commonly cultivated are those of the black whortle, or bilberry (V. myrtillus); the white Pennsylvania whorts, or bilberry (V. album, see the preceding articie); the red whortle-berry (V. vitis idaea); the cranberry, moss, or moor berry (V.Oxycoccus); the marsh whortle, or great bilberry bush (V. uliginosum); the hispid-stalk- ed American whortle-berry (V. lispidulum, see the preceding article); the corymbous flowering American whortle-berry (V. corymbosum); the privet-leaved Pennsylvanian whortle-berry (V. ligustrinum); and the stamineous American whortle-berry (V. stamineum). The first has slender, branching, shrubby stalks, about two feet in height, and produces large eatable berries of a blackish-red colour. The second is a similar plant, producing small berries of a whitish colour. The third is a more dwarfish plant, producing clusters of nodding, reddish flowers, and red juicy berries of great value for tarts, and other culinary uses. The fourth has slender Creeping stalks, wiiich produce red- dish eatable berries of great value and importance for different culinary well-known purposes, as in pies, tarts, The fifth has a woody, shrubby, branching stalk of some heighth, and affords whitish purple flowers, and large berries. The sixth grows with slender, trailing, rough stalks, and yields large red berries. The rest are all American plants. Method of Culture.—They may all be raised from seeds, or offset root-suckers, creeping roots, and trailing rooting stalks. Those also growing with several rooted stalks and branches, may be divided in the root and top, into separate plants, in which way they succeed very well. - - The seeds should be sown, where that method is pursued, in the autumn as soon as they are ripe and gathered, in a shady border, or the places where the plants are to grow and remain; and when the young plants are up, they should be kept clean, and be re- moved with earth about their roots, as there may be occasion. The offsets and root-plants may be set out in the same season in proper places, which for the first four sorts are those where the soil is of a cold, light, Sandy hea- thy, mossy, moory, or woody nature, and for the two succeeding ones in marshy and boggy situations; as these have the most resemblance to those in which they grow naturaliy, and are the most prosperous. It may likewise be adviseable in many cases to take the plants from their native situations with balls of earth about their roots. Some, however, succeed in the common borders and other parts. They may in some cases be removed in the spring season, but the other is the better way. - - hey are admitted into gardens and pleasure-grounds for the sake of variety, curiosity, and ornament, and some of them are cultiva ed for the use of their fruit. In its natural situation, t. at of the cranberry is often an object of very great importance, affording the poor gatherers of its berries considerable employment as well as much money. It delights most in rather wet, moory, mossy situations. * - The vaccinium oxycoccus of Linnaeus, or cranberry, JYYay V A C V. A C may be preserved perfect for several years, merely by drying it a little in the sun, , and then stopping it closely in dry bottles. The vaccinium myrtillus, or bil- berry, yields a juice, which has been employed to stain paper, or linen, purple. . In autumn the moor-game chiefly live upon the product of this shrub. V ACERRI. See DRUIDs. VACH, in Geografthy, one of the smaller Lipari islands, in the Mediterranean. Vach, or Vakh, in Mythology, a name of the Hin- doo goddess Saraswati; Sakti or consort of the crea- tive power in the Trimurti, or divine Triad of the East. The name Vach, or Vachi, is derived from sheech, Saraswati being goddess of eloquence ; and hence called also Vachdevi. Vachaspati, a title equi- valent to lord of eloquence, is sometimes applied to the regent of the planet Jupiter, whom the Hindoos call Vrihashati; which see. V ACHA, in Geografthy, a town of Germany, in the principality of Upper Hesse, on the Werra; twenty miles N. E. of Fulda.—Also, a town of Germany, in the marggravate of Anspach, on the Rednitz; twenty- five miles N. E. of Anspach-Also, a town of Peru, in the diocese of La Paz; 8 miles S. W. of La Paz. VAC Hiº, or Cow’s Island, an island about twelve miles fron; the south coast of Hispaniola, about twenty- four miles in circumference. It was formerly a place of rendezvous for pirates and freebooters, and is pro- vided with three ports, one of which can receive ves- sels of 300 tons. N. lat. 18° 5'. W. long. 74° 25'. VAGHE et le Torreau, or Cow and Bull Rocks, rocks on the south coast of Newfoundland, a little to the east of Placentia bay. VACHELUSE, one of the Lipari islands; 3 miles south of Stromboli. VACHIER, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Loire; nine miles south of Le Puy en Velay. VACHON, PIERRE, in Biografthy, an eminent per- former on the violin, was born in Provence, 1730. After performing at the concert spirituel with great applause, he was placed at the head of the prince of Conti’s select band. In 1784 he was appointed con- cert-master to the king of Prussia at Berlin, after re- siding some time in London, and leading at the Opera. He was one of the most certain and agrecable per- formers on the violin of his time, particularly in trios and quartets. He was likewise a composer of consi- derable merit, having furnished the different theatres of Paris with six or eight successful musical dramas, and the performers on his instrument with several books of solos, quartets, and concertos, which were practicable and in a pieasing style. treme melancholy expression of countenance, of which he was not insensible, and used to say, in pleasantry, “Matriste contenance m'a fait beaucoup de mal au- près les dames.” VACIA, or VAcz, in Geografthy. See WAITZEN. VACIAN, a town of Abascia; fifteen miles south of Askasy. VACKALEER, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; twenty-seven miles E. N. E. of Bangalore. VACOMAGI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of the isle of Albion, south of the Caledonii, whose towns were Banatia, Tamaa, the Winged Camp, or Alata Castra, and Tuesis. VACONE, in Geography, a town of the Pope- He had an ex- dom, in the duchy of Spoleto; eight miles S. E. of Narni. VACONTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower Pannonia, at a distance from the Danube. VACUA, Ital., in Music, a white open note; in old English, a void ; in opposition to notes with black heads, like crotchets and quavers. In the first time- table all the notes were black, till the invention of the Semibreve and minim. - VACUNA, in Mythology, a goddess held in high veneration among the Sabines. VACUNALIA, a festival kept in honour of the goddess Vacuna, who presided over those that were unemployed or at rest. It was celebrated in December by the country la- bourers, after the fruits were gathered in, and the land tilled. Ovid speaks of it in his Fasti, lib. vi. “Nam quoque cum fiunt antiquae Sacra vacunae, Ante vacunales stantolue, sedentdue focos.” The worship of Vacuna was very ancient in Italy, and established among the Sabines long before Rome was founded. Some take her for Diana, Venus, or Ceres, and others for Bellona or Victory. Varro thinks. she was Minerva. VACUP, in Geografthy, a town of Bosnia; thirty- two miles S. W. of Screajo. VACUUM, WACUITY, in Physics, a space empty or devoid of all matter, or body. Whethcrthere be any such thing in nature as an absolute vacuum ; or whether the universe be com- pletely full, and there be an absolute plenum, is a thing that has been controverted by the philosophers of all ages. The ancients, in their controversies, distinguished two kinds; a vacuum coacervatum, and a vacuum in- tersfiersum, or disseminatum. VAcuuM coacervatum, is conceived as a place des- titute of matter: such, e. gr. as there would be, should God annihilate all the air, and other bodies within the walls of a chamber. he existence of such a vacuum is maintained by the Pythagoreans, Epicureans, and the Atomists, or Corpuscularians; most of whom assert such a vacuum actually to exist without the limits of the sensible world. But the modern Corpuscularians, who hold a vacuum coacervatum, deny that appellation; as con- ceiving, that such a vacuum must be infinite, eternal, and uncreated. According, then, to the later philosophers, there is no vacuum coacervatum without the bounds of the sensibie world; nor would there be any other vacuum, provided God should annihilate divers contiguous bo- dies, than what amounts to a mere privation, or no- thing; the dimensions of such a space, which the ancients held to be real, being by these held to be mere negations; that is, in such a place, there is so much length, breadth, and depth wanting, as a body must have to fill it. To suppose, that when all the matter in a chamber is annihilated, there should yet be real dimensions, is to suppose corporeal dimensions without body; which is absurd. The Cartesians, however, deny any vacuum coacer- vatum at all ; and assert, that if God should immedi- ately annihilate all the matter, v. gr. in a chamber, and v AC UUM. and prevent the ingress of any other matter, the con- sequence would be, that the walls would become con- tiguous, and include no space at all. They add, that if there be no matter in a chamber, the walls can be conceived no otherwise than as contiguous; those things being said to be contiguous, between which there is not any thing intermediate: but if there be no body be- tween, there is no extension between : extension and body being the same thing: and if there be no exten- sion between, then the walls are contiguous, and where is the vacuum ? But this reasoning is founded on a mistake, viz. hat body and extension are the same thing. See MATTER. *WAcuuM disseminatum, or intersfiersum, is that Sup- posed to be naturally interspersed in and among bodies, in the pores of the same body, and in the interstices between different bodies. It is this kind of vacuum which is chiefly disputed among the modern philosophers; the Corpuscularians strenuously asserting it; and the Peripatetics and Car- tesians as tenaciously impugning it. See CARTESLAN and LEIBNITZIAN. The great argument the Peripatetics urge against a vacuum intersfiersum is, that there are divers bodies frequently seen to move contrary to their own nature and inclination; and that for no other apparent reason, but to avoid a vacuum ; whence they conclude, that nature abhors a vacuum, and gives us a new class of motions ascribed to the fuga vacui, or nature’s flying a vacuum. Such, they say, is the rise of water in a syringe, upon the drawing up of the piston; such also is the ascent of water in pumps, and the swelling of the flesh in a cupping-glass, &c. But since the weight, elasticity, &c. of the air have been ascertained by sure experiments, those motions and effects are universally ascribed to the gravity and pressure of the atmosphere. The Cartesians deny not only the actual existence, but even the possibility of a vacuum : and that on this principle, that extension being the essence of mat- ter, or body, wherever extension is, there is matter; but mere space, or vacuity, is supposed to be ex- tended ; therefore it is material. Whoever asserts an empty space, they say, conceives dimensions in that space, i. e. he conceives an extended substance in it; and therefore he denies a vacuum, at the same time that he admits it. Des Cartes, if we may believe some accounts, re- jected a vacuum from a complaisance to the taste which prevailed in his time, against his own first sentiments; and among his familiar friends used to call his system his priilosophical romance. On the other hand, the corpuscular authors prove, not only the possibility, but the actual existence of a vacuum, from divers considerations; particularly from the consideration of motion in general : and that of the planets, comets, &c. in particular; from the fall of bo- dies; from the vibration of pendulums: from rarefac- tion and condensation; from the different specific gra- vities of bodies; and from the divisibility of matter into parts. 1. It is argued, that motion could not be effected without a vacuum. This is what Lucretius urged long ago. “Principium quoniam cedendi nulla daret res,-undique materies quoniam stipata fuisset.” The forge of this argument will be increased from the two following considerations; viz. first, that ali motion is either in a straight line, or in a curve, which returns into itself, as the circle and ellipsis; or in a curve that does not return into itself, as the parabola, &c. And, secondly, that the moving force must al- ways be greater than the resistance. From hence it follows, that no force, even though infinite, can produce motion where the resistance is infinite; consequently, there can be no motion either in a straight line, or a non-returning curve; because, in either of those cases, the protrusion, and conse- quently the resistance, would be infinite. There re- mains, therefore, only the motion of a revolving curve practicable; this must either be a revolution upon an axis, or an annular motion round a quiescent body; both which are, again, impossible in an elliptic curve; and, consequently, all motion must be in circles geo- metrically true; and the revolving bodies must either be spheres, spheroids, cylinders, or portions of them, exactly geometrical ; otherwise the revolutions in a plenum would be impossible: but such motions, or such figured bodies, we do not know in nature. Therefore there is a vacuum. 2. The motions of the planets and comets demon- strate a vacuum : thus sir Isaac Newton,-4* That there is no such fluid medium as aether,” (to fill up the po- rous parts of all sensible bodies, as the air and inter- stellar parts, and so make a plenum,) “seems proba- ble; because the planets and comets proceed with so regular and lasting a motion through the celestial spaces, both from and to all parts; for hence it appears, that those celestial spaces are void of all sensible resis- tance, and consequently of all sensible matter. For the resisting force of fluid mediums arises partly from the attrition of the parts of the medium, and partly from the inactivity of matter. Now, that part of the resistance of any medium, which arises from the tenacity or attrition of its parts, may be lessened by dividing the matter into smaller parts, and render- ing those parts more smooth and slippery : but that part of the resistance which arises from the inactivity of matter, is always in proportion to the density of the matter; nor can it be diminished by dividing the mat- ter, nor by any other means, except by diminishing the density thereof. “Consequently, if the celestial regions were as dense as water, or as quicksilver, they would resist almost as much as water or quicksilver; but if they were per- fectly dense without any interspersed vacuity, though the matter were ever so fluid and subtle, they would resist more than quicksilver does : a perfectly solid globe, in such a medium, would lose above half its mo- tion, in moving three lengths of its diameter; and a globe not perfectly solid, such as the bodies of the planets and comets are, would be stopped still sooner. Therefore, that the motion of the planets and comets may be regular and iasting, it is necessary the celes- tial spaces be void of all matter, except perhaps some few, and much rarefied effluvia of the planets and comets, and the passing rays of light.” 3. The same great author deduces a vacuum also from the consideration of the weights of bodies; thus: “ All bodies about the earth gravitate towards the earth; and the weights of all bodies, equally distant from the earth’s centre, are as the quantities of matter in those bodies. If the aether, therefore, or any other subtile matter, were altogether destitute of graviº I V A C U U M. did gravitate less than in proportion to the quantity of its matter ; because (as Alistotie, Des Cartes, and others, argue) it differs frcm other bodies only in the form of matter; the same body might, by the change of its form, gradually be converted into a body of the same constitution with those which gravitate most in proportion to the quantity of matter: and, on the other hand, the most heavy bodies might gradually lose their gravity, by gradually changing their ſo; m ; and there- fore the weights would depend upon the forms of bo- dies, and might be clianged with them; which is con- tra, y to all experiment.” 4. The descent of bodies proves, that all space is not equally full; for the same author goes on, “If all spaces were equally full, the specific gravity of that fluid with which the region of the air would, in that case, be filled, would not be less than the specific gravity of quicksilver or gold, or any other the most dense body; and therefore neither gold, nor any other body, could descend therein. For bodies do not de- scend in a fluid, unless that fluid be specifically lighter than the body. But, by the air-pump, we can cxhaust a vessel, till even a feather shall fall with a velocity equal to that of gold in the open air : the medium, therefore, through which this feather falls, must be much rarer than that through which the gold falls in the other case. “ The quantity of matter, therefore, in a given space, may be diminished by rarefaction : and why may not it be diminished in infinitum? Add, that we conceive the solid particles of all bodies to be of the same density ; and that they are only rarefiable by means of their pores: and hence a vacuum evidently follows.” 5. “ That there is a vacuum, is evident from the vibrations of pendulums; for since those bodies, in places out of which the air is exhausted, meet with no resistance to retard their motion, or shorten their vibrations; it is evident there is no sensible matter in those spaces, or in the occult pores of those bodies.” As to what Des Cartes urges of his materia subtilis, that its tenuity prevents its resistance from being sensible ; and that a small body, striking against a greater, cannot in the least move, or resist the mo- tion of that other; but is reflected back again with all its momentum ; it is contrary to all experience. For sir Isaac proves, that the density of fluid mediums is proportionable to their resistances, very nearly ; and that they are exceedingly mistaken, who suppose the resistance of projectiles to be infinitely diminished, by dividing the parts of the fluid, even in infinitum, (Prin- cip. lib. ii. prop. 38.): when, on the contrary, it is clear the resistance is but little diminished by the subdivi- sion of the parts (ibid. prop. 40.), and that the resisting forces of all fluids are nearly as their densities.—For why should not the same quantity of matter, whether divided into a great number of subtile parts, or into a few larger ones, have the same resisting force : If then there were no vacuum, it would follow, that a pro- jectile moving in the air, or even in a space whence the air is exhausted, should move with as much diffi- culty as it would in quicksilver; which is contrary to experience. Nor will it avail to suppose the particles of the sub- tile fluid, constituting a plenum, to move constantly and equally in all directions; and by favour of this hy- pothesis, to imagine that they act, but do not resist. Because the motion of a fluid favours the motion of a VoI, XXXVIII. body in it, only as far as it is in the same direction; and an intestine motion of the parts of the fluid, equal in all dilections, cannot make the resistance less than : if there was no moticn of the parts. It is supposed by many that the particles of common fluids, e.g. water or air, are in a constant intestine motion: but this does not hinder those fluids from resisting in proportion to their density. • If it should be alleged, that by supposing this dense fluid which replenishes space to penetrate the pores of bodies with the utmost freedom. (as light passes through transparent bodies, and the magnetic and electric efflu- via through most kinds of bodies,) its resistance will then be incomparably less than in proportion to its den- sity; the resistance in this case not being measured by the density of the fluid, because the greater part passes through the pores of the body in motion freely, with- out resistance : yet even on this hypothesis, the 1esist- ance of a golden ball in a plenum would be still very great. For this subtile fluid, how penetrating soever it be, must resist the solid parts of the ball; which can- not move in the fluid without displacing its parts, and losing as much motion as must be communicated to those parts; and this resistance depends on the quan- tity of solid parts in the ball; whereas the resistance which the same ball meets with in quicksilver (which we suppose to have no passage through the ball,) de- pends on the quantity of the solid parts in an equal bulk of the quicksilver, which must be moved to make way for the ball. And this being less than the quantity of solid parts in an equal bulk of the golden ball, in pro- portion as the specific gravity of quicksilver is less than that of gold, it follows that the resistance of a golden ball, moving in such a subtile penetrating plenum, would still be greater than its resistance in quicksilver. The resistance of a golden ball in a plenum (how free- ly soever the matter constituting it pass through the pores of the ball, and how large and numerous soever these pores may be) must correspond to the solid mat- ter in the ball; which is greater than the solid matter in any equal bulk of any of our fluids, upon which their resistance depends. *…* 6. That there are interspersed vacuities, appears from matters being actually divided into parts, and from the figures of those parts; for, on supposition of an absolute plenitude, we do not conceive how any part of matter could be actually divided from that next adjoining, any more than it is possible to divide actual- ly the parts of absolute space from one another: for by the actual division of the parts of a continuum from one another, we conceive nothing else understood, but the placing of those parts at a distance from one ano- ther, which, in the continuum, were at no distance from one another: but such divisions between the parts of matter must imply vacuities between them. 7. As for the figures of the parts of bodies, upon the supposition of a plenum, they must either be all rectilinear, or all concavo-convex; otherwise they would not adequately fill space; which we do not find to be true in fact. 8. The denying a vacuum, supposes what it is im- possible for any one to prove to be true; viz. that the material world has no limits. However, we are told by some, that it is impossible to conceive a vacuum. But this surely must proceed from their having imbibed Des Cartes’s doctrine, that the essence of body is constituted by extension; as it would be contradictory to suppose space without ex- 2 E tellSiOI!, V A C V A D tension. To suppose that there are fluids penetrating all bodies and replenishing space, which neither resist nor act upon bodies, merely in order to avoid admitting a vacuum, is feigning two sorts of matter, without any necessity or foundation; or is tacitly giving up the question. . - . . Since then the essence of matter does not consist in extension, but in solidity, or impenetrability, the uni- verse may be said to consist of solid bodies moving in a vacuum: nor need we at all fear, test the phenome- na of nature, most of which are plausibly accounted for from a plenitude, should become inexplicable when the plenum is set aside. The principal ones, such as the tides; the suspension of the mercury in the baro- meter; the motion of the heavenly bodies, and of light, &c. are more easily and satisfactorily accounted for from other principles. See TIDEs, &c. VACUUM, or Vacuum Boyleanum, is also used, some- what abusively, to express that approach to a real va- cuum, which we arrive at by means of an air-pump. . Thus, any thing put in a receiver so exhausted, is said to be put in vacuo : and thus, most of the experi- ments with the air-pump are said to be performed in vacuo, or in vacuo Boyleano. Some of the principal phenomena observed of bodies in vacuo, are; that the heaviest and lightest bodies, as a guinea and a feather, fall here with equal velocity :—that fruits, as grapes, cherries, peaches, apples, &c. kept for any time in vacuo, retain their nature, freshness, colour, &c. and those withered in the open air recover their plump- ness in vacuo :—all light and fire become immediate- ly extinct in vacuo :—the collision of flint and steel in vacuo, produces no sparks:–no sound is heard, even from a bell rung in vacuo:—a square phial, full of common air, well closed, breaks in vacuo ; a round one does not:—a bladder half full of air will heave up for- ty pounds weight in vacuo:—cats, and most other ani- mals, soon expire in vacuo. - By experiments made in 1704, Dr. Derham found, that animals that have two ventricles, and no foramen ovale, as birds, dogs, cats, mice, &c. die in less than half a minute; counting from the first exsuction: a mole died in one minute, a bat lived seven or eight. Insects, as wasps, bees, grasshoppers, &c. seemed dead in two minutes; but, after being left in vacuo twenty- four hours, they came to life again in the open air: snails continued twenty-four hours in vacuo, without appearing much incommoded. - Seeds planted in vacuo do not grow:—small beer dies, and loses all its taste, in vacuo :—lukewarm wa- ter boils very vehemently in vacuo:—and air, rushing through mercury into a vacuum, throws the mercury in a kind of shower upon the receiver, and produces a great light in a dark room. - The air-pump can never produce a perfect vacuum ; as is evident from its structure, and the manner of its working: in effect, every exsuction only takes away a part of the air : so that there will still be some left af. ter any finite number of exsuctions. Add, that the air- pump has no longer any effect than while the spring of the air remaining in the receiver is able to lift up the valves: when the rarefaction is come to that degree, you can come nearer to a vacuum. Sir Isaac Newton, observing that a thermometer suspended in vacuo, and in that state removed to a warm or a cold room, re- ceives the heat, or cold, and rises, or falls, almost as soon as another in open air; takes thence occasion to suspect, that the heat of the warm room is conveyed through the vacuum, by the vibrations of a much sub- tiler medium than air, which remained in the vacuum after the air was drawn out. Opt. p. 323. V ACUUM, Torricelliam. See TortAICELLIAN. VADA, in Ancient Geografthy, a place which be- longed to the Batavi, W. of Batavodurum. - VADA Sabatia, Vai, a town of Italy, in Liguria. VADA Volaterra, a place of Italy, in Etruria. . VADA, in Geografthy, a sea-port town of Etruria, at the mouth of the river Cecina; 18 miles S. W. of Vol- terra. N. lat. 43° 17'. E. long. 10° 30'. VADACOURCHY, a town of Hindoostan, in Cali- cut; 10-miles S. W. of Palicaudchery. VADAGARY, a town of Hindoostan, in Madura; 25 miles W. of Coilpetta. VADAMADERRY, a town of Hindoostan, in the province of Dindigul; 15 miles N. E. of Dindigul. VADAMIA, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the Euphrates; 105 miles W. N. W. of Bassora. VADARI, in the Civil Law, denotes a person to pledge, undertake, or give security, in behalf of ano- ther, that he shall, on a certain day, appear in court, to prosecute, or answer. - If he fails, his surety has an action vadimonii deserti against him; that is, an action for deserting his bail. See WAGER. Properly speaking, vadari reum, among the Romans, was the act of the plaintiff himself, who here demand- ed surety, or bail from the defendant, that he would appear before the praetor on a certain day. VADDAL, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in Soonda; 27 miles S. E. of Goa. VADDER, Louis DE, in Biografthy, an eminent landscape painter, was born at Brussels in 1560. It is not known under whom he studied, where he resided, or how long he lived; but he has left works behind him which exhibit him as a diligent observer of nature, with taste and feeling to select her most fascinating effects, and ability to execute what he attempted, so as to af- ford the greatest pleasure to all admirers of the art. It is not improbable that he resided some time in Ita- ly, and had studied the pictures of Titian ; perhaps wrought in the same scenery; for his finest works have a great degree of resemblance to those of the Venetian, in the choice of forms and colour however more than in the execution, in which he more resembles Pyna- cher in freshness and fulness. - Two large pictures by Vadder found their way into this country some time ago, and fully justify these re- marks; but in general his works are scarce, or most probably have been introduced under fictitious names. In his native country he is better known and justly es- teemed. He has left a few spirited etchings in the style of Lucas Van Uden. - ~~ VADE', JoHN Joseph, was born at Ham, in Picar- dy, and is distinguished as the inventor of a kind of humorous French poetry. In his youth he resided at Paris, and led a dissipated life; but in more advanced age he perceived the defects of his early education, and endeavoured to supply them by a perusal of the best French authors. As he was original in his mode of thinking, he adopted a new kind of writing, to which he was led by his familiarity with vulgar life. This species of writing was called the “Poissarde manner,” and he was hence denominated the “Teniers” of poe- try. His productions, which consisted of tales and songs, were amusing and popular; and as he posses- sed many amiable qualities, he was generally beloved - In V A D V A G in the gay societies which he frequented. Hut he was thus led to pursue a course of debauchery, which ter- minated his life in 1757, at the early age of 37 years. His works, consisting of comic operas, parodies, songs, &c. have been collected in 4 vols. 8vo., to which has been added a volume of posthumous pieces of a simi- lar nature, though of superior merit, and indicating talents of a higher class, which he might have cultivat- ed to advantage. Moreri. Nouv. Dict. Hist, VAD ELECT. See VALET. - VADE-MECUM, or a VENI-MECUM, a Latin phrase, used in English, to express a thing that is very fami- liar; and which any one usually carries about with him: it is chiefly applied to some favourite book. * Some make Virgil, others Horace, their vade-me- cum ; others an Epictetus, &c. . This is what the Greeks call syzeptºtoy, or manual. The Arabs have a phrase of equal import; viz. Habib al feir, comes itineris, companion of the journey. In Latin it is best expressed by comes ; as comes theologi- cus, comes rusticus, &c. VADENAGORCHY, in Geography, a town of Hin- doostan, in Coimbetore; 15 miles W. of Damicotta. VADIANUS, JoAchim, in Biography, was born in 1484, at St. Gall, in Switzerland, where his father, Leo- nard Von Watt, was a senator. Having studied at Vi- enna, he was chosen professor of the belles lettres, and rector of the university. In 1514 he was honoured at Lintz by the emperor Maximilian with the poetical laurel. In his subsequént travels, he applied to the study of geography, and in 1518, having taken the de- gree of M. D. at Vienna, he returned to St. Gall, and devoted himself to the practice of physic, to which he joined theology upon the principles of the reformers, whose cause he promoted as a senator, and also by his discourses and writings. Having been honoured eight times with the office of consul, he died in 1551, and be- queathed his library to his fellow citizens. On the various subjects of mathematics, geography, antiqui- ties, medicine, and theology, he published works, as well as several Latin poems. His “Commentary on Pomponius Mela de Situ Orbis,” and his “Scholia on the second Book of Pliny’s Natural History,” are the most generally known of his literary performances. Scaliger regarded Vadianus as one of the most learn- ed men in Germany; and on account of his able con- duct of public affairs, Thuanus presents him to no- tice, as an example, that men of letters and philoso- phers are not, as such, disqualified for business. Mo- Tel’I. VADIATION. See VADARI. VADICASSES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul, who have been distinguished by different deno- minations: the Bodiocasses of Pliny being the same with the Vadicasses of Ptolemy, and both are suppo- sed to comprehend the ancient inhabitants of Bayeux, anciently called Naomagus. - * VADILCORA, or Wadi al Kora, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas; 56 miles N. of Medina. N. lat. 25° 30'. E. long. 38° 20'. VADIMONIS LACUs, in Ancient Geography, a lake of Italy, in Etruria, in the vicinity of Ameria. VADIMONIUM, in the Civil Law, a promise, or bond, given for appearance before the judge upon a day appointed. See VADAR1. - * VADIN, in Geography, a town of European Tur- key, in Bessarabia, on the Danube; 32 miles W. of Nicopoli. VADIUM. See GAGE and Pong fier Vadium. VADNIA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Hither Spain, belonging to the Cantabri. Ptolemy. - - VADO, or VADI, in Geography, a sea-port town of the Genoese, situated in a bay of the Mediterranean, with a good harbour; 3 miles S. of Savona. N. lat. 44° 14'. E. long. 8° 30'. -- VADo, Il, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Citra, near the Adriatic; 16 miles E.S.E. of Lansiano. ** VADo Saetta, a town of Naples, in Capitanata; 6 miles S.E. of Troia. - - - VAD 'CONDES, a town of Spain, in old Castile; 26 miles W.S.W. of Osma. -: r VADORANIUM, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic; 12 miles S. of Negapatam. - VADUTZ, a town and castle of Germany, in the principality of Lichtenstein; 26 miles S. of Lindau. N. lat. 47° 5'. E. long. 9° 31'. VAEIROE, a small island in the Baltic, near the north coast of Laland. N. lat. 55° 57*. E. long. 10° 46', - - - VAELUE, a river of the island of Ceylon, which runs into the sea, near Mago. - . - VA-EMBU, in the Materia Medica, a name given by some authors to the acorus Asiaticus, or Asiatic sweet flag. - - VAENA, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova; 18 miles E.S.E. of Cordova. VAEROE, a small island in the North sea, about 20 leagues from the coast of Norway. N. lat. 67°. VAFSAPA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Asia, in the Lesser Armenia, towards the mountains, and at a distance from the Euphrates. - VAG BESTER, in Geography, a town of Hungary, on the river Waag ; 6 miles N.E. of Bolesko. VAGA, PIERINo DEL, in Biografthy, whose real name was Pietro Buonacorsi, was one of those ingeni- ous painters employed by Raphael to assist him in adorning the Vatican. He was born at a village near Florence in 1500, of indigent parents. His father was. killed in battle, and his mother died of the plague be- fore he was two months old. He is said to have been reared by goat’s milk, and as a destitute orphan, was taken under the protection of an indifferent artist nam- ed Andrea de Ceri, whose house was frequented by several young artists of Florence. As Pierino had discovered a decided inclination for painting, he was placed, when eleven years old, under the tuition of Ridolfo Ghirlandaio, and with his assist- ance soon became a very able designer, and more par- ticularly, as Vasari observes, by studying with many other Florentine youths as well as strangers the Car- toon of M. Angelo, known by the name of the Cartoon of Pisa. * His talents acquired for him the attention and appro- bation of a Florentine painter of inferior quality, but who had nevertheless much employment, and was in want of a skilful designer to assist him in conducting his undertakings. With the consent of his guardian Céri, Pierino accompanied this man, whose name was Vaga, to the neighbourhood of Rome, whence, when the work was completed which he had undertaken, he was conveyed by his employer to Rome in 1515. and there introduced to several painters, to whose care and assistance Il Vaga recommended him during his ab- sence; and thence he was called Pierino del Vaga. In Rome he endured great miseries, and obtained bread 2 E. 2 - with V A G V A. G. with difficulty; but ever intent upon improvement, he studied hard the pictures of Angelo in the Sistini, and designed from the pieces of ántique sculpture which by chance came to his hand, and after a short time, his ardent exertions were repaid by a degree of success, which led to his adoption into the school of Raphael. Julio Romano and Francesco Penni first did justice to his talents by recommending him to their master, who, upon the first sight of his productions, placed him under Giovanni da Udine, who had the -management of the ornamental parts of the works then going on in the Vatican. But Pierino was soon found cqual not on- ly to assist Giovanni in the grotesque ornaments and in the stuccoes, but also Polidoro da Caravaggio in the antique subjects in chiaro-scuro, and sometimes also in executing the scripture subjects from the sketches of Raphael, as among others may be seen, according to Vasari, in the Hebrews crossing the river Jordan, the surrounding Jericho, the combat of Joshua with the Amorites, Abraham preparing to sacrifice Isaac, Jacob wrestling with the angel, Joseph and his brethren, &c. &c. The praise which he gained by these labours inspired him only with a more earnest desire to im- prove, and the mildness and attention of his manner procured for him the esteem and even love of his mas- ter Raphael. .” V After the death of Raphael, he was employed, with J. Romano and G. F. Penni, to continue and complete the adornment of the Vatican, great part of the execu- tion of which is the work of Del Vaga. For a short time he went to Florence, when the pope Leo X. was there, but quickly returned to Rome and pursued his labours, adding to them many original ones, the inventions of his own mind. Among them was the hall of the house of Maschione Baldassini, which he adorned with subjects from the Roman his- tory, with arms, trophies, &c. Perhaps the most per- fect of these minor works was the birth of Eve, which he painted in the church of S. Marcello, and in which he exhibited his decided predilection for the style of the Florentine school, and the success, with which he had studied the works of M. Angelo. Pierino was in full possession of public repute when he was compelled to fly for safety from Rome, by the sacking of that city in 1527. He took refuge in Genoa, where he was graciously received by prince Doria, who at that time projected the embellishment of his superb palace near the gate of St. Thomas. He had here a full opportunity of displaying his imagina- tion, as well as his executive powers; and here he in- dulged in those inventions which breathe the spirit of Raphael himself, and rival the exertions of his fellow pupil J. Romano, in the palazzo del T at Mantua: both do honour to the school they had studied in, and the patron who employed them. He is said not to have been sufficiently scrupulous in the choice of his coad- jutors, and the grandeur of his designs is consequently weakened by their imperfect execution. He died at Rome in 1547, aged 47. … • VAGA, Tagadempt or Swamma, in Ancient Geogra- fi/hy, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Caesariensis, E. of Cirta. Ptolemy. This town, named Baga by Plu- tarch, was situated S.E. of Victoria. It was one of the episcopal sees of Numidia. - VAGA, in Geography, a river of Russia, which rises near Poprovskoe, in the government of Vologda, and runs into the Dwina, at Ust Vagskoi, in the govern- ment of Archangel. VAGABOND, a person that wanders about, having no certain dwelling; or a sturdy beggar, &c. mentioned in divers statutes." . . . . . - “De Vagabundis, et aliis hominibus mendicantibus, qui Se nºminant.”—Trayelling men, &c. Charta 22 Hen. VI. “Item utemur, quod nullus vagabundus vegetur Seu deambuiet de nocte in viiia seu suburbio post pulsationem campanae nostrae communis, vocate Coverfeu i et si aliquis ibidem capiatur post puisatio- nem dictae campanae, ducaturad gaulam domini regis, et ibi morabitur usqua in crastinum, ut notitia personae Suat habeatur,” &c. MS. Cod. de Leg. et Stat. Burgi villae Mountgomer. temp. Hen. II. - All itinerant beggars, fortune-tellers, collectors for gaols, fencers, bearwards, players of interludes, min- streſs, jugglers, gypsies, &c. shall be reputed vaga- bonds, rogues, and sturdy beggars. 39 Eliz. c. 4. The court of Areopagus at Athens punishcd idle- ness, and exercised a right of examining every citizen in what manner he spent his time. The civil law ex- pelled all sturdy beggars from the city; and, in our own law, all idle persons or vagabonds, (whom our an- cient statutes describe to be “such as wake in the night, and sleep in the day, and haunt customable tav- erns, and alehouses, and routs about; and no man wot from whence they come or whither they go;” or such as are more particularly described by statute 17 Geo. II. c. 5. cailed the Vagrant Act, and divided into three classes, idle and disorderly fiersons, rogues and vaga- bonde, and neorrigible rogues,) are offenders against the good order, and blemishes in the government, of any kingdom. Idle and disorderly persons are thus described by the said statute : viz. all persons who threaten to run away, and leave their wives or children to the parish: all persons who shall unlawfully return to the parish or place from whence they have been legally removed by order of two justices, without bringing a certificate from the parish or place whereunto they beiong: all persons, who, not having wherewith to maintain them- selves, live idle without employment, and refuse to work for the usual and common wages given to other labourers in the like work, in the parishes or places where they are: all persons going about from door to door, or placing themselves in streets, highways, or passages, to beg or gather alms in the parishes or places where they dwell. And by 32 Geo. III. c. 45. all persons who by their wilful default and neglect permit their wives and children to become chargeable to their parishes or places; and it shall be made appear to two justices that such persons do not use proper means to get employment, or being able to work do neglect to work, or spend their money in alehouses or piaces of bad repute, or in any other improper manner, and do not employ a proper proportion of the money earned by them towards the maintenance of their wives and families, by which they or any of them become charge- able to such parish or place; and these shall be deem- ed idle and disorderly persons. Rogues and vagabonds are, by the same statute, such as follow : viz. all persons going about as patent- gatherers or gatherers of alms, under pretence of joss by fire, or other casualty; persons going about as col- lectors for prisons, gaols, or hospitals; fencers; bear- wards; common players of interiudes, and all persons who shall for hire, gain, or reward, act, represent, or perform, or cause to be acted, represented, or perform- ed, any interlude, tragedy, comedy, opera, play, farce, O i* VAGABOND, or other entertainment of the stage, or any part there- in, not being authorised by iaw; minstrels; jugglers; and all persons pretending to be gypsies, or wandering . in the habit or form of Egyptians; fortune-tellers, or persºs pretending to have skili in physiognomy, pal- mesºy, or like crafty science, or to tell fortunes; or using any subtile craft, to deceive and impose on any of , is majesty’s subjects; or playing or betting at any unlawful games or plays; all persons who run away, and leave their wives or children, whereby they be- come chargeable to any parish or place; all petty chap- men, and pediars, wandering abroad, not being duly licensed, or otherwise authorised by law ; all persons wandering abroad, and lodging in alehouses, barns, out-houses, or in the open air, not giving a good ac- count of themselves; all persons wandering abroad, and begging, pretending to be soldiers, mariners, or seafaring men (but by 43 Geo. III. c. 61. soldiers, Saiiors, mariners, and the wives of soldiers therein men- tioned, are relieved against the penalties of the vagrant acts); or pretending to go to work in harvest, without a certificate signed by the minister, and one of the churchwardens or overseers where he shall inhabit, that he hath a dwelling-house or place there; iliegally dealing in lottery tickets and shares; persons to the number of two or more assembling to destroy game in the might-time (39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 50.); and all other persons wandering abroad and begging, shall be deemed rogues and vagabonds. By 23 Geo. III. c. 88. any person apprehended, having upon him any pick- lock key, crow, jack, bit, or other implement, with an intent feloniously to break and enter into any dwelling- house, Warehouse, coach-house, stable, or out-house, or wao shall have upon him any pistol, hanger, cutlass, biudgeon, or other offensive weapon, with intent felo- niously to assault any person: or shall be found in or upon any dwelling-house, warehousc, coach-house, stable, or out-house, or in any enclosed yard or garden, or area beionging to any house, with intent to steal any goods or chattels, shall be deemed a rogue and vaga- bond within the meaning of the statute of the 17 Geo. II. So also by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 87, suspected persons and reputed thieves frequenting the Thames, and the quays and warehouses, &c. adjoining, with a felonious intent. Incorrigible rogues are by 17, Geo. II. c. 5. thus de- scribed : all end-gatherers offending against the statute of 13. Geo. I. being convicted of such offence, which offence, by t3-Geo. I. c. 23. is this, viz. the collecting, buying, receiving, or carrying any ends of yarn, wefts, thrums, short yarn, or other refuse of cloth, drugget, or other woollen goods; and the punishment of such persons is in order to prevent their committing abuses, by such practices, in the woollen manufacture: all per- sons apprehended as rogues and vagabonds, and escap- ed from the persons apprehending them ; or refusing to go before a justice; or to be examined on oath be- fore such justice; or refusing to be conveyed by such pass as is hereinafter directed; or knowingly giving a false account of themselves on such examination, after warning given them of their punishment: all rogues or vagabonds who shall break or escape out of any house of correction, before the expiration of the term for which they were committed or ordered to be con- fined by this act: all persons who, after having been punished as rogues and vagabonds, and discharged, shall again commit any of the said offences: all these shall be deemed incorrigible rogues. To which may be added, any person convicted of a third offence against the 6 Geo. III. c. 48. -- - *. Idle and disorderly persons are punishable by the statute 17 Geo. II. c. 5. with one month’s imprisonment in the house of correction, upon conviction before one justice, by his own view, confession, or oath of one witness. Any person may apprehend or carry before a justice any such person, going about from door to door, or placing themselves in streets, highways, or passages, to beg aims in the parishes or places where they dwell ; and if they shall resist, or escape from the person apprehending them, they shall be punished as rogues and vagabonds. The reward for apprehension is 58., to be paid under order of the justice, by any overseer where such offender shall be apprehended. Rogues and vagabonds are to be apprehended by a constable, or any other person, and conveyed to a jus- tice of the peace. The reward for apprehending is 10s., by order of the justice, payabie by the high con- stable, or, in case of no high constable, by the petty con- stable; and on refusal, the justice may by his warrant levy the sum of 20s. by distress and sale of the consta- ble’s goods, &c. (17 Geo. II. c. 5.) But the justice - shall not order the reward to be paid until the rogue or vagabond be publicly whipped (women excepted), or sent to the house of correction, and till the examina- tion required by the said act shall be actually trans- mitted to the next sessions. (32 Geo. III. c. 45.) The penalty for not apprehending such offender shall be, on conviction before one justice, or view or oath of one witness, a forfeiture of 108. to the poor by distress. The justices, or any two of them, shall, four times a year at least, order by warrant search for and appre- hension of rogues and vagabonds. (17 Geo. II. c. 5.) And by 25 Geo. II. c. 36. two justices may examine persons' apprehended on a privy search on oath as to their settlement and means of livelihood; and upon their failure of shewing that they have a lawful way of getting a livelihood, or of procuring some responsible housekeeper to testify to their character, and to give security (if required) for their future appearance, the justices may commit them to some prison or house of correction, for any time not exceeding six days, and or- der the overseers of the poor to advertise and describe them, &c.; and if no accusation shall be laid against them, they shall be discharged, or otherwise dealt with according to law. After examination by a justice, such justice shall order the offender apprehended to be publicly whipped by the constable, petty constable, or some other person appointed by them, or order him to be sent to the common gaol (27 Geo. III, c. 11.), or house of correction, till the next sessions, or for any less time (such time not being less than seven days, 32 Geo. III. c. 45.) as such justice shall think proper. —M. B. It is only here expressed generally, that he shall be publicly whipped; the form and manner there- of may perhaps be best collected from the provisions of former vagrant acts. By the 22 Hen. VIII. c. 12. the vagrant was to be carried to some market-town or other place, and there tied to the end of a cart naked, and beaten with whips throughout such market-town or other place, till his body should be bloody by reason of such whipping. By the 39 Eliz. c. 4. he was to be stripped naked from the middle upwards, and only whipped till his body should be bloody. The justices of the next sessions, after commitment of the offender, may, after examination, order a rogue or vagabond to be detained in the house of correction to hard VAGABOND. to hard labour, for any further time not exceeding six months, and an incorrigible rogue for any further time not exceeding two years, nor less than six months; and during the time of confinement, to be whipped in such manner, and at such times and place, as they shall think fit. Such person may, if the sessions think con- venient, afterwards be sent away by a pass; and if such person, being a male, is above the age of twelve years, the court may, before he is discharged from the house of correction, send him to be employed in his majesty’s service by sea or land; and if such incorigi- ble rogue, so ordered by the sessions to be detained in the house of correction, shall break out or make his escape, or shall offend again in like manner, he shall be guilty of felony, and be transported for seven years. 17 Geo. II. c. 5. - By 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 12. the justices in sessions may transport such rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars, as shall be duly convicted, and adjudged to be incorrigible. By 17 Geo. II. c. 5. if the child of any vagrant, above the age of seven years, shall be committed to the house of correction, the justices in sessions, if they see con- venient, at any time before such child be discharged, may order such child to be placed out as a servant or apprentice to any person who is willing to take such child, till such child shall be of the age of 21 years, or for a less time; and if any offender, who was found wandering with such child, shall be again found with the same child which was so placed out, he shall be deemed an incorrigible rogue. Where any vagrants have been committed to the house of correction till the next sessions, if, on examination of such persons, no place can be found to which they may be conveyed, the sessions shall order them to be detained and employed in the house of correction, until they can provide for themselves, or until the justices in sessions can place them in some lawful calling, as servants, apprentices, soldiers, mariners, or otherwise, either within this realm, or in the plantations in America. After such whipping or confinement as aforesaid, the •justice may, if he think convenient, by a pass under hand and seal, cause the offender to be conveyed to the place of his last legal settlement; but if it cannot be found, then to the place of his birth; or if he be under the age of 14 years, and have any father or mother living, then to the place of the abode of such father or mother, there to be delivered to some churchwarden or overseer. 17 Geo. II. c. 5. And it shall be certified in the pass, that such per- son has been actually publicly whipped, or confined in the house of correction as aforesaid. 32 Geo. III. c. 45. The justice shall make a duplicate of the pass and examination, and sign the same ; and shall afterwards transmit the duplicate of the pass, annexed to the ex- amination, to the next sessions, there to be filed and kept on record: and shall annex the duplicate of the examina- tion to the pass, and send it with the same ; and the said pass, examination and duplicate thereof, shall and may be read in any court of record as evidence. 17 Geo. II. c. 5. And the justice who shall make the pass shall with the pass cause likewise to be delivered to the consta- ble a note or certificate, ascertaining how they are to be conveyed, by horse, cart, or on foot, and what allow- ance such constable is to have for conveying them. The constable who shall receive such pass and certifi- eate, shall convey the person according to the direction of the pass, the next direct way to the place whither he is ordered to be sent, if it be in the same county, riding, division, corporation, or franchise; if not, he shall deliver the said person to the constable of the first town, parish, or place, in the next county, riding, di- vision, corporation, or franchise, in the direct way to the place whither he is to be conveyed, together with the pass and duplicate of the examination, taking his receipt for the same. And such constable shall, without delay, apply to some justice in the same county or division, who shall make the like certificate, and de- liver it to such constable, who shall with all speed con- vey such person unto the first parish town or place in the next county or division, in the direct way to the place to which he is to be conveyed; and so from one county or division to another, till they come to the place to which such person is sent. And the constable who shall deliver such person to the churchwarden or- other person ordered to receive him, shall at the same time deliver the said pass, with the duplicate of the examination, taking their receipt for the same. And whereas the present mode of conveying vagrants in the custody of a constable is frequently insufficient, it is enacted, that the justices in sessions may order that all rogues and vagabonds apprehended within their liberties, and ordered to be conveyed by pass, shall be conveyed by the master of the house of correction, or his servants, or by a constable, as they shall think proper; and they may make an order, that all consta- bles, to whom rogues and vagabonds brought from an- other county are delivered, shall forthwith convey them to the nearest house of correction or within their liberty, to be afterwards removed by such master or his servants as aforesaid, and according to the provisions of the aforesaid act. 32 Geo. III. c. 45. The passing of vagrants may be suspended on ac- count of sickness by 35 Geo. III. c. 101. - By 49 Geo. III. c. 124. it is enacted, that in all cases whenever the execution of any order of removal, or of any vagrant-pass, shall be suspended by virtue of the 35 Geo. III. c. 10 I. any other justice of the peace of the county, or other jurisdiction within which such re- moval or pass shall be made, may direct and order the same to be executed, and the charges incurred to be paid, and may carry into execution any such amended orders, as fully as the same can be done by the justices who shall make the order of removal, or the justice who shall grant the pass. - Any justice before whom a vagrant shall be carried may order him to be searched, and his bundles to be inspected, by the constable or other officer in his pre- sence ; and if it shall appear that such vagrant shall be found to have sufficient wherewithal to pay for his pas- sage, either in whole or in part, the justice shall order so much of the money to be paid, or other effects found upon such vagrant to be sold, and employed to- wards the expense of taking up and passing such va- grant, returning the overplus, after deducting the charges of such sale. 17 Geo. II. c. 5. * The justices in sessions shall limit what rates and al- lowances, by the mile or otherwise, shall be made for conveying or maintaining rogues, vagabonds, or incor- rigible rogues; and make such other orders for the more regular proceeding therein, as they shall think proper. 32 Geo. III. c. 45. If any petty constable or governor of any house of correction shall counterfeit any such certificate or re- ceipt, or knowingly permit any alteration to be made therein, V A. G. V A. G. therein, he shall forfeit 50l. And if he shall not con- vey or cause to be conveyed such vagrants, or not to deliver them to the proper person ; or if any constable shall refuse to receive any such person, or to give such receipt, he shall forfeit 20l. by distress and sale, by warrant of the justices in sessions, where the offence shall be committed; half to the informer, and half to the treasurer, to be applied by him as part of the public stock; returning the overplus upon demand, charges of distress being first satisfied. 17 Geo. II. c. 5. The parish or place to which any rogue, vagabond, or incorrigible rogue, shall be conveyed, shall employ in work, or place in some work-house or alms-house, the person so conveyed, until he shall betake himself to some service or other employment; and if he shall refuse to work, or not betake himself to some service or other employment, the overseers may cause him to be carried to some justice, to be sent to the house of correction, there to be kept to hard labour. 17 Geo. II. c. 5. - But if the churchwarden, or other person who shall receive any person so sent, shall think the examination to be false, he may carry the person so sent before a justice, who if he see cause, may commit such person to the house of correction till the next sessions; and the justices there, if they see cause, may deal with such. person as an incorrigible rogue : but the person so sent shall not be removed from the place to which sent, but by order of two justices, in the same manner as other poor persons are removed to the place of their settle- Iment. - , If any person shall knowingly permit any rogue, vaga- bond, or incorrigible rogue, to lodge or take shelter in his house, barn or other out-house or building, and shall not apprehend and carry him before a justice, or give notice to the constable so to do; and shall be con- victed thereof by confession, or oath of one witness, be- fore one justice, he shall forfeit not exceeding 40s. nor less than 108., half to the informer, and half to the poor, by distress and sale; and if any charge shall be brought on any parish or place by means of such offence, the same shall be answered to the said parish or place by such offender, and be levied by distress and sale of his goods as aforesaid. And if sufficient distress cannot be found, such offender shall be committed to the house of correction by the justice, for any time not exceeding one month. 17 Geo. II. c. 5. * - To defray the expences of apprehending, conveying, and maintaining-rogues, vagabonds, and incorrigible rogues, and defraying all other expences necessary for the execution of this act not herein before provided for, the justices in sessions may cause such sums as shall be necessary to be raised in the same manner as the general county rate. Any person aggrieved by any act of any justice out of sessions, in or concerning the execution of this act, may appeal to the next general or quarter-sessions of the county, riding, liberty, or division, giving reasona- ble notice thereof; whose order thereupon shall be final. ..” Persons sued for any thing done in the execution of this act may plead the general issue; and if they re- cover, shall have treble costs. In all cities and towns, where by virtue of special acts of parliament the charge of passing vagrants is to be defrayed in other manner than is by this act directed, or where such vagrants, by virtue of special statutes, are to be apprehended and conveyed by any person or officer, other than those named in this act, the same shall not be altered hereby. And persons conveyed in London, shall not be delivered in any other precinct within the city, but in the next county. 17 Géo. II. c. 5. VAGAI, in Geography, a river of Russia, which runs into the Irtisch, 8 miles S. E. of Tobolsk. VAGAL, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Caesariensis, on the route from Rusucur- rum to Catama, between Gadaum Castra and Castel- lum Tingitanum, according to the Itinerary of Anto- Ill ITC. - VAGENI, BAGENI, or Vagienni, a people of Italy, in Liguria, towards the sources of the river Eridanus, according to Silius Italicus. Pliny calls them Vagien- ni Ligures. VAGERA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed; 90 miles N. E. of Mecca. VAGESA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo god Siva. He is also called Vageswara, or the lord Vage- sa; sometimes pronounced Bagis, and Bagiswar. His consort Parvati, as his energy or sakti, is named Vages- Wari. (See PARVATI and Siva.) In the latter article, it will be seen that some etymologists, from this simi- larity of name, strengthened by other characteristic co- incidences, conceive Bagesa and Bacchus to be names of the same person. VAGESWARA, a name of the Hindoo god Siva: meaning the lord Vagesa, as noticed under that article. VAGINA, a Latin term, literally signifying a sheath, or. Scabbard; used on divers occasions. As, VAGINA, in Architecture, is used for the lower part of a terminus; because resembling a sheath, out of which the statue seems to issue. See TERMs. The vagina is that long part between the base and the capital; and is formed in divers manners, and with divers ornaments. VAGINA, in Anatomy, the membranous canal leading from the external organs of generation to the neck of the uterus, and receiving the male organ in coitu. See GENERATION. - The vagina is liable to an inflammation after delive- ry, occasioned by the head of the child being long re- tained in the pelvis. If the swelling and inflammation. are not very great, they are generally removed by the discharge of the lochia; but if the internal membrane of the vagina be inflamed, emollient injections must be occasionally used, and a piece of prepared sponge should be introduced, to prevent its coalescing. The sponge may be thus prepared: Take a piece of a proper size for keeping the vagina open, when it is expanded; soak it in warm water; then roll it tight from end to end with a string; cut off any hard lumps, and lay it to dry; then take off the string, anoint it with lard, and introduce it into the vagina, the moisture of whicl: will expand it. If the pressure on this part was so long continued as to obstruct the circulation in it, a mortifi- cation will ensue, which may be either total or partial: if it be total the patient will die; if partial only, the mortified parts will slough off. This may be known by great pain after delivery ; a fetid smell, and a dis- charge of sharp ichor at first from the vagina, then pus and matter. When this is the case, emollient fomen- tations may be thrown up from time to time; dossils of lint may be dipped in some proper balsam, and ap- plied to the parts in order to deterge and heal them; and when the sloughs are all cast off, great care should be taken to prevent the vagina from growing together, either V A G IN A. either by introducing dossils of lint, or pieces of sponge into it. VAGINA, Infierforate. The vulva is liable to two different kinds of imperforation, which ought to be dis- climinated. First, the labia and nymphat may be every where united and blended together, the orifice of the meatus urinarius being totally covered by them, so that no urine can be voided. Secondly, the hymen may form a complete septum, or else some part of the vagina may be closed with a membrane of similar structure ; in which circumstances, although the va- gina be imperforate, there is no impediment to the free issue of the urine. - x - The first case constitutes a species of malformation, attended with the greatest urgency, and which indeed admits of no delay of that operation by which the con- joined parts are to be separated. The kind of raphe, situated where the natural opening ought to be, should be immediately sought for, and here the requisite di- vision of the parts is to be made, the incisions being carried to the necessary depth, yet always with a cau- tious hand, lest an opening be made into the bladder, or rectum. Concretions of the labia and nymphae to- gether may be the consequence of ulcerations of these parts; but the closure of the vulva is then never com- plete. The frequent evacuation of the urine separates the parts; and if not capable of preventing their union critirely, it is at least sufficient to maintain an aperture opposite the meatus urinarius. The narrowness of the external opening, however, may obstruct the free dis- charge of the urine ; and urinary calculi may even form more or less deeply in the Vagina. Now, with- out taking into the account other functions of the sex- ual organs, the motives already explained are quite pressing enough to make the removal of the deformity right and adviseable. º, Before the age of puberty, no inconvenience can arise from the vagina being completely shut up by the hymen, or some other analogous membrane. But, at this period, the menstrual blood collects first in the vagina, and then in the uterus. Severe periodical colic pains, a gradual distension of the uterus, the ab- sence of the menses, impairment of the health, a varie- ty of nei vous complaints, and sometimes even inflamma- tory symptoms, which recur or are exacerbated perio- dicaily, afford strong presumptive grounds for suspect- ing an impei foration of the vagina. More information may be acquired from a careful examination of the parts. In the greater number of instances, the mem- branous septum is distended with the menstrual blood, and even sometimes protrudes from the vulva, in the form of a brownish, elastic, fluctuating tumour. Almost an immediate stop has been often put to alarming symptoms of long duration, by making an incision through the membrane causing the obstruction. A crucial wound will be sufficient, without cutting any of the membrane away; but we are recommended not to negiect to keep the newly divided parts asunder for a few days, by means of a tent, or a dossil of lint. Labours are sometimes so difficult, and attended with such injury, that inflammation, and even ulceration of the vagina, may be thus produced. These effects may be followed by considerable contractions of this canal, arising from the shrinking of the cicatrices. However, such a case is not what we have now to consider, our remarks being at present restricted to examples in which the vagina is altogether impervious. The ostincae may be entirely obliterated by congeni- tal malformation, the effects of difficult labours, or any other circumstances producing inflammation in the part. In all these cases, menstruation and conception are rendered impossible, and a train of phenomena is observed, resembling those of the congenital imperfo- ration of the vulva and vagina. But the ostincae may become closed, from some accidental cause, subse- quently to conception, and then the defect cannot be known until the period of delivery. In this last case, it is highly important to ascertain correctly whether the orifice of the womb is really obliterated; or whether an obliquity of that organ, or some other derangement of it, may not impose upon us? - .* The re-establishment of the natural opening is al- ways indispensable, and it is materially facilitated by the distended state of the uterus. The operation can be most conveniently done, either with the instrument called a pharyngotomus, or a curved bistoury, which has a cutting edge that extends only a short distance from the point. See Delpech, Précis Elémentaire des Maladies reputées Chirurgicales, tom. i. p. 497, &c. VAGINA, Prolańsus of, denotes, in Surgery, a species of bearing down, arising from a protrusion or descent of the vagina. The vagina is liable to two kinds of prolapsus. In one case, all its tunics are included in the protrusion, and at the same time that the part falls downwards, it becomes inverted. In the other example, it is only the relaxed lining of the vagina which de- scends and makes a protrusion. The first species of prolapsus vaginae is subject to varieties. For instance, sometimes the whole circum- ference of the part falls down; sometimes only a por- tion of one of its sides. In the first event, the prolap- sus forms a cylindrical tumour, which consists of all the coats of the vagina, presenting an opening at its lower termination, and having an external covering, which is composed of the internal lining of the vagina. But when the protrusion comprehends only a portion of one of the sides of this tube, the tumour occurs in the form of a cul-de-sac, which can be put back into the vagina with the finger or probe, and the lower end of which is without any aperture. The following differences are also remarkable in cases where the lining of the vagina constitutes the prolapsus. In some instances, the lining of the whole circumference of the part protrudes in the form of a cylindrical swelling, consisting of a du- plicature of that coat. In other examples, the mem- brane lining the vagina is relaxed and elongated only at one or more particular points, and produces one or more external swellings of the cul-de-sac figure. This last case is liable to be mistaken for polypi of the va- gina. - The possibility of a prolapsus of the whole of the vagina, together with all its coats, has been doubted by Sabatier and levret; but, as Richter conceives, without any real foundation. If, as the latter author observes, it is possible for the inner coat of the vagina to separate from the external, with which it is inti- mately connected, an event which every body admits as happening in the second kind of prolapsus vaginaº, why should it be impossible for the whole of this tube, together with all its coats, to be separated from the surrounding parts, to which it is not so closely adhe- rent : Sometimes the rectum, inclusive of all its coats, forms what is termed a hralaſhsus ani, and why may not the vagina be displaced in a similar manner, since it must be much more liable than the rectum to be propelled downwards in the violent straining wº 3. KeS V A. G. V A. G. takes place during parturition ? Richter asks, whether every prolapsus uteri is not accompanied with such a displacement of the vagina 2 Cases are upon record, where the prolapsus of the vagina happened all on a sudden, in consequence of falls, the starting of a horse, &c. (Hoin, Levret, Journal de Médécine, tom. xl.) Here it cannot be supposed, that the case was merely a protrusion of the inner coat, which can only be gra- dually relaxed and elongated. Lastly, instances, in which the prolapsus of the vagina was several inches in length, have been gradually reduced by means of external pressure. (Hoin.) How can we imagine, says Richter, that such cases could proceed from any degree of relaxation, to which the membranous lining of the vagina is liable 3 It must be acknowledged, however, that this species of prolapsus is much less common than the second kind; that when it occurs, it is generally as a conse- quence of a prolapsus of the uterus; and that it can- not easily happen at all, except about the time of de- livery. A prolapsus of the inner coat principally oc- curs in married women who have had many children, and been frequently troubled with fluor albus. It has, however, been occasionally met with in young unmar- ried females. The prolapsus of one particular portion of the inner coat of the vagina, is generally the conse- quence of a hernia in this part; but sometimes in cases of dropsy, a portion of the vagina, containing fluid, protrudes in the form of a cyst, or sac. When the whole circumference of all the coats is involved in the prolapsus, if a finger or probe, be in- troduced into the cylindrical tumor, which the vagina then forms, the os uteri will be found to be situated closely behind the external pudenda; for this sort of bearing down is always attended with a displacement of the womb, in the direction downwards. In many instances, particularly when the prolapsus has taken place suddenly, and is quite recent, the patient expe- riences a variety of complaints about the bladder and rectum, and the evacuation of the urine and faeces be- comes more or less interrupted. That the protrusion comprehends all the coats of the vagina, is frequently quite manifest from the thickness of the cylinder. Also, when the accident has occurred suddenly, or it can be easily reduced, there is always reason to con- clude that the prolapsus is of the preceding descrip- tion. The prolapsus of the inner membrane of the vagina generally arises gradually, and often as a consequence of a long-continued fluor aibus. It either does not admit of reduction, or, if reduced, it lies in the va- gina, and fills its cavity. It has very little effect upon the uterus itself, which usually remains in its natural position, and it seldom produces any difficulty in the evacuation of the urine and faeces. When only a part of one side of the inner membrane of the vagina is re- laxed, elongated, and protruded, the Sweijing can be pushed back into the vagina with the finger, and thus the nature of the complaint becomes manifest. The prolapsus, arising from a hernia in the vagina, can only be ascertained by attending to the symptoms which characterise this sort of rupture, and which are noticed in the article HERNIA. *g. ta A prolapsus of all the coats of the vagina, while it is small and recent, can be reduced by pressure without difficulty. But the thing which demands the greatest care, is to hinder a relapse. This is accomplished by Vol. XXXVIII. the employment of a pessary, and the use of astringent applications. When, however, the last species of prolapsus has ex- isted a long while, its reduction is more difficult; for the vagina, after it has remained displaced a certain time, begins to be affected with swelling and induration. Ac- cording to the reports of Hoin and Levret, a large pro- trusion of this kind, ten inches in length, was so dimi- nished by keeping the patient invariably confined upon her back, that in the course of a month the rest of the tumour admitted of being reduced Indeed, as Richter observes, there can be little doubt, that the treatment which has been advised by some authors for the diminu- tion of very old enormous omental ruptures, would here be equally applicable; viz. long confinement in bed upon the back, with the buttocks somewhat eleva- ted ; continued, well-directed, external pressure; a very low diet, and repeated mercurial purges. By such means, no doubt, the swelling might be in many instan- ces sufficiently lessened to admit of reduction. During the state of pregnancy, a prolapsus of the foregoing kind may be attended with considerable em- barrassment, and even danger. In one case where such a prolapsus, five inches in length, took place during labour, it became necessary to turn the child, and the displaced vagina was also lacerated. The woman, however, recovered. (Pietsch, Journal de Médécine, tom. xxxiv.) In another case, where the prolapsus be- came as large as a man’s head at every return of the labour-pains, the practitioner succeeded in holding the parts back, while the woman was delivered with the aid of the forceps. (See Loder's Journal, I b. p. 490.) When this is impracticable, it is necessary, according to Richter, to make an incision through both sides of the prolapsus; a proceeding, says he, to which the prac- titioner may the more readily make up his mind, inas- much as the parts have even been lacerated, without any ill consequences, as we have already related. The prolapsus of the inner membrane of the vagina, while small and recent, may perhaps be removed by astringent applications. When, however, it is of long standing, indurated, and of large size, much expectation of success from this treatment cannot be entertained. Richter sees no reason why, in such a case, the redundant relaxed pait should not be cut away, especially when the disease is accompanied with ulceration, and other serious complaints. As he observes, there can be no doubt that a prolapsus of the inner membrane of the vagina, when limited to one part of this canal, may always be safely extirpated either with a knife or a liga- ture. Richter’s Anfangsgr. der Wundarzneykunst, b. 7. Vierte Kapitel. VAGINAE Femoris Tensor in Anatomy, a name given by Albinus to a muscle in the thigh, called by others the membranosus, and the musculus fasciæ latae; and by some musculus Apon EUROTICUs; which see. VAGINAE. Uteri Shhincter. See GENERATION. VAGINA Foliorum in Botany and Vegetable Physi- ology, the sheath of the leaves, (see LEAF and SHEATH,) most peculiarly observable in grasses, and their allies, consists of that part of the leaf which is below the stiftula, by which it is crowned. The Vagina em- braces the stem, or straw, more or less closely. Its inside is usually quite smooth, and polished, while the outside is generally ribbed, rough, or hairy, though commonly less so than the leaf itself. The pubescence in some instances is directed contrariwise to that of 2 F the V A G V A H the leaf. In most grasses, particularly the corn tribe, the sheaths of one or two of the uppermost leaves are much dilated, serving the important purpose of pro- tection to the young panicle or spike of flowers. A singular theory respecting the cause of Smut in grain was, many years since, published by the Rev. Henry Bryant, of Heydon, Norfolk. (See SMUT.) The mis- chief was, by this writer, attributed to an accidental tightness in the summit of the sheath of the leaf, by which the young ear was, in a manner, strangled ; an hypothesis totally insufficient to account for the phe- nomenoll, The term vagina is, in like manner, applied to the lower part of the foliage of the Crocus, the 'Snow- drop, and various stemless plants related to one or the other, in which the leaf tapers down into a sort of sheathing footstalk. But it is erroneously exempli- fied by professor Willdenow, in his Principles of Bo- tany, by the genus Polygonum, whose cylindrical membrane, attached to the inner side of each foot- stalk, and surrounding the stem above every joint, is a real sheathing STIPULA, see that term ; the footstalk being interposed between it and the leaf. So in Sher- anacoce, and other plants of the extensive and various order of Rubiaceae, the membranous intrafoliaceous stiftula must not be taken for a vagina, though it be connected, ever so closely, with the footstalks at each side; because the analogy of most plants of that order shew it to be a real stiflula, which from its situation, and the varieties in its form, structure and aspect, is of peculiar botanical importance. VAGINALIS GULAE, in Anatomy, the muscular stratum surrounding the mucous membrane of the oesophagus. See DEGLUTITION. - VAGINALIS Testis, the serous membrane surround- ing the testicle, and forming the bag, in which it is included. There is also a covering, composed of con- densed cellular membrane and the fibres of the cre- master, which surrounds the spermatic cord and the testis with its membranes. This is called tunica vagi- nalis communis. See GENERATION. VAGINALIS, in Ornithology, a genus of the order Grallae of birds, of which there is one species, viz. the V. alba, or white sheath-bill of Latham. Found in New Zealand, and other islands of the Southern OCC2AI). VAGINARIA, in Botany, named from vagina, a sheath ; because the stem is clothed with leafless sheaths. Pursh 58. This genus is adopted by Pursh from Persoon, and its distinctive character consists in the seed being surrounded at the base with three scales, and three intermediate bristles. One or the other of these parts doubtless originates in the three 8tamens. The stigmas, moreover, are said to be three. The only species mentioned by Pursh is V. Ri- chardi. (Fuirena scirpoidea; Michaux Boreal.—Amer. v. l. 38. t. 7.)—“ Stem leafless, sheathed. Spike ovate, mostly solitary. Scales lanceolate-spatulate.”— Native of inundated fields, from Georgia to Florida. Perennial. Pursh. The aspect of the plant is like a RESTIo ; see that article, FUIRENA, and ScrapUs. When we advert to the many different appearances of these scales, or bristles, in different species of the last- named genus, and even their absence in some, we hesitate to admit the Vaginaria, without examining one species at least, or being informed of any others on which it is founded. VAGIOW, in Geography, a town on the west coast of the island of Celebes. - VAGLIANO, a town of Italy, in Friuli; ten miles west of Udina. VAGNEY, a town of France, in the department of the Vosges ; four miles east of Remiremont. VAGNIACIS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Great Britain, marked in the 2d Iter of Antonine, between Noviomagus, situated, according to Camb- den, Gale, and Horsley, at Woodcote near Croydon and Durobrivac or Rochester ; and supposed to be Northfleet. VAGOS, in Geografthy, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, near the Atlantic coast; six miles south of Bragança Nova. VAGRAM, a town of the archbishopric of Salz- burg; six miles south of Salzburg. VAGRANTS, in Law. See VAGABOND. VAGSKOI, UST, in Geography, a town of Russia, in the government of Archangel, at the union of the rivers Vaga and Dwina ; twenty miles N. N. W. of Schenkursk. VAGUM, in Anatomy, a name given to the eighth pair of nerves of the medulla oblongata, called the flar vagum, because dispersed to divers parts of the body. See NERVous System. VAGUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a promontory situ- ated, according to Ptolemy, on the eastern coast of the isle of Corsica. - VAGUS, in Geography. See WAAG. VAHALIS, or VACHALIs, Wahal, in Ancient Ge- ografthy, a name given to the left branch of the Rhine, after its separation at its entrance into the country of the Batavi, which afterwards joined the Meuse. The territory between these rivers was denominated “ In- sula Batavorum.” * VAHAN, in Hindoo Mythology, is the general name of the different vehicles by which their gods and goddesses are conveyed. The goddesses are usu- ally seen accommodated with the vehicles of their lords; being indeed, as is declared, the same. We will here notice such vehicles as are appropriated to the different deities. Brahma, being a personifica- tion of the earth, or matter, and remotely participant also in representing humidity, rides the semi-aquatic bird, the sluggish swan or goose, called Hahnsa : his consort Saraswati, goddess of harmony and arrange- ment, is sometimes seen mounted on a species of heron. See SARAswati and SIVA. Vishnu, the conservator, is the air; and he, like his brother Jupiter of Greece, cleaves his own ele- ment on a towering eagle, which the Hindoos call by several names; among them Garuda and Superna. Siva, the changing or destroying power, is a per- sonification of fire; he also corresponds in character with some of the Jupiters of the West, and rides a white bull, called Mandi. His sakti or consort, Par- vati, is often seen turret-crowned, in a car drawn by tigers or lions. Virgil’s description of Cybele applies equally to the mountain-goddess Parvati. “Alma parens Idaca deum, cui Dindyma cordi, Turrigeraeque urbes, bijugique ad frana leones.” AEn. x. 258. Dryden V A. H. V A H Dryden changes her lions into tigers. « Hear thou great mother of the deities, With turrets crowned, on Ida's holy hill, Fierce tigers reined and curbed obey thy will.” Pitt, however, in his invocation, restores the lions. « Great guardian queen of Ida's hills and woods, Supreme, majestic mother of the gods ! Whose strong defence proud tow’ring cities share, While roaring lions whirl thy mighty car.” In most languages of the East, it may be observed, the same word means both lion and tiger. The Greeks or Romans, borrowing the attribute from the East, may easily have misconceived its name. (See CyBELE and PARVAT1.) It might be shewn that most of the mystical ceremonies practised by the Western heathens in honour of the goddess Cybele, were; and are, common also in India in honour of Parvati. The peacock is likewise, sacred to the latter, and is, as we shall presently notice, the valian of one of her family, Kartikya, otherwise called Komara; and the being deemed his sakti is called Kaumari, and is like- wise so conveyed. Having thus seen that the vehicles of the three great powers composing the Hindoo triad are severally the swan, the eagle, and the bull, we proceed to notice how the inferior deities are accommodated. Surya, or the sun, rides sometimes a lion, but gene- rally in a golden car drawn by seven horses, or by one horse with seven heads. The horse is sometimes called Oochisnava (which see :) but we are in some doubt if correctly. Soma, the moon, is drawn in his silvery car (the moon is masculine in India) by an antelope. Pavaka, the god of fire, rides an ardent ram. Kama, the Indian Cupid, rides a luri, or par- rot. Varuna, genius of the waters, bestrides a fish, as does also Ganga, the Ganges, primal goddess of rivers. Gamesa, the god of prudence and policy, has an elephant as his vahan, it being supposed the ani- mal of greatest forecast: a rat is also deemed a very sagacious animal, and Ganesa is sometimes seen so mounted. He is reputed the eldest son of Parvati, and is otherwise named Pollear; which see. Kartikya, her second son, or rather her lord’s son is borne by a peacock, as before noticed. Indra, regent of the fir- mament, has a three-trunked elephant, named Iravat. Vairava, a son of Siva, rides a buffalo, sometimes a dog. Vyagrayahi, and Vrishadwaja, are names of Parvati and Siva, meaning tiger-mounted, and one who rides a bull. Astrologers have mounted the rest of the planets, as well as the sun and moon. Mangala, or Mars, on a horse, sometimes on a ram : his fiery nature con- nects him sometimes with the igneous Pavaka, who rides the latter animal. Boodh, or Mercury, being by some accounts a manifestation of Vishnu, at any rate bearing the same name with a disputed avatara or incarnation of that god, shares his vehicle, and the planet is mounted on an eagle. Vrihashati, or Jupiter, on a boar. Sukra, or Venus, on a rat, sometimes on a camel. The slow-moving Sami, or Saturn, on the heavy elephant, or ill-omened raven. Rahu, the dra- gon’s head, on a tortoise or owl: and Kehu, the tail or descending node, on a frog. The word vahan, is usually pronounced as one broad syllable ; and it has been surmised that the English van and wain may bear some etymological affinity to it. w VAHARA, in Geography, a town of Arabia De- Serta; 150 miles west of Jamama. VAHINGEN. See VAYHINGEN. VAHL, MARTIN, in Biografthy, a botanical writer of good and original authority, born in Norway in 1751, received his first education at the school of Ber- gen, which he left in 1766, and was then entered a member of the university of Copenhagen. Residing two years with the Rev. Hans Ström, an able zoolo- gist and botanist, (see STRoRM1A,) he imbibed a taste for similar studies, especially for systematic botany, to which he, from that period, to his last hour, devoted himself. In order to obtain every possible advantage in this branch of his education, he repaired to Upsal, where he studied for five years under the celebrated Linnaeus, and became one of the most distinguished pupils of that great man. Some personal estrange- ment unfortunately took place between the preceptor and his promising disciple, from a domestic cause, to which we have already alluded, at the conclusion of our article LINNAEUs. It was scarcely to be expected that the dignified professor, then in the zenith of his prosperity and honours, could favourably regard the inclination of one of his daughters, for a student who had his own fortune to seek; nor is any thing recorded of this daughter, which might have justified a roman- tic attachment, or adventurous pursuit, on the part of the young man. We know not in what year Mr. Vahl quitted Upsal, but in 1779 he was appointed lecturer, or demonstrator, of Botany, in the garden at Copenhagen, where he taught his science, with great applause, for three years. After this period had elapsed, he was chosen by the king of Denmark; to undertake a scientific tour, at his majesty’s ex- pence; in the course of which he visited Holland. France, Spain, and part of Barbary, as well as Italy, Switzerland, and England. He not only investigated and collected the wild and garden plants of the coun- tries through which he passed, but, in consequence of liberal introductions, to all who were learned or occupied in the same study, he was admitted to the chief libraries and museums in Holland, France, and England; of all which advantages he made the most diligent use. He was allowed free access to the col- lection of sir Joseph Banks, and the manuscripts of the deceased Solander, and the writer of the present article used habitually to devote a day in every week to study with him in the herbarium of Linnaeus, for their mutual benefit. If the acute and learned Dane did not, in every instance, conduct his inquiries and communications with that high sense of honour and delicacy which have been exemplified in the charac- ters of a Banks, a Davall, Afzelius, Hosack, and many others, in the same circumstances, he by no means neglected to improve science, or to benefit its cultiva- tors. We st-culd riot here have alluded to what is best forgotten, had not a circumstance of this kind becſ, already before the public, in the Transactions of the Linnaean Society, v. 2, 209; and had not tºe rema i. there made, been justified by a subsequent commu- nication of the late Mr. Dryander, relative to the unauthorized and unacknowledged use of Solander’s papers, discoverable by some ſittle mistakes copied from thence. 2 F Q ()1) V A H V A H On returning to Copenhagen in 1785, Mr. Vahl was made professor of natural history in that university ; and was appointed editor of the Flora Danica, begun at the royal expence by Oeder, continued with much imperfection by Muller, but restored to its original excellence by Vahl. The better to perform his duty. he visited certain tracts of country, previously iitle explored by botanists; especialiy the coasts and moun- tains of Norway, as far as Wa d’e. Being nºw mar- ried, and settled in his native land, he under to k +}:e pui.;ication of his discoveries and rema ks, in a foiio work, entitiº d Symbolæ Botanica, of which t e first fasciculus appeared in 1791), tise second in 1791, alid the third in 1794. Each is accompanied by twenty- five uriceioured piates, not highly fiſſis ed, but ex- pressive and co. rect. The principal object of this work was, in the first instance, to illustrate Forst all’s discoveries, vely incorrectiy displayed in his own post- humous Flora; a.,d the materia's for the exemplifica- tion of w.ich ace, it seems, but partially and imperſ cºly prese, ved. Vahl’s Symbolae are moreover en iched with descriptions and figures of new or are piants from vai ious other sources. The communications of the au- thor’s numerous correspondents, particularly of Von Rohr and other’s from t'e Danish West Indian colonies, are added to the acquisitions of his own journeys; and the whole forms a large body of valuable practical infºrmation. His Eclogaº American ae, published in 1796, are a sequel to the Symbolæ, on the same plan, but devoted to American plants. - In 1799 and 1800 professor Vahl received the pe- cuniary support of the Danish government in a second tour to Holland and Paris, for botanical purposes; chiefly, we presume, with a view to the composition of a great work, long in his contemplation, on the model of the Linnaean Shecies Plantarum. Of this he just lived to publish the first volume, under the title of Enumeratio Plantarum, in 1804, in 8vo. including the classes Monandria and Diandria. The second, con- taining only the Triandria Monogynia, was published by his widow in 1805. The copious introduction of new species, the ample original descriptions, the well chosen synonyms, and judicious remarks, render this work far superior to any other of its kind, giving it all the merit of an original performance. Besides the ad- dition of the essential generic characters, as in the Sys- fema Vegetabilium of Linnaeus, Vahl’s Enumeratio is enriched with a compendious description of the pecu- liar habit of each genus, after a plan first introduced by Gouan, in his Flora, as well as Hortus Monsheliensis, and which Linnaeus justly commended, as leading the way to improvement in natural classification. Nor must We pass by, without commendation, the excellent generic and specific index to each volume, an appen- dage of whose value we are seldom duly sensible, but from its inaccuracy or omission in other instances, The neglect, or bad construction, of indexes, and the omission of references to pages, are defects of the mo- dern French school, which may be avoided by any bo- tanical writer, even of the most humble scientific pre- tensions, and which the most learned ought not to ne- glect. The sequel of professor Vahl’s last publication, as far as concerns grasses, was reported to have been left by its author in considerable forwardness, and was, if we mistake not, announced for publication. Some- thing to this effect is found in the preface to the second Volume; but we know not that any part of these valu- able materials has appeared. The botanical professor- ship at Copenhagen was conferred on Mr. Vahl, after his return frcm his second visit to France, but he lived not long to enjoy his well-merited fame and distinction. He died on the 24th of December, 1804, in the 54th year of his age, leaving a widow and six children. His library, herbatin m. and manuscripts were purchased by the ki.g. of Denmark for 3000 dollars, about 67 5!., besides an annual pension of 400 dollars, or 90/., to his widow, and of l’O dºllars to each of his children. It was intended that the above-mentioned manusciipts, including a finished treatise on the class Syngenesia, should be edited by the successor of professor Vahl, M . Horneman, to whom the continuation of the Flora Danica was likewise confided. We are not informed of the prºgress of either. Besides the botanical writings of professor Vahl, he has published some zoological papers in the Danish language, especially relating to birds; and has describ- ed a fish, constituting a new genus, by the name of Holocentrus lentigimosus, in the third volume of the Transactions of the Natural History Society of Copen- hagen.—A more detailed review than we could here undertake, of the first volume of the Enumeratio Plan- tarum, may be seen in Sims and Konig’s excellent Annals of Botany, v. 2, 179, where Mr. Konig has no- ticed every new article of information, and corrected every incidental mistake, with consummate accuracy and knowledge. We have already advanced an opi- nion similar to that of this able critic, respecting Vahl's removal of the Linnaean SciTAMINEAE, see that article, from the class Momandria to Gynandria ; a measure barely to be excused by our supposition, and not at all to be justified by any alleged reason.—Vahl's Works. Sims and Konig’s Ann. of Bot. v. 1 and 2. . VAHLIA, in Botany, received that name from Thunberg, in honour of his contemporary professor Vahl. (See the last article.) The same genus was originally destined by the great Linnaeus to commemo- rate Jean Jacques Rousseau, as appears by specimens in the Linnaean herbarium, marked Roussea caftemsis : but he did not live to publish this genus, which his son, through inadvertence probably, introduced into the Sufiſhlementum Plantarum, by the name of RUSSELLA, see that article and Rouss EA. Those names being otherwise appropriated, the Wahlia is finaily establish- ed.--Thumb. Nov. Gen. 36. Schreb. 176. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1354. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Juss. 318. Lamarck Illustr. t. 183. (Russelia; Linn. Suppl. 24. Murr. in Linn. Syst. Veg. ed. 14, 270.)—Ciass and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Calycanthema, Linn. Onagraº, Juss. - Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth superior, of five lanceolate, acute, concave, spreading, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals five, ovate, concave, spreading, undivided, not half so long as the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, in- serted into the calyx, between the petals, and full as long as its leaves, threadshaped, erect; anthers incum- bent, oblong, with four furrows. Pist. Germen infe- rior, roundish ; styles two, threadshaped, slightly spreading, longer than the stamens; stigmas simple, obtuse, Peric. Capsule ovate, abrupt, marked with five elevated lines, and crowned with the calyx, of one cell and two valves. Seeds numerous, minute. Ess. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five, alter- nate with the stamens. Capsule inferior, of one cell and two valves, crowned with the permanent calyx,- Seeds numerous. 1. V. cafensis, Cape Vahlia. Thumb. Nov. Gen. 36, V. A. I V A I 36, with a plate. Prodr. 48. Willd. n. I. (Russelia capensis; Linn. Suppl. 75.)—Gathered by Thunberg, in sandy ground, near the valley of Verkeerde, at the Cape of Good Hope, flowering in December. It has not yet been brought to England. The root is woody and perennial. Stems several, herbaceous erect, a span or more in height, simple or branched, leafy, clothed with short, soft, prominent, viscid pubescence, like ail the rest of the herbage. Leaves opposite, Ses- sile, linear-lanceolate, entire, pale green, an inch or inch and half long. Flowers yellow, in small, axil ary, nearly sessile, tufts, about the upper part of the branches, accompanied by a small lanceolate bractea. The ſhetals and filaments assume a violet hue when dried. - VAHNI, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo re- gent of fire, who is more commonly called Pavaka ; which see. A similar name, usually indeed written Pani is given to Saraswati, consort of Brahma. See SARAswati and MARUT. VAIDYA, the name of a respectable class of Hin- doos, who follow the profession of physic. Individuals of different religious sects are comprised in this deno- mination. (See SECTs of Hindoos.) Sir W.Jones, speak- ing of the Vaidyas, says, “they have more learning, with far less pride, than any of the Brahmans: they are usually poets, grammarians, rhetoricians, and mo- ralists; and may be esteemed, in general, as the most virtuous and amiable of the Hindoos.” (Asiatic Re- searches, vol. i.) When not Brahmans, they are not permitted, legally, to read the holiest of the Hindoo books. See RETI and VEDA. VAIGAL, in Geography, a town of Hindoostan, in Golconda; 20 miles S.S.E. of Combamet. VAIGAR, an island of Russia, in the Frozen ocean, on the N. side of the straits of Vaigatskoi, about 24 1miles in length, and about 8 broad. N. lat. 75° 30'. E long 52° 24′. VAIGATSKOI, PROLIv, or Straits of Vaigatz, be- tween Nova Zembla, and the continent of Russia. VAIGE', a town of France, in the department of the Mayenne; 12 miles E. of Laval. VAIHEND, or ScANDERIE, a town of Persia, in the province of Segestan, anciently Alexandria; 50 imites E. of Arokhage. N. lat. 31° 10'. E. long. 66° 40'. VAI-HIO, in the Materia Medica, a name used by some authors for a kind of lignum aloes, which is brought from China, and is very black, and scented. VAIJAY ANTA, the name of a palace of the Hin- doo god Indra, situated in a celestial city named Am- rovati. (See IND RA.) Another of his abodes is calied Sitanta ; which see. See also V AIKonth.A. VAIKONTHA, the paradise of the Hindoo god Vishnu. It doth not precisely appear whether this abode is celestial, terrene, or subterrene. Sometimes it is described rather of the latter sort in a sea of milk, called Krirsamudra, where Vishnu is pictured repo- sing on a mighty serpent named Sesha, accompanied by his delightful consort Lakshmi. (See LAKSHMI and SESHA.) A commentator on a Sanscrit work en- titled Khetra Nirmana, the most ancient perhaps of Hindoo geographical books, places Vaikontha in the Frozen ocean: a circumstance that would have afforded curious confirmation to an idea of Buffon and Baillie as to the scite of Eden, had these eminent men been aware of it: an idea more ancient, indeed, than the day .tion of the same object. of these philosophers, as Postellus had a similar no- tion. See PARADISE. + Several of the Hindoo deities have residences espe- cially assigned them, by European writers usually call- ed the paradise of those deities respectively; thus In- dra’s abode is called Sitanta, Swerga, and Vaijayanta ; that of Siva, Kailasa; that of Varuna is Sºbhavati. Generally, these palaces or places of the Hindoo gods are described as situated on a mysticai trifurcated hill named Meru, to which word we refer the reader for Some of t e extravaganzas connected with the Olympia of the Hindoos. - VAILATA, in Geograft hy, a town of Italy, in the de- partment of the Adda; 18 miles F. of Miłan. V A LILAC, a town of France, in the department of the Lºt; 5 miles N. of Cat.ois. VAILLANT, JEAN Foi, in Biografhy, an eminent antiquary and medallist, was born at Beauvais, in Pi— cardy, in the year 1632. His maternal uncle, to whose care his education was entrusted, designed him for the profession of the law; but inheriting the fortune of this relation, he devoted himself to the study of physic, in which faculty he took a degree. Having accidentaily gained possession of a box of medals, he relinquished his medical pursuits, applied to antiquarial, and medal- lic researches, and soon formed a valuabic cabinet, to the increase of wirich his various traveis very much contributed. In one of his excursions for this pur- pose, he was attacked by an Algerine corsair and car- ried into slavery ; and after his release, he was on another occasion attacked by a Tunisian; and in order to secure fifteen or twenty gold medals which he had in his possession, he swallowed them, and in process of time nature relieved him of his burden, which he dis- posed of to an amateur with advantage. On his return to Paris, he distinguished himself by various disserta- tions on medals. He was thus recommended to the court, and employed on a commission for the prosecu- His ardour urged him to visit Egypt and Persia, and he was recompensed by obtain- ing a rich cargo of medals. To the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, of which he was a member, he communicated several valuable papers on his favourite subject: his reputation gained him the post of keeper of the duke of Maine's cabinet of medals: and even at Rome he was so highly esteem- ed, that he obtained a dispensation from the pope to marry successively two sisters. His private character was highly estimable. His labouts were terminated by death in 1706, at the age of seventy-four years. The titles of some of his principal works, independently of several separate dissertations, tending to illustrate me- .dallic science in its connection with history, are as ſol- low : “Nurmismata Imperatorum Romanorum,” 1674, 4to. of which an enlarged edition was published by Bal- dini at Rome in 3 vols. 4to. 1743: “Seleucidarum Im- perium, sive Historia Regum Syriae ad fidem Numis- matum accomułodata,” 68 ; , 4to. : “Selecta Numis- mata Antiqua ex Musaeo Petri Seguini,” 1684, 4to, ; “Numismata Frea Imperatorum, August artina, et Caesarum in Coloniis, Municipiis, et Urbibus, &c.” 2 vols. fol. 1688 : “ Numismata Imperatorum, &c. Graeca,” 1698. 4to. : “ Historia Ptolemacorum AEgypti Regum ad fidem Numism. &c.” I 725, 4to. : “Achae- menidarum Imperium, &c.” 1725. The son of the preceding, viz. John-FRANCIS For- VAILLANT, born at Rome in 1665, was instructed by his father in medallic science, and was graduatcd for the profession V AI V AI profession of physic. He published several disserta- tions on medals in the Memoirs of the Academy of In- scriptions, of which he was a member, and also a disser- tation on the “Dii Cabiri.” His life terminated in 1708, in the 44th year of his age. Moreri. VAILLANT, SEBASTIAN, a distinguished French botan- ist in the early part of the 18th century, was born May 26th, 1669, at Vigny, near Pontoise, being the eldest son of a shopkeeper in that town. He is described as hav- ing, like many other botanists of eminence, imbibed a taste for plants at a very early age, and even before his sixth year to have cultivated, in a little garden of his own, with which his father indulged him, all the plants he could collect from the country around, or from the gardens of his neighbours. We can hardly wonder that his illustrious biographer Boerhaave, should, as a phy- sician, delight also to record an instance of Vaillant’s early medical talents, in curing himself clandestinely of an intermittent fever, with lettuces and vinegar. He is reported to have made a rapid proficiency at the gram- mar-school of Pontoise, where he gave extraordinary proofs of attention to study, as well as of attachment to practical botany. His father was anxious to have him instructed in music, in which he made such progress, that he was found competent, at the age of eleven years, to succeed his master, as organist in the Benedictine convent of St. Macloud, in the town above-mentioned. Soon afterwards, he obtained a similar appointment, in a neighbouring nunnery, where he was accommodated with board and lodging as a remuneration. The deci- ded bent of young Vaillant’s mind appears to have been towards medicine and surgery, in consequence, probably, of his primary disposition to an observance of natural objects, and a consideration of the qualities of plants. Hence he was led to frequent the public hospital, and even to become an assistant to the surgeon of the house, and in his leisure hours he read medical books, and pursued anatomical inquiries. In this manner he passed his time till he reached his nineteenth year, when he re- moved to Evreux in Normandy, to place himself under another surgical teacher. Here he gained the good opinion of the marquis De Goville, captain of the royal fusiliers; who engaged M. Vaillant as surgeon to his company, with the rank of lieutenant. Thus the peaceable botanist, the organist of a nunnery, became a soldier; encountered the dangers of a campaign; came off with honour and safety; performed the last duties to his patron, who fell in the battle of Fleurus, July 1, 1690; and after visiting several towns in Flanders, re- turned to Evreux, which he quitted next year to pur- Sue his studies, with more advantage, at Paris. On the theatre of the metropolis, the talents of our young candidate for scientific distinction and improve- ment found every possible encouragement and advan- tage. Here, although the practice of surgery seems to have been his first object, probably with more direct views to a maintenance; he soon resigned every other pursuit for the first passion of his youth, and botany henceforth engaged all the faculties of his mind. He Soon discovered the science to be just then in a state to make the scientific fortune of a man of enterprise and genius. Botany had, for some time, become a leading taste among persons of rank and opulence, by which the materials for its improvement had accumulated, but the advancement of the science itself had not, by any means, kept pace with its riches. Men of the first rank in human intellect, who had fixed everlasting landmarks in other departments of knowledge or litera- ture, though they had done much in botany and other branches of natural history, had but imperfectly ac- complished any great systematic plans of technical dis- tribution or discrimination, without which mere practi- cal knowlege is but an indigested chaos. The lucid order, and rapid perceptions, of Tournefort’s mind, with whom Vaillant was now soon familiarized, as one of the most diligent of pupils, could not but strike him with peculiar force, while supplying light of which he so sensibly felt the necessity. But as a lamp, however brilliant, serves to betray the surrounding darkness in an unlimited unexplored cavern; so the achievements of Tournefort, like those of his predecessors and con- temporaries, tended as yet to display more of the ardu- ous nature of their undertaking, than of its perfect ac- complishment. The common herd of their pupils and admirers, are like the animalcules on a blue-bottle fly; who, as a witty writer observes, “doubtless think their fly the greatest and the bluest object in the universe,” and they can only go where it pleases to lead. But Vaillant, though adoring the genius of Tournefort, and loving his truely amiable social qualities, could not but perceive the imperfect execution of much of his plan, and detected at once perhaps many of those faulty principles, which have gradually displayed themselves to subsequent observers. That he had performed an Herculean task, could not be denied, but that much remained to be done, was but too evident to an acute observer. The great preceptor soon became aware of the talents of his pupil; he held him up as an exam- ple to his colleagues, and adopted him as a coadjutor in the elucidation of the plants about Paris. --> - After residing some time at Neuilly, Vaillant was chosen secretary to Father de Valois, a Jesuit, con- fessor to the younger branches of the royal family. Here he became known to M. Fagon, first physician to the king (see FAGonia); who finding him investigating and arranging mosses, was much struck with the spe- cific definitions, written in Vaillant’s beautiful hand under each, as they still remain. Fagon soon after- wards took him under his immediate protection, promised to further his wishes of travelling, and invited him to reside at Paris, till he could procure him an ap- pointment of that kind from the king. This object however was soon given up. Vaillant became secre- tary to his patron, and was taken into his house. Having free access to every part of the royal gardens. he enriched his own herbarium, and those of Fagon and Tournefort, with exotic, as well as native, speci- mens, which he prepared with skill and dexterity. He likewise added daily to the collection of living plants, and became, under M. Fagon, the director of the Jar- din du Roi. At length, in 1708, this faithful and dis- interested friend resigned, in favour of Vaillant, his own appointment, of professor and subdemonstrator of plants in that garden, which Tournefort had repeated- ly solicited from him in vain. To this great benefit, which Vaillant was anxious, by all possible exertions, to deserve, was added the construction of new and am- ple hot-houses, at the wish of the new professor, and the formation of a splendid cabinet of Materia Medica. His lectures on botany, and especially a “discourse on the structure of flowers,” since published, were re- ceived with great applause. He was admitted, without solicitation, into the Academie des Sciences ; it is even said that he was desirous of declining this honour, which VAILLANT. which his friends had great difficulty in persuading him to accept. A piece of self-denial, or excessive mo- desty, the reasons for which are not very apparent. In the intervals of his other occupations, Vaillant visited, at different times various parts of France, for the sake of botanical inquiries; but it does not appear that, except his martial expedition into Flanders, he ever extended his travels beyond the limits of his na- tive country. His foreign correspondence, neverthe- less, was very extensive, and by this means he greatly augmented the riches of the royal garden. Notwithstanding Vaillant’s original admiration of Tournefort, and his personal intimacy with that great and amiable man, of whom we have given an account in its proper place; he very soon, as we have already hinted, became dissatisfied with some of the fundamental principles of his preceptor. He adopted and clearly explained the sexes of plants, and consequently asserted the importance of the stamens and pistils, in a physio- logical as well as systematic point of view. This was the subject of his discourse above-mentioned, delivered June 10th, 1717, before his pupils at the Jardin du Roi. On the 17th of December, 1721, he read a professed criticism on the method of Tournefort, before the Academy of Sciences, printed in the memoirs of that learned society for 1723. We regret to find, in both these performances, much disrepectful mention of his illustrious predecessor; which has been too severely retaliated upon himself, by the neglect which his own just pretentions have received from his countrymen. To have been more in the right than Tournefort, was of itself a sufficient offence; and to have asserted his opinion with asperity and indecorum, served only to au- thorize part of the hostility which he incurred. What- ever progress Vaillant had made towards the foundation of a new system of classification, he did not live to lay it, in any regular form, before the public. His active life was devoted to the acquisition of materials, which he had no opportunity of employing. His diffi- culties, doubtless, increased with his progress. What parts he did perfect are admirably done : particularly his elaborate exposition of the genera and species of the syngenesious, or compound flowers, published in the Memoirs of the Academy, between the years 1718 and 1722. But the observations and inquiries of this great botanist had been extended to various other classes and families of plants, though they never ripen- ed into any complete systematic work. The writer of the present article has long ago recorded, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 24, that the herbarium of Vaillant, preserved at Paris, displays astonishing instances of his profound knowledge and acute judgment, with respect to the genera, species, and synonyms of plants. The speci- mens are copious and fine, especially of Tournefort’s oriental plants, which are far more perfect and abun- dant than in that author’s own collection. These were obtained by Vaillant, either from Gundelscheimer, the travelling companion of Tournefort, or from others who subsequently pursued the same track. We know not that any competition, or open controversy, arose be- tween these distinguished men, during Tournefort's life, who dedicated a genus to his pupil (See VALAN- TIA.) Vaillant is reported to have critically examined the whole of the Institutiones Rei Herbariae, as soon as that great work appeared, in 1700, and to have com- municated his remarks to M. Fagon. This intelligent friend declared, that though in the morning he had admired the performance of Tournefort, he could not withhold his approbation of Vaillant's remarks by the light of mid-day. Tournefort died in 1708, and Vail- lant’s first public attack, except what might incidental- ly fall from him in lecturing, was made, as we have Said, in 1721. We are informed thus much of the principles and aims of Vaillant, that, having establish- ed the doctrine of the sexes of plants, he proposed to distinguish his classes by the parts of the flower, and his genera by characters taken indifferently from the whole plant, according as might best suit his purpose. In this latter respect, he was but returning towards the darkness of former ages, and we can have nothing to regret. His boldest and most meritorious attempt respected nomenclature. He wished to distinguish every genus by an expressive name, by which its es- sential characters might at once declare themselves. He flattered himself with extending the same princi- ples to every species of plant, so that a word or two might give its name and character together. The learned reader will be aware of the similarity of this Scheme to that of Rivinus, and of its failure, even on the very limited theatre of that writer’s scientific ope- rations. (See Rivinus.) He will also recollect that it succeeded with Linnaeus, only because the latter had the good fortune, or good sense, after discovering that these two objects, of nomenclature and clear discrimi- nation, were in themselves incompatible, to reconcile both by division. While these pursuits engaged the mind of Vaillant, his bodily constitution was yielding to the fatigues he had too long imposed upon it. Exposure to cold and wet, and to the night air, in many of his botanical ram- bles, did but ill suit a delicate frame, prone to pulmo- nary diseases. In proportion as he perceived a decay of strength, he only exerted himself the more, to com- plete the undertakings which had been the object of his life, and which might have demanded something like a patriarchal term of existence. He suffered for about four years under a consumptive attack, in the course of which he expectorated little hard concretions, amounting, says Boerhaave, to above 400, and at length expired, in a tranquil manner, on his birthday, May 26th, 1722, aged fifty-three. He was tall, well-propor- tioned, and active ; of an open generous disposition, hating flattery, and mistrustful even of his due praise. The character of his criticisms upon Tournefort is rather, as we should hope, to be attributed to blunt sin- cerity, than to any portion of jealousy or envy, of which his conduct, in other instances, betrays no traces. He had the satisfaction of soothing, by the most assiduous care, the sufferings of his friend Fagon, who underwent an operation for the stone at a very advanced age ; and who would gratefully have ceded to Vaillant, as a recompense, the profits of an impost which he enjoyed upon mineral waters. This Vaillant had the still higher gratification and honour of declining. His rich and splendid herbarium, comprehending that of M. Fagon, which had been given him by the son of his old friend, as well as his own cabinet of vari- ous natural curiosities besides, were purchased by the king, Louis XV. and deposited in the museum at the Jardin du Roi, where they have fortunately remained in safety amid the wreck and the restoration of a kingdom. His library was left in the hands of his widow, whose name was Françoise Nicole Bossonet. Vaillant. VAI VAI Vaillant married this lady on the 14th of October, 1701, and enjoyed with her twenty-one years of great conjugal happiness, but had no offspring. The greatest object of temporal concern, on his death-bed, was a work on the plants around Paris, which he had long been preparing, and for which Claude Aubriet, the inimitable botanical draughtsman, of that day, had made, under the inspection of the au- thor, above 300 drawings. Anxious that his labours should not prove altogether fruitless, Vaillant wrote, a year before his decease, to the famous Boerhaave, re- questing him to take this orphan work under his pro- tection. To this request, backed by their mutual friend William Sherard, Boerhaave readily acceded. Vaillant declared that he had particular and very strong reasons, which he could not explain, for making this request. He probably feared that his countrymen venerators of Tournefort, who no longer stood in their way, might not be over anxious to preserve the relics of his rival, whose fame and activity had so lately clashed with their own. Whatever were his feelings on this subject, Vailant was satisfied with Boerhaave's acceptance of this trust, and awaited his long-expected change with the piety and composure becoming a Christian and a true philosopher. Boerhaave published the work of his departed friend in 1727, under the title of Botanicon Pari, iense, mak- ing a very handsome folio volume, with 33 admirable plates, comprehending above 300 figures, of rare or ob- scure species, in which the cryptogamic plants are very abundant. The flowers alone of all the Orchis tribe are exhibited; their herbage being so nearly uni- form as to be deemed less necessary. These figures, though uncoloured, leave scarcely any thing to be desi- red. The arrangement of the work is alphabetical, and its language, except the specific definitions, French, like all the author’s compositions. The elegancies of style, or refinements of language, do not seem to have made a part of his studies, and he was rather a scientific than a learned botanist, except what was necessary for the accurate appropriation of synonyms, in which no one, so far as we have traced his progress, was superior to Vaillant. Dillenius, a professed and elaborate botanical critic, was undoubtedly, by many degrees, below him. Certain imperfections of this popular work, justly indi- cated by Haller, arose, as he observes, from Boerhaave’s inability to bestow sufficient time on the correction of the unfinished manuscripts. Hence many repetitions occur, and some of the figures want references. Following authors have generally cited the beautiful figures, with- out adverting to the text; in which, notwithstanding, much may be found worthy of notice, especially all the practical observations, and original descriptions, of Vail- lant himself. We cannot too strongly commºnd him as a botanist of originality, acuteness and accuracy, who has contributed to the general stock of botanical knowledge, and whose genius, had he lived longer, might have greatly extended the limits of philosophical speculation, on the subject of arrangement.—Vaillant’s Works, and his life by Boerhaave. Haller Bibl. Bot. VAILLY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aisne; 8 miles E. of Soissons.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Cher; 9 miles E. of Aubigny. VAIR, in Heraldry, a kind of fur, or doubling, con- sisting of divers little pieces, argent and azure, resem- bling a Dutch U, or a bell-glass. Vairs have their point azure opposite to their point argent, and the base argent to the azure. When there are only two or three vairs, the ancient heralds call it great vair; and when there are more, small vair. Vair is intended to represent a kind of skin, used an- ciently by the kings of France, in lieu of a fur, and with which the gowns of the presidents a mortier, the coun- sellors of the court, the heralds’ coats, &c. were lined till the fifteenth century. * It was properly the skin of a kind of squirrel, called also in French vair, and in Latin scriveus ; which was white, underneath, and of dove colour at top. It is described by Aldrovandus under the name of scrived vario, and is the same, according to Gesner, with the mus Ponticus of Asistotle and Pliny; which the Latins call varus or varius, from the variety of its colour. Its two skins, joined together, make the figure of the vairs in armories; being naturally white and azure. Vair, Colombiere observes, is the second sort of fur anciently used as a lining of the garments of greatmen, consisting of little pieces, sewed by the furriers on white skins; and because these pieces were usually blue, those who first settled the rules of heraldry decreed, that this fur, in its natural blazon, should always be argent and azure. So, if it be absolutely said, such a family bears vair; it is supposed to be argent and azure. Regularly there must be but four rows or ranks of vair in the shield; if there be either more or less, the number must be specified. The smallest number, be- ing three rows, is called beffroy de vair ; the most, be- ing five or six, is called menu, or small vair. The beffroy is also known by the first figure on the dexter-side of the escutcheon being always of metal, and in form of a belt; whereas that of menu vair is in shape of a glass. VAIR, Counter. See CountER-Vair. VAJRA, the name of the weapon placed in the hand of the Hindoo god Indra, regent of the firmament, and of atmospherical phenomena. It is in fact lightning, or the thunder-bolt or fulmen of the western Jove. In- dra is hence named Vajrapani, or “grasper of the thun- der.” (See IND RA.) It is usually described as a dis- cus or quoit, with a eentral hole, on which it is whirled round on the fore-finger of the right hand, and sent missilely with a terrible effect. This is similar to the chakra, or circle, the common attribute of the god Vishnu. (See VISHNU.) Such things are now seen in the hands of holy mendicants variously called Sanias- sy, and Yogi. (See SECTs of Hindoos, and Yogi.) They are usually a foot or less in diameter, of metal or hard Wood, sharp at the edge. In pictures, fire is some- times flaming from its periphery, as if from the vehe- mence of its centrifugal energy. The only represen- tation we ever saw differing from this description, is in the frontispiece to Kirkpatrick’s account of Nepaul. The god Siva, sometimes appearing in the character of the thunderer, is named Vajreswara, which see : it means riding on the thunder. VAIRAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Lot; 4 miles N. E. of Martel. VAIRAVA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo god Siva. It is sometimes written and ironounced Bhairava; and, derived from Bheru, means the tremen- dous. The Mahrattas extensively worship Siva under this name, which in their mouths is corrupted into Bheroba. They have legends relating to an avatara Ol' V A. I V A I or incarnation of Siva under this name and form; and images are very common of him in the Mahratta country. Other accounts make Vairava and Viraba- dra the offspring of Siva, and give the former name likewise to Parvati, when speaking of her in her terri- fic characters, such as Kali ; which see. Sometimes all the offspring of Siva are denominated the Bhaira- vas. See VIBABADRA. The Mahrattas assign to Bheroba a consort or sakti, whom they name Jogasery : it would perhaps be more correctly written Yugasiri. In the Hindoo Pantheon several representations are given of this couple, and the author of that work says that he has in his collec- tion nearly a hundred metallic casts of them, mostly rude and old, with an appearance of having been buri- ed. The figures are usually accompanied by Sivean attributes, such as the trisula or trident, the patra or cup, the linga, &c. (See TRISULA, &c.) Sometimes he rides a buffalo. See VAHAN. - There are fables in Hindoo legends of Brahma hav- ing had one of his heads cut off. This decapitation is by some accounts attributed to Vishnu, or Narayana, by others to Siva and to Vairava, and the latter is in pictures sometimes represented holding the ghastly head, and a cup or patra to receive the blood; with a collar of blanched skulls, and attended by a dog. Some- times he, usually four-handed, and his wife, are repre- sented as skeletons. The sect who exclusively or especially adore Siva, are called Saiva. It appears that this sect has spread to Java; for an image of him has been recognized in the interior of the island, and a well-executed drawing of it is in the possession of Mr. Marsden, author of the Malayan Grammar and Dictionary. Batu-Bharavé is the name under which this tremendous pair are known in Java; where, as Mr Marsden is informed, our offi- cers, during the late service, frequently recognized Hindoo figures, especially of Pollear, to which they had been familiarly accustomed on the continent of In- dia See Poll.EAR. Sonnerat notices this deity as honoured in the Car- natic; he calls him Vairevert, third son of Siva, pro- duced from his breath to humble the arrogance of Brahma, one of whose heads he wrenched off, and used the skull to receive the blood of his other antago- nists. He is described as mounted on a dog. VAIRE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Var, about 3 miles N. W. of Glandeves. VAJRESWARA, in Mythology, a name of the Hin- doo god Siva, derived, it is said, from the weapon more usually given to Indra, called Vajra, meaning lightning or thunder. Siva under this name will therefore cor- respond with the Jupiter fulminator or tonans of the West. Siva's consort, Parvati, is surnamed Vajres- wari, pronounced sometimes Bajreswari; the initials being so extensively interchangeable. r VAIROE, in Geografthy. See VAIRoE. VAIRY, VAIRE, Perry, or Varry, is applied to a coat, or the bearings of a coat, when charged, or chec- quered, with vair. - - When the colours are argent and azure, or white and blue, it is vairy frofier : if it be otherwise, the colours are to be czpressly named ; vairy of such a colour or metal. He bears vairy, or, and vert; this is particu- larly called vair composed. The bearings are likewise said to be vairy, when they aré charged with vairs. When chiefs, crosses, pales, fesses, &c. happen to be wairy, the number of ranks are to be specified. Vairy gowns are observed, by Julius Pollux, to have been the habit of the ancient Gauls, as ermines were of the Armenians. VALRY-cuftfly, or Wairy-tassy, or Potent-counter, Counter-fiotent, is a bearing in fº, composed of pieces representing the tops of crutches, or potents counter-placed. In blazon, the colours must be expressed; as azure, argent, &c. - VAISETTE, Joseph, in Biography, a native of Guil- lac, in the diocess of Alby, was born in 1685, and en- tered among the Benedictines of St. Maur, at Toulouse. In 17 | 3 he settled at Paris, and engaged, in concurrence with Claude de Vie, of the same fraternity, in the his- tory of Languedoc, of which the first volume appeared in 1730, in folio: and upon the death of his coadjutor in 1734, it was continued by himself, four more volumes having been published, and a sixth being in preparation at the time of his own death. This history is highly commended, on account of both the learning and mo- . deration displayed by the author. An abridgment of this history, in 6 vols. 12mo, was published by Vaisette in 1740; and he was also the author of a “ Universal Geo- graphy,” in 4 vols. 4to., and 12 vols 12mo. 1755, which at the time of its publication was generally approved. The author’s erudition was extensive, and his disposition was amiable, so that he died, much regretted, in 1756. Moreri. * w V AISHNAVA, the general name of all the different sects of Hindoos who worship Vishnu, either directly or indirectly, through his consort Lakshmi, or in one of his incarnations.called avataras. In the article SECTs of Hindoos, we have concentrated the chief of what we have to offer on the subject of the numerous individuals comprehended under the denomination of , aishnava; which, in its most extended sense, includes considerably more than half of the whole race of Hindoos The distinction of Saiva, or Siva-Bakht, comprehends the other portion. See SAIva. The second plate of the Hindoo Pantheon contains many sectarial marks, or symbols, by which the differ- ent sects distinguish themselves: generally speaking, horizontal lines on the forehead mark the Saiva, while perpendicular forehead-lines indicate some sect of Vaishnava. These lines are red, white, or yellow, with different coloured spots over, under, or between them; all of which are said to have some mystical allusion. VAISHNAVI, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name of the goddess Lakshmi, the consort or energy of Vishnu : as such, she is calied his sakti. In the different incarna- tions of Vishnu, Lakshmi accompanied him, cither un- der her own name, or under some other denomination. VAISISHIKA, in Philosofthy, is the name of one of the six Hindoo schools, or systems. Under the article PHILosophy of the Hindoos, we have enumerated the principal schools of that thinking race. The Vaisishi- lza is a division of the Nyaya, and we refer to the latter word for some notice of the doctrines of its followers. VAISON, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Vaucluse, on the Queze : before the French revolution the see of a bishop, Suffragan of Avig- non: the old town has been long in ruins ; 22 miles N., N. E. of Avignon. VAISRAVA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo Plutus, who is more commonly calfed Kuvera ; which see. Vaisrava, or Visrava, is a name given also to Ra- vena, half-brother to Kuvera. (See RAVENA.) Visrava 2 G is sometimes VAK WAL is sometimes called their father, and they are then na- med Vaisravana. - - VAISS...AUX ENFILEz, a term used by the French writers in Ch mistry, for the vessels used in distilling in an open fire, or in sand, which do not consist in the com- mon way of a retort, joined immediately to a receiver, but have a receiver with a double opening, and a neck at each end, placed between the retort and the ordinary receiver. The neck of the retort is let into one of the necks of this middle vessel, and its other neck is thrust into that of the receiver; by this means the re- ceiver, into which the liquor is to fall, stands at a greater distance than it otherwise would from the fire, and the vapours are more easily condensed in it by its coldness, while they have also a double or treble space to expand in, and by that means are not so likely to burst the vessel. - - VAIVASWAT, in Mythology, a name of Surya, the Hindoo regent of the sun, as noticed in the article SURYA, where he is under this name styled, on the au- thority of sir William Jones, “lancer of the golden ray.” The very important deity Surya is frequently called in Hindoo books by the title of Vaivaswat; and those personages who, like the ancient Incas of Peru, are pretended to be of solar origin, are called Vaivaswata. In the Gita, Krishna says, “this immu- table system of devotion I revealed to Vaivaswat, (; or,' says the commentator, ‘the sun,”) Vaivaswat declared it to his son Menu ; Menu explained it, &c.” This Menu is the author of the celebrated Institutes that bear his name: he is also named Satyavrata, and is reasonably believed to be the same with the Noah of Scripture. . (See MENU and SATYAvRATA.) These offspring of the sun are likewise called Suryavansa ; which see : and some farther notice of their curious coincidence with the solar race of Peruvians will be found in our articles RAMA and SITA. The Hindoo Pluto is sometimes called Vaivaswata Yama; deno- ting, we conclude, his solar origin. -- - VAKEF, in Geografthy, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed; 100-miles N. of Jamama. VAKIA, in Commerce, a weight in Persia and Ara- bia. At Bassorah, the weights for merchandize are, the maund attary, the maund sefy, and the oka of Bagdat. The maund attary contains 25 vakias tary (sometimes reckoned at 24 or 26 vakias), and weighs 28}lbs. avoir- dupois, or the vakia 19 ounces. The maund sefy, or maund Bassorah, contains 24 vakias sefy (called okas of Bassorah), equal to 76 vakias tary, or 90 lbs. 4 oz. avoirdupois. The oka of Bagdat is 24 vakias tary, or 473 oz. avoirdupois. In sales of ginger, pepper, and coffee, 26 vakias are allowed to the maund; in sales of cardamoms, sugar-candy, and benzoin, 25 vakias fier maund; and in Sales of sugar and metals, 24 vakias fier maund. The vakia tary, which should be about 115 miscals (the miscal weighing about 72 English grains), varies from 110 to 1 18, and the others in proportion. . At Betelfagui, or Betlefackee, in Arabia, a rattle of coffee contains 143 vakias, and a farcel, or farzil, of the Same, 290 vakias; of dates, candles, and iron, 16 vaki- as are reckoned to a rattle; of all other sorts of goods, 15 vakias make a rattle. At Mocha, gold and silver are weighed by the vakia of 10 coffalas, or 160 carats: 24 carats = a miscal, and 13 vakia = a beak: 100 Spanish dollars weigh 87 vakias, so that a vakia weighs little more than 1 oz. English troy weight; the bahar contains 15 farzils, or 150 maunds; the maund = 40 yakias. A rattle is = 15 vakias; but in coffee, 143 va- kias are reckoned for a rattle, 2 rattles for a maund, and 10 maunds, or 290 vakias, for a farzil. Cambist. - - YAKUNAIKA, in Geography, a river of Russia, which runs into the Kisenga, N. lat. 56° 16'. E. long. 88° 14'. VAL, LA. See LAvELD. - VAL, La, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc ; 20 miles E. of Monstier. VAL, Le, a town of France, in the department of the Var; 3 miles N. of Brignolles. VAL di Comfare. See TEARI. VAL de Morea, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 12 miles E. of Ponferrada. - VAL de Prades, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tras os Montes; 16 miles E. N. E. of Mirandela. VAL Richer, or Val de Richer, a town of France, in the department of the Calvados; 12 miles N. W. of Caen. VAL Rotondo, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 15 miles S. E. of Sora. VAL de Salas, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 22 miles S. of Orense. VAL de Santiago, a town of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Alentejo; 27 miles S. W. of Beja. VAL de Travers, a district of the principality of Neufchatel, about 18 miles in circumference, and con- taining about 3500 inhabitants. It is situated between Neufchatel and Pontarlier. VAL di Tromfia, a valley of Italy, in the Bressan, containing 19 parishes, and about 13,000 inhabitants, chiefly employed in the manufacture of iron. VAL de Vacas, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Seville ; 10 miles from Lucena. VAL de Uzo, a town of Spain, in the province of Va- lencia; 17 miles S. E. of Segorbe. VALA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the interior of Thrace. Ptolemy.—Also a town of Africa, in Mau- ritania Tingitana. Ptol. VALADARES, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of Entre Duero e Minho; 5 miles S. W. of Melgasso. VALAGODE, a town of the island of Ceylon; 60 miles S. of Candy. VALAIS, or VALLAIs, an independent republic in alliance with the thirteen cantons of Switzerland, and which has formed a particular league with the seven Ca- tholic cantons, for the defence of their religion. This tract of country stretches from E. to W. about 100 miles, and contains 100,000 inhabitants, professing the Roman Catholic religion. It is divided into Upper and Lower Vallais; the former reaching from the Furca to the Morge, below Sion which is its capital; and the lat- ter, from that river to St. Gingou, situated upon the lake of Geneva. From the mountain of Furca, its eastern boundary, two vast ranges of alps enclose the Vallais : the southern chain separates it from the Milanese, Pied- mont, and part of Savoy; the northern from the canton of Bern. These two chains, in their various windings, form several small vallies, watered by numerous torrents that rush into the Rhone, as it traverses the whole dis- trict, from the Furca to St. Maurice. A country thus entirely enclosed with high alps, and consisting of plains, elevated vallies, and lofty mountains, may be naturally supposed to exhibit a great variety of situations, cli- mates, and productions. Accordingly, the Vallais pre- sents to the curious traveller a quick succession of pros- pects, as beautiful as diversified. Vineyards, rich pas- tures covered with cattle, corn, flax, fruit-trees, and forests, Kelly's Univ. V A LA I S. forests, occasionally bordered by naked rocks, crowned with everlasting snow. The productions of the Vallais vary according to the great diversity of climates by which this country is dis: tinguished. It supplies more than sufficient wine and corn for interior consumption, and exports a considerable quantity of both; the soil in the midland and lower dis- tricts being exceedingly rich and fertile. In the plain, where the heat is collected and confined between the mountains, the harvestis usually finished in July; where- as, in the more elevated parts, barley is the only grain that can be cultivated with any success, and the crop is seldom cut before November. About Sion, the fig, the melon and all the other fruits of Italy, come to perfec- tion. In consequence of this singular variety of cli- mate, the traveller in the same day may indulge himself with strawberries, cherries, plums, pears, and grapes, each of which is the natural growth of the country. Both the hills and valleys of the Vallais breed cattle in abundance, and yield plenty of game. The moun- tains are supposed to contain lead, copper, and silver mines; but the produce, it is supposed, would not de- fray the expense of working them. Here is like-wise pit-coal. The Vallais is noted for two hot-baths of cele- brated virtue, as those of Brug, or Gleuse, and Leuck, the latter of which is commonly known by the appella- tion of the Vallais bath. In the upper tythings the pre- vailing language is the German, but the inhabitants of Sion, in the Upper Vallais, with all in the Lower, speak a corrupt French; though in both parts, especially in the chief burg, they apply themselves to the German, French, Italian, and Latin; being all indispensably ne- cessary to them in their intercourse with the cantons of Bern and Uri, Savoy, Piedmont, and the Milanese ; there- fore a stranger cannot but be surprised at the fluency with which the meanest people here speak those four tongues. The ancient inhabitants of this country were the Le- pantii, Viberi, with the Seduni and Veragri, who sold their liberty dear to Sergius Galba, general of Julius Caesar. In the middle ages it came to be called Vale- sia, and in 1032, under the emperor Conrad II, devolved to the German empire, as a part of the second Burgun- dian kingdom. In the year 1035, that prince made over the Lower Vallais to the counts of Savoy. The inhabitants of the upper Vallais resolutely maintained their liberties, as well against the dukes of Zaringen, who, in the year I 157, were by Frederick I. appointed guardians of the bishopric of Sion; as against the bi- shops of that see, who assumed the title of counts of the Vallais, and after that drove out the families of the ba- rons Tour and Raren, who had usurped a dangerous au- thority among them. In 1475, the bishop of Geneva fell on the Upper Vallais with a body of 18,000 men, consisting of Lower Vallaisans and Savoyards; but the Upper Vallaisans, being assisted with 3000 troops by Bern, Friburg, and Solothern, their allies, defeated the bishop, and even made a conquest of the Lower Val- lais, which ever since that time has been subject to them. In-the same year, also, they formed a perpetual alliance with Bern, which was renewed in 1643; and in 1529, with the whole Helvetic body. In 1533 they entered into a more particular union with the seven popish can- tonS. At an early period of the French revolution, the dis- affected party of the lower Vallais appealed to France to emancipate their country from their subjection to the Upper Vallais, but the French not having matured their scheme of fraternization, their petition was rejected. In February 1798, however, the people of the Lower Vallais were enfranchised, and admitted to an equality of rights by the Upper Vallais; but after the conquest of Bern, and the revolution of the greater part of Swit- zerland, the inhabitants of the Upper Vallais rejected the new constitution, took up arms, and defended them- selves with great spirit. After several bloody defeats and the capture of the castle of Sion, which was storm- ed by the French, the natives submitted, and both dis- tricts were moulded into one department, called the Vallais. There are no manufactures of any consequence; and indeed the general ignorance of the people is no less re- markable than their indolence; so that they may be considered, in regard to knowledge and improvements, as some centuries behind the Swiss, who are an enlight- ened nation. The peasants seldom endeavour to melio- rate those lands where the soil is originally bad, or to draw the most advantage from those which are uncom- monly fertile : having few wants, and being satisfied with the spontaneous gifts of nature, they enjoy her bless- ings without much considering in what manner to im- prove them. -* The Upper Vallais is sovereign of the Lower Val- lais, and comprises seven independent diacains, or com- monwealths; namely Sion, Goms, Brieg, Visp, Leuck, Raren, and Siders; of these, Sion is aristocratical, and the others democratical. They are called dixains, be- cause the Upper Vallais being divided into seven, and the lower into three districts, each division is a dixain, or tenth of the whole. The bishop of Sion was formerly absolute sovereign over the greater part of the Vallais; but his authority is at present limited to a few particulars. He has the sole power of pardoning criminals, and signs the war- rants for execution; the money is coined in his name, and with the arms of the republic. In his acts he styles himself bishop of Sion, prince of the German empire, and count and praefect of the Vallais: in days of high ceremony he dines in public, and is waited upon by the . first noble of the Vallais, who is hereditary treasurer. He nominates also the bailiffs or governors of the two balliages of Martigny and Arden, and possesses consi- derable influence from his patronage of church prefer- ment. Upon a vacancy in the see, the canons of the chapter of Sion present from their own body four can- didates, one of whom is appointed bishop by the land- srath, or general diet. The seven dixains form, conjointly with the bishop, the republic of the Vallais, and all affairs are transacted in the diet, called landsrath, which meets twice every year at Sion. This assembly consists of nine voices; the bishop ; the lands-hauptmann, who is chosen or con- firmed by the diet every two years; and the seven com- munities. The bishop presides; the lands-hauptmann collects the votes; and all resolutions are decided by the majority. Each dixain, although it has but one vote, sends as many deputies as it pleases; they generally consist of four; a judge, a banneret, a captain, and a lieutenant. The judge and the lieutenant are appointed ºy two years: the two others hold their offices for life. In all civil causes of a certain importance, an appeal lies from the inferior courts of justice to the diet in the last resort. Thus, by the institution of this supreme 2 G 2 council, V A L W A L council, the communities in this country are firmly united, and form in conjunction one body. politic, or re- public, for the general affairs of the nation. In other cas, s, each of the commonwealths is governed by its owl, articular laws and customs. - ºth the Upper and Lower Vallais were formerly de- pendent upon the bishop of Sion ; but the inhabitants of ihe two districts united in order to limit his power; and having succeeded, quarrelled for superiority. A bloody war ensued; which terminated in 1475, by the total de- feat of the Lower Vallaisans. Since that period, they have continued subject to the Upper Vallais, with the enjoyment, however, of some considerable privileges. The inhabitants are generally of low stature, and those of that part of the Vallais in which the capital (see Sion) is situated, are very subject to goiters, or large excrescences in the neck, which frequently increase to an enormous size, and what is more extraordinary, idiocy is no less prevalent. The weather in this enclosed vale is exceedingly sultry and oppressive. This languid heat is probably one of the causes which occasion the inconceivable indolence of the inhabitants: much, how- ever, must at the same time be attributed to the rich- ness of the soil, which precludes the necessity of labour by almost spontaneously producing the fruits of the earth. In fact, the people assist nature very little: they suffer the vines in the vineyards to trail upon the ground; whereas, if the branches were properly supported, the owner would be well rewarded by the superior quantity and quality of the produce. - The uncleanness of the common people is disgust- ing beyond expression. Although the Lower Vallais exhibits as much uncleanliness, its natives are not alto- gether so indolent as those of Sion and its environs. This imputation of indolence will not hold good with respect to all the inhabitants of the Upper Vallais : for in the eastern part of that district, the soil, though far inferior was much better cultivated, and the people seemed industrious. Some physical reasons may be assigned for this difference; for there the weather is not so sultry, the water is not unwholesome, the air remark- ably salutary, and none of those goitrous persons or idi- ots were observed common in the midland parts. See MARTIGNY and St. MAURICE. - VALANTIA, in Botany, was origionally so named by Tournefort, in honour of his pupil SEBASTIAN VAIL- LANT, see that article. The latter, as Linnaeus re- marks, was dissatisfied with this appropriation, and wished, on that account, to set aside all names of bo- tanists, as applied to genera, because he perceived the Walantia of Tournefort not to be distinct from Cruci- ata of the same author. He was so far correct; but there have been several species referred since to Wa- lantia, which appear to constitute a good genus, whose limits the writer of this has attempted to define, in the Flora Graeca and its Prodromus, and which will here be exemplified, “ Tourn. in Mem. de l’Acad. des Sc. for 1706. t. 3.” Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2.28. Prodr. v. 1.95, Linn. Gen. 543. Schreb. 723. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 947. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 434. Dill, Gen. 147. t. 8. Mich. Gen. t. 7. Juss. 197. Lamarck Illustr. t. 843. (Galium his- pidum ; Gaertn. t. 24.)—Class and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. (Polygamia Monoecia; Linn.) Nat. Ord, Stellatae, Linn. Rubiaceae. Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth none. Common Receptacle three-flowered, variously shaped, enlarged after flow- ering, containing the solitary fruit. Cor. superior, of one petal, flat; that of the central flower with four, of the laterai, or male ones, with three, deep ovate seg- ments. Stam. Filaments in the central flower four, in the lateral ones three, thread-shaped, curved, alternate with the segments, and half as long; anthers roundish, of two cells. Pist. Germen solitary, inferior, conceal- ed in the receptacle, belonging to the central flower, with the rudiments of two seeds; style in the central flower only, deeply divided, scarcely so long as the sta- mens; stigmas obtuse. Peric. formed of the enlarged permanent receptacle, gibbous, inflated, of one cell. Seed generally solitary, sometimes two, ovate, conceal- ed in the receptacle, smooth. - Ess. Ch. Corolla of one petal, flat, superior. Com- mon receptacle three-flowered, single-fruited. Lateral flowers male, three-cleft. Seeds concealed in the re- ceptacle. , - Obs. The above limitation of the genus before us excludes V. fedemontana, Willd. n. 4; humifusa, Willd. n. 6; taurica and chersonensis, Willd n. 9. and 10.; with W. Aharine, articulata, Cruciata and glabra, of Linnaeus, all which eight species belong, if we mistake not, to Galium. Willdenow has already properly re- moved from this genus V. hyſiocarfia, which is, as Browne and Pursh make it, a species of Rubia, very remarkable, however, for its apparently superior ger- men. But we apprehend that what looks like an infe- rior calyx, may be four bracteas, and that this species, like Rubia tinctorum, may have no real fierianth. 1. V. muralis. Wall Cross-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1490. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 28. t. 137. (V. annua quadrifida verticillata, flori- bus ex viridi pallescentibus, fructu echinato; Mich. Gen. 13. t. 7. Cruciata nova romana minima muralis; Column. Ecphr. 298. t. 297. f. 2. Rubia quadrifolia, verticillato semine ; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 718.)—Fruit lobed; its angles fringed with teeth. Whorls crowded.—Native of walls and dry banks in Italy and the south of France, as well as in Greece. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it on mount Hy- mettus, near Athens, and on the hills of the country of Argos. The root is small and annual. Stems several, about a finger’s length, ascending, clothed with numerous whorls of small, obovate, entire leaves, four in a whorl, a little hairy on each side. Flowers axiliary, one to each leaf, small, sessile, pale yellow. Fruit of a singu- lar appearance, much larger than the flowers, deflexed; gibbous and smooth at the base, lodging a solitary, ovate, smooth seed ; its lobes divaricated and toothed. 2. V. his/hida. Bristly Cross-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 1490. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 29. t 138.—Fruit bristly. Whorls rather remote. —Native of the south of Europe. Dr. Sibthorp gather- ed it on the mountains of Crete, and ilas supplied the only figure that exists of this species. An annual herb, twice the size of the foregoing, and distinguished by its longer, narrower, more distant leaves ; but more essen- tially by the oblong form of its common recefutacle, or jruit, beset with paie rigid bristies, and not fringed, in whose gibbous smooth base is lodged a solitary seed, whose insertion is erroneously represented by Gaertner. Miller cultivated both these species, but nothing can be less likely to interest a mere flower-garden botanist. To those who study natural genera, and their affinities, these plants are lighly curious, and sufficiently demon- strate Valantia to be distinct from Galium. 3. V. filiformis. Least Cross-wo. t. Alt. n. 3. Willd. n. 3.-Fruit cylindrical, scaly, without prickles, longer than its stalk. Leaves lanceolate, somewhat fringed. - Gathered * V A L V A ſ, Gathered by Mr. Masson, in Teneriffe. Root annual. Stems simple, a span iong, hispid. Leaves four in each whorl, somewhat stalked, reticulated with veins; the lower ones roundish. Common recefutacle beset with minute, lanceolate, chaffy Scales. - 4. V. Cucullária. Hooded Cross-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1491. Amoen. Acad. v. 4. 296. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 5. (Cucullaria ; Buxb. Cent. 1 13. t. 19. f. 2.)— Bracteas ovate, stalked, deflexed, concealing the oblong furrowed hairy fruit-Gathered by Buxbaum, in Cappa- docia, and by Hasselguist in Arabia, on hills, flowering in May A smail, branching, annual herb, with square rough-edged stems. rough with minute prickles. Flowers very small, yel- lowish, on branched axillary stalks each stalk bearing three flowers, and as many large, pale, reticulated, smooth, overshadowing bracteas, which well mark this species, and caused Buxbaum to distinguish it as a genus, by the name of Cucullaria. The plant is, how- ever, a true Walantia. *- - - VALARSA-KERD, in Geografthy, a town of Turk- ish Armenia; 15 miles W. of Diadin. VALAY, a small island near the west coast of North Uist. N. lat. 57° 37'. W. long. 7°29'. VALBASE, a town of Spain, in Old Castile; 15 miles W.S.W. of Burgos. - VALCA, a river of the Popedom, which runs int the Tiber, about 5 miles above Rome. VALCALDE, or VILLA CALDE, a town of the Ge- noese republic; 10 miles N. of Genoa. - VALCKENBURG, a town of Holland; 3 miles N. W. of Leyden. VALCKENSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Wurz- burg ; 5 miles N. of Geroltzhofen. VALCOUR. See WALcourt. . . . VALDAGNO, a town of Italy, in the Vicentin; 17 miles W. of Vicenza. - VALDAIA, or VALDAy, a town of Russia, in the government of Novgorod; 72 miles S.E. of Novgorod. N. lat. 57° 50'. E. long. 33° 44'. '• VALDARACETE, a town of Spain, in New Castile; 22 miles S.E. of Madrid. - - - VALDASNES, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tras os Montes ; 9 miles E.S.E. of Mirandela. VALDAY MoUNTAINs, mountains of Russia, in the government of Novgorod, which are crossed in travel- ling from Petersburg to Moscow, and are probably a continuation of the Lapland mountains. They were known to the ancient geographers by the name of Mons Alaunus. At present they are indifferently called Vhiso- kaya Plostchade, high rising ground, or the mountains of , alday, from the town and the lake Valday, which are situated on their summits. The country about Valday, being the highest point of the mountain, is ex- tremely pleasant. Fine, slow-rising hills, a charming pellucid iake, with an island on which stands a noble monastery, delightful groves, and an extensive scenery, form the most pleasing variety. These mountains af- ford numerous and large blocks of granite, quartz. and sand-stone, together with felspar, horn-blende. mica, schorl, porphyry, jasper and steatites. blocks are covered with Sand and clay. The Valday eminence, which is the highest ridge of these mountains, shapes its course from the north, and appears to take its departure from between the lakes Ladoga and Onega. It then stretches across the Mista, runs between the Il- men lake and the Seliger, and extends its foot as far as into the governments of Smolensk, Orel, and Novgorod- Leaves ovate, stalked, revolute, The granite Severski. About its western, southern, and eastern de- clivities, are several strong strata of chalk and marle, which in farther progress are lost in marshy and sandy plains. Some naturalists are of opinion, that the whole of this Valday chain of mountains is the effect of violent inundations, and that it entirely consists of a chalk-stone risen from crumbled and destroyed marine productions. But it is no less probable, that the middle part is a primitive mountain, having granite for its principal stra- tam, which, through a long interval of time, and per- haps under water, is so much decayed as to be in a manner smoothed. No chalk-pit has yet been opened on its summit. Upon the whole it is supposed, that all these elevations may be an original mountain decayed and destroyed on its surface, on which, round about its declivities, the loose chalk and marle are floated and deposited. Among these mountains no mine has yet been explored. Some specimens have been obtained of copper and lead; but here is plenty of iron and stone. The extreme elevation of the Valday mountains is very moderate, as the highest point is scarcely 200 fathoms above the level of St. Petersburg. Besides the Valday lakes, there are others of inferior note; and at the western foot is the great lake Ilmen, at the southern, the Seliger, &c. Of the rivers, some spring from the mountains, and others are supplied by the lakes that lie at their feet; such are the Volga, the Duna, the Volk- hof, the Lovat, the Pola, the Tshagedo, the Kolp, the Dnieper, the Don, the Oka, &c." These mountains are sparingly clothed with forests, but so much the more with beautiful meadows and fields, so that the graziers derive from them considerable profit. The species of wood are the several sorts of pines and firs, the birch, the linden, the aspen, the alder, &c. The soil in the valleys mostly consists of clay and marle, and is general- ly fertile. Tooke's View of the Russian Empire, vol. i. VALDEBURON, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 34 miles N.N.E. of Leon. - VALDECONA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the borders of Valencia; 15 miles S. of Tortosa. - VALDEMANZANAS, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Leon ; 8 miles S.W. of Astorga. I - VALDEMORO, a town of Spain, in New Castile ; 13 miles S. of Madrid-Also, a town of Spain, in New Castile; 18 miles E.N.E. of Cuença. - VALDENSES, in Ecclesiastical History. See VAU- DOIS. - VALDEPENAS, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in the province of Jaen ; 8 miles S.W. of Jaen.—Also, a town of Spain, in New Castile ; 22 miles S.E. of Civdad Real. - - - VALDERAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 23 miles S. of Leon. VALDERIES, a town of France, in the department of the Taºn, 6 miles N.N.E. of Alby. * Aſ DES. Johs, in Biography, a Spanish reformer and a lawyer, was knighted by Charles V. During a tour in Germany he imbibed the principles of Luther; and afterwards settling in Italy, and chiefly at Naples, he became secretary to the king. During his abode in this city, he communicated his sentiments to several persºns, and particularly to Peter Martyr and Ochinus. But though in his religious sentiments he concºrred with the reformines, and in his notions with respect to he Trinity with those that were denominated Unitarians, he does not appear to have formed any separation from the church of Roºne. His disciples, however, were numerous, and attracted the notice of the Inquisition ; the V A L W A L the dread of which induced several of them to quit the country, and others to retract their opinions. Valdes died at Naples about the year 1540, with an established character for piety and virtue, and leaving several works, particularly “Commentaries on various parts of the New Testament, &c.” some of which have been inserted in the Index of the Inquisition, and others censured by the reformers. Beza condemns his treatise entitled “Con- siderations,” charging it with being the source of the errors of Ochinus. Bayle. - VALDESIA, in Botany, a genus in the Flora Pede- montana, page 57, so named in memory of Don Antonio Valdez, a Spaniard, minister of the Spanish marine, founder of a botanic garden. De Theis. VALDIA. See OVIEDA. - VALDIGEM, in Geografthy, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, near the Duero; 3 miles N.E. of Lamego. VALDIVIA, a river of Chili, which runs into the South Pacific ocean, near Valdivia. VALDIVIA. See BALDIVIA. VALDORE, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic; 8 miles W.N.W. of Pondicherry. - VALDORF, or WALDoRF, a town of Westphalia, in the county of Ravensberg; 3 miles S.W. of Biele- feld. VALDROME, a town of France, in the department of the Drôme ; 18 miles S.S. E. of Die. - 3. VALDUS, or WALDUs, PETER, in Biography, was the son of a rich merchant of Lyons, who lived in the twelfth century, and derived his name from Vaux in Dauphiné, the place of his nativity. With a mind deep- ly impressed by the sudden death of a friend, he directed his views entirely to another world, distributed his wealth in alms, and employed himself in propagating just senti- ments, as he conceived them to be, of true religion.— From another account of this reformer we learn, that about the year 1 160, he employed a priest in translating the four gospels from Latin into French, and by the perusal of them adopted opinions very different from those of the Romish church. In 1180, connecting him- self with a small society of sentiments similar to his own, he assumed the character of a public preacher. At- tempts were made to seduce him, but they proved inef- fectual ; and the number of his followers gradually in- creased. Expelled from Lyons, he retired to the moun- tains of Dauphiné and Savoy, and propagated his opinions, which were eagerly adopted by the multitude through the adjacent valleys, where they took deep root, so that no persecution or violence could eradicate them. From him, as some say, sprung the sect of the Waldenses. For other particulars, we refer to the article VAUDors. VALE of a Pumfi, at Sea, a term for the trough by which the water runs from the pump along the ship’s sides, to the scupper-holes. VALE or Valley Lands, in Agriculture, are terms ap- plied to any of those which lie in low, narrow, hollow tracºs, or depressions between hills or rising grounds on their different sides. They are, for the most part, ap- plicable in a more particular manner to grass and dairy practices than others, but sometimes, when suitably dry, to those of the arable kind. They are in many cases very quick in vegetation, and extremely productive ; being readily capable of improvements by warping, watering, and other such means, at but little expense, which should always be well attended to, in all such lands where there is the possibility of effecting them. The latter is likewise a term sometimes applied to a gutter or channel in a road or other such situation. VALEDIA, in Geografthy, a sea-port town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, situated on the coast of the Atlantic, in a stony plain: here is a very spacious na- tural bason, surrounded by rocks, capable of containing above 1000 ships; but the entrance, which is entirely open to the west, is extremely difficult and dangerous. The coast is lined with rocks near 30 feet in height, which anciently must have been washed by the sea, the Moors living in the caverns hollowed out by the water. At the bottom of the rocks, the sands heaped up by time have formed a plain, laid out into gardens and cultivated: the town is little more than a circle of walls, containing but few inhabitants; 27 miles S.S.W. of Mazagan. º - VALEGAR, a town of Hindoostan, in Coimbetore; 15 miles W. of Damicotta. VALEGGIO, or VALEzzo, a town of Italy, in the department of the Benaco, on the river Mincio; 14 miles S.W. of Verona. VALEGGIo, a town of Italy, in the department of the Gogna ; 4 miles N.E. of Lumello. VALENGA, a town of Portugal, in the proyince of Entre Duero'e Minho, on the S. side of the Minho, op- posite tºuy in Spain, and said to have been founded by the soldiers of Viriatus. It contains two parish-church- es, a hospital, two convents, and about 900 inhabitants; 16 miles W. of Oporto. N. lat. 42°. W. long. 8° 2O’. - VALENGA de Alcantara, a town of Spain, in Estrema- dura, on the borders of Portugal; 24 miles S.W. of Alcantara. VALENGA de Duero, a town of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Beria, situated about half a league from the Duero; 12 miles W. of St. Joao de Pesqueira - VALENCE, a town of France, and principal plac of a district in the department of the Lot and Ga- ronne; twelve miles S. W. of Agen. N. lat. 44°6'. E. long. O* 59'.—Also a city of France, and capital of the department of the Drôme, on the left side of the Rhône; anciently a Roman colony, called Julia Au- gusta. Before the revolution it was the see of a bishop, and capital of a principality called Valentinois. A university was brought hither from Grenoble in the year 1454; 16% posts north of Avignon. N. lat. 44° 55'. E. long. 4° 59'. VALENCE en Albegeois, a town of France, in the department of the Tarn ; twelve miles north-east of Alby. VALENCIA, a province of Spain, bounded on the north by Aragon and Catalonia, on the east and south-east by the Mediterranean, on the South-west by Murcia, and on the west by New Castile, about 220 miles in length from north to South; the breadth is unequal, from twenty to forty-five. Valencia is, in pro- portion to its extent, one of the best peopled provinces of Spain, and contains seven cities: has four sea-ports, the most considerable of which is that of Alicant; the soil is extremely fertile, although divided by mountains. These contain mines of sinopica, or blood-stone, iron, , , and alum. - There are also found quarries of marble, jasper, plaster, lapis calaminaris, and potter's-clay, of which different kinds of earthen vessels are made. The climate is mild and pleasant, but there is some- thing enervating and faintish in the air; vegetables with the finest outward show imaginable are not #. to the VALENCIA. to the taste. No women work in the fields; but this may proceed from their constant employment, within doors, as much as from any remains of Moorish jea- lousy, though the Valencians still retain much of the features and manners of their old Saracen masters. To this day the farmers will not allow their wives to sit at table, but make them stand at their elbow and wait upon them. The inhabitants of this province are said to have more of the filth and sullen unpolished manners of the old Spaniards, and to have adopted less of fo- reign improvements in civilization, than most other parts of Spain. This kingdom and city were conquered by the Moors under Abdallah Cis, and recovered in 1094, when the famous Cid Ruy Dias de Vivar, taking advantage of the confusion and civil war that raged in Valencia, after the murder of Sultan Hiaya, made himself master of the city by storm, at the head of a chosen band of valiant knights. This was the last ex- ploit of that hero, so long the terror of the Mussel- men. A few days after his death, the king of Castile, finding it too far distant from his other dominions to be conveniently succoured in case of a sudden attack, thought proper to withdraw his troops, and suffer the Moors to repossess themselves of it. It was again taken from them by James I., king of Aragon, in the year 1238, and for ever united to that crown, the fate of which it has ever since followed through all its various revolutions. In the beginning of the reign of Charles V. this province was distracted by civil commotions and struggles between the nobility and commons. The population of the whole kingdom of Valencia amounts to 79,221 vecinos, or 7 16,884 souls, resident in 570 towns and villages. The manufactures of silk are the cause of a population that may be reckoned considera- ble, if compared with that of other provinces of Spain. The produce of this article, on an average of one year with another, amounts to about 900,000 pounds, worth a doublon fier pound, in the country. Government has prohibited the exportation of Valencia raw silk, in order to lay in a stock to keep the artificers constantly employed in bad years; for it has sometimes hap- pened, that half the workmen have been idle for want of materials. The great nurseries of mulberry plants in the plains of Valencia are produced from seed, ob- tained by running a rope of Esfiarto over heaps of ripe mulberries, and then burying the rope two inches un- der ground. As the young plants come up, they are drawn and transplanted. The trees, which are all of the white kind, are afterwards set out in rows in the fields, and pruned every second year; in Murcia only every third year; and in Granada never. The Granada silk is esteemed the best of all, and the trees are all of the black sort of mulberry. The fruit exported from Valencia to the north of Europe may be esti- mated, communibus annis, at two millions of pesos, about 334,000l. sterling. The annual crop of hemp may be worth 300,000 pesos, at three pesos fier arroba: 140,000 loads of rice, at ten pesos a, load, make 1,400,000 pesos. The vintage of 1767 produced 4,309,000 measures of wine, which, at three reals a measure, come to 861,133 pesos. There is also much cotton made in this province from the cotton-plant, which rises to the height of three feet at most, and very much resembles the raspberry-bush. They make in good years 450,000 arrobas, worth 1,350,000 pesos, and in middling years 285,600 arrobas. Notwithstand- ing all this abundance, nothing can be more wretched than the Valencian peasantry, who can with difficulty procure food to keep their families from starving. Valencia is watered by thirty-five rivers, all cf which run towards the east. It was formerly inhabited by the Celtiberians, the Turdetani, the Lusoni, &c. &c. Valencia was erected into a kingdom, in the year 788, by Abdalla, governor of Valencia, who revolted from the king of Cordova, but was however obliged to pay an annual tribute of 17,000 maravedis. This kingdom continued till the thirteenth century, when the last king, Zahen, was dispossessed of his capital, and compelled to leave his dominions with 50,000 Moors. VALENCIA, a city of Spain, and capital of the pro- vince so called. Its ancient name is unknown; but it is said to have been taken and fortified by Scipio, de- stroyed by Pompey, and rebuilt by Caesar. It was taken from the Romans by the Goths, and from the latter by the Moors, who twice possessed it 23G years; for it was taken in 1094, by the famous Cid Ruy Diaz de Vivar, and bore, during four years, the name of Walencia of the Cid. The Moors retook it, but it was finally conquered in 1238, by the king Don Jayme, and embellished as well as enlarged by Don Pedro IV. king of Aragon. It is about half a league in circumference, and the walls are built for orna- ment rather than defence. Mariana the historian says, that in Valencia cheerfulness enters at the doors and windows: the description he gives of this city is in many respects devoid of truth, and such that the au- thor proves himself more a poet than a historian. Several geographers who havc had implicit faith in Mariana, have even exaggerated his account of Va- lencia, and said the houses here are all palaces, on which account the name of Bella was given to the city, an epithet difficult to recºncile with narrow, crooked, and unpaved streets, impassable after rain ; and in which there are but two or three houses built with taste, and a few churches distinguished by their ar- chitecture. It is the see of an archbishop, and a university, instituted in the year 1470. Here is a tribunal of inquisition, with a royal audience, in which the governor, the captain-general of the province, and a royal regent, preside. The number of inhabitants is estimated at 100,000, but perhaps 80,000, or between both, is nearer the truth; 170 miſſes E. S. E. of Madrid. N. lat. 39° 27'. W. long. O*. 27". Accounts are kept at Valencia in libras of 20 suel- dos, or 240 dineros; also in reals of new plate of 24 dineros. The libra of Valencia is equal to the peso of plate, or dollar of exchange; it is, therefore wºrth eight reals of old plate, ten reals of new plate, or fifteen reals two maravedis veilon. The real of Plata Valenciana, 134 of which make a libra, is worth 13 Sueido, or 18 dineros, that is, three-fourths of a real of new plate. The libra is worth 393 pence sterling nearly ; or, more accurately, one pound sterling = 6 libras, 1 sueldo, 5 dineros of Valencia. A carga or carica weighs three quintals, or twelve arrobas ; the arroba, twenty-four pounds peso grueso, or thirty-six pounds peso sutile : the former pound is 18 ounces, the latter 12 ounces; and the ounce is ºr heavier than the Castilian ounce: hence 50 pounds peso gru- eso, or 75 pounds peso Sutile, answer nearly to 59 pounds avoirdupois. The sutile, or lighter weight, is used for bread, sugar, tobacco, and spices; the grueso, or heavier weight, for most kinds of merchandize. Corn V A L V. A L Corn is measured by the cahiz of 12 barsellas, or 48 celemines :- 100 cabizes produce 58% English quar- ters. The cantara, or arroba, liquid measure, contains 4 azumbres; and 25 such arrobas = 88 English wine gallons nearly. The carga of wine consists of 15 arro- bas; the carga of oil of 12 atrobas. The vara or ell is divided into four palmos, and is about one-twelfth longer than the Castilian vara, measuring, therefore, 36; English inches. Kelly’s Un. Camb. , VALENCIA, a town of South America, in the go- vernment of the Caraccas; sixteen miles south-west of Caraccas. This city was founded in 1555, under the government of Villacinda, with a view of establish- ing a port near to Caraccas, in order to facilitate the conquest of the country, which had been much ex- tolled by Faxardo. But Alonzo Dias Moreno prefer- red a situation farther distant from the lake Tacarigua, now Valencia, or haif a league west of it on a beau- tiful plain, where the air was pure and the soil fertile. N. lat. 10° 9'. W. long. from Paris 70° 45'. Its population in 1801 consisted of 6548 persons, accord- ing to some reports, but according to others, said to be more accurate, of 8000 souls. The inhabitants are generally Creoles, and the issue of very ancient families, excepting some from the Canaries, and very few Biscayans. The streets are wide, and for the most part paved. The houses are built like those of Caraccas, but not with stone. . There is one church tolerably well built, and in the eastern part of a beauti- ful square, from which it receives, and to which it gives an embellishment, that constitutes the principal decoration of the city. In 1804 another church was erected, and dedicated to our Lady of la Chanda- leur. The Franciscans have a monastery, occupied by eight monks, which has a very neat and elegant church. The inhabitants had formerly the character of being the most indolent in the whole province ; but in consequence of some vigorous measures that have been lately adopted, a spirit of greater activity and industry has been excited among them. The situa- tion of Valencia is peculiarly favourable for trade : being separated by only ten leagues of good road from Porto Cavello, it may transport its commodities thither at a small expense ; and besides, every commodity from the interior of the country shipped at Porto Ca- vello goes through Valencia, and that which is des- tined for Guayra passes through Caraccas. The ad- jacent country produces every sort of provision and fruit in the greatest abundance, and of a most exqui- site flavour ; and its plains furnish its markets, at a very low price, with every kind of animal which they can consume. Depons’s Travels in South America, vol. ii. - VALENCIA, Lake of, called by the Indians Tacari- gua, but different from the bay or lake of the same name, (see TACARIGUA,) a lake of the government of Caraccas, less extensive but more useful than that of Maracaibo. This lake stretches 133 leagues from E. N. E. to W. S. W., and its greatest breadth is four leagues. Its form is oblong ; it lies at the dis- tance of one league from Valencia, and is situated in a valley surrounded with mountains, excepting on the west where it extends into the interior of the coun- try. It receives the water of twenty rivers without any visible outlet. It is six leagues from the sea, and separated from it by inaccessible mountains It pro- bably discharges itself by a subterraneous passage, as well as by evaporation, so beneficial to vegetation. Its castern part is appropiated to the cultivation of tobacco for the king’s benefit; and this tract being divided into five plantations, employs 15,000 persons. The re- mainder of the land gained from the lake is laid out in other kinds of culture. Its vicinity is enlivened by a variety of birds, whose plumage is beautiful, and whose notes are melodious It also abounds with aqua- tic game, and its borders are embellished with unfading verdure. It is interspersed with a number of small islands, which are inhabited; and one of them, calied Caratapona contains a population sufficient to raise provisions, fruits, and vegetables for market. It fur- nishes a great quantity of fish, that called by the Spaniards, guavina, being the most abundant. Many reptiles are seen upon its borders; and among these are two kinds of lizard, which are particularly distin- guished; and of which the Indians and some Spa- niards make their most delicious meals. Depons’s Travels, vol. i. VALENCIENNES, a city of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the North, situ- ated on the Scheldt, which runs through the town in several places, and here becomes navigable. It is sup- posed to have derived its name from the emperor Valentinian I., who, taken with the temperature of the climate, and charming situation of the place, laid the foundation of a town, about the year 367, endowing it with many privileges and immunities, and particularly of being an asylum for debtors and criminals. This privilege, which extended over the greater part of the town, was called “banlieu ;” but it has since been limited, to prevent abuse from fraudulent bankrupts and assassins. Before the revolution, it belonged to Hainaut, and contained several churches and convents. The town-house is an äncient building of free-stone, founded in the 14th century; the square or grand place is handsome, but the streets are in general nar- row, dark, and crooked. The form of its municipal government was considered so good as to serve for the model of several republics, particularly Venice and Nuremberg, which sent deputies to collect the laws. Near the town is a coal-mine. Valenciennes was one of the first towns which revolted against Philip II. king of Spain; it took part with the States and the Pro- testant religion, and refused to receive a garrison sent by Margaret of Parma; in consequence of which it was besieged, in the year 1567, by John de Noircames, baron of Selles, and at the end of three months sur- rendered at discretion: thirty-six of the principal ring- leaders were punished, and the town deprived of its privileges. It was afterwards several times taken and retaken by the duke of Alva and the States General. In the year 1656, it was besieged by the French, under the command of marshals Turenne and La Ferté ; but they were compelled to raise the siege, after the loss of 4000 men killed and wounded, in several assaults. In the year 1677, it was besieged by Lewis XIV. in person; and after 17 days, taken by assault. It remain- ed to France by the peace of Nimeguen, which hap- pened in the following year, when a new and handsome citadel was built, at the expense of the citizens, and other fortifications added. In 1793, Valenciennes was invested by the allies, under the conduct of the duke of York, and the governor Ferrand summoned to sur- render. On the 14th of June, the trenches were opened. The British commander then summoned the garrison; V A L V A. L. garrison; but receiving an unsatisfactory answer, the artillery began to play upon the town with great vigour, and in the course of the night above 500 red-hot balls were poured upon it. Towards the beginning of July, the besiegers were able to bring 200 pieces of heavy artillery to play without intermission on the town, and the greater part of it was reduced to ashes. The most singular fact in the history of this siege is, that a con- siderable part of the war was carried on under ground, mines and counter-mines innumerable having been formed both by the besiegers and besieged. The principal of these, on the side of the former, were one under the glacis, and one under the horn-work of the fortress; these mines were completed and charged on the 25th of July, and in the night between nine and ten o'clock were sprung with the most complete success. The English and Austrians immediately embraced the opportunity to throw themselves into the covered way, of which they made themselves masters. The die was now cast, and on the 26th the duke of York again sum- moned the place, which surrendered on capitulation the succeeding day; the duke of York taking posses- sion of it in behalf of the emperor of Germany. The following year, however, in consequence of the suc- cesses of the French arms, Valenciennes surrendered to the republicans, by capitulation, on the 26th of Au- gust. The garrison were made prisoners of war, but to be conducted to the first post of the imperial and Dutch armies, on condition that they were not to serve against the republic till regularly exchanged. Con- siderable stores of every kind, with 200 pieces of can- non, 1,000,000 pounds of gun-powder, and 3,000,000 florins in specie, and 6,500,000 livres, were found in Valenciennes; 1000 head of horned cattle, and great quantities of oats and other corn, were also included within the fortress. So earnest indeed had the empe- ror been to retain this important place, that he is said to have expended 3,000,000l. in repairing and improv- ing the fortifications. What is the most to be lament- ed is, that upwards of 1000 unhappy emigrants were surrendered on this occasion to the vengeance of their enraged countrymen. The principal manufactures are lace, cambric, and woollen mitts, camlets, &c.; 44 posts E. of Douay. N. lat. 50° 21'. E. long. 3° 36'. VALENGIN, or VALLENGIN, or Valangin, a town and capital of a lordship, in the county of Neufchâtel; 3 miles N. N.W. of Neufchatel. See NEUCHATEL. VALENS, FLAVIUs, in Biografthy, a Roman em- peror, was born at Cibalis in Pannonia, and associated in the empire with his brother Valentinian A.D. 364, at the age of thirty-six. To him his brother, to whom he was much attached, assigned the eastern portion of the Roman dominions, comprehending the whole of Asia, with Egypt and Thrace : upon this division, Valens made Constantinople the seat of his empire. Alarmed by the movements of the Persians on the borders of his territory, he departed for Syria, and at Caesarea, in Cap- padocia, he was informed that Procopius had taken pos- ession of his capital. The emperor was so terrified by this intelligence, that he intended to negociate with the usurper, and to propose to him an abdication of the em- pire. His ministers, however, advised him to detach a body of troops, in order to suppress the insurrection at its commencement: but these troops joined Procopius, and contributed to his success. At length many of the insurgents abandoned their commander, who rendered himself unpopular by his rapacity and tyranny, and he was ultimately betrayed to Valens, who ordered him to Vol. XXXVIII. *~~~ be beheaded. The emperor was thus established on the throne; but his conduct was such as to cool the ar- dour of his friends, and to excite enmity and opposition. In process of time, from the year 366 to 369, he con- tended successfully with the Goths, and having reduced them to great distress, consented to conclude a treaty with them, which was ratified with great magnificence in barges upon the Danube. Having accomplished this object, Valens returned in triumph to Constan- tinople. Valens, having received his Christian creed from Eudoxus, the Arian bishop of Constantinople, disgraced himself by becoming a persecutor of the Athanasians: and in a contest between these two parties, he acted in a manner so rigorous and violent, as to entail indelible reproach on his memory. In 371 he lost his only son, and in the following year he defeated the Persians, and afterwards readily consented to a truce. Whilst he was passing the winter at Antioch, in the year 374, he manifested, in his treatment of persons who recurred to magical practices for aseertaining the name of the fu- ture successor to the imperial throne, the jealous cru- elty of his character. Many persons were involved in real or suspected guilt, and consigned to the punish- ment of torture, banishment. or death. Having resided five years at Antioch, watching the motions of the Per- sian king, repressing the incursions Cf the Saracens and Isaurians, and conducting state inquisitions and religi- ous persecutions, his attention was excited by a terrible inroad of the Huns upon the territories of the Visigoths, and these Goths, having obtained permission to cross the Danube, penetrated into the cultivated part of Thrace. The Gothic tribes were joined by the Huns and Alans. The emperor arrived at Constantinople in 378, and urged by the clamours of the people, marched against the enemy to the vicinity of Constantinople. An en- gagement ensued, which proved singularly disastrous to the Romans. Valens, deserted by his guards and wounded, betook himself to a cottage, in which his at- tendants were dressing his wound : the cottage was be- set by the enemy, who being resisted, set fire to a pile of faggots, that consumed the emperor and all that were with him. Thus did Valens terminate his life at the age of fifty, and in the sixteenth year of his reign.— His character, as it has been delineated by historians, merits in many respects contempt and detestation. He was nevertheless modest and temperate in his mode of living; addicted to no private vice or superfluous ex- pense; ready to listen to the complaints of his subjects, and to protect them from the opprcssion of the military, among whom he preserved exact discipline; and it has been said that the Eastern provinces in general were never happier than under his government. Anc. Un. Hist. Gibbon’s Rom. Exap. Gen. Biog. VALENSOLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Alps; 18 miles S. of Digne. VALENTA NO, a town of the Popedom, in the duchy of Castro; 14 miles S.W. of Orvieto. VALENTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of His- pania Citerior, upon the Turia. See V Ali & CIA. VALENTIA, a town and colony of Gallia Narbonnen- sis, belonging to the Segalauni, according to Ptolemy, but to the Cavares, according to Pliny. In the Itinerary of Antonine, this town is marked on the route from Mediolanum to Lugdunum), between Augusta and Ursolae. *t the fall of the Roman empire this town became subject to the Burgundians, afterwards tº the 2 H Merovingians, V A L V A L Merovingians; but under the Carlovingians, it belonged to the kingdom of Burgundy and Arles—Also, a coun- try of the isle of Albion, according to Ammianus Mar- cellinus. It was conquered by Theodosius the elder, and made a fifth Roman province. (See OToDINI.)— Also, a town of Italy, in Messapia, between Clipiaº and Civitas Brindisi, according to the Itinerary of Jerusa- lem.–Also, a town situated in the interior of the isle of Sardinia. VALENTIA, in Geography, a small island on the coast of Kerry, Ireland, in the barony of Iveragh, from which it is separated by a channel, which is a safe harbour.— Though Valentia contains extensive bogs, it has more inhabitants and better culture than could be expected in so remote a spot; it is indeed esteemed the granary of the country. Oliver Cromwell had forts erected at both ends of the channel, which have gone to ruin. Valentia is the property of the marquis of Lansdowne. Its northern point is in N. lat. 51° 54'. W. long. i Oo 1 O’. VALENTIA Harbour, a bay of Ireland, on the east side of Dingle bay, between the isle of Valentia and I)owlas Head. VALENTIAM. See CAPE ad Valentiam. VALENTINE, PETER, in Biography, was born at Colomiers en Brie in 1600, and studied some time un- der Simon Vouet, but leaving that master before he had made any considerable progress, travelled to Rome, where he passed the remainder of his life : he may therefore be rather considered of the Roman than the French school. The powerful and vigorous style of Michael Angelo Caravaggio made so strong an im- pression on him, that he attached himself to an imita- tion of it, with a devotion that was never diminished. Like that artist, he indulged in an extravagant, but effective contrast of light and shadow ; like him, he was a faithful follower of nature, and was equally in- different and unfortunate in his choice of it; like him, he was frequently incorrect, and always ignoble. He was, however, an intelligent master of the chiaro-scuro, and his masses are disposed so as to produce the most striking effect. Though he occasionally painted al- tar-pieces for the churches, his powers appear to have been better adapted to other subjects, which he also appears to have painted in preference. His best pic- tuli’eš º fortune-tellers, gamesters, concerts of music, and corps de gardes; to which his taste was more competent than to the dignity of historic paint- ing. The patronage of cardinal Barberini, nephew to Urban VIII., procured him the commission to paint a large picture for the Basilica of St. Peter, re- presenting the Martyrdom of S. S. Processo e Mar- tiniano, which is esteemed his best historical picture. He also painted for his patron, the Decollation of St. John, in the Palazzo Barberini; and there is an ad- mired picture by him in the Corsini palace, of Peter denying Christ. This pleasing painter died in 1632, at the early age of thirty-two, of a fever, being brought on by going into a cold bath when he was heated. VALENTINE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne; 2 miles S.W. of St. Gaudens. VALENTINE’s Bay, a bay on the south-east coast of Terra del Fuego, west of Cape Success. VALENTINI, MICHAEL BERNHARD, in Biografthy, a native of Giessen; in Germany, where he was born in 1657, agd became a medical professor, and where he died in 1729. The subjects of his writings, which are numerous, chiefly comprehend botany and the materia medica: of these we shall here mention his “Letters from the East Indies;” “Praxis Medica,” in two parts; “Amphitheatrum Zootomicum,” fol.; and a “Corpus Juris Medico-legalis,” fol. referring for other works to the botanical article VALENTINIA. Haller. VALENTINI, PIETRO FRANCEsco, of Rome, who flou- rished about the year 1645, and whose patience and abilities in the construction of canons seem to have made every subsequent canonist despair of emulating his subtilties and dexterity in the art. Indeed he ap- pears to have surpassed all that the most determined canonists had ever achieved, by the several works which he published on the subject, in the following order: “Canon to the words Illos tuos misericordes oculos ad nos converte, with the Resolution in more than two thousand ways, for two, three, four, and five Voices, Rome, 1629;” “Canon, called the Knot of Solomon, for ninety-six Voices, Rome, 163 l ; * “Ca- non on four Subjects for twenty Voices, Rome, 1645.” The first and most curious of these works seems to have been reprinted in 1655, as M. Marpurg of Ber- lin, and several other musical writers, in speaking of it, refer to an edition of that date. But P. Martini, who is in general very accurate in dates and citations, mentions Valentini’s first canonical work under the year 1629. Kircher gives the subject, and an account of this canon, in his Musurgia. M. Marpurg, in a periodical work called ſtritigrije 25riefe or “Critical Letters on the Art of Music,” vol. ii. 1763, 4to. has bestowed upwards of fifty pages on this canon, and not only given it a hundred different ways in notes, but ex- plained more than two hundred of the several contri- vances used by Valentini in the construction of canons on the subject given. Numerous musicians of the name of Valentini have been recorded by musical writers; among whom Gerber gives an article to a namesake of the canonist, Pietro Francesco Valentini, an opera composer at Rome in the middle of the seventeenth century, who, besides Intermezzi, set to music several dramatic fa- bles written by good poets, such as “La Metra,” a Greek fable : “The Death of Orpheus;” “Pytha- goras finding Musical Proportions,” 1654; “The Transformation of Daphne,” a moral fable. His In- termezzi were the Rape of Proserpine, and the Cap- tivity of Mars and Venus in the Net. VALENTINI, Rob ERTO, an Englishman, a voluminous composer, for the common flute, whose works were chiefly published by Roger, at Amsterdam. VALENTINI, GIUSEPPE, about the latter end of the Seventeenth century, among other composers for the violin, a dozzina, published in Holland nine different works for that instrument the seventh and last of which were “Concerti Grossi,” for four violins, tenor, and two bases; but they have been long since con- signed to oblivion, without any loss to the public, or injustice to the author. VALENTINI, URBANI, the first soprano opera singer who appeared on our stage, arrived in England 1707, after the attempts that were made at operas upon the Italian model. VALENTINIA, in Botany, received that appel- lation from Dr. Swartz, in memory of two writers of the name of Valentini, who have both of them contri- buted to the general stock of botanical information, par- ticularly V A L. V A L ticularly with relation to the Materia Medica. Michael Bernard Valentini, professor of medicine at Giessen, who died in 1729, aged 72, published Prodromus His- toriae JVaturalis Hassiae, in 1707, Viridarium reform- atum, in 1719, Museum Museorum, in 1704, and His- toria simplicium réformata, printed at different times; besides several dissertations, illustrative of the natural history of Sago, Cloves, Nutmegs, Pepper, Cinnamon, Dates, Aloes wood, &c. His son, Christopher Ber- nard Valentini, published Tournefortius contractus, being an arrangement of Tournefort’s Institutiones in the form of tables; with some other works—Swartz Prodr. 63. Ind. Occ. 687. t. 14. Schreb. Gen. 801. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 344. . Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4.— Class and order, Octandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain. * - - Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, con- cave, coloured, in five deep, obtuse, concave, spread- ing, undivided segments. Cor. none, unless the calyx be taken for such. Stam. Filaments eight, awl-shap- ed, erect, rather shorter than the calyx; anthers round- ish. Pist. Germen superior, roundish; style one, the length of the stamens, thick, cylindrical ; stigma capitate. Peric. Capsule pulpy, roundish, bursting in- to three or four revolute valves, juicy within, of one cell. Seeds four, oblong. DSs. Ch., (, alyx coloured, in five deep spreading seg- ments. Corolla none. Capsule superior, pulpy, of one cell, and four seeds. 1. V. ilicifolia. Holly-leaved Valentinia. Swartz Ind. Occ. 689. Willd. n. 1. (Malpighi, aquifolii am- plioribus foliis; Plum. Ic. 160. t. 167. f. 2. Ilex fo- lio agrifolii americana; Pluk Phyt. t. 196. f. s.)— Native of the most barren stony parts of Hispaniola, to- wards the ocean; also of Cuba, about the Havannah, flowering in January. A shrub, two or three feet high, branched, of a rigid habit, without thorns; the branches Smooth. Leaves alternate, oblong, rigid, stalked, with ax- illary buds; their length three or four inches; their breadth more than one ; their margins undulated, and be- set with broad spinous teeth, like our common Holly; both surfaces smooth and veiny. Flowers at the ends of the branches, stalked, somewhat umbellate, scarlet. Calyz permanent. A ruit in an early state snow-white, afterwards scarlet. Seeds three or four, smooth, im- bedded in yellow pulp.–Burmann, with more than his usual sagacity, suspected this plant, was not really a Mal- flighia, because of its alternate leaves Dr. Swartz thinks it belongs to the same natural order as Ilex,but the want of a corolia, and the structure of the fruit, cause some difficulties. VALENTINIAN I., in Biography, a Roman em- peror, descended from an obscure family of Cibalis, in Pannonia, and born A. D. 32 l Dedicated to the pro- fession of arms, he distinguished himself by attention to military discipline, and in the reign of Constantine com- manded a body of cavalry in Gaul. Under Julian he was tribune of one of the bands of imperial guards, and displayed his zeal for the Christian religion. On the ac- cession of Jovian, he served in Gaul; and returning to the East, he was at Ancyra at the time of Jovian's death : and here he was raised to the purple by general ap- plause in 364, in the 43d year of his age On his arri- val at Constantinople, he declared his brother Valens his partner in the empire. On the division of the em- pire (see VALENs), he reserved to himself the western portion, consisting of Illyricum, Italy, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Africa. After this event he resided at Mi- lan. . Soon after, his reign was disturbed by an irruption of the Alemanni into Gaul. In 368 he crossed the Rhine with a powerful army, and having forced the camp of the Alemanni, he returned to Treves, and fortified the banks of that river, so that Gaul was secured from any hostile attacks during the remainder of his reign. The spirit of his government was that of vigorous disci- pline ; and till he was corrupted by power, he paid a re- gard to justice and the public good ; enacting many salutary laws in favour of the poor and diseased, pro- viding for the instruction of youth, and exercising tolera- tion in matters of religion. Accordingly he allowed un- molested liberty to Jews and Pagans, whilst he pro- scribed magical rites, and punished those who practised them. He also restrained the avarice and luxury of the clergy, and declared donations, that were injurious to families, illegal ; and proceeded so far as to incapacitate all persons of the ecclesiastical order from receiving any testamentary bequest, except such as came to them by inheritance. Valentinian was rash and violent in his temper, and li- able to be imposed upon by his ministers and officers. Among the other events of his reign, we may mention an invasion of the Alemanni by the Burgundians, at his solici- tation; the predatory incursions of the Saxons on the ma- ritime provinces of Gaul; and the recovery of the Ro- man province in Britain from the invasion of the Picts and Scots. Being encamped near Basil, in 374, he re- ceived intelligence that the Quadi had entered Pannonia, and that the Sarmatians had invaded Moesia; he ad- vanced to the Danube, and crossing that river, laid waste the country of the Quadi with fire and sword. When the Quadi sued for peace, he menaced and re- proached them with such an excess of passion, that he broke a blood-vessel, and fell speechless into the arms of his attendants. This disaster was soon followed by his death, which happened in 375, in the twelfth year of his reign, when he attained the age of about fifty-four years. The historian Socrates affirms that he had two wives at a time, issuing an edict that extended the same privilege to all his subjects. But this circumstance has been doubted, as no less inconsistent with the reli- gionand manners of the periodin which he lived, than with his own disposition and character, for he does not seem to have been addicted to licentious pleasures. Habitu- ating himself to scenes of torture and death, he at length took delight in them ; and he is said to have kept two enormous bears near his person, which he employed as executioners, for his private amusement. Upon the whole, however, his government was benefi- cial ; and whilst he defended the empire with vigour, he promoted its reputation, and prosperity by good laws and useful institutions. Anc. Un. Hist. Gibbon’s Rom. Emp. Gen. Biog. VALENTINIAN II., a Roman emperor, was the son of the former by the empress Justina, and born in 37 l. On the death of his father, when his half-brother Gra- tian, his partner in the empire, was at a distance, he was declared emperor by the principal ministers and officers of his deceased parent, and Gratian acquiesced in the appointment. His portion of the empire comprehend- ed Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. As his mother was at- tached to the Arian sect, she was involved in a contest with Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, and thus the peo- ple became disaffected to her son; so that upon the death of G: atian, the usurper Maximus invaded Italy, and obliged Justina and Valentinian to take refuge in Aquileia. Hence they proceeded to Thessalonica, and 2 H 2 implored V A L V A L implored the assistance and protection of Theodosius, emperor of the East. Theodosius having prevailed with Valentinian to renounce the Arian doctrine, promised to support his cause, and the consequences of his interposition were the defeat and death of Maximus, in the year 388. Upon this the young emperor was re- stored to his dominions; and displayed those virtues which served to gain for him the eulogy of Ambrose and other ecclesiastical writers. Such was his religious zeal, that he refused to grant to his pagan subjects a re- storation of their privileges to the heathen priests and temples. Whilst Valentinian was at Vienne, in Gaul, the barbarians on the frontiers of Italy threatened an in- vasion; but the emperor, before he exposed himself to the hazards of war, determined to be baptized and sent for Ambrose to administer the rite. He also wished to engage the prelate’s mediation with Arbogastes, the Frank, who had assumed an almost uncontrouled power over the government. He also sought the assistance of Theodosius. In the mean while he received Arbo- gases, winilst he was seated on his throne, and delivered to him a paper, expressing his dismission from all his employments. The Frank told him that his authority did not depend upon the will of a monarch, and threw the paper contemptuously on the ground. Valentinian was enraged, and attempted to avenge himself by wresting a sword from one of his guards; but his vio- lence was restrained. However, a few days after he was found strangled in his apartments, May, A. D. 392, being then in his twenty-first year, and having nominally reigned 16% years. Anc. Un. Hist. Gib- bon’s Rom. Emp. Gen. Biog. VALENTINIAN III., a Roman emperor, the son of Placidia, sister of the emperor Honorius, by Constan- tius, one of that emperor’s generals, was born in the year 418, and after the death of Honorius, declared emperor of the West. In 437 he was married to Eudoxia, the daughter of Theodosius II. ; but during the life of his mother who died in 450, he took no part in the government. The dread of Attila caused him to retire from Ravena to Rome, where he proposed terms of accommodation with this formidable enemy, which were accepted. The weakness and timidity of this emperor occasioned a jealousy of the famous general Aetius, and base measures were secretly con- certed for putting him to death. Valentinian himself perpetrated the foul deed of his assassination: and this act was followed by the murder of several of his friends. This detestable act, which took place in 454, was succeded by the violation of the chaste and beauti- ful wife of Petronius Maximus, a wealthy senator. Her husband as soon as he was informed of it, deter- mined upon revenge ; and for this purpose engaged two of the imperial guards who had served under Aetius. One of these seized the opportunity of some military sports in the Campus Martius to stab the em- peror to the heart. This event happened in March 455, when Valentinian was thirty-four years of age, and after he had borne the title of emperor twenty- nine years. He was the last emperor of the race of Theodosius, and had all the weakness, but none of the virtues of that line. Anc. Un. Hist. Gibbon Gen. Biog. VALENTINIANS, in Ecclesiastical History, an ancient and famous sect of Gnostics: thus called from their leader Valentinus, an Egyptian by birth, who was eminently distinguished by the extent of his fame, and the multitude of his followers. His sect, which took rise at Rome towards the close of the second century, grew up to maturity in the isle of Cyprus, and spread itself through Asia, Africa, and Europe, with amazing rapidity. His principles were much the same with those of the Gnostics, though, in many respects, he entertained opinions peculiar to himself. He placed in the pleroma, as the Gnostics called the habitation of the Deity, thirty acons, half male and half female : to these he added four others, which were of neither sex, viz. Horus, Christ, the Holy Ghost, and Jesus. Time youngest aeon, called Sophia, or Wisdom, conceived an ardent desire of comprehending the nature of the Supreme Being, and by the force of this propensity, brought forth a daughter, named Achamoth ; who being exiled from the pleroma, fell down into the un- digested mass of matter, and arranged it; and, by the assistance of Jesus, produced the demiurge, the lord and creator of all things. This demiurge separated the animal from the terrestrial matter; and out of the former created the superior world, or visible heavens; and out of the latter, the inferior world, or the terra- queous globe. He also made man, uniting in his com- position the animal and terrestrial matter, to which Achamoth added a spiritual and celestial substance. The demiurge, according to Valentine, arrogating the honours of God alone, sent prophets to the Jewish na- tion to urge his claims; and his ambition was imitated by the other angels that preside over the different parts of the universe. In order to chastise this lawless ar- rogance, and to illuminate the minds of rational beings with the knowledge of the true and supreme Deity, Christ appeared on earth, composed of an animal and spiritual substance, and clothed, moreover, with an aërial body. The Redeemer in descending upon earth, passed through the womb of Mary : and Jesus, one of the supreme aeons, was united to him when he was baptised by John in Jordan. The creator of this world, perceiving that the foundations of his empire were shaken, caused him to be apprehended and nailed to the cross; but before Christ submitted to this punish- ment, not only Jesus the Son of God, but the rational soul of Christ, ascended up on high : so that only the animal soul and the etherial body suffered crucifixion. Those who, abandoning the service of false deities and the worship of the God of the Jews, live according to the precepts of Christ, and submit the animal and sen- sual soul to the discipline of reason, shall be truly happy; and when all the parts of the divine nature, or all souls, are purified thoroughly and separately from matter, then a raging fire shall spread its flames through the universe, and dissolve the frame of the corporeal world. Such is the doctrine of Valentine and the Gnostics; and such, in general are the tenets of the oriental philosophy. The sect of the Valentinians was divided into many branches. See ProLEMAITEs, SECUNDIANS, HERACLEoNITEs, and MARcosLANs. Mo- sheim’s Eccl. Hist. vol. i. VALENTINUS, the founder of a sect of heretics, for an account of which, see VALENTINIANs. VALENZA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the department of the Gogno, on the Po; 6 miles N. of Alexandria. VALEPONGA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Hispania Citerior, at the eastern foot of mount Ubeda, near the source of the river Turia. In the Itinerary of Antonine it is marked on the route from Laminium to Toletum, between Ad Putea and Urbiaca. VALERE. See PERINDE Valere. VALERIA, V A L V A L VALERIA, VALERA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town in the interior of Hispania Citerior, S. of Ergavi- ca. Pliny reckons it in the number of colonies, and Ortelius gives it the epithet of Julia. It was situated in Celtiberia, E. of Sucro, and W. of Lobetum.—Also, a town of the isle of Corsica, which had the title of a colony, according to Ptolemy.—Also, a country of Germany, comprehending a part of Pannonia, and so called by Maximian, after the name of Valeria, his wife, the daughter of Dioclesian. It was situated be- tween the Danube and the Drave.-Also, the thirteenth province of Italy, to which Nurtia was annexed. It was between Umbria, Campania and Picenum, and comprehended the country of the Marsi and their lake, called “Fucinus.”—Also, a town of Italy, in Lati- um, on the Valerian way. VALERIAN, P. LICINIUs VALERIANUs, in Biogra- fihy, a Roman emperor, the descendant of an illustri- ous family at Rome, was betimes so distinguished by his attention both to civil and military affairs, that he was appointed consul and prince of the senate, and also censor. He occupied other stations of considerable trust and importance. At length his own troops pro- claimed him emperor, in which choice every individu- al of the empire was disposed to concur. Accordingly he was invested with the purple A. D. 253, after having passed his sixtieth year. The commencement of his reign was rendered illustrious by many popular and laudable acts, from which eulogy, however, we must except the appointment of his son Gallienus, a vicious youth, to be his colleague in the empire ; more espe- cially as in the progress of it he had many enemies with whom to contend ; among whom we may enume- rate Franks, Goths, Allemans, and Persians, the latter of whom may be deemed the most formidable. When Antioch was surprised and pillaged, under the instiga- tion of Sapor, king of Persia, by Cyriades, who as- sumed the title of emperor, Valerian marched to the restoration of this city, and having expelled the Scy- thians, who had taken possession of it, he hastened to cross the Euphrates, in order to relieve Edessa, which was besieged by Sapor. After a vain attempt for this purpose, he was reduced to the necessity of negociating with the Persian king. The result, however, was, that he became a captive to Sapor, A. D. 260, and was treated cruelly and ignominiously in his captivity. This distress was aggravated by the ingratitude of his son Gallienus, who afforded him no relief in his cap- tivity, but took advantage of a report of his death to raise him to the rank of a god. After languishing in this state for a considerable time, he died in Persia; and it was rumoured, that after his death, his skin, stuffed with straw, was hung up in a temple, where Sapor exhibited it as a humiliating spectacle to the ambassadors from Rome. Valerian, wilose adminis- tration was charged with want of vigour and activity in resisting the foes of the empire, was not unjustly re- proached as a persecutor of the Christians. Regard- ing them as the enemies of paganism, he issued an edict, which produced the eighth persecution, as it has been called by ecclesiastical historians, and which was both general and severe, and lasted from the year 257 to the period of his captivity. The calamities which he suffered have been represented as a judgment upon him for this cruelty. He was twice married, Gallienus being the offspring of the first marriage; and by the second he had at least two sons, Anc. Un. Hist. Cre- wner. Gibbon - VALERIANA, in Botany, a name which seems to have originated with the physicians of the dark ages, and which is evidently derived from valeo, to be power- ful or efficacious, in allusion, as Caspar Bauhin and Am- brosinus tells us, to the many virtues of the plant. Lin- naeus, in Phil. Bot. 171, unaccountably ranks this name among those derived, like Gentiana, Eufiatom ium, &c. from kings—Linn. Gen. 22. Schreb. 29. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 175. Vahl Enum. v. 2. l. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Alt. Hort. Kew. v. 1.73. Sm. Fl. Brit. 37. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 20. Pursh 28. Juss. 195. Tourn. t. 52. Lamarck Illustr. t. 24. Gaertn. t. 86.-Class and order, Triandria Monogynia. - Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Difisaca, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. scarcely any, except a slight border at the top of the germen. Cor. of one petal, irregular; tube swelling, or spurred, underneath at the base, where it bears honey; limb in five obtuse segments. Stam. Filaments three, in some cases fewer, awl-shaped, erect, the length of the coroiia; anthers roundish. Pist. Germen inferior; style thread-shaped, the length of the stamens; stigma thickish. Peric. a crust, which does not split, deciduous, crowned. Seed solitary, ob- long. - Ess. Ch. Calyx obsolete. Corolla superior, of one petal, gibbous on one side, at the base Seed solitary. Obs. Linnaeus remarks as follows on the wonderful diversities of form and number in the parts of fructifi- cation, among the various species of this genus. The Calyx in some is a scarcely discernible border; in others five-cleft. Tube of the corolla in some ob- long; in a few furnished with a spur-shaped nectary: in others very short. Its limb in some equal ; in others two-lipped, the upper lip divided. Stamens in several three ; in some two ; in others one or four; in some removed to a different flower from the pistil. Stigma in some three-cleft; in others emarginate ; in others globose. Pericarſ, in some scarcely any ; in others a thick capsule; in others of two cells. Seed some- times crowned with feathery down, whose form is va- rious ; sometimes without any. ~. By the above detail, the reader will be aware that Linnaeus includes under this genus the FEDIA of Adan- son, (see that article,) which is what Tournefort, Vail- lant, and recently Decandolle, have called Valerianella. The same genus is adopted, under the last-mentioned name, by our worthy friend Mr. W. J. Hooker, in his continuation of Curtis's Flora Londinensis. Such di- minutives of aiready established names, however, being contrary to the laws of Linnaeus, Phil. Bot. Sect. 227 and 228, and, which is still more important, repugnant, in the highest degree, to good sense, have never been admitted by any writer, even the least correct, since Linnaeus first promulgated sound principles of nomen- clature, and can have been resorted to by the above ex- cellent botanist, through inadvertence only. Fedia, being unexceptionable, and received by Vahl in his Enumeratio, must supersede Valerianella, provided the genus be allowed to remain, of which we have already expressed our doubts. We have indeed little scrupie, all things considered, in rejecting it. (See our 33d, 45th, and following species.) But having already noti- ced Fedia in its proper place, we shall here confine our- selves to the generally admitted Valeriana, which con- stitute an ample genus, recently augmented by Vahl, whose arrangement of species we follow, from the Flo- za Peruviana, and other sources; to which we have al- so something to add. The genus under consideration is composed of her- baceous plants, either perennial or annual, with an #. right; VALERIANA. right round stem, and opposite leaves ; which are most. ly simple; rarely ternate or pinnate. Flowers terminal numerous, opposite, cory mbose or panicled ; ge- nerally reddish, or flesh-coloured; rarely, yellowish ; scarcely blue. The roots of some are distinguished by a most potent and very peculiar odour. 1. V. rubra. Red Valerian. Linn. Sp. Pl. 44. Willd. n. l. Vahl. n. 1. FI. Britin. l. Engl. Bot. t. 1531. (V. rubra Dodonaei; Ger. Em. 678. V. marina; Ri- vin. Monop. Irr. t. 3. f. 2. Phu peregrinum ; Camer. Epit. 24.)—Stamen one. Spur of the flower elonga- ted. Leaves lanceolate, nearly entire.—Native of walls, waste ground, chalk-pits, and dry hilly places, in England, Switzerland, France, the north of Africa, Greece, and other parts of the Levant. Certainly wild in the chalk-pits of Kent; flowering from June to September. The plant is common in gardens, and on oid walls. A deep red variety is usually preferred for cultivation. The root is perenniai, foetid, rather fleshy. Whole herb very smooth, a little glaucous, eighteen inches or two feet high. Upper leaves of- ten toothed, broadly ovate, with a long point. Flowers pink, rarely white, slender, not inelegant, very nume- rous, in a dense repeatedly branched corymb. Seed- crown of many feathery entangled rays, gradually un- rolied after the flower is past. 2. V. angustifolia. Willd. n. 2. Vahl. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 32. t. 353. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 22. t. 29. (V. rubra & ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 44. V. rubra angustifolia; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. part 2. 21 i.)—Stamen one. Spur of the flower elongated. Leaves linear-lanceolate, blunt- ish, entire.--Native of hilly situations in France, Italy, Switzerland and the Levant, but not yet observed in England. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it on the highest hills about Athens. This is very nearly related to the former, with which it agrees altogether in habit and jlowers, but the leaves are all uniformly narrow, almost linear, quite entire, and more obtuse at the extremity. 3. V. calcitraña. Cut-leaved Valerian. Linn. Sp. Pl. 44. Willd. n. 3. Vahl. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 22. t. 30. (V. foliis calcitrapae : Moris. Sect. 7. t. 14. f. 7. V. annua, seu aestiva; Cius. Hist, v. 2.54. Ger. Em. 1077.)—Stamen one. Corol- la slightly spurred. Leaves all pinnatifid and sessile.— Native of Portugal, the north of Africa, the Levant, and even Peru; but Vahl justly suspects its having been transported thither from Europe. It is become a weed on many walls about Chelsea, having, doubtless, escaped from the physic garden there. An annual upright herb, scarcely branched, flowering in May and June; the leaves slightly lyrate ; flowers small, rose- coloured. Seeds spiked, with a feathery crown. 4. V. orbiculata. Round-leaved Valerian. Sm: FI. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 23. t. 31, marked rotundifolia.- Stamen one. Corolla slightly spurred. Lower leaves stalked, orbicular, somewhat heart-shaped, slightly toothed. Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Ferdinand Bauer, on hills in the isle of Cyprus, flowering in the spring. Annual and agreeing in habit with the last, but of rather humbler growth, and essentially distin- guished by its round leaves, hardly an inch broad, pur- ple beneath; the uppermost pair only being pinnatifid at their base. Flowers variegated with red and white, in twin-stalked 8/likes, much elongated as the seeds ripen. 5. V. oblongifolia. Oblong-leaved Valerian. Peruv. v. 1. 4Q. t. 65. f. a. “ F1. Vahl n. 4.—“Hairy. Ra- Narrow-leaved Red Valerian. dical leaves oblong, toothed, obtuse; those of the stena linear, with tooth-like deep serratures.”—Found on the lofty mountains of Peru. Root fibrous, rather thick, Stems several, striated, almost leafless, except under the flowers; the central one tallest, eighteen inches high. Radical leaves stalked, distantly toothed; the floral ones sessile, linear-lanceolate. Flowers sessile, in a dense corymb. Wahl. - 6. V. dioica. Small Marsh Valerian. Linn. Sm. Pl. 44. Willd. n. 4. Vahl n. 5. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 628. Curt. Lond, fasc. 4. t. 3. Fl. Dan. t. 687. Poit. et Turp. Paris. t. 41. (V. minor, et V. flore ex- iguo; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 2. Ger. Em. 1075. Phu minimum; Matth. Valgr. v. 1. 38. Camer. Epit. 23.) —Flowers dioecious, with three stamens. Radical leaves ovate, those of the stem deeply lyrato-pinnati- fid.—Native of moist boggy meadows in the more northern or temperate parts of Europe, flowering in June. Root creeping. Stems six or eightinches high. Leaves all smooth, and generally, but not always, en- tire; radical ones somewhat spatulate. Flowers biush- coloured, in dense, forked, cymose panicles. The male plant is always smallest and weakest. Some ſtowers have stamens as well as fistils, but not both perfect in the same. - 7. V. Phu. Garden Valerian. Linn. Sp. Pl. 45. Willd. n. 7. Vahl n. 6. Ait. n. 6. (V. hortensis; Ger. Em. 1075. Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 3. Phu magnum, Fuchs. Hist. 856. Matth. Vaſgr. v. 1. 36.)—Radical leaves elliptical, undivided; the rest pinnatifid, somewhat ly- rate; the upper ones with lanceolete, acute, entire seg- ments.—Native of Germany. An old inhabitant of our gardens, where it was anciently called Setwall, or Cettiwall. A large perennial species, flowering from May to July Stems three or four feet high. Herbage smooth, light green, with spreading leaves, mostly ly- rate, except those at the bottom. Flowers copious, pale purplish blush-coloured. The fleshy root has a peculiar aromatic scent, and is supposed to partake of the virtues of the Officinal Valerian. Cats are ex- tremely fond of it, and delight in rolling themselves among the stalks and leaves, which they thus frequent- ly destroy. 8. V. hyalinorhiza. Transparent-rooted Valerian. “Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 41. t. 67, f. b.” Vahl n. 7.-4: Radical leaves roundish-spatulate, crenate, undivided or auri- cled; those of the stem pinnatifid.”—Found in dry sandy parts of Chili. Herb downy. Root tuberous, obovate, pellucid, insipid., Stem half a foot high, purp- lish. Radical leaves stalked; the innermost with an additional leaflet at each side : those of the stem dis- tant, connate, lanceolate. Corymbs forked. Calyx ob- solete. Corolla yellow. Seed square, crowned with minute teeth. Wahl. 9. V. crisfia. Curled Valerian. “FI. Peruv. v. 1. 41.” Vahl n. 8-" Lower leaves ovate-oblong, with tooth-like serratures; the rest somewhat pinnate, with serrated undulated leaflets.”—-Native of meadows, fields, and cultivated ground, in Chili. Root with many small fibres. Stem two feet high, branched, brittle, striated, hollow. Leaves stalked; those of the stem more or less perfectly pinnate; their leaflets sessile, reflexed, wavy and crispid, gradually smaller downward; the odd one very large. Clusters forked. Wahl. 10. V. interrupta. Interrupted-leaved Valerian. “Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 42. t. 67. f. a.” Vahl. n. 9.-- Ra- dical leaves interruptedly pinnatifid; their longer segments also somewhat pinnatifid. Stem nearly leafless.”—Found on the lofty mountains of Peru. Roof perenniad VALERIANA. perennial, thick, divided. Herb juicy and smooth. Leaves all radical, except a pinnatifid pair under the corymb, not much unlike those of Scorzonera laciniata. Stalks terminal, three together, each bearing a head of sessile flowers, with linear bracteas to each. Corolla white, five-cleft. Wahl. - ll. V. lyrata. Lyrate Valerian. Vahl n. 10.— « Radical leaves lyrate ; segments oblong, with tooth- like serratures; the terminal one somewhat pinnati- fid: those of the stem-leaves linear-lanceolate.”—Na- tive of Peru ; seen by Vahl in Jussieu’s herbarium. Stem smooth, a span high, bearing two leaves. Radi- cal leaves stalked, half the length of the stem; their terminal lobe very large, measuring two inches; late- ral ones alternate; deeply and bluntly serrated : stem- leaves sessile, half an inch long: all smooth. Partial flower-stalks racemose, three-cleft, forked. The as- pect of the plant is like W. calcitraña. Wahl. 12. V. flinnatifida. Pinnatifid Jagged Valerian. “ Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 40. t. 69. f. 6 ° Vahl n. 1 1.-4: Low- est leaves lanceolate, entire; the rest pinnatifid, with deeply serrated segments. Branches of the corymb forked.”—Native of elevated hills about Lima. Root tuberous, long, perennial. Herb succulent. Stem per- fectly simple, striated, hollow; leaflets in its lower part. Radical leaves on long stalks; those of the stem half clasping it; their segments with tooth-like serra- tures. Panicle elongated ; lower partial stalks first three cleft, then forked, with an intermediate sessile flower between. Bracteas linear. Stamens three. Wahl. 13. V. globifera. Globular-headed Valerian. “FI. Peruv. v. 1. 43. t. 65. f. b.” Vahl n. 12.—“Hairy, stemless. Leaves pinnate; leaflets deeply toothed or sinuated. Heads globose.”—Native of the high moun- tains of Peru. Root rather thick, once or twice divided. Leaves radical, stalked, with sessile leaflets. Flower- stalks several, radical, measuring four or five inches, scarcely longer than the leaves, round, striated. Flow- ers sessile, in a globular head, with intermediate spatu- late, wather membranous, Öracteas. Wahl. 14. V. fauciftora. North American Valerian. Mi- chaux Boreal-Amer. v. l. 18. Pursh n. 1. Vahl n. 1.3.−q. Radical leaves pinnate ; those of the stem ter- nate; leaflets oval, acute, Serrated. Panicles loose, of few flowers.”—in shady woods of the Alleghany mountains, and Tchassee, North America, flowering in June and July. Pcrennial. Flowers white. 15. V. folystachya. Many-spiked Valerian. Sm. Pl. Ic. t. 51. Willd. n. 19. Vahl n. 4.—Leaves pin- nate; leaflets decurrent, nearly entire. Spike com- pound, whorled.—Gathered by Commerson, in watery situations at Buenos Ayres. Stem two feet high at least, ascending, striated, smooth, leafy. Leaflets smooth, nearly uniform, about an inch and half long; the odd one now and then slightly toothed; the lowermost much diminished. Flowers white, very numerous, in dense copious whorls, subtended by lanceolate bracteas, and forming a compound &fnike, not unlike that of some Menthae. It is doubtful whether the seed has any feathe- ry crown. 16. V. officinalis. Great Wild. Valerian. Linn. Sp. T’l. 45. Willd. n. 6. Vahl N. 15. Ait. n. 5. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 698. Curt. Lond fasc. 6. t. 3. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 96. Fl. Dan. t. 570. (Valeriana; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 1 ; and V. foliis augustioribus; ibid. t. 2. V. major sylvestris; Ger. Em. 1075. Phu ; £olumn. Phytob. I 14, Ph. parvum; Matth. Valgr. v. 1. 37. Ph. minus; Camer. Epit. 22, Ph. germani- cum ; Fuchs. Hist. 857.)—Leaves all pinnate; leaflets kanceolate, serrated, nearly uniform.—Common in mar- shy places, the banks of rivers, or hilly groves and thick- ets, flowering in June, throughout the more northern parts of Europe. Root perennial, fleshy, aromatic, but with a strong and peculiar, very nauseous, flavour, high- ly grateful to cats. Stem about four feet high, furrow- ed, leafy. Leaves stalked, from eight to twelve inches long; leaflets of the radical ones, in the upland variety, somewhat broader, and more ovate, than in the marsh kind; while those of the stem, in the same variety, are sometimes very narrow and entire. Flowers numerous, flesh-coloured or white, in large corymbose tufts. Seed crowned with large feathery down. This plant having, till"very lately, see the next spe- cies, been generally taken for the famous 20w, or Vale- rian, of Dioscorides, has been universally employed in medicine, for the cure of nervous head-aches, hysteri- cal and epileptic disorders. The mountain kind, being less acrid and more aromatic, is preferred for use, and is kept in all apothecaries’ shops, in whose “compound of villainous smells” its flavour notably predominates. 17. V. Dioscoridis. Ancient Grecian Valerian. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. l. 24. t 33 (£ov; Diosc. book. 1. chap. 10.)—Stamens three. Leaves all pinnate; leaflets of the lyrate radical ones ovate, with wavy teeth. Root tuberous-Gathered by Dr Sibthorp near the river Li- myrus in Lycia, as we are informed by Mr. Hawkins, the learned companion of his tour. The professor him- self first, of all modern botanists, discovered this plant, and justly concluded it to be the real Qov, for which our common wild Valerian has been always mistaken. The oblong tuberous perennial root has a much more pun- gent, peppery, more durable, and yet less nauseous, odour than the last described. The stem is hollow, simple, two feet high. Herb smooth. Radical leaves numerous, lyrate, distinguished by the ovate form, and wavy margin, of all their leaflets, of which the odd one is much the largest, and somewhat heart-shaped : those of the stem few, lanceolate, narrow, partly serrated. Flowers very like the last. 18. V. italica. Italian Valerian. Lamarck Illustr. v. 1.92. Vahl n. 16. (V. tuberosa; Imperato Hist. Nat. 656. Bauh. Hist. v. 3. part 2. 207 V. tuberosa Imperati; Tourn. Cor. 5. Barrel. Ic t. 825. V. oenan- thes radice; Moris, sect. 7. t. 15. f. 4.)—Stamens four. Leaves all pinnate; leaflets of the radical ones ovate, nearly uniform, sharply toothed. Root tuberous.-Gath- ered by Imperato on the mountains of Liguria. We have only his figure, which all authors have copied, to guide us; except Vahl’s description, made from a speci- men in Jussieu’s collection. This appears very nearly the same with our V. Dioscoridis, especially the root, which is said to smell like Nard. The leaves however are represented as much more strongly toothed, more equally pinnate, and not lyrate ; the upper pair indeed have narrow entire leaflets, resembling our last. The flowers are white, more densely corymbose, and assert- ed by Lamarck to have four stamens, which, if correct, and constant, indicates an essential difference. It would be very desirable to compare specimens of this Italian Valerian with those of Dr. Sibthorp. 19. V. sisymbriifolia. Water-cress-leaved Valerian. Vahl n. 17. (V. orientalis, sisymbrii Matthioli folio; Tourn. Cor. 6.)—“Leaves all pinnate; leaflets round- ish-ovate, entire.”—Native of the Levant; examined in Jussieu’s herbarium by Vahl, who declares it, contrary fº VALERIANA; to Buxbaum's opinion, to be totally distinct from V. dioi- ca. The plant resembles Sisymbrium Matrurtium. Stem from six to twelve inches high, finely striated, smooth, as well as every other part. Leaves stalked, pinnate, of two or three pair of leaflets ; the innermost of which are smallest, alternate, and somewhat stalked; the outer sessile and opposite; the odd one an inch long, ovate or roundish, very blunt, obscurely ribbed; some- times the top leaves are ternate only. Flowers in a dense, level topped, nearly simple corymb, resembling those of W. officinalis. Bracteas linear, shorter than the flower. Stamens three. Style three-cleft. This ap- pears, by the above description of Vahl, to be likewise related to W. Dioscoridis. We have seen neither speci- men nor figure. 20. V. cafensis. Cape Valerian. Thunb. Prodr. 7. Willd. n. 5. Vahl n. 18.-‘‘Leaves pinnate; leaflets ovate, toothed. Stem hairy at the joint.”—Found by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. The stem is said to be furrowed; smooth, except the joints. Corymbs forked. 21. V. fianiculata. Panicled Valerian. “ FI. Peruv. v. 1. 41. t. 70. f. a.” Vahl n. 19.-4: Hairy. Radical leaves undivided, heart-shaped; those of the stem pin- nate, with ovate finely-toothed leaflets. Branches of the panicle forked.”—Native of boggy stony places in Peru. Root branched. Herb villous. Stems several, aggre- gate, slightly leafy, near a yard high, quite simple, some- what two-edged, furrowed, hollow. Radical leaves two, entire; lower stem-leaves of seven pair of acute leaflets, gradually smaller downwards; uppermost of all ternate. Footstalks sheathing. Panicle diffuse. Bracteas small, linear, opposite. Calyx marginal, with ten angles. Tube of the corolla very small. Seed oblong, but little compressed, crowned with ten rays. Wahl. 22. V. decussata. Cross-branched Valerian. “Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 42. t. 70. f. b.” Vahl n. 20.-4: Leaves pin- nate; leaflets lanceolate, finely teothed; hoary and dow- ny beneath. Branches of the pannacle forked and di- varicated.”—Found about hedges, and stony places, in Peru. Stem herbaceous, though somewhat climbing, three feet high, striated, hollow, a little downy. Leaves on short stalks; leaflets gradually larger outwards, dis- tantly and minutely toothed; downy above; more dense- ly so beneath. Panicle very large, with horizontal par- tial flower-stalks. Bracteas under each division linear. Corolla minute, white. Seed crowned with ten or twelve rays. Wahl. 23. V. scandens. Climbing Valerian. Linn. Sp. Pl. 47. Loefl. It. 235. Vahl n. 21.—“Leaves ternate. Stem climbling.”—Gathered by Loefling in his journey from Cumana to the river Oroonoco, flowering in January.— The flowers grow in lateral, somewhat forked, spiked panicles. Corolla tubular, greenish-rose-coloured, with five equal spreading teeth. Stamens three. Seeds compressed, ovate, striated, with a feathery crown. Loefling. We have never seen, or heard of, a specimen of this plant in Europe, Linnaeus having described it from Loefling's authority only. 24. V. sanguisorbifolia. Burnet-leaved Valerian. Ca- van. Ic. v. 5. 34. t. 456. Vahl n. 22. — Leaves pinnate; leaflets ovate, toothed. Corymbs compound. Stem hai- ry at the joints.-Native of the Cordilleras of Chili, flowering in January. The stem is about a foot high, ascending, leafy. Radical leaves stalked, of about six pair of small, roundish-ovate leaflets, furnished with one or two broad blunt teeth at each side; the odd one much Imore elongated and narrower. Branches of the hami- cle compound, corymbose. rays. 25. V. virgata. Many-twig’d Valerian. “ F1. Pe. ruv. v., 1.42. t. 66. f. b.” Vahl n. 23.—Leaves pin- nate; leaflets cloven or three-cleft, with linear seg- ments. Branches of the corymb forked.—Native of precipices in Peru. Smooth, with the habit of Tagetes minuta , Stem rather shrubby, three feet high, much branched, square, striated, scarcely hollow, obscurely downy ; the branches upright and wand-like. Leaflets minute ; some undivided ; others with two, three, or four, linear, emarginate or entire, segments; shining on the upper side. Partial flower-stalks forked, with opposite linear bracteas Flowers sessile in the forks. Seeds striated on one side, gibbous on the other. Wahl. 26. V. montana. Mountain Valerian. Linn. Sp. Pl. 45. Willd. n. 9. Vahl n. 24. Ait. n. 8. Jackq. Austr. t 269. (V. alpina, Scrophulariae folio; Bauh. Prodr. 87.)—Leaves ovate-oblong, simple, unequally toothed; the lower ones stalked; upper pointed. Stem simple, rather downy.—Not very uncommon in stony ground, on the alps of Switzerland, the Grisons, Germany, and the Pyrenées, flowering in July and August The root is long, creeping, perennial, with a slight degree of the flavour belonging to this genus. Stems a foot high, more or less, ascending, leafy, unbranched. Radical leaves on long stalks, heart-shaped or spatulate, acute, smooth, an inch or two in length, with various broad, shallow, wavy teeth; the rest more oblong and point- ed, on short stalks. Flowers numerous, corymbose, small, pale flesh-coloured. 27. V. intermedia. Ambiguous Valerian. Vahl n. 25–4. Leaves simple, nearly entire; the lowermost oblong-heart-shaped; uppermost lanceolate; three pair on the stem.”—Brought from the Pyrenées by Mr. Hornemann. Akin to the last, though the leaves being not heart-shaped, nor toothed, as in that, but lanceolate and entire, induced professor Vahl to esteem it distinct. 28. V. triftteris. Three-leaved Valerian. Linn. Sp. Pl: ; 5. Wiild. n. 8. Vahl n. 26. Ait. n. 7. Jacq. Austr. t. 268. (V. alpina prima; Bauh. Prodr. 86. V. alpina saxatilis minor, flore albo ; Barrel. Ic. t. 742. V. alpina minor, et minima; Piuk. Phyt. t. 231. f. 7, 8.)—Leaves toothed; the radical ones heart-shaped, simple; those of the stem ternate, ovate-oblong; their lateral leaflets lanceolate.—Found on the alps of Aus- tria and Switzerland, intermixed with V. montana, but flowering a little earlier, and the flowers are more ge- nerally white. Nevertheless, these two species are so very nearly akin, that we could almost suspect them to be varieties of each other, and that Vahl’s interme- dia may belong to one and the same species. 29. V. villo.a. Downy Valerian. Thumb. Jap. 32. t. 6. Willd. n. 18. Vahl n. 27.-Stamens four. Co- rolla equal. Leaves densely downy; the radical ones auricled; floral ones toothed.—Native of various pla- ces in Japan, flowering in September and October. The root appears to be perenniai. Whole herb dense- ly downy or hairy, a span high, unbranched. Leaves all toothed; the radical ones stalked oval, near two inches long with a pair of much smaller confluent ar- ticles. Panicle corymbose, forked. Flowers yellow. Willdenow refers this species, like V. Sibirica, to the Fediae, but Vahl makes it a Valeriana. Having seen no specimen, we are unable to form a decided opinion, the fruit not ſaving been noticed by Thunberg, whose figure and description are our only authority. 30. V. hyrenaica. Heart-leaved Valerian. Linn. Sp Pł. 46. Seed-crown of ten feathery VALERIANA. Pl. 46. Willd. n. 14. Vahl. n. 28. Don. Herb Brit. fasc. 4. 77. Sm. Compend. ed., 2 8. Engl. Bot. t. 1591. (V. maxima, cacaliae folio; Pluk. Phyt. t. 232. f. 1. V. canadensis; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 4.)—Stem- leaves heart-shaped, serrated, all stalked; the upper ones pinnate or ternate.—Native of the Pyrenées, and of Scotland; having been found by the late Mr. George Don, about ditches and walls at Blair-Adam, Kinross- shire, and subsequently near Glasgow and Edinburgh, flowering in June. Dr. Brown of Glasgow has also met with this plant in several woods of the south of Scotland, widely separated from each other. It is pe- rennial, from three to five feet high, of a stout habit, and-dark green hue, nearly smooth, possessing the smell, probably the virtues, of V. officinalis, Dioscoridis, &c. Stem downy about the summit, as are the upper footstalks all over. Leaves large, with copious, une- qual, tooth-like serratures; the radical ones, sometimes the others, simple; but for the most part the stem- leaves bear one or two pair of small lanceolate leaflets on their stalks. Flowers rose-coloured, in a dense, large, compound, terminal corymb. Shur obsolete. Stamens three. 31. V. alliariafolia. Garlick-mustard-leaved Vale- rian. Vahl n. 29. (V. orientalis, alliariae folio, flore albo ; Tourn. Cor. 6. Buxb. Cent. 2. 19. t. 11.)— Leaves heart-shaped, unequally toothed, all simple; the upper ones sessile.—Gathered by Tournefort in Cappadocia. Distinguished from the last, with which Linnaeus confounded it, by being perfectly smooth, with thinner leaves, besides what is expressed in the specific definition. Vahl examined Tournefort's ori- ginal specimens. The flowers are white. 32. V. laſhathifolia. Dock-leaved Valerian. Vahl n. 30.-4: Leaves heart-shaped ovate, undivided, nearly entire; the upper ones sessile.”—Gathered by Com- merson, in the straits of Magellan. Root perennial. Stem a foot or more in height, as thick as a goose-quill, striated, smooth. Leaves three inches long, gradually smaller upward, acute, entire, or sometimes slightly crenate, ribbed, obscurely veined, smooth, except the upper side of the ribs; those at the root, and lower part of the stem, stalked; upper pair sessile; lowest floral leaves linear, obtuse, fringed at the base. Flower- stalks corymbose ; the axillary, ones opposite, of few flowers; terminal ones three-forked, many-flowered. Stamens three. Wahl. We find no specimen of this species among the large communications of M. Thouin to the younger Linnaeus. 33. V. carnosa. Fleshy-leaved Valerian. Sm. Plant. Ic. t. 52. Willd. n. 22. Vahl n. 31. (V. magellani- ca; Lamarck Illustr. v. l. 93.)—Leaves oval, toothed, fleshy, glaucous; the radical ones on long stalks.-Gath- ered by Commerson, in the straits of Magellan. Stems about a foot high, erect, simple, smooth. Leaves all, ac- cording to Commerson, thick, succulent, and glaucous; radical ones obtuse, an inch or inch and half long, with broad unequal teeth; tapering at the base, into a foot- stalk twice or thrice their own length; stem-leaves about three pair, much smaller, nearly sessile. Flow- ers purple, nearly regular, triandrous, in small, dense, level-topped corymbs. Seed crowned with teeth, rather than with feathery down; so far at least as we can judge from our specimens. It is not impossible that this spe- cies may be a Fedia, as Willdenow makes it; though the seed, like that of Fedia (or Valeriana) Cornuconia, re- sembles true Valerians. Indeed our carnosa and flo- VoI., XXXVIII. -- 'ystachya appear to form, through P. Cornucoſia, the connecting links of these two genera. 34, V. tuberosa. Tuberous-rooted Valerian. Linn. Sp. Pl. 46. Willd. n. 11. Vahl n. 32. Ait. n. 10. (Nardum montanum; Matth. Valgr. v. 1. 32. Nar- dus montana; Ger. Em. 1079. N. montana, longiús radicata; Camer. Epit. 16.)—Leaves obtuse, enter at the margin; radical ones lanceolate-ovate, undivi- ded; those of the stem pinnatifid, with linear seg- ments.-Found in mountainous situations, in the south of France, Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia, and many parts of the Levant. Dr. Sibthorp, who gathered this species very plentifully on the hills of Cilicia, Crete, Cyprus, and even on Parnassus, justly esteems it, as most bo- tanical critics have done, the 726.30% ogetva of Diosco- rides. The tuberous perennial root is nearly as thick as the finger, very powerfully scented. Stem solitary, a span high, simple, smooth, most leafy below, bearing in its upper part only one pair of leaves in narrow linear segments, the other pair so divided being near the base. Flowers reddish, in a dense corymbose head. Seeds ribbed, with a feathery radiant crown, not displayed till they are almost ripe. 35. V. Shica. Spikenard Indian Valerian. Vahl n. 33. (“V. jetamansi; John in Act. Bengh. (Asiatic Researches 3) v. 2. 405. v. 4.433, with a figure.”)— “ Radical leaves heart-shaped, those of the stem ob- long.”—Native of Bengal. The Rev. Dr. John sup- poses it the Spikenard of the ancients. The root is perennial, somewhat branched, covered with bristles in the upper part. Stem from six to twelve inches high; its base permanent, encompassed with fibres. Leaves smooth ; the two lowermost heartshaped-oblong, waved, acute. Corymb forked. Vahl. - 36. V. elongata. Long-clustered Valerian. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1664. Willd... n. 13. Vahl n. 34. Jacq. Enum. 205. t. 1. Austr. t. 219. (Nardo celticae si- milis alia, sive Valeriana alpina minor ; Linn. Am. Acad. v. 1. 154.)—Radical leaves ovate, wavy; those of the stem sessile, somewhat heart-shaped, broadly tooth- ed and cut. Panicle loose, elongated.—Native of the Austrian mountain of Schneeberg. We have speci- mens also, gathered by Mr. Sieber, from Carinthia; and one found by Scopoli in Carniola. This is one of the rarest alpine plants, and appears never to have been seen by Vahl. It is perennial, flowering in June and July. Root long, slender, with numerous long simple fibres. Stem from four to six inches high, simple, leafy, smooth like the rest of the herb. Leaves from an inch to an inch and half long, mostly ovate ; the upper pair small, narrow, and jagged. , Flowers small, pale yellow, with a tawny tinge, forming a lax, racemose, forked, compound flanicle, about two inches long. We have not seen the crown of the seed, nor does any author describe it. 37. V. suftina. Dwarf Valerian. Linn. Mant. 27. Willd. n. 17. Vahl n. 35. Ard. Spec, fasc. 2. 13. t. 3. Wulf in Jacq. Misc. v. 2. 1 14... t. 17. f. 2.- Leaves simple, spatulate, entire, fringed; the upper- most lanceolate.—Found about the boggy Sandy mar- gins of mountain rills, on the alpine heights of Austria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol, near the limits of perpetual snow. The creeping perennial roots throw out many trailing scyons, and are crowned with several dense tufts of stalked, obovate, bright-green leaves, smooth on both sides, finely fringed with short hairs. Stems two or three inches high, more or less leafy, corym- cy - bose aw VALERIANA. bose at the top. Bracteas long, lanceolate, acute, fringed. Flowers of a delicate rose-colour. Stamens occasionally four. Seed-crown long and feathery. 38. V. saxatilis. Rock Valerian. Linn. Sp. Pl. 46. Willd. n. 12. Vahl n. 36. Ait. n. 11. Jacq. Austr. t. 267. (V. sylvestris alpina altera saxatilis; Clus. Hist. v. 2. 56. V. alpina angustifolia; Ger. Em. 1077.)—Leaves simple, undivided; radical ones elliptical, three-ribbed, rather hairy, entire, or slightly toothed; those of the stem linear. Corymbs race- mose.—Native of the alps of Styria, Italy, and Aus- tria, but rarely in the latter country, as we are in- formed by professor Jacquin, jun. to whom we are indebted for specimens. The root is perennial, crown- ed with fibrous remains of old leaf-stalks. Stem a span high, slender, smooth. Radical leaves on long stalks, erect, an inch and half or two inches long, ob- tuse, almost perfectly entire, a little hairy occasionally; tapering at the base : those on the stem long and narrow, stalked, sometimes a little jagged, scarcely more than one pair, about half way up the stem, except the still narrower and smaller bracteas at the base of the inflorescence. Flowers few, white, co- rymbose, each little tuft supported by a very long slender stalk. Jacquin asserts them to be dioecious. He gives no account of the structure of the seed-crown, nor do we find that part any where described. * 39. V. Saliunca. Italian Nard Valerian. Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 3. t. 70. f. 1. Vahl n. 37. (Saliunca neapolitana; Dalech. Hist. 982. Nardus ex Apulia; Bauh. Pin. 165.)—Leaves linear-wedgeshaped, entire or partly toothed, rather fleshy, quite smooth. Flow- ers in a dense round tuft.—Native of the mountains of Italy and Dauphiny. The root is cylindrical, woody and perennial, branched at the top, and crowned with many tufts of oblong-lanceolate, or spatulate, stalked deaves, more or less obtuse, of a much thicker tex- ture than the last, an inch and half long. Stems soli- tary, two or three inches high, bearing about the mid- dle a pair of combined smaller leaves, occasionally jag- ged or pinnatifid at the base. Sometimes there is a similar pair lower down. The flowers are crowded into a round head, sometimes accompanied with two small corymbose branches just below, and subtended by two or four oblong entire bracteas, as well as inter- mixed with smaller ones, all slightly fringed. Stamens three. Seed striated, with a feathery crown. The herb is smooth in every part, except the bracteas, and very strongly scented. 40. V. celtica. Celtic Nard Valerian. Pl. 46. Willd. n. 10. Vahl n. 38. Ait. n. 9. Jacq. Coll. v. 1. 24. t. 1. (V. n. 209; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 91. Nardus celtica; Ger. Em. 1079. Spica celtica; Ca- mer. Epit. 14.)—Leaves oblong, obtuse, entire, rather fleshy, quite smooth. Flowers racemose; partial stalks capitate.—Native of the alps of Austria, Switzerland, &c. Root oblong, creeping, scaly, with a very pow- erful and oppressive peppery smell. Herb of the stature of the last, with fleshy, smooth, but always entire, leaves. Inflorescence widely different, so that these species can never be confounded by those who have seen them in flower. The cluster of the present is about two inches long, lax; each branch, whether simple or forked, terminating in a little bracteated head, of three or four sessile yellowish flowers, with three stamens. The seed has a feathery crown, and is sometimes covered with dense hairs. Linn. Sp. 41. V. Shatulata. Spatulate Downy Valerian. “Fſ. Peruv. v. 1. 40. t. 68. f. b.” Vahl n. 39.-4: Leaves spatulate-oblong, downy. Flowers terminal, sessile, with a simple involucrum. Corolla three-cleft.”— Found on the lofty mountains of Peru. Root branch- ed, perennial, tufted. Stem about four inches high, two-edged, clothed in the lower part with copious foliage. Radical leaves densely crowded ; upper ones scattered, a little spreading, entire, minutely fringed. Involucrum, in several linear acute seg- ments, and containing from four to six flowers. The calyx is a slight rim. Seed crowned with a border. Wahl. 42. V. connata. Combined-leaved Valerian, Peruv. v. 1. 39. t. 67. f. a.” Vahl n. 40.-4: Leaves lanceolate, combined, entire. Corymbs racemose, compact. Stems procumbent, rather woody.”—Na- tive of the colder regions of Peru. The habit of this species is like Polygonum fiersicaria. Stems several, much branched, with a grey bark; branches ascend- ing, straight, jointed, somewhat sheathed, hollow ; marked when young with two downy lines, alternately crossing each other, of a dark tawny colour, striated. Leaves tapering and fringed at the base, but other- wise smooth. Common flower-stalk elongated; partial ones opposite, three-cleft, with a pair of small com- bined leaves at each side. Bracteas lanceolate, ob- tuse. Calyx bordered. Stigma cloven. Seed-down. hairy. Wahl. 43. V. salicariaefolia. Loosestrife-leaved Valerian. Vahl n. 41.-‘‘Leaves lanceolate, entire, sessile. Co- rymbs terminal, twice compound.”—Gathered at Bu- enos Ayres by Commerson, and preserved in Jussieu’s herbarium. Plant all over smooth. Stem eighteen inches high, quite simple, striated, throwing out roots in the lower part. Leaves three or four inches long; the lower ones tapering towards the base : the upper somewhat heart-shaped at their insertion; destitute of rib or veins. Wahl. 44. V. filosa. Plantain-leaved Valerian. “ FI. Peruv. v. 1. 39. t. 66. f. a.” Vahl n. 42.-‘‘Hairy. Leaves lanceolate, entire, revolute. Corymbs race- mose.”—Native of the colder regions of Peru. This has the aspect of Plantago albicans. Root branched. Stem solitary, occasionally two or three, erect, a foot high, striated, bearing two linear leaves about the middle. Radical leaves very numerous, six inches long, unequal, erect. Corymbs opposite, in the upper part of the stem, with from three to five partial stalks. Flowers sessile, in a head, with obovate bracteas inter- mixed. Calyx bordered. Stigma cloven. Seed-down hairy. Wahl. 45. V. coarctata. Close-flowered Valerian. “ Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 40. t. 68. f. a.” Valhl n. 43.—“Leaves wedgeshaped-lanceolate, minutely toothed, fringed. Flowers in whorled spikes.”—Native of cold situa- tions, on the lofty mountains of Peru. Root tapering, perennial, divided in its lower part. Stem nearly a foot high, striated, downy with deciduous hairs; naked below; leafy above. Radical leaves imbricated, six << F1, -or eight inches long, channelled, tapering at the base; purplish externally ; the floral ones three or four, lanceolate, smooth on both sides, finely toothed and fringed, as well as the radical ones. Flowers sessile, in crowded whorls, the lowest whorl only being dis- tant from the rest. Bracteas short, wedge-shaped. Seed oblong, crowned with five scales. Wahl. It is manifest V A L V A L ‘manifest that this species and the three following are as much entitled to be ranked with Fedia as many ethers. 46. V. Serrata. Serrated Valerian. v. 1. 40. t. 68. f. c.” Vahl n. 44.—“ Leaves wedge- shaped-lanceolate, serrated towards the extremity. Flowers in whorled spikes.”—Native of cold situations in Peru. Root perennial, thick. Herb tufted, smooth. Stems several, striated, nearly leafless ; the middle one six inches high, leafy under the flowers. Radical leaves numerous; floral ones serrated at the extremity. Shike terminal, five or six inches long. Flowers ses- sile, in many-flowered whorls, of which the lower ones are distant, the upper crowded. Bracteas wedge- shaped, membranous between the flowers. Seed ob- long, crowned with five scales. Wahl. 47. V. rigida. Rigid Valerian. “FI. Peruv. v. 1. 39. t. 65. f. c.” Vahl n. 45.-4: Stem none. Leaves lanceolate, aggregate, imbricated, spreading, the up- per ones gradually smaller.”—Native of the moun- tains of Peru. Root spindle-shaped, perennial. Ra- dical leaves extremely numerous, spreading in the form of a rose, an inch and half long, entire, with a cartilaginous edge, coriaceous, rigid, without rib or veins; minutely dotted on both sides; shining on the upper surface ; fringed towards the base; terminating in a rather pungent point; lying over one another in an imbricated manner, the innermost being gradually smaller. Flower-stalks, if any, very short, in the centre of the leaves, compressed, white, tapering at the base. Flowers with a general, as well as par- tial, involucrum, each of one leaf, sheathing, divided. Calyac a very minute border. Stigma cloven. Seed naked. Wahl. - 48. V. tenuifolia. Taper-leaved Valerian. “ Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 39. t. 65. f. d.” Vahl n. 46.-“Stem none. Leaves linear-awl-shaped, aggregate, sessile, imbricated, spreading; the outermost very long.— Native of the mountains of Peru. Root perennial, spindle-shaped. Radical leaves numerous, unequal, spreading in the manner of a star, entire, veinless smooth and shining, with a rather rigid point; dilated and membranous at the base ; ciliated in their lower part. last, both being widely different in habit from the rest of their genus. Wahl. VALERIANA, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy, herbaceous, perennial kind, among which the species cultivated are, the common or broad-leaved red valerian (V. rubra;) the narrow-leaved red vale- ºrian (V. angustifolia;) the cut-leaved valerian (V. calcitrapa;) the garden or white Alsatian valerian (V. phu;) the three-leaved valerian (V. tripteris;) the mountain valerian (V. montana;) the Celtic vaierian (V. celtica;) the tuberous-rooted valerian (V. tube- rosa;) the Pyrenean valerian (V. pyrenaica;) the officinal valerian (V. officinalis;) and the common corn-sallad, or lamb’s lettuce (V. olitoria.) The first sort differs in some degree in the colour sof its flowers; they being in some plants of a deep red, in others of a pale red, a bright red, and there are others which have white flowers. The second sort has bright red flowers, smaller than those of the former. The third is an annual plant, which has the flowers shaped like those of the fourth sort, but smaller, and tinged with flesh-colour at the top : and it varies with the lower leaves pinnatifid. The fourth << F1. Peruv. In other respects this species agrees with the Sort has the branches terminated by bunches of smali White flowers, the odour of which is very agreeable. The fifth has the flowers numerous, white, and in- loose bunches. In the sixth sort the stem is upright, Simple, a foot or eighteen inches high, with the flow- ers of a whitish or purplish colour, in a bunch. The Seventh sort has the stem slender, simple, and termi- nated by a few small whitish flowers in a bunch. The eighth sort is easily distinguished by its tuberous roots: and there is a variety with the roots in the form of an olive. The ninth sort has the stem and branches terminated by umbels of pale flesh-coloured flowers, with very short spurs. The tenth sort has the stalks two feet high, all of which and the branches are terminated with umbellated clusters of flowers tinged with purple. The last sort has the flowers very small, of a pale blueish colour, and collected into a close little bunch. It is used in sallads in the early spring and winter, under the name of corn-Sallad, or lamb’s lettuce. w There is a variety which is smaller, with jagged leaves: the sizes of the leaves also differ much, being in some narrow, and in others broad, and likewise in the shape; but they are all used indifferently as sallad herbs while young. Method of Culture.—The two first sorts may be increased by parting the roots, and planting them out in the autumn or spring season, where they are to grow. They may also be raised from seed sown at the same times, in the situations where the plants are to grow. The third may likewise be raised from seeds, by sowing them as above, without any trouble. The fourth may be increased by parting the roots, and planting them out in the autumn, on fresh ground where they are to grow. The fifth may be raised in the same way, being allowed good room, as it spreads much. The three following sorts are more difficult to preserve, requiring a stony soil and cold exposure. The ninth sort may be raised from seeds sown in a moist shady border soon after they are ripe, managing the plants as in the first sort. The tenth sort, as well as the fourth, are mostly culti- vated as medicinal plants, for which purpose they should be disposed in beds with others of the same kind. They may be raised by parting the roots, as well as by the seeds. The last sort, when cultivated for the purpose of sallads, should be sown in the latter end of summer, or beginning of autumn, in an open place, where it is to grow; the plants being afterwards thin- ned out by hoeing, and kept clean from weeds; when they will be fit for use very early in the spring while quite young. All the sorts, except the last, may be introduced in the borders, for the purpose of variety, and most of them continue many years. They may all be had at the proper planting seasons, as the autumn, winter, and spring, in the public nursery gardens. The last is used as an early spring Sallad-herb. VALERIANA, in the Materia Medica There are va. rious kinds of valerian ; but those chiefly in medical use are the large garden valerian, valeriana hortensis ; called by Dioscorides ov, fiſhu, folio olusatris and the valeriana Sylvestris, or great wild valerian. The former is an ingredient in Venice treacle-, its chief use is in disorders of the nerves; in which respect, however, it is held inferior to the latter. 2 I 2 *The V A L V A. L. The wild valerian, valeriana officinalis of Linnaeus, or valeriana sylvestris major montana of Bauhin, is perennial, and grows wild in dry mountainous places. The root consists of tough strings, with numerous smaller threads, matted together, issuing from one head, of a dusky brownish colour approaching to olive. Cows eat the leaves, and cats are very fond of the roots. Rats are also said to be equally fond of these roots, and rat-catchers employ them to draw the rats together.— Another species, or variety, of wild valerian is met with in moist watery grounds, distinguishable by the leaves being broader, and of a deep glossy-green colour. Both sorts have been used indiscriminately ; but the moun- tain sort is much the most efficacious, and is, therefore, expressly ordered for the officinal species by the London College. The mountain valerian, or narrow-leaved variety of this species, not exceeding two feet in height, and af- fecting dry heaths and high pastures, is chiefly in re- pute: its root manifests stronger sensible qualities, and possesses more medicinal power: its smell is strong, resembling that of a mixture of aromatics with fetids, and it has an unpleasant, warm, bitterish, subacrid taste: the strength of the smell and taste is the only certain test of its genuineness and goodness. It is a medicine of great esteem against obstinate hemicraniae, hysterical and the different kinds of nervous disorders, and is com- monly considered as one of the principal antispasmodics. Dioscorides and Galen mention it as an aromatic and diuretic. Columna reports, that he was cured by it of an inveterate epilepsy after many other medicines had been used in vain. M. Marchant, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, has confirmed this virtue, by many instances within his own knowledge: and what is very remarka- ble is, that in the two observations he enlarges most upon, the patients, on taking it, voided great quantities of worms. His custom was always to purge before he administered it. On more extensive trials it has been found, in some epileptic cases, to effect a cure, in several to abate the violence or frequency of the fits, and in many to prove altogether ineffectual ; oftentimes it either purges or operates by sweat or by urine, or brings away worms, before it prevents a fit. The dose of the root in pow- der is from a scruple to a drachm or two, which may be repeated, if the stomach will bear it, two or three times a day. Dr. Withering says, that in habitual costiveness it is an excellent medicine; and frequently loosens the bowels when other stronger purgatives have been tried in vain. A remarkable instance of its effi- cacy in a catalepsy is given by Mr. Mudge (on the vis vitae, &c.); doses of half an ounce of the powder were exhibited twice a day, and a less quantity was found ineffectual. The advantages said to be derived from this root in epilepsy, caused it to be tried in several other com- plaints denominated nervous, particularly those produ- ced by increased mobility and irritability of the nervous system, in which it has been found highly serviceable. Bergius states its virtue to be antispasmodic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, diuretic, and anthelmintic. And under the head of its use, he enumerates epilepsy, convul- sions, hysteria, hemicrania, and visus hebitudo. Fordyce commends it in this last disease. Whytt, who joined it with manna, experienced its utility in epilepsy. Joined with guaiacum, Morgan found it useful in resolving glandular or strumous tumours. Dr. Cullen allows, that its antispasmodic powers are well established, and he thinks it should be given in larger doses than those that are commonly used. Accordingly he has found it frequently useful in epileptic, hysteric, and other spas- modic affections. It is said, however, that it has been sometimes given in cases of epilepsy, to the extent of two ounces a day without effect; and Dr. Woodville observes, that his own experience warrants him in say- ing, that it seldom has been found to answer the ex- pectation of the prescriber. The powdered root, infused in water, or digested in rectified spirit, impregnates both menstrua strongly with its smell and taste, and tinges the former of a dark. brown, and the latter of a brownish-red colour. Water distilled from it smells considerably of the root, but no essential oil separates : the extract obtained by inspis- sating the watery infusion, which is about one-fourth the weight of the root, has a pretty strong taste, disagreea- bly sweetish, and somewhat bitterish : the spirituous extract, which is about one-eighth the weight of the root, is less disagreeable, and more perfectly resembles the root itself. Tinctures of it are prepared in the shops, by digest- ing four ounces of the powdered valerian in a quart of proof-spirit, in the same quantity of the volatile aroma- tic spirit, or of the dulcified spirit of sal ammoniac. The root, in substance, however, is generally found to be more effectual than any preparation of it: and its flavour may best be covered with mace. Lewis and Woodville. VALERIANELLA, in Botany, the diminutive of VALERIANA, see that article and FEDIA. VALERIANO BOLZANI, PIERIo, in Biografthy, was born at Belluno, in 1477, in such a low condition, that he had no opportunity of acquiring the first ele- ments of literature till he attained the age of fifteen years. After having been reduced to the necessity of entering into the service of a noble person at Venice for support, he devoted himself to study under eminent teachers; and agreeably to the practice of the age in which he lived, changed his baptismal name of Giam- pietro for Pierio. In his 23d year he engaged in the study of philosophy at Padua, and passed three years in a retreat at mount Olivet, in the Veronese. Upon his return to his native place, he found it possessed by the imperial army in 1509, so that he was obliged to make his escape to Rome. Here he fortunately became known to cardinal Giovanni de Medici, by whom, when pope Leo X., he was honourably provided for in his court. At the termination of this pontificate, he pas- sed some time at Naples; but upon the accession of Clement VII. he returned to Rome, and was promoted to the chair of eloquence, with the title of prothonotary and private chamberlain, to which was added a canonry, and some other benefice in Belluno. Having employ- ed himself in Latin poetry, he relinquished the compo- sition of elegies and amatory pieces, by which he had acquired reputation, upon taking holy orders. To him Leo X. committed the instruction of his two nephews, Ippolito and Alessandro de Medici, and he accompanied them to Florence, where he resided in the year 1527, when they were expelled from that city. After sharing their misfortunes, he attended them to Florence in 1530. Upon their death, he withdrew first to Belluno, and then to Padua, where he closed his life in 1558, at the age of eighty-one years. The work by which he is principally known, is his treatise “De Infelicitate Literatorum,” first printed at Venice V A L V A L Venice in 1620, and often reprinted. Another of his publications was intitled “Hieroglyphica; sive de sacris AEgyptiorum aliarumque Gentium literis Commenta- riorum, Lib. LVIII.;” Basil, 1566. performances were, “De Fulminum Significationibus,” Romae, 1517; “Pro Sacerdotum Barbis defensio,” 1531; “Castigationes Virgilianae lectionis,” first print- ed in R. Stephens's edition of Virgil, Paris, 1532, and since annexed to various other editions; and “Antiqui- tates Bellunenses.” He also published two volumes of his Latin poems. Moreri. Tiraboschi. Gen. Biog. VALERIUS FLACCUS. See FLACCUs. VALERIUS MAXIMUs, a writer whose history is little known. The work which has been ascribed to him, and entitled “De Dictis et Factis Memorabilibus An- tiquorum, Lib. IX.” appears to have been written in the reign of Tiberius, probably after the death of Se- janus, and dedicated with high eulogy to Tiberius. It is cited by Pliny the elder, Plutarch, and A. Gellius; and it was much read and quoted at the revival of literature in Europe. One of the early editions, which were numerous, is supposed to have been prior to 1460; of the later editions, the most esteemed are the “ Variorum,” Lugd.-Bat. 1670 ; the “Delphin,” Paris, 1679; “Torrenii,” Lugd.-Bat. 1726; and “Kappii,” Lips. 1782. VALERIUS PopLIcol.A, PUBLIUs, an eminent Roman, and one of the founders of the republican government, distinguished by his simplicity, eloquence, and liberality. In a contention about the consulate, at the expulsion of the Tarquinian family, he was elected to supply the place of Collatinus, who was removed from office, and lived on terms of the utmost harmony with his col- league, the celebrated Junius Brutus. In the subse- quent battle with the allies of Tarquin, in which Brutus was slain, Valerius gained a victory, for which he ob- tained a triumph, B.C. 507. Delaying the election of a new consul, and having built a house on the Palatine hill, that overlooked the forum, he excited the suspi- cion of the people; but as soon as he understood the ground of their jealousy, he ordered the house to be levelled in the night, and gave orders for supplying the vacancy in the consulate. The father of Lucretia was chosen, but by his death soon after his election, Vale- rius was again the sole chief magistrate. In the ex- ercise of his office he enacted several laws, abridging the consular authority, and meliorating the condition of the people; and hence obtained the name of Poſilicola, or the people's friend. As a proof of his integrity and disinterestedness, he removed the public treasury from his own house to the temple of Saturn, thus committing it to the charge of two senators appointed by the peo- ple. Upon an election of consul, his popularity occa- sioned his being chosen a second time. When, in the following year, Porsena, king of Clusium, in Tuscany, attempted the restoration of Tarquin, and by an army which he marched to Rome reduced the city to great difficulties, Poplicola agreed to resign some of their conquests as the price of peace; and his own daughter Valeria was one of the hostages. In a war with the Sabines, Poplicola was nominated for the fourth time a consul; and by his military skill obtained a complete victory over the enemy, and recovered the town of Fidenae. For this success he obtained a triumph, and soon after died, having established the character of one of tice greatest men and most virtuous citizens of Rome. Although he had occupied many lucrative posts, he did not amass money sufficient to defray the expense Some of his other of his funeral, which was paid by the public; and in honour of his memory, as in the case of Brutus, the matrons of Rome wore mourning for a year. His prin- ciples were transmitted to his family from one genera- tion to another, so that the Valerii were assertors of the rights of the people. Livy. Dionysius Hal. Anc. Un. Hist. Gen. Big. VALERIUs, LUCAs, an eminent mathematician, ac- quired great celebrity at Rome as professor of geome- try, and was honoured by Gallied with the appelation of the Archimedes of his time. He died in this city in 1618. He prosecuted the discovery of the centres of gravity of solids, and shewed how to determine them in all the conoids and spheroids, and their respective seg- ments formed by planes parallel to the bases. The result of his investigation was published in 1604, in a work entitled “ De Centro Gravitatus Solidorum.” He also proposed a quadrature of the parabola different from that of Archimedes. His method was published in 1606, and annexed to the fore-mentioned treatise. Montucla. VALES REALES, or Royal Bonds, in Commerce, are a kind of paper currency, which was first issued by the Spanish government in the year 1800, for the fol- lowing sums: 600 dollars = 9035 reals 10 maravedis vellon. 300 ditto = 4517 ditto 22 ditto. 150 ditto – 2258 ditto 28 ditto. These bonds are transferrable only by endorsement : they bear an interest of 4 fier cent... fier annum, and were made a legal tender for their full amount, with any interest that might be due upon them; but, from various causes, they have experienced a considerable depreciation. Kelly's Un. Cambist. VALESIANS, VALESIANI, in Ecclesiastical History, ancient sectaries, so called from one Valesius, a person unknown to Epiphanius, who, however, makes mention of this sect, Haer. 52, though he owns he knew but very little of them; only this, that they admitted none into their society but eunuchs; at last, if any were admitted before castration, they obliged them not to eat any meat till the operation was performed. For then, being no longer subject to the motions of the flesh, they allowed them to eat any kind of meats. Whiston says of them, that they sprung up about the year 240, and that they rejected the law and the prophets. VALESIUS, in Biografhy. See VALOIs. VALESTRA, in Geografthy, a town of Italy, in the department of the Panaro; 12 miles S.W. of Modena. VALET, or VALECT, a French term, anciently writ- ten varlet. In France, valet is a common name for all domestic servants employed in the lower and more servile offices; including what we call grooms, footmen, coachmen, bailiffs, &c. But the word is not used among us in this sense, nor any otherwise than in the phrase valet de chambre; which is a servant, whose office is to dress and undress his master, to look to his bed-chamber, wait on him at table, &c. the same with what we other- wise call his gentleman. In the History of Lewis XII. by Seisel, we always find varlet de chambre du roi, varlet de la gard-robe, &c. But variet, like knave, and divers other words, is now degenerated into a term of reproach. Valet, valect, vadelect, wadlet, and vallet, Camden observes, V A L V A L observes, were anciently used at our court for a gentle- man of the privy-chamber. - Selden, in his Titles, relates, that valets anciently sig- nified young gentlemen, and heirs of great estate and quality; especially such as were to be knighted. In the accounts of the Inner Temple, valet, is used for a bencher’s clerk, or servant. The butlers of the house still call them variets. VALET, in the Manege, a stick armed at one end with a blunted point of iron, to prick and aid a leaping horse. Formerly, a valet was called aiguillon, i. e. goad, and some of them had spur-rowels upon them, only the points beaten down; and when a horse was first begun round a pillar, without a rider, they used to prick his flanks with the valet, to make him know the spur, and obey it, without resisting. At present the valet is not used for that purpose, and the name of goad is sup- pressed, as being only proper for oxen. VALETTA, or CITTA NUow A, in Geography, a ci- ty of Malta, and capital of the island, which, in the year 1566, was built by the grand-master Frederic John de Valetta, on a hill in form iike a neck of land extending itself into the sea, and was cated by his name. Its walls are of large square stones, dug out of tie rock, and planted with several batteries. On the point towards the sea stands the castle of St. Elmo, a fortress which defends both the harbours; one of which, called Marsa Mascietto, lies at the entrance from the sea to the right of the town, and encloses a small island, on which stand both a fort and a lazaretto. The other harbour, on the left side, is simply called Marsa, or The Great Har- bour, being the largest, safest, and most commodious in this island, and having some bays. Its entrance, be- sides the castle of St. Elmo, is guarded by Fort Rica- soli, which stands on the Punta del Orsa, to the left, The town of Va.etta lies on its right, and on its left the towns Il Borgo, or Vittoriosa, and Senglea. In Va- letta is a handsome palace, where the grand-master re- sides, and before it a spacious area for exercises. Each of the seven nations, or tongues of this order, has its pe- culiar hall. The principal church is dedicated to St. John the Baptist, The Jesuits had a college here; be- sides which are several convents and nunneries, a large hospital, and a building where Turkish slaves are kept. The number of the inhabitants is computed to be about 2000. See MALTA. VALETTE, LA, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Isere; 15 miles S.S.E. of Grenoble.—Al- So, a town of France, in the department of the Charente; 12 miles S. of Angoulême.—Also, a fort of France, in the department of the Var, near Toulon. VALETUDINARY, VALETUDINARI Us, a term. sometimes used, by the writers on medicine, for a per- Son of a weak, sickly constitution, who is very frequently out of order, &c. - Dr. Cheyne, by all means, directs the weakly, the stu- dious, the sedentary, and the valetudinary, to a low, spare regimen. - VALEUR des JVotes, Fr.; Value of JVotes, in Mu- 3ic. Besides the position of the notes on the staff, which fix the tone with respect to gravity and acuteness, they have all some peculiarity of figure, which marks their duration as to time, or comparative value as to length. In the ancient primitive time-table, in which all the notes are black or full, except the semibreve and minim, which are white and open, the shortest notes then in use are the longest now, and all that are open. The breve, indeed, equal to two semi-breves, is still to be found in church-music of some antiquity, known by the titles alla brewe, or a cafiella ; but in all secular music, the semibreve is placed at the head of the other characters for time ; and that note, divided into its aliquot parts, furnishes all the fractions in the most rapid compo- Slºlº InS. The dual measure, or common time, is governed by even numbers; as 2 minims, 4 crotchets, 8 quavers, 16 semiquavers, 32 demisemiquavers, all which only amount to a semibreve. Triple time, or ternary measure, is governed by the number 3 : as 3, 4, § 3; 3. In these numbers, the upper figure tel's how many notes there are in each bar, and the under, of what kind in the time-table; as # implies 3 minims, 3 three crotchets, 3 three quavers. One-third is added to the value of a note by a point or dot; as a semibreve equal to two minims, by a point is equal to three; a minim equal to two crotchets, the point makes equal to three, &c. See Musical CHA- RACTE's, TIME, and Plate Time-table. It was to John de Munis, who flourished about the year 1330, that the characters for time in music were long ascribed ; but on examining and collating MSS. in the several great iibraries of Europe, it has been clearly proved that it was not John de Muris who in- vented these characters, as he himself owns in one of his tracts, but Magister Franco of Colong, author of a treatise “De Musica Mensurabili,” wri ten in the eleventh century, long before De Mut is was born; in waich the form of the notes is given, and their relative value explained. - This very scarce treatise is preserved in the Bodleian library,.842, f. 49. See FRANco and DE MURIs. VALEY Island, in Geografthy, a small island in the North sea, separated by a strait called Valey Sound, from he south-west coast of the island of Shetland. N. lat. 60° 15'. W. long. 1958". - VALFROICOUR, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Vosges; 6 miles S. of Mirecour. VALGI. When the legs were deformed in such a manner that the feet were twisted outwards, the per- sons thus disfigured were termed valgi ; while others, who were deformed by an inclination of their toes in- wards, received the appellation of vari. VALGOM, in Geography, a town of the island of Ceylon; 6 miles N. of Candy. VALGORGE, a town of France, in the department of the Ardèche; 9 miles N.W. of Largentiere. VALGRANA, a town of France, in the department of the Stura; 9 miles W. of Coni. VALHERMOSA, a town of Portugal, in the pro- vince of Estramadura ; 9 miles N.E. of Leyria.-Al- so, a town on the north-west of the island of Gomera.- Also, a town of Spain, in New Castile; 12 miles E.S.E. of Guadalajara. VALI, in the mythological romances of the Hindoos, is a name given to a monkey, begotten by their god Indra, on a damsel of the semi-celestial tribe, called Upsara. We may just notice, that this warlike mon- key was killed by the great Rama, the hero of the ex- traordinary poem Ramayana. VALIAM, in Geography, a small Russian island, in lake Ladoga; 92 miles N. of Petersburg. VALIANO, a town of Etruria; 10 miles S.S.W. of Cortona. VALID, a term applied to acts, transactions, expedi- tions, &c. which are clothed in all the formalities re- quisite, V A L V. A. L. quisite to their being put into execution, and to their being admitted to a court of justice: A contract by a minor is not valid, or is invalid : a marriage is not valid, unless performed with the solem- nities enjoined. - VALIERO, AGosTINo, in Biografthy, a celebrated prelate of the church of Rome and a voluminous wri- ter, was born of a noble family at Venice in 1531. Having studied both at Venice and Padua, with a view to the ecclesiastical profession, he graduated both in theology and canon law In 1558, having previously been employed in several public offices, he became professor of moral philosophy at Venice, which post he occupied till the year 1565, when he was elected successor to his uncle as bishop of Verona, and he pre- sided over that see for forty-one years. In 1583 he was created a cardinal by Gregory XIII. Through the whole of his life, which terminated at Rome in 1606, in the 75th year of his age, he distinguished himself as the patron and promoter of literature, as well as by his zeal, charity, and munificence. The catalogue of his writings includes one hundred and twenty-eight. Of those that were printed, many being in MS., the most important are, “De Acolytorum Disciplina:” “De Rhetorica Ecclesiastica;” “Episcopus, seu de Optimo Episcopi formā ;” “Cardinalis, sive de Optima Cardi- nalis formá;” “De recta philosophandi ratione;” “De Cautione adhibenda in edendis libris.” That his senti- ments were liberal for the time in which he lived, ap- pears from his treatise designed to prove that comets are not presages of calamities, and from another against the barbarism of the scholastics. He also wrote on the order and connection of the sciences and arts, and a large work on the Venetian history. Moreri. Tira- boschi. VALIGA, a name given by some medical writers to an infusion or tincture of jalap in spirit of wine, or spirit of citron, with the addition of a little saffron. VALIMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Moselle; 8 miles N.W. of Mor- hange. VALINCOURT, John-BAPTIST DU TRoussBT DE, in Biografthy, was born of a noble family at St. Quin- tin, in Picardy, in 1653, educated at the Jesuits’ col- lege in Paris, and distinguished himself as a man of letters. In 1685 he was appointed, by the count of Toulouse, admiral of France, his secretary-general, and afterwards secretary of the marine : but through life he cultivated polite literature, and became a member of the French Academy in the room of Racine, an honorary member of that of Sciences, and an associate of the Academy della Crusca. He succeeded Racine as joint historiographer with Boileau; but his labours on the reign of Louis XIV. were consumed with his library in i 745, a loss which he bore with philosophical composure, observing to one of his condoling friends, “I should little have profited by my books, if I had not learned how to lose them.” He was an active promoter of literature and a protector of learned men, who had always free access to his house; and his character was distinguished by probity, sincerity and good sense. He was held in such estimation, that Boileau dedicated to him his satire on True and False Honour. His time was so much occupied, that his writings are few ; they consist of a critique on the celebrated novel of “The Princess of Cleves ;” “A Life of Francis Duke of Guise, surnamed Le Balafré ;” “Critical Observations on the CEdipus of Sophocles,” and a few poems. Such was his regard for religion, that towards the close of life, he held several conferences with ecclesiastics, for the purpose of terminating the divisions of the church With respect to the bull Unigenitus. He died at Pa- ris, generally esteemed, in 1730, aged seventy-seven years. Moreri. VALINSAY, in Geography, a town on the W. coast of the island of Luçon. N. lat. 16° 18'. E. long. 1209 6ſ. VALIODA, a town of Hindoostan; 15 miles E.N.E. of Travancore. VALJOVA, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Servia ; 50 miles N. of Jenibasar. VALIQUERVILLE, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Lower Seine; 6 miles N.N.W. of Caudebec. VALIZ. See BALIZE. VALK, a town of Russia, in the government of Riga ; 72 miles N.E. of Riga. N. lat. 57° 50'. E. long. 25° 44'. VALKI, a town of Russia, in the government of Charkov ; 16 miles S.W. of Charkov. N. lat. 49° 36'. E. long. 35° 44'. VALKENBURG. See FAUQUEMONT. VALKOVAR, or BARKovar, or Valko, a town of Sclavonia, near the right bank of the Drave; 15 miles S.E. of Eszeck. VALL, or VALE, in Commerce, a weight for gold and silver at Bombay and Surat. See Tola. VALL, in Geografthy, a town of Sweden, in Warme- land; 28 miles E.S.E. of Carlstadt. VALLA, GIORGIo, in Biography, a native of Pla- centia, and professor of polite literature in the univer- sity of Pavia in 1471 and 1476, from which he re- moved to the chair of eloquence at Venice in 1486. As he was one morning preparing to go to his school, where he explained Cicero’s Tusculan Questions, and held daily disputations on the immortality of the soul, he died suddenly at the close of the 15th century. He was the author of many works, which are for the most part collections and transcripts from ancient writers, and translations from Greek authors, useful in that age, but not distinguished by judgment or accuracy. Bayle. VALLA, LoRENzo, was probably a relation of the pre- ceding Valla, and born at Rome, as it has been said, in the year 1415, but as Tiraboschi says, before the year 1406. He was educated in his native city, and conti- nued there till his twenty-fourth year. Having visit- ed Placentia to take possession of the inheritance be- queathed to him by his relations, he settled at Pavia as professor of eloquence in the university. Here he was chargeable with some instances of misconduct, so that he changed his abode several times, till he became attached to Alphonso, king of Naples, in which city he resided for some time ; but in 1453, on the return of pope Eugenius to Rome, he settled in that city. Investigating the pretended donation of Constantine to the holy see, which he discredited, and reflecting on the characters of several popes, he incurred the dis- pleasure of Eugenius, and found it necessary to with- draw first to Ostia, then to Naples, and finally to Bar- celona. From hence he addressed an apology to the pope, and a defence of his writings on meral philosophy and dialectics, without any reference to Constantine’s donation. He afterwards returned to Naples under the protection of Alphonso, and there opened a school of eloquence, to which many scholars resorted ; but notwithstanding V A L V A L notwithstanding his popularity as a teacher he was ac- cused and brought into danger on account of the free- dom with which he maintained his peculiar opinions. Of these, we may mention his rejection of the letter of Christ to Abgarus as a fiction, and his reproach of a celebrated preacher for asserting that each article in the apostles' creed was composed by one of them sepa- rately. For the latter of these offences he was brought before the Inquisition, and owed his escape to the in- terposition of Alphonso, after a private flagellation in the cloister of monks. At length he was invited to Rome by pope Nicholas V., who was distinguished by his patronage of literature ; and in this metropolis he opened a school of eloquence, A. D. 1450. Here he entered into a dispute with George of Trebisond, Se- cretary to the pope, on the respective merits of Cicero and Quinctilian, to the latter of whom he gave a de- cided preference. His next contest was with Poggio, Braciolini, who attacked him in five invectives, to which Valla opposed as many antidotes, or dialogues, against Poggio. The manner in which this literary contest was prosecuted was disgraceful to both parties, and has been severely censured by Tiraboschi. Al- though Valla was much occupied with disputes of this kind, he pursued his studies, and by order of Nicho- las V. undertook a version of the Greek of Thucydides into Latin, for which he received from the pope a re- compense of 500 gold crowns, a canonry of St. John Lateran, and the place of apostolic scribe. For these favours on the part of the pope, Valla is charged with ingratitude. In the latter years of his life he visited king Alphonso at Naples, who exhorted him to trans- late Herodotus, but his death prevented his finishing the proposed version; however, for the part which he completed he was liberally rewarded. This transla- tion was concluded by another person, and dedicated to Pius II. Valla’s death occurred in August, 1457. The character of Valla is thus sketched by one of his biographers. He was “a man confident of his talents and acquirements, intolerant of other men’s opinions, and free in his own, arrogant and contentious. His conduct was probably far from correct, though his ene- mies may have brought false or exaggarated charges against him. His philosophy was professedly Epicu- rean, placing the highest good in pleasure, which, how- ever, he might explain in the least obnoxious sense. He was never married, but he confesses in one of his answers to Poggio, that he took a young woman to iive with him, by whom he had three children, and whose fidelity to himself he extols, adding, that he hoped to procure for her a husband; but concubinage was at that time very common among the scholars at- tached to the court of Rome. In the capacity of a re- viver of letters he has always held a high rank, which he merited by unweared application, and an en- larged course of study, comprehending history, criticism, dialectis, moral philosophy, and theology. That in the jatter his notions were liberal, may be conjectured from some of the circumstance above related, and also from his notes on the New-Testament, in which he was one of the first to consider the sense as a critic rather than as a divine, whence he was led to make many corrections in the received translations. He is however said to have been but moderately versed in the Greek language, and Huet speaks very disparagingly of his versions of Thucydides, Herodotus, and Homer’s Iliad. Of his numerous writings, his “Elegantiae Latini Ser- monis, containing the grammar of that tongue, and rules for composing in it has been the most generally esteemed, and still retains its reputation: his own style, however, was defective, in point of purity and elegance. He has had many eulogists among the learned, and has been particularly praised by Erasmus, as one of those who have most contributed to the revival of sound learning.”, Tiraboschi. Gen. Biog. VALLABREGUES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone: 3 miles N. of Tarascon. VALLADOLID, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon, on a small river called Esquava, near the Pisuerga ; the see of a bishop, and a university, found- ed in the year 1346. Several of the churches of Val- ladolid, those especially of the Domicans and of San Benito, are elegant, agreeably to the Spanish taste, that is handsome, and full of altars richly gilt. Valladolid is not wholly without manufactures; some stuffs and Coarse cloths are made there from the wool of the sheep which are kept in the neighbourhood. There are also gold and silver-Smiths; and one street is en- tirely inhabited by jewellers: this is very lively, and full of business, as are all the others, which terminate in the great square. An academy of the belles lettres was established here in the year 1752. Here was a palace, in which Phillip II, was born, now reduced to bare walls; 84 miles N. N. W. of Madrid. N. lat. 41°42'. W. long. 4° 47'. VALLADOLID, a town of South America, in the au- dience of Quito ; 40 miles S. of Loxa.—Also, a town of Mexico, in Yucatan. N. lat. 19° 50'. W. long. 80° 30'. VALLADOLID, or Comayagua. a town of Mexico, in the province of Honduras; the see of a bishop, who takes the title of bishop of Honduras. N. lat. 14° 30.’ W. long. 88° 19'. VALLADOLID. See MECCHOACAN. VALLAGAM, a town of Hindoostan, in Golconda; 21 miles S. of Combamet. VALLAIS. See VALAIs. VALLANCE, a town of France, in the department of the Gers; 4 miles S. of Condom. { VALLAR, VALLARIs, formed from vallum, a stake with branches, of which they made the palisade of a camp, called lorica, in Antiquity, an epithet given to a kind of crown, which the Roman generals bestowed on him who, in attacking the enemy’s camp, first broke in upon the line of palisades. The corona vallaris was the same with what was otherwise called corona castrensis, from castra, a camp, Aulus Gellius assures us, that it was of gold, as the mural and naval crowns also were ; yet, though they were made of that precious metal, they were not the most valued; for Pliny, lib. xxii. cap. 3. gives the pre- ference to the corona obsidionalis, which was not yet only of gramen, or grass. See CRowN. VALLARIOS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 15 miles W. of Balbastro. VALLARIS, in Botany, so called by Burmann, ap- parently from vallo, to enclose, because it serves, in Java and Amboyna, to make bowers and fences, whose shade is very grateful in a tropical climate.-Burm. Ind. 51. Brown Tr. of Wern. Soc. v. 1. 63.-Class and order, Petandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Con- torta, Linn. Aftocineae. Juss. Brown. - Ess. Ch. Corolla salver-shaped; mouth aud tube pervious, without scales; limb in five obtuse seg- ments. Stamens prominent; filaments inserted into the throat, very short, with a fleshy tubercle exteº at the V A. L. V A L at the top; anthers arrow-shaped, adhering to the stigma. Germen of two cells; style thread-shaped ; stigma conic-ovate. Scales at the base of the germen five, combined below, fringed at the points. Folli- Obs. Mr. Brown remarks, that “this, the Flos Per- gulanus of Rumphius, was considered by Linnaeus as the first species of his genus Pergularia.” It does not, however; belong to the same order with the plant that afforded his generic character, and to which the name has been since generally applied. See PERGULARIA. 1. V. Pergulanus. Sweet Bower-vine. Burm. Ind. 51. (Flos pergulanus; Rumph. Amboin. v. 6. book 7.51. t. 29. f. 2. Carack nassi of the Malays. Pergularia glabra ; Linn. Mant. 53. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1247.)—This, the only known species, is a native of Java and Amboyna, used for bowers and treillis- work, as it makes a very thick shade. The Malay women are fond of adorning their hair with its fragrant flowers. The stem is perennial, shrubby and twining. Leaves opposite, stalked, ovate, acute, entire, thick and shining, five inches long, two and a half or three wide, with strong pale veins. When the leaves or twigs are wounded, they discharge a thick, viscid, yel- low milk. Flower-stalks from between the footstalks, forked, corymbose. Flowers white, and highly fra- grant, compared by Rumphius to those of Jasmine, (probably Jasminum Sambac,) but having a shorter tube, with five shining bodies in the middle. He speaks of the scent of these flowers as two strong for Europeans, though highly esteemed by the natives of the country where they grow. VALLE, PIETRO DELLA, in Biography, a Roman pa- trician, who, in the year 1614, commenced his travels in- to Egypt, Turkey, Persia, and India. At Bagdat he fell in love with a young female of the Maronite sect of Christians, and married her. She accompanied him in his journey, and on his return towards Italy, she died near the Persian gulf. The loss so much af- fected him, that he had her remains embalmed, and carried them with him during his subsequent travels, and on his return to Rome, they were magnificently interred in the Church of Ara Coeli ; and he himself pronounced her funeral eulogy, which was printed The account of his travels, written by himself in Ita- lian, and contained in fifty-four letters, was published at Rome in 1650. They have been often cited as au- thority, though not destitute of marks of credulity, and still bear a respectable rank among books of travels. The style is pure and elegant, though the narration is prolix. Doni has spoken of him in terms of high commendation, and represents him as well acquainted with the Oriental languages, and with music. He wrote on other subjects besides his travels, and was a member of the Academy degli Umoristi. His se- cond wife was a Georgian, attached to his first wife, and the companion of his travels. Moreri. For the opinion of this agreeable writer concerning the music of his own times, we refer to the article OPE- RA, inserting here his account of the manner in which the first opera, or musical drama, was exhibited at Rome, which is extremely amusing and curious. “Though no more than five voices, or five instruments, were em- ployed, the exact number which an ambulant cart could contain, yet these afforded great variety : as, besides the dialogue of single voices, sometimes two, or three, and at last, all the five sung together, which had an admi- rable effect. The music of this piece, as may be seen in the copies of it that were afterwards printed, though Vol. XXXVIII. , * dramatic, was not all in simple recitative, which would have been tiresome, but ornamented with beautiful passages, and movements in measure, without devi- ating however from the true theatrical style; on which accountit pleased extremely, as was manifest from the prodigious concourse of people it drew after it, who, So far from being tired, heard it performed five or six Several times: there were some even who continued to follow our cart to ten or twelve different places where it stopt, and who never quitted us as long as we remained in the street, which was from four o’clock in the evening till after midnight.” This narration seems to furnish a curious circum- stance to the history of the stage, which is, that the first opera, or musical drama, performed in modern Rome, like the first tragedy in ancient Greece, was exhibited in a cart. It has been imagined by many of the learned, that the recitative in modern operas is a revival of that species of melos in which ancient dramas were sung ; and here the moveable stage on which it was performed, like that used by Thespis at Athens, furnishes another resemblance. 66 Plaustris vexisse’ Poemata Thespis.” Hor. Della Valle, after having proved that the singing of his time was better, and the compositions more varied, more rational, and amical to poetry, than the more an- cient, proceeds to speak of instrumental music; and after discriminating the different kinds of playing on an instrument, in a solo, in a full piece, in accompanying a voice, or leading a band; he says, he must agree with his friend, that solo playing, however exquisite and refined, at length tires; and that it had frequently hap- pened to organists of the highest class, when lost and immersed in carrying on a happy subject of voluntary, to be silenced by a bell; which never happened to singers, who, when they leave off, displease the con- gregation or audience, to whom their performance seems always too short. After discussing instrumental music, he comes to singing, and this he considers in solo songs, and in music of many parts. His friend, among the sofirani, or treble voices, of his youth, had greatly praised the falsetti who used to sing in the pope’s chapel, and else- where; and Della Valle says he remembered one of them, Gio. Luca Falsetto, who had great execution, and went up to the clouds; and mentions Orazietto, a very good singer, either in a falset or tenor; Octaviuccio and Verovio, famous tenors, who all three sung in his cart. “However, these,” he adds, “trills, graces, and a good fortamento, or direction of voice, excepted, were extremely deficient in the other requisites of good singing; such as fiano and forte, swelling and diminish- ing the voice by minute degrees, expression, assisting the poet in fortifying the sense and passion of the words rendering the tone of voice cheerful, pathetic, tender, bold, or gentle at pleasure : these, with other embellish- ments in which singers of the present times excel, were never talked of even at Rome, till Emilio del Ca- valiere, in his old age, gave a good specimen of them from the Florentine school, in his oratorio, at the Chiesa Nuova, at which I was myself, when very young, pre- sent.” What follows is extremely curious and satisfactory concerning a delicate point of musical history, which, is, the first establishment of evirati in the pope's chapel, and the use of them in early operas. 2 K It is V A L V A. L. It is astonishing how much sooner Della Valle got rid of the pedantry of the then old school, than any of his contemporaries. He manifests as much good taste in his reflections on imitative and dramatic music, as any writer of the last century. Della Valle's biographers seem to have known no- thing of the correspondence with Guidiccioni, or of his skill and good taste in music. This agreeable and in- telligent traveller died in 1652, aged 66. VALLE, in Geografthy, a town of Norway, in the pro- vince of Christiansand; 16 miles S. W. of Christian- sand.—Also, a town of Norway, in the province of Christiansand; 44 miles N. of Christiansand.-Also, a town of Istria, and chief place of a district; 8 miles N. of Pola. N. lat. 45° 9'. E. long. 13° 57’—Also, a town of Italy, in the department of the Adda and Oglio; 8 miles N. N. E. of Breno, Also, a town of Italy, in the department of the Gogna ; 5 miles W. of Lumello. N. lat. 45° 8'. E. long. 8°. 40'. VALLE Calamochica, a town of South America, in the province of Tucuman; 40 miles N. E. of St. ‘Louis. • VALLE Rustic, a town of the island of Corsica, in the district of La Porta. VALLE di Shagna, a town on the east coast of the island of Cephalonia. VALLEA, in Botany, owes its name to Mutis, who sent the plant to Linnaeus. In the Sufflementum it is said to commemorate a person named Valle, “praised by Allioni.” No one having vouchsafed to indicate where this praise is bestowed, and De Theis having transferred the honour of the present genus, with true French patriotism, to one of his own countrymen, Ro- bert Valle, of Rouen, who published, in 1500, some Commentaries upon Pliny, we have thought it ne- cessary to inquire into the matter; especially as the genus is well worth claiming. In a note to Allioni’s Rariorum Pedemontii Stirfiium, Shecimen firimum, page 23, the mystery is unravelled, by a narrative, of which the following is the substance. Dr. Valle, a physi- cian of Turin, a botanist of no common merit, after having attentively investigated the plants around that city, and those of the neighbouring alps, was led by an ardent love of botany, and other branches of natural history, to procure, in 1747, the appointment of phy- sician to the army in Corsica, in order to examine the productions of that country. There he made ample collections of plants, seeds, shells, insects, and other things worthy of notice. But being more anxious to acquire knowledge than to take care of himself, the heat of the climate threw him into a violent fever, which carried him off in three days. His dried Cor- sican plants, falling into the barbarous hands of igno- rant people, were all destroyed. Whatever his friend Allioni could meet with, by the assistance of the fami- ly, he purchased; and thus became possessed of nume- rous specimens, gathered by Dr. Valle about Savona, as well as in various parts of the Alps, of which he had drawn up a description, after Tournefort’s system; but this was completed no further than the first four class- es.—The name of Valle therefore deserves to be em- balmed with those of Bartsch, Borone, Lippi, and other premature martyrs to botany, who have justly been thought worthy of such an unfading memorial,—Linn. Suppl. 42. Schreb. Gen. 363. Wiiid. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1212. Juss. 434. Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8. 318- Class and order, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord, Žiliaceae, Juss..? - Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four or five deep, ovate, striated, coloured, deciduous seg- ments. Cor. Petals four or five, obovate, three-cleft rather larger than the calyx. Nectary a flattish, undu- lated, shining, coloured border, under the germen. Stam. Filaments numerous, 30–40, awl-shaped, flat- tish, coloured, incurved, shorter than the calyx, inserted into the receptacle, beneath the nectary; anthers linear, erect, with two pores at the summit. Pist. Germen superior, ovate ; style nearly cylindrical, as long as the calyx; stigma four or five slender divisions. Peric. Capsule with four or five angles and as many valves, each valve appropriated to two cells. Seeds several. Ess. Ch. Calyx in four or five deep segments, infe- rior Petals four or five, three-cleft. Stigmas four or five. Capsule with four or five valves, twice as many cells, and several seeds. 1. V. stiftularis. Linn. Suppl. 266. Willd. n. 1.- Native of the colder parts of New Granada. A tree, twelve feet high, with round, striated, leafy, hairy branch- es. Lºaves alternate, on hairy stalks an inch long, spreading, simple, heart-shaped, acute, entire, two or three inches long and half as broad, single-ribbed, beau- tifully reticulated with innumerable veins; smooth and shining above; paler clothed with shaggy tawny hairs, especially about the rib and larger veins, beneath. Sti- fivlas rather large, leafy, kidney-shaped, entire, stalked, in pairs at the base of each footstalk, and clasping the stem above it. Flowers blood-red, near an inch in dia- meter, in forked, cymose hairy, axillary and terminal fianicles, shorter than the leaves.—Linnaeus cites Mutis, Amer. v. 7. t. 10, by which botanists have been led to understand, that Mutis had published an important work on American plants, extending to seven volumes, at least. But in fact no such work exists. The refer- ence is, in every point erroneous, and alludes merely to a collection of thirty-two Indian-ink drawings of Mexican plants, sent by that learned Spaniard, with nu- merous dried specimens, to Linnaeus. (See MUTIs.) From his drawing of the Vallea, compared with the specimen, we have, as our readers may observe, ven- tured to correct some part of the generic characters. By that drawing the seed-vessel appears to have four valves, (sometimes, it seems, varying to five,) each of which has inflexed edges, besides a central partition; and these, all meeting at a central column, may easily be conceived to form a caftsule of eight or ten cells, explaining the strange expression in the Sufflementum, of “ loculis bilocularibus.” Several circumstances in- dicate the affinity we have hinted above, of this genus, to Jussieu's TILIACEAE; see that article. VALLEFREDA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 8 miles N. W. of Sezza. VALLELONGA, a town of Italy, in Calabria Ultra; 18 miles E.N.E. of Nicotera. VALLENQAY, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Indre; 21 miles N. of Châteauroux. N. lat. 47° 10'. E. long. 19 38'. VALLENGEN, or WALLANGEN. See VALENGIN. VALLERAQUE, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Gard; 6 miles N. of Le Vigan. VALLERS, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire; 12 miles W.S.W. of Tours. VALLESIA, in Botany, thus named in the Flora Peruviana, after Dr. Francis Valles, physician to Philip II. of Spain, and author of a work, amongst others, on the plants of the holy scriptures; free from heresy, no doubt if not from error-‘‘Fl. Peruv. v. 2. 26. t. 151, * , V A L V A L Poiret in Lamarck Dict, v. 8. 319.- 151. f. B.” Nat. Ord. Class and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Contorta, Linn. Aftocinea, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, small, of one leaf, in five acute segments. Cor. of one petal, funnel-sha- ped; tube much longer than the calyx, swelling up- wards; limb flat, in fine ovate, equal, spreading seg- ments. Stam. Filaments five, very short, inserted into the upper part of the tube ; anthers arrow-shaped, in the mouth of the corolla. Pist. Germen superior, oval, cloven; style thread-shaped, as long as the tube of the corolla; stigma obtuse. Peric. Drupas two, oval, obtuse, divaricated, of one cell. Seed. Nut soli- tary, oval, woody, fibrous, striated, with a solitary ker- nel. Ess. Ch. Drupas two. Nuts solitary, fibrous. Co- rolla funnel-shaped. Anthers simple, arrow-shaped. 1. V. dichotoma. Forked Vallesia. Fl. Peruv. as above. Poir. n. 1. (“V. cymbacfolia; Orteg. Dec. 5. 58,” Rauwolfia glabra; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 50. t. 297. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1218. Lamarck Dict. v. 6, 83. See RAUwolf1A, n. 2.)—Native of Peru and New Spain. A shrub eight or ten feet high, with smooth, flexible, round, alternate branches. Leaves alternate, on short stalks, ovato-lanceolate, acute, entire, Smooth, shining, single-ribbed, two or three inches long and one broad. Panicles or cymes small, forked, opposite to the leaves. Flowers small, white. Fruit whitish. Poiret, after the Fl. Peruv. - VALLET, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Loire; 12 miles E. of Naſhtes. * VALLEY, in JMatural History and Geology, is a tract of ground bordered by hills or mountains on two opposite sides, between which it extends in a straight or waving line. If the valley be short, and the length is not much greater than the breadth, it is called an opening or pass, through a mountain or chain of moun- tains, Large vallies have generally a number of small val- leys joining them, like branches to a main trunk. In almost every valley there is either a lake or a river, and the magnitude of the river bears some proportion to the valley. The lower end of a valley, where the river empties itself into a larger river or lake, or into the sea, is generally much broader than its upper or higher end. Some valleys are nearly closed in at each end; forming elliptical hollows in mountainous districts. Such valleys have once been lakes, but the water having worn itself a passage at the lower end, has reduced the lake to a small stream in the middle, or the lakes have been filled up by the debris from the adjoining moun- tainS. Saussure divides valleys into two orders, which he calls longitudinal valleys and transversal valleys. Grand mountain chains are commonly formed of many ranges of mountains running parallel to the highest or central range, each range diminishing in height as its distance from the central range increases. It is between these parallel ranges that longitudinal valleys are situ- ated, Saussure cites the valley of the Rhone as a stri- king example of this kind of valley. Transversal valleys are those openings which com- municate between the longitudinal valleys, either at right angles with them, or obliquely. It is observed by Patrin, that the transversal valleys which cut through the central range of mountains, are sometimes nearly horizontal, at least for a short distance; but those which cut the collateral chains have always a more or less rapid descent; and as they are frequently excavations formed by water-courses, they sometimes present cor- responding saliant and retiring sides, like the valleys in secondary mountains; but it is evident that this effect is accidental. One of the essential characters of longitudinal val- leys is, that their direction is parallel with the line of bearing, or range of the beds of which the mountains are composed. Tranversal valleys cut through the beds in the direction of their line of dip or inclination. See Plate II. Geology, fig. 2. in which the side of the mountain fronting a represents the beds of a mountain in their line of bearing ; and a spectator placed at the station a, may be stipposed to be placed in a longitudi- nal valley, in which the edges of each bed in the oppo- site mountain would appear to range horizontally. The same appearance would present itself to the spectator placed at B, fig. 5. A transversal valley cutting through the beds at right angles to the former, would shew the true dip or inclination of each bed to a spectator placed at b, in the former fig. 2. The side E of the mountain represents the direction of a longitudinal valley, the side G. the direction of a transversal valley. The Alps present many longitudinal valleys. The valleys in the Pyrenées are transversal. This differ- ence has been supposed to arise from the central parts of the Pyrenées ascending more precipitously above the lower beds; hence the waters, falling with great impetuosity, have cut passages through the lower beds in direct lines, and taken the shortest course to the plains below. In the Alps, the currents, being less violent, have fol- lowed the course of the longitudinal valleys, which had been traced out by nature in the original formation of those mountains. Some mountain groups are disposed in forms nearly circular, so as to include great tracts of flat country, as is the case with Swabia, Hungary, Transylvania, &c. These circular basins or valleys have formed lakes, when the relative level of the ocean was much higher than at present; and on inspecting the best maps, where the inequalities of the surface are delineated, we may be led to suspect that a considerable part of Europe has once been covered by these lakes, the present moun- tain chains forming the boundaries. The Rhone and the Rhine pass through several smaller circular valleys in their course; and the river Don, in Aberdeenshire, has its course through valleys of this kind. At the mouth of the Don, the rocks confine it to a narrow channel, and give to it an aspect which would convey the idea of its flowing through a moun- tainous and rugged country, where no space was left for forming even a commodious road along its banks; but on ascending it for about one mile, the hills recede on each side so as to form a spacious vale, through which the river flows in a slow majestic course for many miles. Nor is the prospect here uniform, but agreeably diversified, the hills above Iverury approach- ing again close to the river, through which it seems to have forced its way with difficulty; then all at once it opens into another spacious vale, from which the hills recede on either hand to a great distance ; then it clo- ses again; and after another temporary confinement among rocks, hills and woods, its waters once more open into another plain of great extent. Such is the general character of this river. 2 k 2 The V A L L E Y. The Danube, whose history has been so well illustra- ted by the count de Marsigli, has its source in the moun- tains of Swabia, from whence it passes through Swabia, Bavaria, Austria, Hungary, and Walachia, into the Black sea. Swabia is a great circular valley, from which the Danube escapes by a narrow opening into Bavaria: during its progress through Bavaria, it passes through several circular valleys into Lower Austria, which is also a circular valley. It flows through Aus- tria, and at Presburg, where the valley is nearly shut up, it forces its way through rocks and hills into Hun- gary which is one of the most extensive circular val- leys in Europe. At the lower extremity of Hungary, the river is again forced to seek its way through a nar- row rocky channel to Orsova, which is the only opening between Hungary and Walachia. It now continues its course through Walachia, and at length falls into the Black sea. We have a continuation of this chain of valleys, although still filled with water, in the Black sea, the sea of Marmora, and the Mediterranean. The valley of Cashmere presents one of the most striking examples of a circular basin or valley, contain- ing a small lake, which has probably once filled a con- siderable part of the great cavity formed by the sur- rounding mountains. “This happy valley,” says Mr. Pennant, “this Hindoostan paradise of the Indian poets, is of an oval form, about eighty miles long, and forty broad, and is supposed to have been once entirely filled with water, which having burst its mound, left the vale nourished to the most distant ages by the fertilizing mud of the river, which fed its expanse. This deli- cious spot is surrounded by mountains of vast height and rude aspect, covered with Snow, and enchased in glaciers, in which this enchanting jewel is firmly set.” The formation of valleys has been by some philoso- phers ascribed almost exclusively to the action of run- ning water. That many of the present valleys have been so formed, is rendered probable by various ex- isting phenomena, but other causes must also have operated. Among these we may enumerate the ori- ginal inequalities of the surface ; these were indeed necessary to make the waters flow in a particular course. The sudden elevation of parts of the earth’s surface, and the subsidence of other parts, are also proved by the fractures and dislocations of the strata which mountainous districts almost every where pre- sent. There are likewise evident marks that the ocean has been thrown suddenly, and with great violence, over our present continents, tearing away and transporting to distant countries various parts of the surface, scoop- ing out hollows in the softer strata, breaking down the boundaries of immense lakes, and thus changing the course of rivers, and opening new valleys where none before existed. Great and sudden risings of the sea have been known to take place in our times, by the agency of subterranean fire operating on a small extent of the globe; and we have only to conceive the same agent operating more powerfully, to explain the changes which may have taken place from the ocean suddenly rising and sweeping over a large portion of the globe. See SystEM of Geology. The theory of the formation of valleys by the action of rivers has been supported by Dr. Hutton and pro- fessor Playfair. “Every river (says the latter) appears to consist of a main trunk, fed by a variety of branches, each running in a valley proportioned to its size, and all of them together forming a system of valleys com- municating with one another, and having such a nice adjustment of the declivities, that none of them join the principal valley either in too high or too low a level, a circumstance which would be infinitely im- probable, if each of these valleys was not the work of the stream that flows through it. When the usual form of a river is considered, the trunk divided into many branches, and these again subdivided into an in- finity of smaller ramifications, it becomes strongly im- pressed upon the mind, that all these channels have been cut by the waters themselves, and that they have been slowly dug out by the washing and erosion of the land.” This is an accurate description of the struc- ture of many valleys, but there are others in which the smaller valleys do not join the larger at the same level, but terminate abruptly, and the rivers which flow through them fall in cascades to the lower valleys. The valley of Wattenlagh, in Cumberland, is a striking instance of this kind. The lower extremity joins the Vale of Keswick, in which the lake of that name is situated, but it does not enter it at the same level, but terminates in a precipice between two cliffs, down which the water is thrown, forming the cataract of Lowdere, which empties itself into the lake. Where the corresponding strata on each side of a valley have nearly the same elevation as is represented in Plate III. Geology, fig. 4, it is obvious that the ex- cavation between the opposite hills has been formed by water which has once flowed at a much higher level than at present. Also, where the strata on the oppo- site sides of a valley have the same angle of inclination with the horizon, (see Plate II. Geology, fig. 5.) we may infer that it has been excavated by water : but where the strata on the sides of a valley dip in an oppo- site direction, or have a much greater dip on one side than on the other, the original formation of the valley may be attributed to the elevation or subsidence of the strata, forming a fissure through which the water has run, and in the course of ages has worn down and en- larged the passage. Some circular valleys and lakes. may have originated in the subsidence of the surface, forming a large cavity, the sides of which are gradu- ally worn down in many parts into gentle slopes. An accurate examination of the true line of dip of the beds, can alone discover to which of these causes the forma- tion of any particular valley can be ascribed ; and it is frequently more difficult to ascertain the true angle of inclination than is generally supposed, and still more difficult to determine whether a slight variation in the angle is occasioned by a fracture, or by an original inequality or waving of a stratum. That lakes are passing to the state of valleys, and that many of the present valleys have been lakes, is obvious to the most common observer who will attend to the appearances which they present. A lake, says professor Playfair, is but a temporary and accidental condition of a river, which is every day approaching its termination; and the truth of this is attested not only by the lakes that have existed, but by those which continue to exist. Where any considerable stream enters a lake, a flat meadow is usually observed increasing from year to year: the soil of this meadow is disposed in horizon- tal strata ; the meadow is terminated by a marsh, which marsh is acquiring solidity, and is soon to be converted into a meadow, as the meadow will be into an arable field. All this while the sediment of the river makes its way slowly into the lake, forming a mound or bank under the surfac of the water, with a pretty rapid slope towards the lake. This mound increases by the - addition V A L' V A L addition of new earth, mud, and gravel, poured in over the slope, and thus the progress of filling up gradually advances. By an accumulation of vegetable matter in shallow lakes, marshes and peat bogs have been form- ed at the bottom of valleys where the waters have not flowed with sufficient rapidity to drain away the mois- ture. These are common in various parts of the High- lands, and in Ireland. The filling up of lakes, and the enlargement of valleys, by the process above described, may be distinctly seen in the vicinity of the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland. Larger lakes exem- plify the same process. Where the Rhone enters the lake of Geneva, the beach has been observed to receive an annual increase; and the Portus Valesiae, now Pre- vallais, which is at present half a league from the lake, was formerly close upon its bank. Indeed the sedi- ments of the Rhone appear clearly to have formed the valley through which it runs, to the distance of about three leagues from the place where the river now dis- charges itself into the lake. The ground there is per- fectly horizontal, composed of sand and mud, little rais- ed above the level of the river, and full of marshes. The deposition made by the Rhone, after it enters the lake, is visible to the eye, and may be seen falling down in clouds to the bottom. Where lakes are situated at a considerable elevation above the sea, or the adjacent country, they may be emptied by the wearing down of the strait which forms the outlet. Many of the North American lakes are connected by small straits or rivers, which have a rapid descent. On some of them are prodigious water-falls, which are constantly enlarging the passage from one to the other, and will ultimately drain the upper lakes. The falls of Niagara are observed to be progressively shortening their distance from the upper lake, since the banks have been inhabited by Europeans; and when it has completed its progress, the upper lake will become an extensive valley, surrounded by rising grounds, and watered by a river or smaller lake, which will occupy the lowest situation. Valleys constitute the most fertile and habitable parts of almost every country. Their superior fertility is derived from a constant supply of fresh soil, and from natural irrigation, and a more equal temperature; the vegetation being sheltered and protected from the boisterous winds that sweep over extensive plains, and the more elevated parts of the globe. It has been ob- served, however, that low valleys are not so favourable to the longevity of the human race as dry and moun- tainous districts. VALLEY of Heroes, in Geografthy, a name given to the delightful plains of Oujan, which are said to pro- duce the finest pasture in Persia. It is so called by the natives, from having been formerly the favourite hunting park of the kings and heroes of Iran, and par- ticularly of Bahram Gour, who had seven palaces of different colours in the neighbourhood. This prince, passionately devoted to the chace, took his sirname of Gour from the gour khur, or wild ass, with which this valley abounds. In one of the roads from Persepolis to Ispahan, there is a pass or defile, called Iman Zada Ishmael, two fursungs in length, and commencing at the 38th, mile from Persepolis, which leads into the above-mentioned plains. VALLEYs, in Building, denote the gutters over the sleepers in the roof of a building. VALLI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of Asia, upon the Gordian mountains, near the Caucasian gates, which were in these mountains, according to Pliny. VALLI, in Botany, Juss. Gen. 267. Rheed Hort. Malab. v. 7. t. 6—l 1, the name of several East Indian climbing shrubs, which Jussieu considers as belonging to the genus VITIs, hereafter to be described in its proper place. Kareta-Valli of the same volume, t. 45, is referred by him to the neighbouring genus Cissus. VALLI, in Geografthy, a town of Naples, in Lavora ; 12 miles E.S.E. of Capua. - VALLI'ERE, a town of France, in the department of the Creuse; 6 miles S.W. of Aubusson. . VALLIES, Fourt, District of, otherwise called The District of Pignerol, a province of Piedmont, bounded on the north by the marquisate of Suza, on the west by France, on the south by the marquisate of Saluzzo, and on the east by Carmagnola. The four vallies are those of Perousa, Lucerna, St. Martin, and Angrogna. The province is about 24 miles long, and from eight to eleven broad. The principal towns are Pinerolo, Lu- cerna, Perousa, St. Martin, and Fenestrelle. These vallies are watered by the Cluson, and several other smaller rivers; they are all surrounded with mountains and sharp rocks, in which are found white hares, foxes, pheasants, partridges, wolves, and bears; and in the most lofty of the neighbouring alps is found the mar- motte, a creature something larger than a rabbit, but more of the nature of the badger; the chamois; and the bouquetin, an animal something like a goat or cha- mois, but more fleet than either. Among the tame animals is the jumart, produced by a bull and a mare, or a bull and a she-ass. The vallies are fertile in pasturage, and the mountains in fruit, particularly chestnuts. These vallies are celebrated for the cruel persecution of the inhabitants, who were called Wal- denses, on account of their religion, about the year 1655. But now they enjoy in peace the worship they embra- ced, though they have a Catholic church in each parish. The number of inhabitants is reckoned at about 8000, of whom 7000 are supposed to be Protestants. º VALLIS, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Africa Propria, upon the route from Carthage to Cirta, be- tween Sicilibra and Coreva, according to Antonine’s Itinerary. VALLIS Achor, Valley of Achor, a valley of Palestine, north of Jericho. VALLIS Ajalon, Valley of Ajalon, a valley of Pales- tine, in the tribe of Dan, between Thammath and Beth- shemesh. VALLIs Artificum, Valley of Craftsmen, a valley of Palestine, in the tribe of Benjamin, near Jordan. VALLIs Arundinis, Valley of Reeds, a valley of Pa- lestine, near the Dead sea. VALLIs Benedictionis, Valley of Blessing, a valley of Palestine, in the tribe of Judah, west of the Dead Sea. VALLIS Cariniana, a place of Pannonia, on the route from Sopianae to Acincum, between Pons Sociorum and Corsium or Gorgium. Anton. Itin. VALLIs Cadaverum, Valley of Tofthet, the slaughter- house of Jerusalem. It lay south of the city, in the valley of the children of Hinnom. It is said, that a fire was constantly kept here for burning the carcases, and other filth, that were brought hither from the city. (Isaiah, xxx. 33.) Others think, that the name of To- phet is given to the valley of Hinnom, on account of the sacrifices offered there to the god Moloch, by beat of drum, to drown the cries of the consuming children; a drum in Hebrew being called tofiñ. VALLIS V A L *V A. L. VALLIS Domitiana, a place of Lower Moesia, upon the route from Atrabium to Nicomedia. VALLIs Gihonis, Valley of Gihon, a valley of Pales- tine, west of Jerusalem, so named from the fountain of Gihon, whose spring is in this place, and runs from west to South. VALLIs Emona, a town of Judea, in the tribe of Ben- jamin. º VALLIs Jezreel, a valley of Palestine, having the chain of mount Hermon to the north-east. VALLIs Illustris, the Illustrious Valley, a valley of Palestine, near Sichem. This was the vale or plain of Moreh. VALLIs Montium, the Valley of Mountains, a name given by the prophet Zechariah to the valleys round about Jerusalem, where the inhabitants of that city took shelter, when the city was besieged by the Romans. VALLIs Refthaim, or Valley of the Giants, called in Greek the Valley of the Titans, and in the Vulgate, the Valley of the Giants (2 Sam. xxiii. 13.), lay near Jerusalem, and belonged either to the tribe of Judah or that of Benjamin. VALLIs Salinarum, the Valley of Salt or Salt-hits, generally placed in the southern part of Idumaea, S. of the Dead sea, but situated, according to Calmet, in the eastern part of Idumaea, between Tadmor and Bozrah. VALLIs Sylvestris, the Vale of Woods, a valley of Palestine, in which were situated the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, and where the lake Asphaltites, or the Dead sea, was formed. . This was called the vale of Siddinn. VALLIs Tabernaculorum, the Valley of Succoth, or Wale of Tents, lay beyond Jordan, near the city of Suc- coth. The psalmist puts the valley of Succoth for the whole country beyond Jordan. VALLIs Terebinthi, called the Valley of Elah (1 Sam. xvii. 2.) or of the Oak, lay S. of Jerusalem, towards Sochoh and Azekah. The valley of the Terebinthus is also the name given to the valley of Mamre, on ac- count of the terebinthus under which Abraham enter- tained the angels. VALLISNERI, ANTHONY, in Biografthy, a celebra- ted Italian naturalist, was born of a good family, May 3d, 1661, at the castle of Tresilico, of which his father was governor for the duke of Modena. He was first instructed in the rudiments of the learned languages by the Jesuits, at Modena, and was afterwards taught rheto- ric, and the Aristotelian philosophy, under the same auspices, at Reggio, where he defended his thesis on that subject in 1682. Nevertheless he began, even at this period, to be dissatisfied with the prevailing system, which he called a philosophy of words; and happening to have a more liberal and enlightened preceptor than usual, his attention was directed to natural and experi- mental philosophy, and the then pravalent hypotheses of Des Cartes. His tutor Biagi, a Jesuit, had the good sense and honesty to avow, that the philosophy of Aris- totle might suit theologians and monks, but that he him- self knew many able and distinguished men, at Bologna, and elsewhere, who, so far from being indebted to that great person, never thought of his doctrines but to re- fute them. , Vallisneri therefore removed to Bologna in 1683, and very soon gave up theories and hypotheses for the observation of nature. Here the great Malpighi, to whose particular favour he was recommended by the princes of the house of Este, directed his anatomical inquiries, and from him he received, at his first intro- duction, a valuable lesson on the presumption of those physicians, who boast of a specific for every disease. The learned and experienced Malpighi, confined to his bed by illness, declared that he was unable to cure his own disorder. A candid confession, which then aston- ished his hearer; but of the truth of which Vallisneri declared himself subsequently more and more convinced by his own practice of physic, when he found the most boasted specifics daily deceiving his expectations. The father of the young Vallisneri, himself a doctor of laws, offered his son a choice between law and phy- sic; but his earliest inclinations and inquiries were too much allied to the latter profession to allow of hesita- tion. An anatomist of animals from his youth, he de- voted himself so assiduously to dissections, in the in- structive and flourishing school of Bologna, that his health beeame a sacrifice to his curiosity, and Mal- pighi was obliged to check the dangerous ardour of his promising pupil. Vallisneri would doubtless have graduated in this famous university, then in its meridian glory; but at the time when this should have taken place, the duke of Modena put forth an edict, pro- hibiting his subjects from taking degrees, except at Modena or Reggio. Vallisneri chose the latter, and took his doctor's degree in 1684; but in order to study with advantage the necessary sciences of chemistry and botany, as well as to improve himself in practical surgery and physic in the hospitals, he was obliged to return to Bologna ; as our doctors of Cambridge or Oxford find it expedient to accomplish themselves in London and Edinburgh. He spent about three years more under the auspices of Malpighi, who at length dismissed this favourite pupil with the sound advice of studying nature, and communicating matters of fact. “Systems,” said he, “are ideal and mutable. Ob- servation and experience are solid and unchangeable.” The years 1687 and 1688 were usefully passed at Padua, Venice and Parma, and at length Vallisneri settled as a physician at Reggio. Here he planted a botanic garden, and employed his leisure hours in ex- cursions among the neighbouring mountains; to collect herbs, minerals and petrifactions; to observe the strata of the rocks, and the origin or nature of the various fountains; as well as to take the pleasures of the chace, of which he was very fond. The first particular ob- ject of investigation to which this ingenious philosopher devoted his attention, was the anatomy of the Silk- worm, by which he was led to the study of the me- tamorphoses and generation of other insects. Mal- pighi and Redi were his guides; but he soon found, in the intricacies to this new and recondite course of inquiry, that he was able to extend their information, and correct some of their remarks. He gave his dis- coveries to the world in the form of two Dialogues in Italian, supposed to take place between Pliny and Mal- pighi, on the arrival of the latter in another world. These brought great reputation to their author, both for the value of their contents, and the elegance of their language and composition. They introduced him to the acquaintance and correspondence of several learned men, engaged in similar studies; amongst others to that of our distinguished Dr. Martin Lister. He was soon afterwards invited to Padua, where he rose successively from one medical professorship to another, till he obtained, in 1711, the first chair of the Theory of Medicine. When Vallisneri first took his place among the teachers of physic in this long-esta- blished university, he was well aware of the caution necessary in opening the eyes of the blind, and in teaching VALLISNERI. teaching the lame to walk. He had already exercised his own powers, and was a proficient in the practical, or experimental, philosophy, of medicine, as well as of anatomy and physiology. But those accustomed to lean upon others, do not at once acquire, or even de- sire, the use of their own faculties. Established bo- dies naturally cling to established authorities, and it perhaps becomes them to be cautious of embracing, without due deliberation, any unauthorized novelty. To this duty, whatever others they may neglect, they must be allowed to be piously attentive. Nothing therefore could be more judicious than the subject of our new professor's first thesis, when he took the chair on the 14th of December, 1700; that “the Studies of the Moderns do not overturn, but confirm, the Medical knowledge of the Ancients.” He pointed out in Hip- jº of the greatest discoveries, which the moderns by their superior opportunities had fully ex- plained, such as the circulation of the blood; and thus without invalidating the merits of the latter, he dex- terously confirmed the authority of the former, and flattered, instead of alarming, their disciples. He thus stimulated them to enlarge the sphere of their own knowledge, so that by improving the practical sciences of chemistry, anatomy, &c. they might further eluci- date what the ancients had not fully understood or ex- plained. In the progress of his lectures, however, Vallisneri was too judicious, and too honest, to sacri- fice truth, to any ancient or modern authority. He attacked, without scruple, Avicenna’s theory of fevers, and the erroneous practice founded thereon; as well as the doctrines of the putrescence of the humours, the sanguification of the liver, with many mechanical hypotheses of the old school. All this did not indeed pass without animadversion, especially the new doc- trine of glandular secretion; but Vallisneri, supported by truth and experience, finally prevailed, and wrought a great change in the theoretic medicine of his day. Improvements in practice followed of course; and whenever the enlightened teacher met with any trouble- some opposition, or, as usual, was attacked with mis- representation and calumny, he found an able protector in Frederick Marcello, procurator of St. Mark, who being chaimed with "his earliest writings, had first re- commended him to his appointments at Padua. The intervais of his academical duties were often devoted by Vallisneri to rural excursions, for the im- provement of his knowledge in natural history, as well as for the restoration of his bodily and mental powers, amid the wild and majestic, or the variously beautiful, scenes of nature, which lay so profusely within his reach. His the Summer of 1704, he visited the recesses of the Aftennines, and climbed their stupendous precipices. The scenery which inspired the genius of Salvator Rosa, enlarged the mind, and enriched the acquisitions, of our philosopher, and he descended, like a fertilizing river, to benefit the world below. The following year, he undertook a less laborious journey, to visit his litera- ry friends at Lucca, Pisa, Leghorn and Florence, and was invited by prince Ferdinand of Tuscany to Prata- lino, where he met with a most flattering reception, the prince's hospitality being extended to the personal, as Well as literary, accommodation of Vallisneri at Flor- ence itself, where every door and cabinet were opened to him. From Leghorn he proceeded to Genoa, not without the usual adventure of a shipwreck of his wretched felucca, by which accident he had the advan- tage of seeing for the first time a noble Date Palm, in the open ground. He returned from Genoa to Padua by land. These and many similar excursions, in seve- ral following seasons, were productive of much infor- mation to a man, who could not pursue the most beaten track without picking up something. Indeed his line of study was new at that period. He contributed to open a new world to miscroscopic observers, and to di- rect their inquiries to advantage. He had by this time collected an ample museum, and choice library, both of them the more valuable and useful, for being col- lected by himself with some particular object. His studies were not impeded nor embittered by do- mestic cares or chagrin ; for though he married in 1692, and his wife brought him eighteen children, she was a woman of prudence and good sense; she directed his family in such a manner as to render his home com- fortable and happy. Of the children, four only survived their infancy; a son who bore his father’s name, and in- herited his activity of disposition, and three daughters, two of whom became nuns at Padua. The third, nam- ed Claudia, a woman of rare talents, and the highest moral worth, remained unmarried at home. In the beginning of 1728, Rinaldo I., duke of Mode- na, sent Vallisneri an unsolicited patent of knighthood, for himself, his son and their descendants. This honour was the more just, as he had, eight years before, de- clined an invitation from pope Clement XI. to become physician to his holiness in the place of the famous Lan- cisi. He had also refused to accept, from king Victor Amadeus, the appointment of first professor of physic, at Turin, with a very large stipend. Nor were acade- mical honours wanting to his fame. He was associated with the Academy JWatura: Curiosorum, the Royal So- ciety of London, and almost every learned body in Ita- ly. Thus in the indefatigable pursuit of knowledge, and well-merited fame, he completed his sixty-eighth year. On the 12th of January, 1730, he was attacked with a sort of epidemic catarrh, accompanied with great debility, which, falling on his lungs, carried him off on the 18th. He was interred in the church of the Eremitani at Padua, where his son erected a monument to his memory with the following just and elegant in- scription. D. O. M. Antonio Vallisnerio Artis Medicae assertori eximio Naturalis Historiae ac Philosophiae Restitutori celeberrimo Summis honoribus undequaque aucto Antonius filius maer. p. Obiit XV Kal. Feb. Anno Sal. MDCCXXX. Aet. LXVIII. Mens. VIII. The filial piety of the younger Vallisneri accomplish- ed a more lasting memorial for his distinguished parent, in a complete and splendid edition of all his works, ma- king three folio volumes, printed at Venice in 1733. and illustrated with plates, in one of which the fructifi- cation of the Lemma is exhibited. These writings, being frequently in the form of letters, are diffuse, but the Italian style of the author is esteemed by his country- men. The whole work might be epitomized with ad- vantage, and would be found rich in originality and acuteness. An ample life of Vallisneri is prefixed to this publication, from whence we have extracted the above account. He is certainly entitled to rank with Redi, Malpighi, Reaumur, and Swammerdam, as an original observer of the intricate and obscure physiology of insects, and the lower tribes of the animal kingdom. He V A L V A L He co-operated with those philesophers in clearing away the theory of equivocal generation, and other rubbish of the schools. In medicine his merit is of a very high order, and his name marks an epocha in the history of that science in Italy. Those who had so long slumber- ed over the musty folios of ancient lore, were by him turned unawares out of their dormitories and easy chairs, before they had time to awake, much less to defend their posts. He exalted the science from the study of books, to that of nature, and success was the natural result. In practice he had the good sense to promote the use of the Peruvian Bark, which, at that period, had much prejudice to contend with. His pre- scriptions were generally simple, and all his inquiries were free from credulity and prejudice. We cannot here enumerate the titles of all his various pieces. What relates to the theory of generation is most esteem- ed; and he had the courage to oppose the then famous vermicular hypothesis of Leeuwenhoek. The memory of Vallisneri has been preserved by his countryman Micheli, in the name of a very curious and interesting genus of plants. See the next article. VALLISNERIA, in Botany, was dedicated by Mi- cheli, to the honour of his distinguished countryman, of whom we have given an account in the preceding arti- cle. No genus could have been more fortunately se- lected, as its history is now, in the writings of Linnaeus, identified with that of the generation of plants; of the theory of which, as taught by that illustrious botanist, it affords one of the most conclusive and celebrated proofs. Yet Micheli was ignorant of this striking fact; and has absolutely, as we shall find, described the two sexes as distinct genera. The male plant is his Vallisneroides. We can offer no apology for this oversight of so faithful an observer, but his attachment to Tournefort, who shut his eyes against the sexual doctrine, and Micheli durst not take the liberty of opening his own.—Mich. Gen. 12. t. 10. Linn. Gen. 513. Schreb. 673. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 650. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. l. 344. Pursh 602. Juss. 67. Lamarck Illustr. t. 799. (Vallisneroides; Mich. Nov. Gen. 13. t. 10.)—Class and order, Dioecia Diandria. Nat. Ord. Palmat. Linn. Hydrocharideae, Juss. Brown. Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Common Sheath of one leaf, in two deep, oblong, often cloven, reflexed segments, enclo- sing a conical, compressed Common Spadix, covered all over with sessile flowers forming a spike. Cor. of one petal, in three deep, obovate, widely spreading, or re- flexed, segments, without a tube. Stam. Filaments two, erect, the length of the corolla; anthers roundish, simple. Female, on a different plant, Cal. Sheath of one leaf, single-flowered, cylindrical, elongated, with two erect segments at the extremity. Perianth superior, in three deep, ovate, equal, spreading segments. Cor. of one petal, in three deep, linear, abrupt segments, shorter than the calyx. Pist. Germen inferior, cylindrical, longer than the sheath; style very short; stigma in three deep, oval, convex segments, downy on the up- per side, cloven half way down, rather longer than the calyx, and bearing at the back a small oblong append- age. Peric. Capsule cylindrical, of one cell, not burst- ing. Seeds numerous, ovate, inserted in many rows into the sides of the capsule. Ess. Ch: Male, Sheath in two deep segments. Spadix covered with flowers. Corolla in three deep segments. Female, Sheath divided, single-flowered. Perianth in three deep segments, superior. Corolla in three deep linear segments. Stigmas three, cloven. Cap- stile cylindrical, of one cell, with many seeds. Obs. Such is the original genus, of which Micheli’s figure is more clear than his description. There can be no doubt that the part marked A, B, in the middle of his plate, below, represents the under side of the three stigmas. , Linnaeus, who never saw a living flow- er, mistook this point; but has corrected himself in manuscript. We have profited of this, and partly of Mr. Brown's definition. P. octandra of Roxburgh, if it be thought the same genus, must lead to some fur- ther correction of the generic characters. 1. V. shiralis. Spiral Vallisneria. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1441. Willd n. 1. Brown n. 1 (V, palustris, algae folio, italica, foliis in summitate denticulatis, flore pur- purascente; Mich. Gen. 12. t. 10. f. 1, female. Valis- neroides palustre, algae folio, italicum, foliis in summi- tate tenuissimè denticulatis, floribus albis, vix conspi- cuis; Mich. Gen. 13. t. 10 f. 2, male.)—Stºlk of the female flower spiral. Leaves floating, linear, obtuse, finely serrated at the summit; tapering at the base.— In ditches in Italy, especially near Pisa. Communica- ted from near Arles, in Provence, by the late Dr. Broussonet, in 1784. Mr. Brown found, what he is al- most certain of being the same species, in New South Wales, about Port Jackson. This part is perennial, flowering in summer and autumn. The root consists of long fibres, and propagates itself very widely by means of runners, so that the canals, in which the Wal- lismeria grows, are choaked up with its foliage, and rendered not navigable for boats. Stem none. Leaves all radical, very long, linear, flaccid, pellucid, ribbed, smooth, entire, except at the end. Stalks of the female flowers very long, thread-shaped, unbranched, naked, single-flowered, curiously spiral, but becoming more or less straight when the flower is ready to open, by which means the latter floats on the surface, and after impreg- nation, the stalk coils up again, and lodges the fruit at the bottom of the water. This fruit is three or four inches long, and judged by Mr. Brown to be rather of the nature of a berry than a caftsule. The male flowers grow on a separate plant, on short, simple, straight, radical stalks. Each minute white flower separates from the common shadiz, and rises closed, like a little bubble, to the surface of the water. Bursting there, these flowers float about in immense numbers, cover- ing the water, and impregnating the females above des- cribed. Micheli has faithfully described the economy of this interesting plant, though blind to its physiology. 2. V. americana. American Vallisneria. Michaux Boreal. Amer. v. 2. 220. Willd. n. 2. Pursh n. 1.- “Stalk of the female flower nearly straight. Leaves erect, linear.”—At the bottom of muddy and slow ri- vers in North America, flowering from August to Oc- tober. Michaux observed it in the Mississippi and St. John’s rivers, Florida; Pursh in the Delaware, near Philadelphia, and elsewhere. The latter doubts whe- ther it be a distinct species from V. shiralis ; for he found the stalks of the female flowers to be, in deep water, really spiral. Michaux remarks, that the leaves are erect, less elongated than in the foregoing, and not tapering at the base. These circumstances may all be owing to the shallowness and stillness of the water. 3. V. mana. Dwarf Vallisneria. Brown n. 2.- “Stalk of the female flower spiral, capillary. Leaves under water, linear, acute, entire.”—Observed by Mr. Brown in the tropical part of New Holland. 4. V. octandra. Octandrous Vallisneria. Roxb. Coromand. v. 2. 34. t. 165. Willd. n. 3.-Stalk of the female flower straight. Leaves linear, taper-pointed. Stamens V A L V A L. Stamens eight.—Native of shallow, stagnant, sweet wa- ter, on the coast of Coromandel. Roxburgh. Roots annual, fibrous. Leaves radical, erect, flat, Smooth, en- tire, gradually tapering to a point, from nine to twelve inches high. Stalks all radical, straight, cylindrical, erect, simple, much shorter than the leaves. Sheath of the male flowers near three inches long, tumid be- low, tapering upwards, containing many stalked ſlow- ers, which, by the elongation of their partial stalks, rise one by one out of the sheath. Each has a three-lea- ved calya three longer linear white fetals, or seg- ments of the corolla ; eight unequal stamens, with oblong anthers ; and an abortive germen, with three li- near stigmas. The stalks of the female flowers, on a separate plant, are shorter than those of the males, sin- le-flowered. Sheath as in the male, but the flower is elevated above it and the germen by a partial stalk, or receptacle. Calyx shorter than in the male; fetals longer and narrower, white. Stigmas long, thread-sha- ped, white. Seeds roundish, stalked, ranged numer- ously along one side of the tapering cafsule. . . . We have already hinted the affinity of this plant to JLoureiro's PHYSRIUM ; see that article. - VALLISNEROIDES, Micheli’s name for the male plant of his VALLISNERIA ; see that article. VALLOIRE, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc ; 9 miles S. S. E. of St. Jean de Maurienne. - - VALLON, a town of France, in the department of the Sarte; 10 miles W. of Le Mans —Also, a town of 37 rance, in the department of the Ardèche ; 9 miles N. E. of Pont St. Esprit, - VALLONISE, a town of France, in the department of the Higher Alps; 9 miles S. W. of Briançon. VAL LOR, VALLow, or Vale, among country peo- ple, a hollow mould, in which a new-made cheese is pressed. VALLOTTI, PADRE FRANCEsco ANToNIo, in Bio- grafthy, an ecclesiastic, and maestro di capella of the church of St. Antonio at Padua in 1770, was born in Piedmont in 1705. He was esteemed one of the best composers for the church in Italy. Tartini speaks of him in his Trattato di Musica, p. 100, in the following manner : “Padre Vallotti was formerly a most excel- lent performer on the organ, and is now an admirable composer, and master of his art.” This good father was of so amiable a character, that it was impossible to know and not esteem him. He composed an anthem for the public funeral of Tartini, March 31, 1770; and in 1779 published at Padua the first book of a treatise entitled “Della Scienza Teorica e Prattica della mo- derna Musica.” This first book is purely theoretical. The author promised three other books, the publica- tion of which has not arrived at our knowledge. Book the second was to contain the practical elements of mu- sic; the third, the precepts of counterpoint; and the fourth, rules of accompaniment. It is to be feared, that this venerable author did not live to complete his design, as we have been informed that he died in 1780, at the age of 75. - - - VALLS, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Catalonia; 9 miles N. of Tarragona. - VALLUCE, a small island in the English Channel, near the coast of France. N. lat. 47° 26'. W. long. 2 o 55'. - - - VALLUM, in Roman Antiquity, denote a kind of parapet with which they fortified their camps. In the vallum, Some distinguish two parts; the agger, which was no more than the earth cast up to form the val- lum ; and the sudes, which were a sort of wooden stakes to secure and strengthen it. *ſ-OL, XXXVIII. VALLY CREEK, in Geografthy, a river of Pennsyl. Vania, which runs into the Schuylkyli, N. lat. 400 7". W. long. 75° 30'. - VALLY Forge, a place in Pennsylvania, near the union of Vally Creek with the Schuylkyll. Here general Washington lay encamped in the winter of 1777, 1778; 20 miles N. W. of Philadelphia. - VALMAROSSA, a town of Istria; 8 miles E. S. E. of Capo d’Istria. - VALMASEDA, a town of Spain, in the province of Biscay; 13 miles S. W. of Bilbao. VALMIKI, in Biograñhy, the name of a very cele- brated Hindoo poet, author of that extraordinary poem in the Sanscrit language, entitled Ramayana, under which word we have given some account of its con- tents. Sir William Jones, in his ninth anniversary discourse to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, delivered February, 1792, gives his opinion that the Cush of Mo- ses and Valmiki were the same personage. (See Ra- MAYANA and TRIVENI.) But we are not in possession of any biographical particulars respecting him. His great work, the Ramayana, is esteemed the earliest epic poem, and is cited as nearly equal in authority with the most sacred of the Hindoo books, such as the Purana and Veda, ascribed to Vyasa. See these arti- cles. - VALMONT DE BoMARE, JAMES CHRISTOPHER, was born at Rouen, in September, 1731. He was intended for the bar, but his inclination to natural history indu- ced him to devote himself entirely to that pursuit, and having obtained an order from the duke d’Argenson, the minister at war, to travel for the improvement of science, with sufficient funds for the purpose, he spent several years in visiting the principal cities of Europe, and examining the most famous collections in natural history. Mines and metallurgic establishments enga- ged his particular attention; having visited Lapland and Iceland, he described its volcanoes; and returned, with many curious objects, to Paris in July 1756. He then began a course of lectures on natural history, which, were continued till the year 1788. These lectures contributed to establish his reputation, and he had ma- ny advantageous offers from the courts of Russia and Portugal, the acceptance of which he declined. His works are as follow : viz. “Catalogue d’un Cabinet d’Histoire Naturelle,” 1758, 12mo. : “Extrait Nomen- clature du System complet de Mineralogie,” 1759, 12mo.; and “Nouvelle Exposition du Regne Mine- ral,” 1761, 1762, 2 vols. 8vo. But his capital work was his “Dictionnaire raisonné Universel d’Histoire Naturelle,” in 6 vols. 8vo. This has passed through several editions in 8vo. and 4to., and being the first of its kind, served as the basis of all the dictionaries of natural history that have appeared since that time. One of the latest editions appeared at Lyons in 1800, 15 vols. 8vo. This celebrated naturalist died at Paris, in August, 1807. Gen. Biog. - VALMont, or Vallemont, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine ; 6 miles E. of Fécamp. VALMONTONE, a town of the Popedom, in the Campagna di Roma; 6 miles S. of Palestrina. VALNDORF, a town of Hungary; 5 miles S. W., of Szeben. - - VALOE, an island of Sweden, in the bay of Chris- ‘tiania; 7 miles S. S. E. of Tonsberg. VALOGNES, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Channel. In 1346, it was pillaged by the English; 73 posts N. of Coutances. N. lat 49° 31'. E. long. 1" 23'. VALOIS, HENRY DE, or VALESIUS, in Biograftº's 2 L borº, V A L V A L born at Paris in 1603, and educated in the Jesuits' school, was admitted an advocate of the parliament of Paris, after having previously studied the civil law at Bourges. Declining the prosecution of the law, he de- voted himself to literature, and particularly to the stu- dy of Greek and Latin authors. The assiduity of his application impaired his sight, the imperfection of which was in some degree counterbalanced by the re- tentiveness of his memory. Besides some private pen- sions which were granted him, he was appointed, in 1660, historiographer of France, with a considerable salary. At the age of sixty-one he married a lady, by whom he had seven children; and died in 1676, at the age of seventy-three years. His temper was harsh and irritable ; fond of praise, and sparing in bestowing it on others; impatient and querulous under bodily in- disposition, but unfeeling to the sufferings of others. With many infirmities and failings, he was a learned, discriminating, and accurate critic. His principal pub- lications were, an edition of the “Ecclesiastical His- tory of Eusebius,” with a Latin version and notes; the “ Ecclesiastical Histories of Socrates and Sozomen,” as well as of “Theodoret and Evagrius;” a valuable edi- tion of “Ammianus Marcellinus;” “Remarks upon Harpocration;” “Emendationum Lib. V.” with other pieces, printed after his death at Amsterdam, in 1740, under the care of Peter Burman. Moreri. VALOIs, ADRIAN DE, brother of the preceding, was born at Paris in 1607, and studied in the Jesuits’ college. Although he acquired a competent knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages, he attached himself prin- cipally to the study of French history; and in 1646 ap- peared the first volume in folio of his “Gesta Franco- rum,” which was followed by two more in 1658. He began with the reign of the emperor Valerian, and tra- ced the history of the Franks to the deposition of Chil- deric, and his work was generally admired. As a re- compence, he was associated with his brother in the office of historiographer, and in the pension annexed to it. In 1675 he published “Notitiae Gallorum,” fol. comprising, in alphabetical order, an account of the geography, towns, monasteries, &c. of France, deduced from its early records and histories. He followed the example of his brother, with whom he lived on terms of intimate union, by marrying a young wife, who brought him two children. He published, besides the works already mentioned, an edition of two poems written in the middle ages, a second edition of his brother’s “Ammianus Marcellinus,” and some other pieces re- lating to antiquities. He died in 1692, at the age of eighty-five years. His son, CHARLEs DE VALois DE LA MARE, was also a man of letters, and became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, and antiquary, to the king. He published a collection of critical, historical, and moral reflections, and Latin poems under the title of “Valesianae,” and edited two posthumous works of Vaillant the medallist, and wrote several papers for the Academy, of which he was a member. He died in 1747, aged seventy-six. Moreri. VAL-QMBROSO gives its name to a congregation 9f Benedictine monks, founded in the Appennines by Gualbert of Florence, in the 11th century; who in a short Space of time, propagated their discipline in seve- ral parts of Italy. VALON, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana. Ptolemy. VALONA, in Geography, a sea-port town of Euro- pean Turkey, in Albania, on a gulf of the Adriatic, gained by the Turks from the Christians in the year 1464. In the year 1690, it was taken by the Venetians, but retaken by the Turks in the year following; 68 miles S. of Durazzo. N. lat. 40° 36'. E. long. 19°28'. VALONGO, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 21 miles S.E. of Lamego. VALONIA, in Botany. See VELANI. VALOR BENEFICIoRUM, in Law. FRUITS. VALORE MARITAGII, Value of Marriage, a writ which anciently lay for the lord, after having prof- fered suitable marriage to an infant who refused the same : to recover the value of the marriage. See GUARDIAN. VALORSINE, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Leman; fifteen miles S. E. of Nôtre Dame d'Abondance. VALOVEK, a town of European Turkey, in Mol- davia; fifty-two miles north of Jassy. VALPARAYSO, a town of Spain, in New Castile; fifteen miles south of Huete. VALPARAyso, a sea-port town of Chili, situated on a bay of the South Pacific ocean. This town was at first very mean, consisting only of a few warehouses, built by the inhabitants of St. Jago, for laying up their goods till shipped off for Callao, the harbour of Val- parayso being the nearest port of that city, from which it is only sixty miles distant. The only inhabitants at that time were the few servants left by their respective masters for taking care of the warehouses, and ma- naging their mercantile affairs. But in process of time, the merchants themselves, together with several other families, removed from St. Jago, in order to be more conveniently situated for trade ; since which it has gra- dually increased, so that at present it is both large and populous; and would be still larger, were it not for its inconvenient situation, standing so near the foot of a mountain, that a great part of the houses are built on its acclivity, or in its breaches. Valparayso, besides its parish-church, has a convent of Franciscans, and another of Augustines ; but very few religious, and the churches belonging to them small and mean. It is inhabited by families of Spaniards, and casts both of Mulattoes and Mestizos. Here is a military governor nominated by the king, who having the command of the garrisons in the several ports, and of the militia of the place and its dependencies, is to take care that they are properly disciplined. The proximity of this port to St. Jago, has drawn hither all the commerce formerly car- ried on at that city. To this it owes its foundation, in- crease, and present prosperity. All the Callao ships which carry on the commerce between the two king- doms come hither. In this port they take in wheat, tallow, cordovan-leather, cordage, and dried fruits, and with these return to Callao; and a ship has been known to make three voyages in one summer between No- vember and June. ValparaySo is abundantly supplied with provisions from St. Jago and other places in its neighbourhood. Among the several kinds of game there is here such a plenty of partridges in their season, which begins at March and lasts several succeeding months, that the muleteers knock them down with sticks, without going out of the road, and bring great numbers of them to Valparayso. But few of these or any other birds are seen near the town. It is the same with regard to fish, very little being to be caught either in the harbour or along the coast, in comparison of what may be taken in the other parts. The harbour is every where free from rocks and shoals, except to the north-east of the breach De los Angelos, where, about a cable’s length or two from the land, is a rock, See FIRST- which must be more carefully avoided, as it never ap- pears V A L V A L pears above water, but sometimes has not a depth suf- ficient for a ship of any burden to pass over it; 225 miles N. of Conception. S. lat. 33° 3'. W. long. 72° 16'. VALPERGA, a town of France, in the department of the Dora ; 1 1 miles S. S. W. of Ivrea. VALPERSCHWEIL, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne ; 10 miles N. W. of Berne. VALPO. See WALPo. - - VALPUESA, a town of Spain, in Old Castile; 10 miles N. N. E. of Frias. - VALREAS, a town of France, in the department of the Drôme ; 18 miles N. N. E. of Orange. VALS, a town of France, in the department of the Ardèche, celebrated for several medicinal springs in the neighbourhood; 12 miles S. W. of Privas. VALSA, in Botany, Adanson Fam. v. 2. 9. Scop. Carn. v. 2. 397, an unexplained name, used by those authors for what is now the SPHIERIA of botanists; see that article. - - VALSALVA, ANTON-MARIA, in Biografthy, an eminent anatomist, physician and surgeon, was born in 1666, at Imola, in Romagna. Having received the first elements of literature in the Jesuits’ seminary, he was sent to the University of Bologna, and placed un- der the immediate tuition of the celebrated Malpighi, and here he pursued his various studies with an assidui- ty which impaired his health. He graduated at Bolog- na in 1687, and connecting surgery with physic, ac- quired high reputation. He simplified and improved surgical instruments, banished from Bologna the cruel practice of cauterizing the arteries after amputation, and in the cure of deafness employed manual opera- tions. In 1697 he was chosen professor of anatomy in the university, and appropriate buildings were erected for his use at the anatomical theatre. The school of Bologna acquired celebrity under his direction, and some of his pupils became eminent in their profession. Of this number was Morgagni. In advanced years Val- salva grew corpulent and lethargic, and was carried off by an apoplectic stroke in February 1723, at the age of fifty-seven years; leaving a widow and three daughters. His anatomical museum was bequeathed to the Institute of Bologna, and his various apparatus of chirurgical instruments to the hospital for incurables, The principal of his works is a treatise “De Aure Humana,” reprinted at Bologna in 1704, 4to. and again with Morgagni's Epistles, at Venice, 1740. After his death, Morgagni published three of his “Dissertations” on anatomical subjects, which had been read before the Institute. This great anatomist’s work “De Sedibus et Causis Morborum,” contains a number of dissections by Valsalva. Morgagni Vit. Valsalv. Haller. Gen. Biog. - - VALSECA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Castile; 1 1 miles N. of Segovia. VALSTAGNO, a town of Italy, in the Vicentin; 18 miles N. of Vicentin. VALTANAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 15 miles E. of Valencia. VALTELINE, a lordship of Italy, at the foot of the Alps; bounded on the N. by the Grisons, on the E. by the county of Bormio and the Bressan, on the S. by the Bergamasco and the Milanese, and on the W. by the county of Chiavenna and the Milanese. This country, which is called by the Grisons Weltlin, or Veltlein, and by the inhabitants Valle Tellina, is a valley enclosed be- tween two chains of lofty mountains, about fifty miles in length, and from eight to twenty in breadth. It is exceedingly fruitful, and throughout its whole extent watered by the Adda, which, after receiving all the streams issuing from the forest, discharges itself into the Como lake. In some parts the heat is intense, but noa, Spices, coffee, and sugar. from the following rough sketch : in others more moderate, and on the hills and the greatest part of the adjacent valleys the air is mostly Cool. Of this variation in its temperature, the neces- Sary consequence is a variation in the products of the earth. The levels in this valley, through which the Adda pursues its course, and the breadth of which in Some parts is not less than a mile, exhibit a delightful Variety of corn-fields, meadows, vineyards, and orchards of chestnuts and other fruits. The vineyards on the mountains towards the north produce the best wine in the whole country, and above them are corn-fields, mea- dows, and pasture-lands. The hills on the south side are covered with fine woods of chestnuts, fields, mea- dows, and rich pastures, in which graze numerous herds of cattle. This country abounds also in excellent red wine, of a most delicious flavour, and of so good a body that it will keep for a whole century, improving both in taste and wholesomeness, and gradually turning paler, till at length its redness totally disappears. Great quantities of this wine are exported. The apples and pears in most places are not much esteemed; but the peaches, apricots, figs, and melons, are exquisite. Here is likewise plenty of lemons, citrons, almonds, pome- granates, chestnuts, and other delicious fruits. Its soil also would produce all kinds of grain and pulse; but the levels being interspersed with swampy places, which have hitherto remained without culture, and the wine- trade chiefly engrossing the attention of the inhabitants, it does not yield a sufficiency for their consumption without importation. Some parts grow hemp, and in the levels, particularly on the higher grounds and the mountains, are fine pastures. Bees and silk-worms are bred here in vast numbers. The Adda yields plenty of fish, and is noted for its trout, which often weigh from fifty to sixty pounds. The whole of their mine works here consist in a few iron-founderies, The chief commerce of the Valteline is carried on with Milan and the Grisons. The principal exports are wine and silk, which turn the balance of trade in its fa- vour; they enable the inhabitants to exist without any manufactures, and help to supply the money which is exacted by the governors. - The wine is sent into the Grisons, Germany, the Ve- netian states, Bormio, and occasionally to Milan. Upon a rough calculation, 73,000 Soma, or horse-loads, are annually exported. The silk is sent to England, Zu- rich, and Basle. The district of Delebio and Talomara produces the finest silk, the neighbourhood of Sondrio the next in quality, and the district of Tirano supplies an inferior sort. Three thousand pounds of the finest sort, which is esteemed as good as the silk procured from Piedmont, is sent annually to England by way of Ostend. The greater part is wound in the Valteline, for which purpose there are silk-mills in the principal districts. Besides these commodities, the Valteline exports planks, cheese, butter, and cattle. The inhabitants re- ceive from Milan, corn, rice, salt, silken stuffs; from Germany and Switzerland, cloth and linen; from Ge- there are no manufactures in the Valteline, and al- most all the menial trades are exercised by foreigners. The population of the Valteline may be estimated Souls. Upper District - - contains 20,000 Government of Teglio - fºe - 8,000 Middle District - - E3 - 18,000 Lower District - - º - 16,000 * > . Total - 62,000 2 y. 2 The VALTELINE. The cotages of the peasants, which are built of stone, are large, but gloomy, generally without glass windows; and exhibit a uniform appearance of fifth and poverty. tº Perhaps no part of Europe is more fruitful than the Valteline, and yet there is no country in which the people are more wretched. Many reasons may be as- signed for the misery to which they are reduced. The first and principal cause is the form of government. The governors generally abuse the exorbitant authority entrusted to them by the laws; the peasants are impri- soned upon the slightest information; and as all trans- gressions are punished by fines, an accused person is seldom acquitted; so that a considerable number are annually ruined in the courts of justice. Beside the individuals who are supposed to suffer for their own guilt, the parishes are subject to continual assessments, towards defraying the expenses for the trial and imprisonment of the poor parishioners: if they are unable to pay the sum required, it is demanded from the parish to which the criminal belongs. In this case it frequently happens, that the assessments, in- stead of being laid upon the landholders, are imposed upon each hearth, by which means the chief burden falls upon the poor. Another cause of wretchedness proceeds from the present state of property. Few of the peasants are landholders; as, from the continual oppression under which the people have groaned for above two centuries, the freeholds have gradually fallen into the hands of the nobles and Grisons, the latter of whom are supposed to possess half the estates in the Valteline. The ten- ants who take farms downot pay their rent in money, but in kind; a strong proof of general poverty. The pea- Sant defrays the costs of cultivation, and delivers nearly half the produce to the landholder; the remaining por- tion would ill compensate his labour and expense, if he was not in some measure befriended by the fertility of the soil The ground seldºm lies fallow, and the rich- est parts of the valley produce two crops; the first is wheat, rye, or spelt, half of which is delivered to the proprietor; the second is generally millet, buck-wheat, maize, or Turkey corn, which is the principal nourish- ment of the common people: the chief part of this crop belongs to the peasant, and enables him in a plentiful year to support his family with some degree of comfort. Those who inhabit the districts which yield wine are the most wretched; for the trouble and charge of rear- ing vines, of gathering and pressing the grapes, is very considerable ; and they are so apt to consume the share of liquor allotted to them, in intoxication, that, were it not for the grain intermixed with the vines, they and their families would be left almost destitute of subsist- €IACC. ... * Besides the business of agriculture, some of the pea- sants attend to the cultivation of silk; they receive the eggs from the landholder, rear the silk-worms, and are entitled to half the silk This employment is not un- profitable; for although the rearing of the silk-worms is attended with much trouble, and requires great cau- tion; yet as the occupation is generally entrusted to the women, it does not take the men from their labour. With all the advantages, however, derived from the fertility of the soil, and the variety of its productions, the peasants cannot, without the utmost difficulty, and constant exertion, maintain their families; and are al- ways reduced to the greatest distress, whenever the sea- gon is unfavourable to agriculture. To these causes of penury among the lower classes, may be added the natural indolence of the people, and Middle, and Lower. Sondrio of the second, and Morbegno of the last. It their tendency to superstition, which takes them from their labour. * This country is without so much as one city, but has some considerable towns, with many thriving villages. Its language is a corrupt kind of Italian. The Roman Catholic is the only religion. Their clergy are under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Como. They are not responsible to the ordinary courts, their immunities be- ing so exorbitant as to render them almost independent of the civil authority; they are only amenable to the court of the bishop of Como. If a priest is guity of any misdemeanor, his person cannot be secured with- out the concurrence of the bishop and governor of the district in which the crime was committed. It is there- fore extremely difficult to bring an ecclesiastic to jus- tice; as impunity is easily purchased, either by securing the favour of the bishop’s vicar or of the magistrate. Nor are these pernicious privileges confined merely to the clergy, but extend to all persons wearing an ecclesiastical dress, with the permission of the bishop of Como. All civil causes of the clergy, below the value of two hundred livres, are decided by the vicar of the bishop of Como: above that sum, they are brought be- fore the bishop. An appeal from his decision lies to the pope's nuncio at Lucern, from him to the ecclesias- tical tribunal at Aquilea, and from thence to Rome. The whole country is divided into three districts or terzeros, called Sofira, Mezzo, and Sotto, or Upper, Tirano is the capital of the first, is divided into five governments; viz. those of the up- per district; of the middle district, called also the go- verment of Sondrio; of Teglio, of Morbegno, and of Traona. Each of these five governments is subject to a ma- gistrate appointed by the Grisons, who is changed every two years. The magistrate over the middle district is called governor of the Valteline, and possesses in some respect a superior degree of authority to the others, who are styled flodestas ; he is also a captain-general of the Vaiteline. All public concerns, which do not fall under the ju- risdiction of the Grisons, are discussed and determined by a council composed of five representatives, one from each district, which meets as occasion requires at Sondrio. The Valteline, together with the counties of Chia- venna and Bormio, (which had long been the constant source of hostility between the bishops of Como and Coire,) came, in the year 1336, under the dominions of Azzo Visconti, sovereign of Milan, who quietly trans- mitted them to his successors. Upon the death of John Visconti, one of Azzo’s successors, his territories were divided between his nephews Galeazzo and Bar- nabas. Upon the demise of Galeazzo, his son, John Galeazzo, secured the person of his uncle Barnabas, and having confined him in the castle of Trevio, until his death, which happened in 1395, annexed his domin- ions to his own, and became by this union the greatest and most powerful prince in Italy. Mastino, son of Bar- nabas, took shelter, upon his father’s imprisonment, with Hartman, bishop of Coire, and died in exile, without recovering any share of his inheritance. Previous te his death, he formally ceded all his right and title over the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio, to the bishop of Coire, as a mark of gratitude for his protection. To this cession, at that time of no avail, the Grisons owe the possession of these provinces. The claim lay dor- mant for above half a century, until some discontents - arising V A L V A L arising in the Valteline, in 1487, the Grisons made an irruption into that country, in support of the bishop's rights, but their arms not being at that time attended with success, they purchased a peace by renouncing all pretensions to the Valteline. They renewed, however, their claim in 1512, when Ludovico, called the Moor, duke of Milan, was taken prisoner by Louis XII.; and the whole Milanese, comprising the Valteline, occupied by that monarch. . Upon this revolution, the Grisons, in conjunction with the bishop of Coire, entered the Val- teline, and having expelled the French troops, took possession of the country: they were received with joy by the inhabitants, who did homage to their new sovereigns, and in return obtained from them the con- firmation of all their privileges. A compromise was immediately entered into between the bishop of Coire and the three leagues to share between them the sove- reignty of this country. In the following year, Maxi- milian Sforza, raised to the ducal throne of Milan upon the expulsion of the French, ceded in perpetuity the possession of the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio, to the Bishop of Coire, and the Grisons; and this cession was ratified by Francis I. in the treaty of peace which he concluded with the Swiss and their allies, the Gri- sons, 1516, when he obtained possession of the Mila- nese. In 1530, the republic of the Grisons acquired the whole dominion of the Valteline, to the exclusion of the bishop of Coire, under pretence that the latter had not furnished his quota of men and money in the war with James of Medici, in defence of these ceded countries; accordingly they compelled the bishop to sell his share of the sovereignty over the Valteline, Chi- avenna, and Bormio, for a yearly income of 575 florins, to be paid to the bishop and his successors out of the customs of Chiavenna. From that period, these pro- vinces were possessed by the Grisons without molesta- tion, until the rival interests of France and Spain, the intrigues of the pope, religious enthusiasm, the zeal of party, and the exactions of the Grison governors, kin- dled an insurrection, which commenced with a massacre of the Protestants, and raged for a series of years with the most savage and unremiting fury. During the constant wars, which from the accession of Philip II, the restless ambition of the Spanish court entailed upon Europe, the German and Spanish branch- es of the House of Austria were inseparably united ; and the councils of Vienna were directed by the cabi- net of Madrid. Under these circumstances, the Val- teline, which, by connecting the Tyrol and the Mila- nese, afforded the only secure passage for the junction of the Austrian and Spanish troops, became of signal importance. r The same reasons which rendered the Spaniards de- sirous to secure the Valteline, induced the French to obstruct their designs. The Spaniards, however, pur- sued their projects upon the Valteline without opposi- tion, when they were freed from their most formidable rival, the count of Fuentes, governor of Milan, by as- sassination, and availed themselves of the domestic dis- sensions between the Grisons and the inhabitants. When all the Protestants were either destroyed or driven out of the country, the remaining inhabitants renounced their allegiance to the Grisons, and framing a new form of government, threw themselves under the protection of the king of Spain, who sent an army to their support. The people of Bormio followed the example of the Valteline, with this difference, that they did not massa- cre, but only expelled the Protestants. Having entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with the inhabit- ants of the Valteline, they also formed an independent commonwealth. The Grisons, divided among themselves, were totally unequal to the chastisement of their revolted subjects. The Catholics were desirous of employing the media- tion of Spain, for the purpose of recovering the Valte- line; the Protestants, inclined to vigorous measures, proposed an application to the Swiss cantons, Venice, and France. After violent dissensions, which were not terminated without bloodshed, the Protestant interest prevailed, and a deputation was sent to those powers. When cardinal Richelieu acquired ascendancy, and effected a revolution in the French politics, he perceiv- ed the importance of the Valteline, and adopted mea- sures, which proved successful; so that in two cam- paigns the Spaniards were driven from the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio. Under the administration of Richelieu, it was agreed, that the Valteline should again be restored to the Grisons, upon the following condi- tions: no other religion but the Roman Catholic to be tolerated; the inhabitants to elect their own governors and magistrates either from themselves or from the Gri- sons, but always from persons of the Roman Catholic persuasion; and the governors to be confirmed by the Grisons. In return for these privileges, it was stipula- ted that the inhabitants should pay an annual tribute, the amount of which was to be settled by mediation. In consequence of this treaty, concluded on the 5th of March 1626, the French resigned the forts of the Val- teline into the hands of the pope, and evacuated the country. - - When Richelieu had completed the reduction of the Hugonots by the capture of Rochelle, he turned the whole force of France against the House of Austria; and among other enterprises, directed his attention to the Valteline; but the Grisons, encouraged and aided by the Spaniards, drove the French from the country; the treaty of Milan produced a close alliance between the Spaniards and the Grisons: and the Valteline was restored. - - This treaty, contracted in the year 1635, secured to the Spaniards the passage of the valley, which was the great object of the war, and restored the Valteline, Chi- avenna, and Bormio, to the Grisons, under the follow- ing conditions: an act of oblivion; the immunities of the subject countries to be confirmed as they existed be- fore the revolution of 1620; no religion but the Catho- lic to be tolerated; no person of any other persuasion to be permitted to reside, excepting the governors, du- ring the two years they should continue in office, and the Protestants possessed of lands, who should not be allowed to remain in the country above three months in the year; the privileges of the ecclesiastics to be resto- red in their full latitude. - Since the pacification of 1637, no material change took place in the state of affairs. The sovereigns of Mian have always cultivated the friendship of the Gri- sons; and the inhabitants of the Valteline endured a regular course of tyranny under the government of a free state; confirming a fact notorious in the annals of ancient Greece, that no people are more oppressed than the subjects of a democracy. During the progress of the French revolution, Bona. parte confirmed the union of the revolted provinces with the Cisalpine republic; so that after a period of nearly three centuries, the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio, were again incorporated with the Milanese un- der a republican government; but the expulsion of the late French emperor has restored the ancient arrange- ments in Italy, and the Valteline returns to its former possessors. Coxe's Switzerland, vol. iii. VALTERIE, LA, a town of Canada, on the St. Lau- rence. N. lat. 45° 54'. W. long. 73° 10'. VALTESCHAND, V A L V A. L. VALTESCHAND, or WALTEschAND, a town of Holland, in Overissel; 12 miles N. E. of Covorden. VALTIERRA, a town of Spain, in Navarre. Near it is a mine of sal gem; 10 miles from Tudela. ſº VALVA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afri- ca, being one of the most considerable in Mauritania Caesariensis. e VALva, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Citra, the see of a bishop; 18 miles S. S. W. of Civita di Chieti. VALVANO, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 6 miles N. of Cangiano. * V AI,VASONE, a town of Italy, in Friuli, on the Ta- jamento; 14 miles W. S. W. of Udina. VALVASOR, or VALvAsouk. See VAvAsor. VALUATION of Land, in Agriculture and Rural Economy, the business of ascertaining its real worth. It is an undertaking which requires considerable know- ledge of the nature and application of all sorts of land- ed property, as well as of the various Improvements of which they are capable by cultivation and different other TY10ailS. It is necessary, before entering upon it, that the nature of the tenure, title, and other matters should be well understood. The writer of the work on “Landed Pro- perty,” however, supposes, that the value of the fee- simple, or pure freehold tenure, being properly ascer- tained, that of any inferior sort of holding may readily be found from it, by means of the general rules of cal- culation: but that the fee-simple value of lands is liable to fluctuation, and become different, by general causes; and is influenced too, in many cases, in a much higher degree, by local circumstances. It is suggested, that lands of the self-same quality are of five-fold value in one situation, comparatively with what they are worth in another: not merely, though principally, on account of the rental value, or the current price they will let for to tenants in different situations; but through other less permanent causes: such as the quantity of land at market, the number and importance of the demands for it in the given district; as well as the spirit which pre- vails in it at the time, in regard to the temporary pos- session of landed property at the particular period. These are circumstances that are constantly worthy of the attention of those whose views in the obtaining of land are not confined to any particular spot or district. It is stated, that the usual method of coming at the fee-simple value of land, is first to ascertain the fair ren- tal value or price by the year, and to multiply this by the number of years’ purchase which the existing de- mand for land will bear, in the given situation, at the time. But that the number of years’ purchase, or the ratio between the rent and the sale value of lands, varies greatly, as from 20 to 40, 25 to 30 being the more or- dinary numbers. Consequently, a parcel of land, the fair rental value of which is 100l., is, in common cases, worth from 2500l. to 3000l. But the real rental value, which is the only sure and firm ground-work to pro- ceed upon, whether in the purchase or the management of fanded property, cannot be easily obtained. Speak- ing generally of the lands of this country, it is, it is thought, what very few men are able to set down. It is true, that, in almost every district, or almost every township, there are persons who tolerably well know the rate at which the lands of their respective neigh- bourhoods are usually let. But reciprocally interchange them into each other’s districts, and their errors would, it is said, be egregious. Nor can a mere provincialist, especially in a district which is unenlightened by mo- dernimprovements, be aware of the value even of his own farm, under the best course of management of which it may be capable : nor can he see, through the double veil of ignorance and prejudice, the more per- manent improvements that may be made upon it, so evidently as one who has a more general knowledge of rural subjects and concerns, and is in the habit of dis- covering and prosecuting such improvements. It is consequently necessary to have different persons to ac- complish the business in a complete manner in many instances. The particular circumstances that require to be con- sidered as giving value to land, are chiefly these: 1. The quantity of the land, which is the ground-work of the calculation; though it has little weight in the scale of valuation. The fee-simple value of an acre of land may be less than twenty shillings, or it may be more than a hundred pounds. Nevertheless, it is on the quantity the rental value is calculated; and it is usual for the person who parts with it to exhibit a “particu- lar” of the estate or property on its disposal; shewing, or which ought to shew, not only the aggregate quanti- ty, but the number of acres that each piece or parcel contains, as well as other matters; and ought, most par- ticularly, to specify the distinct quantities of the lands of different qualities; in order that their several rental values may be ascertained with greater ease and accu- racy. 2. The intrinsic quality of the land, which is essen- tial in forming the estimate. But even this, in a gene- ral view of the value of lands throughout the kingdom, is often, it is said, of secondary consideration: for, in many cases their values are given by situation, rather than by soil and substrata. In some cases, as has been seen, the value of the situation may be a great many times more than that of the intrinsic value of land. But this excessive influence of situation is, however, limit- ed in its effects, and is chiefly confined to the environs of large towns, and other extraordinary markets for produce of the farm-kind. A great majority of the lands of this country owe their values less to situation than to intrinsic quality ; and to come at this with sufficient accuracy, is the most requisite, and, at the same time, the most difficult part of valuation ; as it de- pends almost wholly on extemporary judgment, exer- cised on the frequently few data which rise to the eye. in passing over the field of estimation. It is, therefore, almost needless to state, that to acquire the degree of judgment which is necessary to the execution of this difficult critical task, it is required to know and be perfectly acquainted with the nature and productive- ness of lands of different appearances: a sort of knowledge which scarcely any thing but mature prac- tice in the cultivation and use of lands of different qualities can sufficiently teach; though long habit may do much in ordinary cases towards hitting off the value of lands, without an extensive knowledge of the prac- tice of agriculture. There are cases, however, it is said, in which both of these qualifications are found insufficient to give any ac- curacy of judgment, even among provincial valuers of land. And a person who ventures to step forward as a universal valuist, should have either an extraordina- ry talent for the purpose, or should, after a suitable initiation, have had great experience in rural concerns in different parts of the kingdom. 3. The situation; which, although it has been already stated, that the value of the lands of this country, ag- gregately considered, depends less on situation than Oſł VALUATION OF LAND. on intrinsic quality, yet in every part it has great in- fluence. Thus, an acre of land, the intrinsic quality of which renders it, in an ordinary situation, in what regards locality merely, worth twenty shillings the acre, would not, it is observed, in some districts or places, be worth more than fifteen shillings, while in others it would bear to be estimated at twenty-five shillings, or even a higher price of rent, to a farmer on a large scale, and away from the immediate environs of a town, or any populous district of manufacture ; for reasons that will be seen in examining the different particulars of situation. In the temperature of situation too, whether it be given by elevation, aspect, or expo- sure, a powerful influence is found, which is capable of altering exceedingly the value of lands. The same sort of soil and subsoil, it is said, which is not unfre- quently seen on exposed mountains, and hanging to the north, and which in that situation is not worth more than five shillings an acre, would, if situated in asheltered vale tract, and lying well to the sun, be worth twenty shil- lings, or a greater rent. Even on climature, some- thing considerable in this business, it is thought, de- pends. In the southern part of the country, the har- vest is, in general a month earlier than in those of the north ; though it is not regulated exactly by the climate, or the latitude of the places: this is consequently a cir- cumstance that requires to be attended to by those who estimate the values of estates or lands. For an early harvest is not only advantageous in itself, but gives time to till the ground, or to take an autumnal crop, which are advantages that a late harvest will not so well admit of being had. And another kind of temperature of situation has still, it is supposed, more influence on the value of lands, which is that of the moistness of the atmosphere. A moist situation not only gives an un- certain and often late harvest, but renders it difficult and hazardous : as is too frequently experienced on the western coast-sides of this island. Even in the turn of surface, exercise is found, it is said, for the judgment. Lands lying with too steep or too flat surfaces, particu- larly when of the arable kind, and retentive, are of less value than those which are greatly shelving, so as to give a sufficient discharge to surface-water, without their being difficult of cultivation. Steep-lying lands are not only troublesome and expensive under the ope- rations of tillage, but in taking out manures, and get- ting off the produce. Lands lying with an easy de- scent, or on a gently billowy surface, may be worth more by many pounds an acre in the money they will bring, than others of the same intrinsic quality, hang- ing on a steep. Another consideration of the same weight in valuing an estate, or other landed property, is a supply of water for domestic purposes, for the uses of live-stock, and for the purpose of irrigation. There are situations, it is said, in which a copious stream of calcareous water would enhance the fee-simple value of a large estate some thousand pounds. Likewise a suffi- cient supply of manure, whether dung, lime, marle, or other melioration, being at a moderate price, and within a moderate distance of land-carriage, materially adds to the intrinsic value of lands. And the established practice of management of the district or county in which an estate or land lies, is capable of enhancing or depressing the value of it exceedingly. Even the single practical point of ploughing light and loamy lands with two oxen, or two active horses, instead of four heavy ones, is capable of making a difference on good land which is kept alternately in herbage and corn-crops, of from five to ten shillings a year, on the acre ; or teſ, pounds an acre in the money value which it is worth. The price of labour is also stated as another regula- tor of the marketable value of land in a given district. It is always right, however, to compare this with the habits of exertion and industry which prevail among farm workmen, before the neat amount of labour can be safely set down. The price of living too, or ex- pense of house-keeping, prevalent among farmers, has its share of influence on the value of lands. In the more recluse parts of the north of this country, the farm- ers, especially of the lower and the more inferior classes, and their servants, are fed, clothed, and ac- commodated, at nearly half the expense of those of a similar degree in many parts of the more central and southern districts. In a country where frugality pre- vails too, lands of a given quality will ever, it is said, bear a higher rent than they will where a more profuse manner of living has gained a footing. Hence, like- wise, the spirit of improvement, or the prejudice against it, which prevails in a district, is a circumstance of Some value, it is supposed, in this intention. For if the former be in a progressive state, especially if it be still in the more early stages of its advancement, a rapid in- crease of rent may, with a degree of certainty, be ex- pected : whereas, under the leaden influence of the latter, half a century may, it is thought, pass away be- fore the golden chariot of improvement can be profita- bly put in motion. And lastly, may be noticed, it is said, the attractive centre to which the labours of the husbandman will ever tend,-markets, in which, more than any other cirumstance, we are to look for the ex- isting value of lands. Their influence is not confined to towns and populous places of manufacture, for in ports, and on quays, whether of inlets, estuaries, rivers, or canals, markets are met half way: even by good roads their distance from the farm-stead may be said to be shortened. In this detail of the particulars of situation in respect to the value of landed property, it is observed, the at- tention requisite to be employed by a valuer who is called upon to act in a county that is new to him is per- ceived. A provincial, or even a professional valuer, who acts in a district, the existing value of the lands of which he is sufficiently acquainted with, determines at sight, and according to the best of his judgment, on their respective values: for he knows, or ought to know, their current prices; what such and such lands let for in that neighbourhood; what he and his neigh- bours give, or would give, for lands of the same quality and state, without adverting to the particular circum- stances of the situation, they being considered and given as the established amounts arising out of them; resting his judgment solely on the intrinsic quality and ex- isting state of each field or parcel as it passes under his eye. But let his skill be what it may in a county or district in which he has acquired a habit of valuing lands, he will, in a distant part or district, the current market prices of the lands of which may be ten, twenty, or fifty ſher cent. above or below those which he has been accustomed to put upon lands of the same intrinsic qualities and existing states, find himself at a loss ; until he has learnt the current prices of the place or county, or has well weighed and considered the circumstances of situation: to which, in every case, he must necessarily attend, before he can determine their value under an improved practice, or venture to lay down general rules for their improvement. 4. Another VALUATION OF LAND. 4. Another class of circumstances which influence the marketable value of lands still remains, it is said, to be enumerated and considered. These relate to their ex- isting state, or the manner in which they lie at the time. Their state in respect to enclosure is a matter of great consideration. Open lands, though wholly appropria- ted, and lying well together, are of much less value, except for a sheep-walk, or a rabbit-warren, than the same lands would be in a state of suitable enclosure. If they be disjointed and intermixed in a state of common field, or common meadow, their value may be reduced one-third. If the common fields or meadows be what is often termed Lammas land, and become common as Soon as the crops are off, the depression of value may be set down at one-half of what they would be worth in well-fenced enclosures, and unincumbered with that ancient custom. The difference too in the value be- tween lands which lie in a detached state, though within well-fenced enclosures, and those of the same quality that lie in a compact form, or, in the familiar phrase, within a ring-fence, is considerable. The disadvantages of a scattered estate are, it is said, similar to those of a scattered farm. Even the single point of a want of con- venient access to detached fields and parcels is, on a farm, a serious evil. And it is on the value of farms that the value of an estate or land is to be calculated. The state of the roads, whether public or private, with- in an estate, and from it to the neighbouring markets, or places of delivery of produce, is further an object of consideration. And in this view, the state of the water- courses, or sewers and ditches, within and below an estate, likewise requires to be examined into; as the expense of improvement or reparation will be more or less, according to their existing state at the time; or, perhaps, by reason of natural causes, or through the obstinacy of a neighbour, and the defectiveness of the present laws of the country in this respect, the requi- site improvements cannot be effected at any expense. The state of drainage of lands that lie out of the way of floods, or collected water, requires also to be taken into consideration. For although the art of draining be now pretty well understood, it cannot be practised on a large scale, without much cost. The state of the lands too, as to tillage and manure, is entitled to more regard than is generally bestowed on it, in valuing them. But even to a purchaser, and still more to a tenant for a term, their state in these respects demands a share of atten- tion. Lands that are in a high state of tillage and con- dition, so as to be able to throw out a succession of full crops, may be worth five pounds of purchase-money an acre, more than those of the same properties, which are exhausted by repeated crops, and lie in a useless state of foulness; from which they cannot be raised, but at a great expense of manure and tillage. Their state as to grass or arable, is, it is thought, better understood, and generally more attended to. Lands in a state of profitable herbage, and which have lain long in that state, are not only valuable as bearing a high rent while they remain in that condition, but, after the herbage has begun to decline, will seldom fail to throw out a valuable succession of corn-crops. Hence the length of time which lands, under valuation, have lain in a state of herbage, especially if it has been kept under pasturage, is a matter of inquiry and estimation in the execution of business of this sort. And, lastly, the state of farm buildings and fences is, it is conceived, a thing of serious consideration. Buildings, yards, and enclo- sures, that are much let down, and gone to decay for want of timely reparation, incur a very great expense to raise them again to their proper state. And when great accuracy of valuation is called for, as where the pur- chase value of an estate is left to reference, and when the tenants are not bound, or if bound are not able, to put them in the required state, it becomes requisite to estimate the expense which each farm, in that predica- ment, will require to put it in sufficient repair, so as to bring the whole into a suitable state of occupation. This comes, however, more properly under the head of deductions, encumbrances, and outgoings, which are considered below. The same principle of valuation as above holds good too in ordinary cases. In speaking of encumbrances and deductions, it is said, that it appears, by a long lease, that the fee-simple value of an estate may be in effect annihilated. Even a lease for lives, with a mere conventional rent, may re- duce it to nearly one-third of its fee-simple value. And every other kind of lease, if the rent payable be not equal to the fair rental value at the time of the dis- posal, is an encumbrance, even to a purchaser who has no other object in view than that of securing his property on land, and receiving interest in rent for the money laid out. If personal convenience be imme- diately wanted, or improvements required to be done, a lease, though the tenant pays a full rent, becomes an obstacle to the purchase, and is consequently to be con- sidered in fixing the value. And an error, which is not unfrequently committed in estimating the encumbrance of a lease for a term of years, is here, it is said, to be noticed. The difference between the lease rent and the full rental value, encumbered with the same out- goings and repairs as the lease rent, being ascertained, it is multiplied by the number of years unexpired, and the product in full deducted from the value of the land, free from such encumbrance. But from the product, thus found, ought to be deducted half the interest there- of, during the said number of years, together with that of one half-year over, if the rent be payable half-yearly, or of one year, if payable annually. For all that a pur- chaser has a right to expect is to receive the full rent for his land, during the continuance of the lease. The tenant pays him what the lease stipulates; and if the seller were to make up the remainder, at the end of every six or twelve months, whenever the tenant is to pay his part, the purchaser would receive the full rent, the same as if no encumbrance had existed. But if the seller pay down the whole sum in ready money, at the time of the sale, which in effect he does, he is cer- tainly entitled to some discount for prompt payment. Thus, supposing the difference of rent, occasioned by the lease, to be ten pounds a year, and the length of the term to run to be ten years, the product would be one hundred pounds. And supposing, for the ease of cal- culation, the stipulated payments to be annual, the in- terest to be deducted would be the half of fifty pounds, (the interest of one hundred pounds for ten years, at 5 fier cent.) with the half of five pounds (one year’s in- terest), together amounting to twenty-seven pounds ten shillings; which being deducted from one hundred pounds, the gross product, leaves seventy-two pounds ten shillings, the clear sum to be deducted, And the truth of this rule of calculation may, it is thought, be familiarly proved: for if the seller were only to pay the deficiency of rent, as it should become due, he would during the first year, hold the whole hundred pounds in his hands, the interest of which at 5 fier cent, is # } A& VALUATION OF LAND. The first year (as above) he would hold 1.100 1.5 0 0 The second ditto º * > * e 90 4 1 O O The third ditto * * * e e 8O 4 O O. The fourth ditto & © * © 7o 3 lo o The fifth ditto & Q ſº º 6O 3 O O The sixth ditto & * g wº 50 2 1 O O The seventh ditto . • º ſº 4O 2 O O The eighth ditto s wº * º 30 l l O O The ninth ditto . . * * tº 20 1 0 o The tenth ditto e ‘ & g tº 1 O O 1 O O 27 1 O O gºmº. In respect to tithes, where in valuing lands they are tonsidered as tithe-free, the tithe or modus, if any, re- quires to be deducted, as an encumbrance; and from the great variation in the values of tithes and moduses, ac- cording to custom, and plans of occupation, it is the plainest way of preceeding to value all lands as free of tithe, and afterwards to make an allowance for whatever they may be estimated to be worth. In regard to taxes, too, although it may be called the custom of the country for proprietors to pay the land-tax, and the occupier all the other taxes; yet this is not the universal practice; nor is it, in valuing an estate on sale, and to be let at . will, a matter to be inquired into. The annual amount of payable taxes, and other outgoings, are the facts to be ascertained: for whosoever discharges them, they come as a burden upon the gross value of the lands, out of which they are payable. For if a tenant pay them, his rent is, or ought to be, estimated and fixed accordingly. But if an estate on sale is already let undel lease, for a term to come, it is highly requisite to ascertain what parts of the annual outgoings and repairs are discharged by the tenants, and what the proprietor will be liable to, during the term to run. The land-tax, where it still ex- ists, is extremely uncertain as to its value; and the poor- tax is equally varying in different situations. The church, highways, and county rates are, taking them on a par of years, less liable to local uncertainty, and are consequently less entitled to inquiry by a valuer of lands. And the fixed payments, or rent charges, such as chief rents, quit-rents, annuities, endowments, schoolmasters’ salaries, charitable donations, and others of the same kind, to which an estate is liable; also repairs of public works, buildings, roads, &c. incumbent on the estate, are subjects of inquiry and estimation; as well as the ordi- nary repairs. Further, too, the hazard or risk under valuation, as that of their being liable to be inundated in summer, or to be torn away by floods at any season, is en- titled to mature consideration. For although these evils may generally be remedied by river-bleaks and embank- ments, the erecting of them is mostly attended with great expense; and the estimated value of this becomes, in course, a fair deduction to be considered by the land- valuer. It is noticed that there are two practical me- thods of valuation, with respect to taxes and other out- goings, as in regard to tithes; namely, either to set down the gross value of the lands, and then to deduct the out- goings; or to view them under their encumbrances, and to estimate in a summary way their neat rental value. The latter is the more general, but the less accurate, manner of performing the business. This, it is said, is what relates to the purchase value of the lands, but that, appurtenant to an extensive estate, there are generally other valuable considerations; as , Vol. XXXVIII, minerals and fossils, whether metals, fuels, calcareosi. ties, or grosser earths; waters, whether they are valua- ble for fisheries, decoys, mills, domestic uses, or the ir- rigation of lands; and timber, as of woods and hedge- rows. Buildings, too, that are not let with the farms, but which bear rent, independent of the lands; which, when scattered over an estate, may well be considered as belonging to landed property. To these may be added, the estimated value of evident improvements: and, lastly, the abstract rights which arise out of appropriated lands, or their appurtenances, as the right of commonage, which is generally of some value, even when commons lie open, and may be of mere, when they shall be in- closed; provided the cost of inclosure do not turn out to be more than the extra value of the appropriated lands, above that which naturally or fortuitously attends the lands of the common right in their open state. The right of seigniority to fee-farm rents, or other chief rents, payable to the possessor of lands on sale out of the lands of other proprietors. These rents, though small, are of certain value in themselves; and the idea of superiority, which they convey to the minds of some, may be worth more than the pecuniary value; which indeed, where the sums are very small, as is often the case, is much lower- ed by the expense of collecting them. The rights of Jeudality, or manorial rights, are at present, if not in their origin, very different from those last mentioned; and the value of which is to be estimated by the quit- rents, fines, heriots, escheats, and amerciaments, which long custom and a train of circumstances have attached to the given court. And beside what relates to the ap- propriated lands of the manor, the lord has a profit aris- ing from the commonable lands, if any lie within it, as lord of the soil; which cannot be broken without his permission: hence the minerals and fossils which it co- vers belong to him, as well as the timber which grows upon the waste, and the waters that are connected with it. Moreover, in ordinary cases, he is lord of the game which inhabits or strays upon his manor. This being, however, a right of pleasure rather than profit, has no fixed standard of estimation. The right of tithe, when attached to an estate, is the most desirable of abstract rights arising out of landed property. For as far as the right extends, whether to a lay rectory or a vicariat impropriatorship, the lands which it covers become in effect tithe-free; as every judicious proprietor incorpo- rates the rents of the tithe with those of the lands out of which it is payable: thus, if the right, as it generally is, be rectorial, freeing them wholly from the encum- brance of tithes, as a tax on improvements, and as an ob- stacle to the growth of grain. The right of advowson, or the privilege of appointing a pastor to propagate re- ligion and morality upon an estate, properly enough be- longs to its possessor; as no other individual is so inti- mately concerned in the moral conduct of its inhabitants. The right of refiresentation, or election, or the appoint- ment, in whole or in part, of a legislator to assist in pro- moting good order in the nation at large. And what class of the community, it is asked, can produce a fairer clam to this right than the proprietors of the country? The value of these rights is left for others to estimate and determine. See TIMBER and TITHEs. The chief circumstances to be considered having thus been pointed out, and their importance and influence £xplained, in concluding the subject it may be observed, that the difference between the particulars that give 2 M > value V A. L. V A L value to a landed estate, and the encumbrances to which it is liable, is the net value of the property under valua- tion. VALUE, VAlor, in Commerce, the price or worth of any thing. * VALUE, Intrinsic, denotes the proper, real, and effec- tive worth of any thing; and is used chiefly with regard to money: the popular value of which may be raised and lowered at the pleasure of the prince; but its real or in- trinsic value, depending wholly on its weight and fine- ness, is not at all affected by the stamp or impression thereon. w It is generally on the foot of this intrinsic value, that species are received in foreign countries; though in the places where they are coined, and where the sovereign power makes them current, they sometimes pass for much more. It is, in good measure, on the difference of those two values, one of which is, as it were, arbitrary, and the other, in some sort, natural, that the difference of ex- changes depends; and those still rising and falling, as the rate at which a species is current, comes nearer or farther off the just price of the metal of which it con- sists. VALUE, in Bills of Exchange, is used to signify the nature of the thing (as ready money, merchandizes, bills, debts, &c.) which is given, as it were, in exchange for the sum specified in the bill. From four different manners of expressing this value, some distinguished four kinds of bills of exchange. The first bears value received, simply and purely, which com- prehends all kinds of value; the second, value received in money or merchandize; the third, value of myself; and the fourth, value understood. The first is dangerous, and the fourth but little used: accordingly, to have the value well expressed, and to pre- vent the ill consequences of oversights therein, it is well provided by the French ordonnance of 1673, that bills of exchange should contain the name of the person to whom the contained sum is to be paid; the time of pay- ment; the name of him who has given the value; and whether it was received in money, merchandize, or other effects. VALUE, Valor, or Walentia, in Law. West gives us a nice difference between value and firice; the value (says he) of things in which offences are committed, is usually comprised in indictments; which seems neces- sary in theft, to make a difference from petty larceny; and in trespass, to aggravate the fault and increase the fine. But no price of things ferae natura may be expressed, as of deers, hares, &c. if they be not in parks or war- rens. And where the number of things taken is to be expressed in the indictment, as of young doves in a dove- house, there must be said firetii, or ad valentiam: but of divers dead things, ad oalentiam, and not hretii: of coin not current, it shall be said firetii; but of coin current, neither firetii nor ad valentiam; the price and value being certain. VALVE, VALvULA, formed from valve, folding- doors, in Hydraulics, Pneumatics, &c. is a kind of lid, or cover, of a tube or vessel, so contrived as to open one way; but which, the more forcibly it is pressed the other way, the closer it shuts the aperture: so that it either admits the entrance of a fluid into the tube or vessel, and prevents its return; or admits it to escape, and pre- yents its re-entrance. For water, those valves are the best which intercept the passage least; and none appear to answer this purpose better than the common clack- Valve of leather, which is generally within single, or di- Yided into two parts; but it is sometimes composed of fºur Parts, united so as to form a pyramid, nearly resem- bling the double and triple valves which are formed by nature in the hearts of animals. A board, or a round flat piece of metal, divided unequally by an axis on which it moves, makes also a very simple valve. Where a Valve is intended for intercepting the passage of steam, it must be of metal; such a valve is generally a flat plate, with its edge ground somewhat comically, and guided in its motion by a wire or pin. For air, valves are com- monly made of oiled silk, supported by a perforated plate or grating. - & Valves are of great use in the air-pump and other wind-engines; in which they are ordinarily made of pieces of bladder, or oiled silk. * In hydraulic engines, as the emboli of pumps, they are frequently of leather; the figure round; and they are fitted to shut the apertures of the barrels or pipes. Sometimes they are made of two round pieces of leather, inclosed between two others of brass; having divers perforations, which are covered with another piece of brass, movable upwards and downwards, on a kind of axis, which goes through the middle of them all. Sometimes they are made of brass, covered over with leather, and furnished with a fine spring, which gives Way upon a force applied against it; but, upon the ceas. ing of that, returns the valve over the aperture. (See PUM.P.) See also for the construction of different sorts of valves for the buckets of pumps, Desaguliers, Exp. Phil. vol. ii. p. 156, &c.; and for the description of a new valve by M. Belidor, ibid. p. 180. VALVE, in Anatomy. See VALvULA. Constantine Varolius, a Bolognese, and physician of Gregory XIII., who died in 1570, was the first that ob- served the valve in the colon. Bart. Eustachio, a na- tive of San Severno, in Italy, discovered about the same time the valve at the orifice of the coronary vein; and that remarkable one at the orifice of the lower trunk of the yena cana, near the right auricle of the heart; though he did not take it for a valve, but merely for a mem- brane. Sig. Lancisi, physician to pope Clement XI., who first published Eustachio's works, takes the use of this valve to be, to prevent the blood of the upper vena cava from striking with too much violence against that of the lower; and Mr. Winslow, who has considered it very di- ligently in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sci- ences, is much of the same opinion. But as it gradually dwindles in children, and at length becomes quite lost in adults, still diminishing as the fora- men ovale does, it should seem to have some other office, and that chiefly regarding the circulation of the blood in the foetus. In effect, by means of it, M. Winslow reconciles the two opposite systems of the circulation of the blood in the foetus. See Circulation of the Bloop, and Faerus. VALVE, in Gardening, the divided parts of a seed- vessel, or properly the external division of a dry seed- vessel, such as a capsule or pod; as in the pea, bean, vetch, and many others, which, when ripe, splits into two or more divisions, in order to throw out the contents, each of which divisions is denominated a valve. The *: O V A M W A M of culinary vegetables are of several different kinds, ae: cording to the number of divisions, but principally of the univalve and bivalve kinds. VALVERDE, or VAL VERDE, in Geography. See ſcA. - 'valvator, a town of Spain, in New Castile; 20 miles S. of Cuença. - ** VALvKRDE del Camino, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Seville; 17 miles N.E. of Moguer. VALve RDE de Fresno, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon, on the borders of Portugal; 24 miles N.N.W. of Coria. VALUIKI, a town of Russia, in the government of Voronez; 108 miles S.S.W. of Voronez. N. lat. 50° 2'. E. long. 37° 44'. VALUNTOWN, a town of the state of Connecticut; ! 0 miles N. N. E. of Norwich. VALVULA, VALve, in Anatomy, a name given to .various parts in the body. See VALVE. VALvULA Coli, or Ilei, the valve placed at the com- munication of the large and small intestines. See IN- TESTINE, VALvUEAE Conniventes, folds of the mucous mem- brane of the small intestine. See INTESTINE. VALvULA Eustachii, JWobilis, or Reticulata, a small fold at the entrance of the inferior vena cava into the right auricle. See HEART. VALvULA Magna Cerebri, or Vieussenii, a part of the brain. See BRAIN. VALvULA Mitralis, the valve of the left auriculo-ven- tricular orifice of the heart. See HEART, VALvULA Semilunares, or Sigmoideae, valves placed at the entrance of the aorta and pulmonary artery. See HEART. ; VALvULA Tricusſiidales, or 7'riglochina; the valve of the right auriculo-ventricular opening of the heart. See HEART. VALvULA. Venarum, folds of the internal membrane of the veins, preventing the reflux of the blood. See HEART. VAMA, in Ancient Geography, one of the navigable rivers of India, which discharged itself into the Ganges. Pliny.—Also, a town of Spain, in Baetica, belonging to . the Boetici-Celtici. Ptolemy. VAMANA, in Mythology, a name or title of the Hindoo deity Vishnu. It means a dwarf; and was ap- plied in consequence of an incarnation of Vishnu in this humble form. See the next article. VAMANAVATARA, one of the ten grand incarna- tions of Vishnu; called, by way of pre-eminence, dasá- vatara, or the ten descents, to distinguish them from others of the same deity of less importance. As noticed under the article VISHNU, this manifestation was the fifth of the ten; but the first that occurred after the golden or virtuous age of the Hindoos. It was followed by a less virtuous age, in the course of which Mahabeli, a mon- arch reasonably virtuous, became so elated, that he omitted the essential ceremonies to the gods; and Vishnu, deeming it expedient to check the influence of such an example, resolved to punish the arrogant raja. He, therefore, condescended to become the son of Kasyapa and Aditi; and, as the younger brother of Indra, was in- carnated in the person of a wretched Brahman dwarf. (See INDRA and KASYAPA.) Appearing before the king, he asked a boon; which being promised, he demanded as much as he could pace in three steps. Nor would retained by Sakra in all shapes. he desire farther, though urged by Beli to demand some- thing more worthy of the donor. Mahabeli, it would appear, had resorted to some of these processes; and the boon asked and yielded, was, as usual with mighty rajas, the Sovereignty of the universe; which includes the three regions of the earth, heaven, and hell. To avert the effects of the abuse of this power, dangerous even to the gods, and to resume their sove- reignty, Vishnu resorted to the artifice we are describ- Ing. On obtaining the king's promise, the dwarf required a ratification of it; which was done, as is still practised, by pouring water on the hand of the suppliant. This Beli proceeded to do, though warned of the consequences; scorning not to ratify that for which his royal word stoo pledged. - As the water fell into his hand, the dwarf's form ex- panded till it filled the world; and Vishnu now manifest- ing himself, deprived Beli at two steps of heaven and earth; but he being in some points a virtuous monarch, left Patala, or the lower regions, still in his dominion. (See PATALA.) In this character, Vishnu is sometimes called Trivikrama, or Trivikera, meaning the three-step- taker. Beli, as king of the infernal regions, seems to correspond with Yama; which see. Sir William Jones deemed this king the same with the Belus of western history. See BELUs, and MAHABELI. Writers of the sect of Vaishnava maintain, that the ratifying stream poured on the hand of Vshnu, was the origin or source of the river Ganga, or Ganges; which falling from the hand of the miraculous dwarf, descend- ed thence upon his, now Vishnu's, foot; whence, expand- ing like its fount, it gushed a mighty river, and was re- ceived on the head of Siva. In pictures and casts of the latter deity, the geoddess Ganga is frequently seen half concealed in the folds of his hair, and Siva is hence named Gangadhara, or Ganges-bearer: a name assumed also by a class of itinerants who sell that holy water through the streets of all Indian cities: it being among Hindoos equal, in sin-expelling potentiality, to the holy water of papacy. This mythological source of the blessing and blessed river is a favourite subject with Hindoo poets. In the Hindoo Pantheon, whence this article is partly taken, are many legends connected with it. In pictures of this avatara, the dwarf is usually repre- sented receiving the water from the hand of Beli, through a spouted vessel; sometimes accompanied by the evil counsellor Indra, or Sakra, who is represented either with only one eye, or holding his hand before the other. As the regent of the planet Jupiter, named Vrihaspati, is the counsellor or preceptor to the gods and Suras; so Sakra is the adviser of the demons or Assuras; and is constantly watchful in counteracting the divine beings, and their endeavours for the good of man; and the pious endeavours likewise of holy men. To prevent the con- servating power in this avatara from accomplishing the projected end, in the punishment of impiety and arro- gance, personified in Beli, Sakra apprized him of the deceit under which he was promising the universe away. But as the monarch had too much pride to recant his royal word, the evil counsellor assumed the form of a musquito; and insinuating himself into the spout of the vessel through which the ratifying stream was to pass, arrested its passage; when the dwarf, taking a straw to clear it, thrust out the eye of the gnat, a defect ever after It is said to indicate 2 M 2 the V. A M V A N the half enlightenment of evil counsellors: still, why the one-eyed admirer of ill should be the thousand-eyed god, has not been explained. Nor will it, perhaps, be deem- ed worth while to enter into any lengthened explanation of the apparently ridiculous fables mentioned in this ar- licle; though we believe they might be explained from a consideration that all Hindoo history, religion, arts, and science, are buried in a mass of mythological legends. We will just mention, that the fabulous source of the Ganges, whether from the head of Siva, or from the foot of Vishnu, the latter being the principle of , humidity, the former of heat, is merely a physical dispute between what in Europe would be called Neptunists and Vulcan- ists, but what in India assumes the form of theological controversy. Whether the Ganges be of volcanic ori- gin, or descends from the eternal snows of Nepaul, is perhaps the point here disputed between the Saivas and Vaishnavas. (See of this under the articles SAIVA and Siva.) As to the musquito, Indra is the god of showers, regent of the firmament; closely allied to Vishnu, air being a form of humidity; and the musquito partakes, Iike Vishnu, of both its forms; it is born, or reposes, like the god, in water, and lives in air. But we shall pursue these mythological allegories no farther. One of the eighteen sacred poems, called Purana, is named after this avatara, (see PURANA) and details, a great mass of poetical incident connected with it. The reader may perhaps smile in hearing that England is the supposed theatre of several of the incarnations of Vish- nu, and of this of Vamana among them. On this point, we refer to the second article of the 11th volume of the Asiatic Researches, VAMBA, in Geography, a river of Angola, which runs into the Coanza, near Cabeso. VAMIGELA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Af- rica, in Mauritania Caesariensis. Ptol. VAM-KAOSE, in Geography, a small island in the Chinese archipelago, where the celebrated St. F. Xavier was buried; 62 miles S.W. of Macao. VAMPYRE, in Mythology, a name given to an ima- ginary demon, which, it is pretended, sucks the blood of persons during the night, and thereby destroys them. These vampyres were supposed to animate the bodies of dead persons, which when dug up were found fresh, florid, and full of blood. Those who were killed by vampyres were said to become vampyres themselves: the way to destroy them was to drive a stake through them, at which time they would give a horrid groan; and to burn the body to ashes. This species of superstition occasioned, some years ago, great disturbances in Hun- gary and other places. º VAMPYRE, in Zoology, the Veshertilio vamſhyrus of Linnaeus, called also ternate, and by Buffon la roussette and la rougette, is a species of bat with large canine teeth, four cutting-teeth above, and the same below; sharp black nose; large naked ears; tongue pointed, and terminated by sharp aculeated papilla; exterior toe detached from the membrane; the claw strong and hooked; five toes on the hind feet; talons very crooked, strong, and compressed sideways; no tail; the membrane divided behind quite to the rump; varying in colour, some being entirely of a reddish brown, and others dus- ky; and also in size, some having the extent from tip to tip of the wings four feet, others five feet four inches; and others extending farther than a man can reach with his extended arms. This animal inhabits Guinea, Ma- dagascar, and all the islands from thence to the remot- est in the Indian ocean. They are also found in New Holland, the Friendly Islands, the New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. They fly in flocks, obscuring the air with their numbers; beginning their flight from one neighbouring island to another, immediately on sun-set, and returning in clouds from the time it is light till sun- rise, and during the day lodging in hollow trees: they live on fruit, and are so fond of the juice of the palm- tree, that they will intoxicate themselves with it till they drop on the ground. In New Caledonia, the natives use their hair in ropes, and in the tassels of their clubs. The Indians eat them, and declare their flesh to be very good. The French who live in the Isle de Bourbon, boil them in their bouillon, to give it a relish. While they are eating, they make a great noise; their smell is rank; and their bite, resistance, and fierceness, very great when taken. The ancients had some knowledge of these ani- mals, and M. de Buffon apprehends, that from the ac- count of them the poets formed their fictions of harpies. Linnatus calls this species vampyre, conjecturing it to be the kind which draws blood from people in their sleep. The bat is so dexterous a bleeder, as to insinuate its aculeated tongue into the vein without being percei- ved, and then suck the blood till it is satiated; all the while fanning with its wings, or agitating the air so as to cast the sufferer into a still sounder sleep. In certain parts of America they have destroyed all the great cat. tle introduced there by the missionaries. Pennant’s Hist. Quadrupeds, vol. ii. p. 548, &c. VAMPYRE is also a name given by M. de Buffon to the vesſertilio shectrum of Linnaeus, or bat with a long nose, large teeth, long, broad, and upright ears; with a long, conic, erect membrane at the end of the nose, bending at the end, and flexible; hair on the body cinereous, and Pretty long; wings full of ramified fibres; a membrane extending from one hind leg to the other; no tail, but three tendons extending from the rump, and terminating at the edge of the membrane. This animal inhabits South America, lives in the palm trees, and grows very fat. Buffon supposes it to be the species that sucks hu- man blood. Pennant. See AND1RA. VAN, VANT, or Vaunt (of the French avant, or avaunt, before,) is a term used in composition with seve- ral words in our language. As, VAN-Couriers, are light armed soldiers, sent before armies to beat the road, upon the approach of an enemy, VAN-Fosse, a ditch dug without the counterscarp, and running all along the glacis; usually full of water. VAN, Want, or Vaunt-Corſis. See CoRPs. VAN, or Wan-Guard. See GUARD. VAN-Lay. See VAUNT. VAN, in Agriculture, a name sometimes used to signi- fy an implement or contrivance for winnowing, or clean- ing corn with. See WINNow ING Machine. VAN, in Sea Language, denotes the foremost division of any naval armament, or that part which usually leads the way to battle, or advances first in the order of sail- ing. See ENGAGEMENT and FLEET. VAN, in Mining. To make a van, is to take a hand- full of the ore or tin-stuff, and bruise, wash, and cleanse it on a shovel; then, by a peculiar motion of the shovel, to shake and throw forth upon the point of it almost all the ore that is freed from waste. This operation being repeated, the ore is collected and reserved, and from thence V A N V A N thence they form an estimate how many tons of copper- ore, or how many hundred weight of block-tin, may be produced out of one hundred sacks of that stuff, of which the van is made. Pryce’s Mineral. Com. p. 330. See TIN and VANNING-Shovel. VAN, (Artemita,) in Geografthy, a city of Armenia, si- tuated two miles from a lake of the same name. It is surrounded with a good wall and deep ditch, and has four gates. On the N. is a castle, built on a high and perpendicular hill, which rises abruptly from the plain. This fortress can only be approached by one passage, so narrow as to admit only two persons abreast; it is al- ways supplied with corn and military stores, and in the centre of the work stands the palace of the aga of the janizaries. This city is abundantly furnished with wa- ter and provisions; the houses are built of stone and tile; the streets are spacious and well paved, and the popula- tion is said to amount to 50,000 souls, of which number two-thirds are Turks, and the rest Curds and Arme- nians. The air is pure, and the environs of the city de- lightful. It is four days’ journey from Bayazid, a city of one of the Turkish pachalics of Armenia, twelve from Erzeroom, another of them, five from Betlis, and about , the same distance from Khoi. The lake (Arsisa of Ptolemy) is about 168 miles in circumference; and although the water is more sweet than that of Urumea, it is so brackish as to be unfit for the common purposes of life, according to the common opinion, though some say it is very good. There are four islands in the lake, on one of which are an Arme- nian monastery, and 300 priests. The traffic of the sur- rounding country is carried on by about 20 or 30 small boats. N. lat. 58°. E. long. 43° 55'. On the N.W. side of the lake, three days’ journey from Van, is Argish (the ancient Arzes), containing 6000 inhabitants. And in a westerly direction from Argish is Moosh, the ancient Moxoene, occupying a small eminence, washed by the Euphrates, over which is a bridge of 15 arches, badly built, and thinly inhabited, but situated in a country equally fertile and populous. The natives of this dis- trict, amounting to about 80,000 souls, of which 12,000 are Yezedis, are a base and degenerate race. Tobacco and manna are exported from hence in considerable quan- tities. Mº Kinneir’s Mem. of Persia. VAN, atown of Norway, in the province of Aggerhuus; 20 miles N. of Christiania.- Also, a river of South Wales, which runs into the Bristol Channel, about 5 miles below Cowbridge, in Glamorganshire. VANAHON, a river of America, which runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 42°53'. W. long. 87° 10'. VANAMALI, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo god Krishna; which see. This name is said to be derived from a pendant garland of flowers, with which this fro- licsome deity is usually decorated. In the following passage he contrasts his appearance, thus decorated, with that of Mahesa, or Siva. “I am not the terrible Mahe- sa: a garland of water lilies, with subtle threads, decks my shoulders; not serpents with twisted folds: the blue petals of the lotos glitter on my neck; not the azure gleam of poison: powdered sandal wood is sprinkled on my limbs; not pale ashes.” This is addressed to his en- chanting mistress Radha, under which article a farther extract from the same “Song” will be found. The gleam of poison on his neck alludes to his having drank the poison produced by the churning of the ocean, as de- scribed in our articles KURMAVATARA and SHITAkoon- THA; and being powdered with ashes, is noticed in the latter part of the article SEcts of Hindoos. VANANCOUPAN, in Geography, a town of Hin- doostan, in the Carnatic; 15 miles S.W. of Trivady. VAN-BALEN, in Biograft hy. See BALEN. VANBRUGH, Sir John, a dramatic writer and an architect, was a descendant of an ancient family in Che- shire, and was first known to the public as an officer in the army, being considered as a man of wit and a plea- sant companion. The first play which he finished was “The Relapse;” and it was acted with great success in 1697. This was followed, in the succeeding year, by “The Provoked Wife;” and in the same year appeared his “ Alsop,” blending humour with satire and useful morality. In 1702 appeared his “ False Friend;” and he was now knighted, and advanced to the post of Cia- rencieux king-at-arms. When a theatre was erected in Haymarket, it was placed under the management of Vanbrugh and Congreve by Betterton and the other pa- tentees; and it was opened in October, 1705, with a co- medy by Vanbrugh, entitled “The Confederacy,” which, though the best written, is the most licentious of this author’s productions, besides three more pieces, imitat- ed from the French; but finding the concern irksome, he disposed of his share. The popular comedy of “The Journey to London” was begun by him, but finished by Cibber. In speaking of Vanbrugh, Pope has blended praise with censure, when he says, “How Van wants grace, who never wanted wit.” His taste and talents as an architect were first exhibi- ted in the theatre in the Haymarket, for which he ob- tained subscriptions; and to him was committed the erection of the palace of Blenheim, voted by the nation to the Duke of Marlborough. In 1716, king George II. appointed him surveyor of the buildings at Greenwich- hospital, comptroller-general of the royal works, and surveyor of the gardens and waters. On a visit to France, he employed himself in taking views of the for- tifications in that kingdom, which caused him to be ap- prehended and committed to the Bastille; but when he was observed to amuse himself in prison by making sketches of comedies, he was liberated, as a harmless per- son, without any application from home in his favour. As an architect, he was engaged to build several great houses in England, besides Blenheim; but in this capaci- ty he has unfortunately been transmitted to posterity ra- ther as an object of ridicule than of admiration. Mr. Walpole has passed upon him a severe censure, when he says that “he wanted all ideas of proportion, conve- nience, and propriety. He undertook vast designs, and composed heaps of littleness. The style of no age, no country, appears in his works; he broke through all rule, and compensated for it by no imagination. He seems to have hollowed quarries rather than to have built houses; and should his edifices, as they seem form- ed to do, outlast all record, what architecture will poste- rity think was that of their ancestors?” The following epigrammatic epitaph was written for Vanbrugh by Dr. Evans, and accords with the above character of his works: “Lie heavy on him earth, for he Laid many a heavy load on thee.” Notwithstanding the obloquy above cited, some mo- dern amateurs have windicated the character of Van” brugh's V A N V A N brugh's architecture, particularly that of Blenheim, admiring its grandeur, and the magnificence of the whole, as well as the picturesque variety displayed in this and in other of his buildings. In society Vanbrugh bore a respectable character, and had no personal enemies. Swift and Pope have ex- pressed their wish, that they had not indulged their rail- lery against one “who was a man of wit and of honour.” He died of a quinsey, at his house in Whitehall, in the year 1726. Biog. Dram. Walpole's Anecdotes. Bur- ney’s Hist. Music. VAN-CAMPENS, in Geography, a town of the state of New Jersey; 32 miles N.W. of Morristown. VAN-CHEAU, an island in the East Indian sea. N. lat. 18° 50'. E. long. 110° 40'. VANCOUVER'S Fort, a fort of Kentucky, at the union of the two branches of Sandy river. VANDABANDA, in Ancient Geografthy, a country of Asia, in Sogdiana, between mounts Caucasus and Imaus. Ptolemy. VANDALE, ANTony, in Biografthy, was born in Holland in 1638, and though he manifested an inclina- tion for study in his youth, his parents placed him in the department of commerce. At the age of 30, howe- ver, he resumed his literary pursuits, and graduated as a physician; and he was also for some time a preacher among the Mennonites. His attachment to study pre- vailed at length over every other occupation, and his lite- rary character was established by many valuable works. Of these the most noted was “Dissertationes duae de Oraculis Ethnicorum,” first printed in 1683, 12mo., and afterwards in 1700, 4to. His opinion was, that the hea- then oracles were mere impostures, and that they did not cease at the coming of Christ; which at the time was a bold assertion, as it contradicted the sentiments of some of the fathers. Fontenelle abridged these dissertations in his “ Histoire des Oracles.” (See the article ORA- cle.) In 1696 he published a work, “On the Origin and Progress of Idolatry,” which contained “A Dis- sertation on true and false Prophecy:” “A Disser- tation on the Narrative of Aristeas on the Seventy Inter- preters;” “The History of Baptisms, Jewish and Chris- tian;” “A Dissertation on Sanchoniatho;” and “ Disser- tations on some ancient Marbles.” Some of these have been published separately. In all his writings, Vandale manifested solid erudition, united with sagacity and a spirit of free inquiry; but he wants method, and his style is obscure. He was allowed, even by those who differed from him in opinion, to be a man of great probity, of an agreeable disposition, and entertaining conversation. His lot was that, which has not been uncommon with persons of literature, namely, indigence; for he sold his books before his death, which happened at Haerlem in 1708. Moreri. Le Clerc. VANDALS, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of no very high antiquity, who were originally a gothic na- tion. (See Goths.) Pliny and Procopius concur in this account of their origin; and the latter writer, more especially, affirms in express terms, that the Goths and Vandals, though distinguished by name, were the same people, agreeing in their manners, and speaking the same language. They were called Vandals, from the Gothic word “Vandelen,” which signifies to “wander,” because they often changed their situation, migrating from one country to another. They are supposed to have come originally out of Scandinavia, with the other Goths, under the command of king Eric, and to have set- tled in the countries now known by the names of Meck- lenburg and Brandenburg. When Berig, king of the Goths, several ages afterwards, brought with him a co- lony of Goths from Scandinavia, and settled in Pomera- nia, he subdued the Vandals, who inhabited those coun- tries, and incorporated them with the new settlers. In the reign of Augustus, some of the Vandals, being straightened in their own country for want of room, took up their abode on the banks of the Rhine; but were dri- ven from thence by Tiberius and Drusus, and compelled to return home. Their country being overstocked with inhabitants, they soon afterwarwards pursued an eastern route, and driving out the Sclavi, who occupied the ter- ritory that lay between the Bosphorus Cimmerius and the Tanais, and taking possession of their country, as- sumed the appellation of the ancient inhabitants. Some of them, several ages after, in the reign of Mauritius, which began in 586, settled in Dalmatia and Illyricum, to which they gave the name of Sclavonia; and others migrated to the eastern parts of Dacia beyond the Da- nube, a province which comprehended the countries now denominated Transylvania, Moldavia, Walachia, and the eastern parts of Upper Hungary. From those who remained in Germany, the present Poles and Bo- hemians are generally said to have derived their origin; but the Vandals, who, under Godegesilus, their king, entered Gaul, and afterwards settled in Spain and Afri- ca, came, as Procopius says, from Dacia and the vicinity of the Palus Maeotis. As the Vandals were a Gothic nation, they retained the customs, manners, religion, and form of government, that subsisted among the Goths. The first of their kings mentioned in history is Godege- silus, under whose command they entered Gaul in 406. He was succeeded by Gunderic, who passed, in 409, from Gaul into Spain, and settled in Galicia. His suc- cessor, Genseric, abandoned Spain in 428, and passed with his vassals into Africa, which the Vandals possessed till the year 533, when, under Gelimer, an end was put to their dominion by Belisarius, and Africa was reunited to the empire. Although the Vandals are said to have been inferior in power and courage to all the other bar- barous nations, they nevertheless made themselves mas- ters of the most fertile provinces of the empire. They became proselytes to Christianity at the same time with the Goths, embracing the sentiments of Arius, in com- mon with the other Goths, and becoming irreconcileable enemies to the Catholic church. Salvianus extols their continence and chastity. It was about the year 166 that they began to be trou- blesome to the Romans, in the reign of M. Aurelius and Lucius Verus; when forming an alliance with other barba- rous nations, they invaded the empire, plundered several cities, and, having put to flight the Roman armies, com- mitted every where unparalleled ravages. Having taken possession of Pannonia, they retained it till they were expelled in the year 170, by M. Aurelius. They after- wards entered into an alliance with the Romans; and in 180, it was one of the articles of peace concluded be- tween the emperor Commodus and the Alemans, that they should not make war upon the Vandals. In the second year of Aurelian’s reign, A.D. 271, the Vandals passed the Danube, iaying waste the neighbouring pro- vinces; but Aurelian compelled them to retire with great precipitation, and having overtaken them in thºr retreat, V A N D A L S. retreat, obliged them to sue for peace; which was grant- ed, on condition of their delivering, as hostages, the sons of their two kings, and other persons of destinction. Two thousand of their best men were incorporated among Aurelian’s own troops. After his death, they en- tered Gaul; but they were defeated by Probus in several battles, and obliged to withdraw themselves at the ap- proach of the Roman army. Resenting the insults of the Roman soldiers, they made an attempt to recross the Rhine, but sustained a great defeat; and proving un- faithful to their engagements, after having obtained peace, Probus marched against them, put many to the sword, took a great number of prisoners, among whom was their king, and afterwards sent them into Britain, where they are supposed to have settled in the neigh- bourhood of Cambridge, giving name, as it has been said, to the village of Vandalsburg. Probus allowed several of them to settle in Thrace, which was almost depopu- lated. The next mention of the Vandals that occurs in the eighth year of the reign of Dioclesian, when they engaged in a war with the Goths. About the year 406, or the twelfth of Honorius’s reign, they made an irrup- tion into Gaul; but in attempting to cross the Rhine, they were slaughtered by the Franks; and being relieved by the Alans and Suevians, they obliged the Franks to re- tire, and actually entered Gaul. Having passed through. Germania Prima and Gallia Belgica, they took posses- sion of Aquitain, the most fertile and opulent province of Gaul; and advancing as far as the Pyrenaean mountains, they ravaged all the neighbouring provinces. Constan- tine, however, having been proclaimed emperor by the British legions, passed from Britain into Gaul with a powerful army, and defeated the Vandals and other bar- barians in several battles, and at length granted them peace, without stipulating as a condition their leaving thc country. The Vandals soon afterwards took up arms, and seized several cities of Gaul, under Maximus, who assumed the honour of being emperor, in opposition to Constans, the son of Constantine. Finding them- selves more vigorously opposed than they expected, they marched towards Spain, which was then in a dis- tracted state, and in the year 409 entered the country; and before the end of the year 410, obliged Constans to abandon it. After having reduced the provinces of Spain to a deplorable condition, they concurred with the Alans and Suevians in dividing the country between them, and devoted themselves to the operations of agri. culture. In this partition, Galicia fell to the share of the Vandals and Suevians, and Boetica to those Vandals that were called Silingians, who are supposed to have given to their portion the name of Vandalusia, after- Wards changed into Andalusia. In the year 416, Vallia, king of the Goths in Gaul, having made peace with the Romans, undertook to drive the barbarians out of Spain; and in 432, Honorius, having heard of the reduced con- dition of the Vandals in Spain, in consequence of the conduct of Vallia, determined to recover the provinces which they possessed. But his attempts for this purpose were rendered ineffectual by a signal defeat. In conse- quence of this victory, the Vandals became powerful, established themselves in Andalusia, almost destroyed the city of Carthagena, and extended their ravages to the Balearic islands. In the year 428 or 429, Genseric, the king of the Vandals, assembled them together, with their wives, children, and effects, and abandoning Spain, crossed the straits of Gibraltar, and landed in Africa. After their arrival, they gained several victories over the Romans, and so overran the country, that Cirta and Car- thage were the only two strong places in Africa possess- ed by the Romans. At length, viz. A.D. 435, a peace was concluded between Valentinian and Genseric; but though the moderation of the Vandal sovereign was high- ly extolled, he nevertheless seized Carthage, A.D. 439, whilst the Romans were engaged in a war with the Goths in Gaul; and thus the Vandals remained masters of the proconsular province of Byzacene, Gaetulia, and part of Numidia. The capture of Carthage created an alarm in Italy; and preparations were vigorously made for putting Rome in a state of defence, and for inducing all ranks of people to take up arms for the preservation of the country. In the year 455, Genseric took and plundered Rome; and carried ever with him into Africa, the empress Eudoxia, and her two daughters Placidia and Eudocia, where he detained them till the year 462, . marrying Eudocia to Hunneric, his eldest son, who had by her Hilderic, afterwards king of the Vandals in Afri- ca. Upon his return to Africa, Genseric subdued the countries that were still in the hands of the Romans. The emperor Majorianus, being disappointed in his views and plans for the conquest of Africa, concluded a peace with Genseric, who, after the death of the em- peror in 461, sent a powerful fleet to pillage the coasts of Sicily and Italy, and even made himself master of Sardinia. He afterwards took occasion to ravage Pelo- ponnesus and the Greek islands, whence were carried off many captives. Leo resented the affront offered by. Genseric to the eastern empire, and prepared for revenge by carrying the war into Africa. In the progress of his powerful armament, Sardinia and Tripoli were recover- ed from the Vandals; but whilst Genseric solicited of the Roman admiral a truce of five days for settling the terms of his submission to Leo, he contrived to destroy the whole Roman fleet that was armed against him. In the year 475, he concluded a peace with Zeno, the suc- cessor of Leo, who, renouncing all claim to the provinces of Africa, yielded them for ever to Genseric and his de- scendants. Soon after this event, Genseric died, A.D. 477; but the peace was religiously observed by his suc- cessor, till the reign of Justinian, who, espousing the cause of Hilderic against his brother Gilimer, who had usurped the crown, drove the Vandals out of Africa, and reunited those provinces to the empire. (See BElisa- . RIUs.) Africa had been their empire, it now became. their prison; nor could they entertain a hope, or even a wish, of returning to the banks of the Elbe, where their brethren, of a spirit less adventurous, still wandered in . their native forests. In the country between the Elbe and the Oder, several populous villages of Lusatia are. inhabited by the Vandals: they still preserve their lan- guage, their customs, and the purity of their blood; sup- port, with some impatience, the Saxon or Prussian yoke; , and serve with secret and voluntary allegiance the de- scendant of their ancient kings, who in his garb and pre- sent fortune is confounded, with the meanest of his vas- sals. The name and situation of this unhappy people might indicate their descent from one common stock with the conquerors of Africa; but the use of a Scla- vonian dialect more clearly represents them as the last remnant of the new colonies, who succeeded to the ge- nuine Vandals, already scattered or destroyed in the age. of Procopius. Anc. Un. Hist, vol. xvii. Gibbon’s Hist. Rom, Emp, vol. i. vi. vii. - VANDELEVILLE, V A N V A N VANDELEVILLE, in Geograft hy, a town of France, in the department of the Meurtre; 9 miles N.W. of Mirecourt. VAND ELLIA, in Botany, was so called by Linnaeus, at the suggestion of Browne, after his correspondent Dr. Dominick Vandelli, who published at Padua, in 1761, a quarto volume in Latin, on the hot-baths of that neigh- bourhood, with notices of some cryptogamic plants in- habiting therein. Being afterwards appointed superin- tendant of the royal botanic garden at Lisbon, he pub- lished there, in 1771, a small Fasciculus Plantarum, dedicated to sir Joseph Banks, describing some supposed new genera, and several new species, with a few figures. T}r. Vandelli is also the author of one or two zoological tracts; and he wrote against Haller's doctrine of the in- sensibility of the tendons and membranes, to the great displeasure of that illustrious physiologist. This veteran in botanic science visited London, in 1815, at a very ad- vanced age, and, iſ we mistake not, is since dead.—Linn. Mant. 12. Schreb. Gen. 419. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 343. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Juss. 122. Lamarck Illustr. t. 522. (Matourea; Aubl. Guian. 641. Juss. 119.)— Class and order, Didynamia Angiosfermia. Nat. Ord. Personatae, Linn. Scrofthulariae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, in four deep, awl-shaped, equal segments, the upper- most sometimes divided, permanent. Cor. of one petal, ringent; tube as long as the calyx; linb small; its upper lip ovate, entire; lower dilated, two-lobed. Stam. Fila- ments four; two from the disk of the lower lip, curved upwards; two from the throat, higher up; anthers ovate, connected in pairs. Pist. Germen obling; style thread- shaped, the length of the stamens; stigmas two, ovate, membranous, reflexed. Peric. Capsule oblong, of one cell. Seeds numerous. Ess. Ch. Calyx four-cleft. Corolla ringent. Two exterior filaments from the disk of the lip of the corolla. Anthers connected in pairs. Capsule of one cell, with many seeds. - 1. V. diffusa. Round-leaved Vandellia. Linn. Mant. 39. Willd. n. 1. “Vahl Eclog. v. 2. 47.”—Leaves roundish, nearly sessile, smooth above.—Native of the West Indian islands of Montserrat and Santa Cruz. Stem herbaceous, square, cross-branched. Leaves roundish- ovate, bluntish, crenate, or bluntly serrated, opposite, on short stalks; smooth above; rather hairy beneath. Flowers axillary, opposite, Solitary, on short stalks. The habit and size of the leaves resemble Veronica serflylli- Jolia. 2. V. hratensis. Oblong-leaved Vandellia. “Vahl Eclog. v. 2.48.” Willd. n. 2. (Matourea pratensis; Aubl. Guian. 642. t. 259. Tupeiçava, sive Scoparia; Pis. Bras. 246.)—Leaves stalked, elliptic-oblong, acute, finely downy on both sides.—Native of moist ground in Cayenne; about the borders of meadows near the town, flowering almost all the year. It is known by the name of Wild Basil (Basilic sauvage), and esteemed a good vul- nerary. The stems are several, erect, two feet high, leafy, square, forked. Young branches, as well as the Meaves, soft to the touch, clothed with fine short pubes- cence. Flowers blueish, axillary, mostly solitary. They are delipeated in Aublet’s figure as having the upper lip in two lobes, the lower in three, which does not agree with the Linnaean generic description, copied above from the Mantissa. Yet the other characters, and the habits of the plants, answer so well, that we are per- suaded they must, as Schreber suspected, belong to one genus. This opinion is confirmed by Vahl, who men- tions this second species as of very frequent occurrence, by the road-sides in South America, from Trinidad to Brasil. The root is annual. The same learned botanist had, no more than ourselves, any opportunity of examin- ing the rare Vandellia diffusa alive, nor does it appear whence Linnaeus took his description; except possibly from two or three very incomplete dried specimens, which are now scarcely sufficient to assist in forming an opinion on the subject. VANDEPUT, CAPE, in Geography, a cape on the west coast of North America, and east point of Prince Frederick’s sound. N. lat. 57° 5'. E. long. 227° 12'. VANDER-CABEL, in Biography. See CABEL. VANDER-DO ES. See DoEs. - - VANDER.HELST. See HELST. VANDER-HEY DEN. See HEY DEN. VANDER-MEER. See MEER. VAND FR-MEULEN. See MEULEN. VANDERNEER. See NEER. VANDERWERF, ADRIAN. This ingenious painter was born at Ambacht, near Rotterdam, in 1659, and re- ceived the principal part of his education under Eglon Vander Neer. At the age of 18, he left that master, and becoming acquainted with M. Fluik, who possessed an extensive collection of drawings by Italian masters, to which he had constant access, he, by this aid, and also by drawing after casts from antique figures, formed a style of design much more elevated and pure than that of his countryman and contemporaries. *- At about the age of 37, his works attracted the notice of the elector palatine, on his visit into Holland; and he commissioned him to paint for him a picture of the Judgment of Solomon, and also his own portrait, to be presented to the Florentine gallery of artists; and he in- vited him to bring the pictures to Dusseldorf. The fol- lowing year he effected that object, and the elector was desirous of retaining him in his service; but to this Van- derwerf would not consent, but engaged to devote to him six months of the year, for which he received a liberal pension. In consequence, the gallery of Dusseldorf is the theatre of Vanderwerf’s glory, and his pictures there are numerous; but they are not very uncommon in this country. The character of them is given by sir Joshua Reynolds, who, in his critical tour into the Netherlands, says, “they (the pictures by Vanderwerf at Dusseldorf) are twenty-four in number in one room, three of them as large as life; a Magdalen, whole length, and two por- traits. His pictures, whether great or small, certainly afford but little pleasure; one of the principal causes ap- pears to me, to be his having entertained an opinion that the light of his picture ought to be thrown solely on the figures, and little or none on the ground or sky. This gives great coldness to the effect, and is so contra- ry to nature, and the practice of those by whose works he was surrounded, that we cannot help wondering how he fell into the mistake. His naked figures appear to be of a substance much harder than flesh, though his out- line is far from cutting, or the light not united with the shade, which are the most common causes of hardness; but it appears to me, that, in the present instance, the hardness of manner proceeds from the softness and union being too general; the light being every where equally lost in the ground, or its shadow, and thus producing the appearance of ivory or plaistcr; or some other hard sub- Stance.” V A N V A N stance.” There is also a want of transparency in his co- louring, and he has constantly the defect of Rembrandt, that of making his light only a single spot. However, to do him justice, his figures and his heads are generally well drawn, and his drapery is excellent. He died in 1727, aged 68. - He had a brother, Peter Vanderwerf, who copied his pictures, and imitated his manner. Though he occa- sionally painted history, yet his pictures more frequently represent domestic scenes; which, though not equal to his brother's, are very highly wrought, and have some- times been mistaken for his. Peter died in 1718, aged 53. VANDEVELDE, ADRIAN. This excellent painter was born at Amsterdam in 1639. He discovered, whilst he was yet at school, a decided disposition for painting, and covered the walls of his father’s house with sketches of all kinds of animals, drawn with an intelligence very unusal at that early period of life, and which induced his father to place him under the tuition of J. Wynants, where he made a very extraordinary degree of progress. Wy- nants taught him the practice of drawing from nature, and studying in the open air. It was his constant custom to pass his days in the fields, designing every thing es- sential to his pursuits; and in this mode, infinitely more variety may be obtained than the most inventive genius can supply without it. Besides this useful mode of study, he also applied himself to draw from the human figure, and obtained a considerable degree of excellence. In this respect he very far surpassed his master, who after- wards constantly employed him, as he had previously done Wouvermans and Lingelback, to decorate his land- scapes with figures and animals; as also did Hackaert, Hobbima, Vander-Heyden, and others, thus giving an ad- ditional interest to their admirable performances. The scenes which Adrian Vandevelde chose for the exercise of his art are in general very confined, and sel- dom above the ordinary appearance of common nature; but they are rendered with so much purity of colour, and fulness and perfection of execution, that they captivate, notwithstanding their simplicity. His animals, which are generally the subjects of his pictures, are designed with correctness, and painted to perfect imitation; particularly , his cows, sheep, and goats; perhaps not with so much spirit as those of Paul Potter, but more soft and delicate. His pictures, which are generally small, are universally held in the highest admiration, and are sold at very high prices. Unhappily he died in the very prime of his life, at the age of 33; and yet his pictures are by no means scarce, as his industry was inconceivable, and his facility very reat. - tº a s Though landscape and animals were his more regular objects of study, yet he felt himself qualified to undertake an historical picture for the Catholic church at Amster- dam; and the ability with which he executed a Descent from the Cross for the alter-piece there, still testifies the power with which he might have distinguished himself in history, had he more regularly pursued it. He died in 1672. There are about twenty etchings by him of cattle and landscapes. . . . . . VANDEVELDE, WILLIAM, the Elder, was born at Ley- den in 1610, and early in life followed the occupation of a mariner. It is not known at what time he turned his thoughts to painting, or by whom he was instructed in the art; but before he was 20, he had acquired consider- able reputation for painting marine subjects in black and white. His skill recommended him to the notice of the Vol. XXXVIII, * * * * * . . * States General; and Descamp says, that he was furnish- ed by them with accommodations in a small vessel, for the purpose of attending their fleets, and mak- ing sketches of their different manoeuvres and actions, He was present at various engagements at sea, and fre- quently exposed himself to danger in the prosecution of his studies. He is said to have been present at the action between the duke of York and the Dutch admiral Op- dam, in 1665; and at the more memorable one the follow- ing year, between the English and Dutch fleets, com- manded by the duke of Albemarle and De Ruyter. King Charles II. invited him to England, where he came some time before 1675; as in that year the king settled a salary upon him of 100l. fier annum. He continued in the same capacity under king James II., until his death in 1693. He was buried in St. James's church, where is a tomb- stone to his memory. - - - VANDEVELDE, WILLIAM, the Younger, the son of the preceding artist, was born at Amsterdam in 1633. He was initiated in the art of painting by his father, but’ob- tained more knowledge of colouring and effect by study- ing under De Vlieger, an eminent marine painter; and at length arrived at a degree of perfection in the treat- ment of those subjects, which still remains unrivalled. After he had practised with great success for some time in Holland, and enriched many cabinets there with his works, his father prevailed upon him to come to England, where he was soon noticed by the king, and complimen- ted with an engagement and a salary such as his father’s, and had also apartments provided for him at Greenwich. During the life of his father, as appears by an order of the privy seal, he was much employed in painting pic- tures from his sketches, but doubtless reindered more agreeable by his own better taste and feeling. The ex- ercise of his talents, however, was not confined to the service of his majesty; he was constantly, employed by various persons, and his pictures are, therefore, to be found in almost every collection which has any pretence to admiration. One of his grandest compositions for chiaro-scuro is in the gallery of the marquis of Stafford, where the majestic forms of the clouds, the motion of the waves and of the vessels, and the truth and imposing quality of the tone of colour, contend for pre-eminence. The compositions of the younger Vandevelde are distinguished by a more tasteful arrangement of forms and objects, than is to be found in those of any other ma- rine painter. His vessels are correctly drawn, and the sails, the cordage, and rigging, finished with a delicacy perfectly astonishing, and with unexampled freedom. No one ever surpassed the purity and truth of his tints: whether he represent the serenity of the calm, or the ma- jestic obscurity of the storm, an undeviating correctness and fulness adorn his canvas, and render his works pre- cious in the eyes of all beholders. He died in 1707, at the age of 74. - - is . . . . VAN-DIEMEN’s LAND, in Gedgrahhy. Sée Dr.E- MEN’s Land. - * ~ ** * * . . . *s VAN-DIEMEN's Road, an anchoring place in the South Pacific ocean, on the coast of Tongatabob, one of the Friendly islands. S. lat. 21° 4'. E. long, 185° 4'. VAN-DIEST, in Biografthy. See Diest. a VANDORF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the county of Henneberg, on the Werra; 6 miles E.S.E. of Meinungen. i + - VANDOSIA, in Ichthyology, a name by which some authors have called the leuciscus, the common dace. - 2 N -- VANDSHELLING 3: W A N V A N VANDSHELLING Isl:ANDs, in Geography, a clus- ter of small islands in a bay of the Pacific ocean, on the north coast of New Guinea. S. lat. 3° 32'. E. long. 135° 15'. VANDSIA, a town of Norway, in the province of Christiansand; 43 miles W. of Christiansand. VAND UARA, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Bri- tain, belonging to the Dâmnii; which being considerably té the north-west of Colonia, was most probably at or néâr Paisley, where Mr. Horsley places it. VANDY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ardennes; 3 miles N. of Vouziers. VANDYCK, Sir ANTHoNY, in Biography. This most justly admired painter was born at Antwerp in 1599, and, according to Houbraken, was the son of a päinter on glass, who first instructed him in the elements of the art of painting, but afterwards intrusted him for further tuition to the care of Henry Van-Balen, a painter of considerable reputation. He had made a rapid pro- gress under that master, when the increasing fame of Rubens, and the beauty of his works, inspired him with a desire of becoming a disciple of so able an instructor; and his wishes were soon crowned with success. Rubens soon beheld with pleasure the value of the talents brought by Vandyck into his school, and found in him an able and useful assitant in forwarding his larger works from the sketches he himself had prepared; and it was not long ere an incident established Vandyck’s superiority above his fellow pupils, and rendered him at once an object of interest and of envy. Whilst Rubens was employed upon his renowned picture of the Descent from the Cross, his pupils were anxious to see it in its progress, and procured admission to his study during their mas- ter’s absence. Orie of them, in the wantonness of youth, pushed Diepenbeck, and he fell against the picture, and effaced an essential part of it, on the face of the virgin, and the arm of the Mary Magdalen, which Rubens had just been painting. Consternation and alarm seized every one present; and to prevent, if possible, the discov- cry of the accident, John Van-Hoeck proposed that Vândyck should endeavour to restore the picture to the state in which they found it. He did so; and the next morning, when Rubens came into his room, on regarding the picture, he is said to have remarked, “ there is a head and an arm which are by no means the worst of what I did yesterday;” and though afterwards he might have discovered the mischief, he did not change the painting. It has been asserted by D'Argenville and others, that this circumstance, and the growing ability of Vandyck, alarmed the jealousy of Rubens, and that, in consequence of it, he advised his pupil to renounce historical paint- ing, and adhere to portraiture. But this calumny must he regarded as refuted, by the mere consideration of Rubens having advised Vandyck to go to Italy, were he himself had reaped so much benefit, and were history would be the more sure' to rivet the attention of a stu- dent. Had he, however, advised him to adhere to por- trait painting, it is but a farther proof of his clear per- ception of the native turn of mind of Vändyck, and a li- peral hint how to employ his talents to most advantage, not originating in the mean passion to which it has been ascribed, but in judgment and good-will. That they did not separate upon unfriendly terms is evident, by Van- dyck acting upon his advice, as to going to Italy; and pre- senting his master, previous to his departure, with two historical pictures, and a portfäit of his second wife Helen Forman; and receiving from Rubens in return a present of one of his finest horses. In 1619, when he was 20 years old, Vandyck left his native city for a residence in Italy, and first visited that emporium of colour, Venice, where he copied and stu- died with great attention, and imbibed the real spirit of the works of Titian. At Petworth, the seat of the earl of Egremont, are two portraits of sir James and lady Shir- ley, (who was a Persian lady,) in Persian costume, which exhibit, in the freedom and fulness of colour with which they are painted, the perfect understanding he had of the style of that great Venetian master. From Venice he went to Genoa, where his power was recognised, and his pencil employed, by the principal nobility in their por- traits, as well as by several churches snd convents, for which he painted historical pictures; and nothing is more astonishing in the history of the art, than the rapidity and facility with which so great a number of works was pro- duced by this extraordinary artist. He is reported to have hung up in his study, on his return from Italy, forty copies made by himself from pictures by Titian, though he was much engaged in original works during his re- sidence there. After some stay at Genoa, he went to Rome, and was there introduced to that patron of elegant literature, the cardinal Bentivoglio, who had been nun- cio from the pope in Flanders, and to whom, of course, his talents must have been already known. From this celebrated character he painted that prince of portraits, which for 'several years was an ornament of the gallery of the Louvre, but now is returned to its original station, the museum at Elorence. Nothing in painting has ever surpassed the life and vigour of the head in this surprising and agreeable picture. He painted some historical sub- jects for the cardinal, and also several portraits of distin- güished persons; but not uniting with his countrymen, then at Rome, in the Bentvogeh society, they rendered his residence there unpleasant to him, and he returned to Ge- noa, where he was caressed and honoured, and met with constant imployment. Whilst there, he was invited to Pa- lermo, to paint the portrait of Philibert, prince of Savoy, the viceroy of Sicily, and was engaged in several com- missions for the court; but the plague breaking out, obli- ged him to leave that place, and he soon after returned to Flanders. The reputation of his growing talents had led his coun- trymen to an anxious desire of witnessing his power, and several religious communities advanced to employ his pencil. His first public work was his celebrated picture painted for the church of the Augustines at Antwerp. For a time it adorned the walls of the Louvre, but is now restored to the church whence it was taken. The subject is St. Augustine in Ecstasy, supported by angels, with other saints; of which there is a print by De Jode. Of this performance, which procured him great reputa- tion, Rubens was orie of the most zealous admirers; but sir Joshua Reynolds observes, “that in some measure it disappointed his expectation: that it has no effect from the want df a large mass of light.” In justness to both pain- ter and critic, it must be observed, that as it was origi- nally painted by Vandyck, St. Augustine was dressed in white, and with the two angels that support him, formed a principal mass of light; but that the monks insisted upon their patron being dressed in black, and would not pay for the picture till it was so done. Commissions now came fast upon him, and most of the principal public edifices of Antwerp, Brussels, Gº 'all V A N D Y C.K. t and Mechlin, were embellished with the productions of isis pencil. About this time he painted that beautiful series of small portraits of the eminent artists.of his time, which, for character, for variety, and exquisite execution, remain unequalled. Several of them he etched himself, and the rest have been engraved by the best engravers of that day. One of his most excellent historical pro- ductions was painted for the church of the Recollects at Mechlin, which also paid a visit to the Louvre, but was returned with the rest of the spoil from Flanders. Its subject is the Crucifixion, and sir Joshua says of it, that, upon the whole, it may be considered as the finest of Vandyck’s works, and establishes his fame to the title of an historical painter.” The taste and ability thus diplayed by this great artist did not insure him from ill treatment by his contempo- raries, by whom he was accused of tameness and insipi- dity; and in addition to this, he endured a great mortifi- cation from the canons of the collegiate church at Cour- tray, for whom he painted the Elevation of the Cross, bestowing upon it all the power of his art. The picture being completed, it was sent to the place of its destina- tion, when, instead of receiving the due meed of praise for its extraordinary merit, it was pronounced by the chapter to be a detestable performance, and they treated the author of it as a miserable artist; and with difficulty he could procure payment for his picture. It was not till the picture had been seen and commended by several artists and connoisseurs, that they became sensible of their error; and then, to atone for such foolish and insea- sible conduct, they resolved to commission him to paint two more pictures for their church; but Vandyck, with becoming indignation, refused to waste his talents upon men so unworthy of regard, and so little capable to judge of works of art. Soon after this, he accepted an invitation from Frede- ric, prince of Orange, to visit the Hague; and there he painted the portrait of that prince, and those of his family, with many of the principal personages of the court. The patronage which it was understood was to be found at the English court, where Charles I, then reign- ed, induced Vandyck to visit England in 1629, when he lodged with his friend Geldorp, the painter; but had not the good fortune to attract the notice of his majesty. Disappointed, he returned to Antwerp, with intent to pass the remainder of his life there, when a portrait of sir Kenelm Digby, which he had painted, was shown to Charles, and he immediately gave orders for an invita- tion being sent to the painter to return; and accordingly in 1631 he did so, and was most graciously received by the king. On this second arrival, he was lodged at Blackfriars, at the king’s expense; and his majesty was so much de- lighted with his performances, that he often went by water to visit him, and see him paint; frequently sitting to him for his portrait, having others of his wife and children; and on the 5th of July, 1632, conferred upon him the honour of knighthood, and soon afterwards granted him an annuity of 200l. a-year for his life. Popularity and occupation now flowed in full tide upon him, and the rapidity of even his pencil could scarcely keep pace with the commissions he received, for portraits especially. There are few houses of the old nobility of the country wherein there are not to be found some pictures by Vandyck. In the king’s palaces, the portraits of Charles and his queen and family are nu- merous. One of a very fine quality adorns the Louvre. At lord Digby’s in Warwickshire, is a great number of his portraits. At Petworth, besides the two pictures mentioned above, painted at Venice, are eleven portraits by him, all of the Percy family, or their immediate friends. At Warwick Castle is the like number; and in each are works of the first-rate quality. At Wilton, the grandest of his pictures painted here adorns a magnifi- cent apartment: it is of William, earl of Pembroke, and his family. The style in which it is executed is large and grand, and of a much higher quality than his later productions exhibit, which, in comparison, have only delicacy to compete with the boldness and breadth of this. There are here also many others of his hand; but it would be an almost endless and a needless task to enumerate the pictures which he painted during the sixteen years he resided here, the greater part of which comprehended those of a large size. The prices he was paid confined them to the higher class, and for them only he wrought. For a half length he had 40l., and for a whole length 60l. This, which at that time was a large sum, and the facility of his execution, to- gether with his pension, enabled him to indulge a natu ral taste for splendour and luxury. He kept a splendid table, and often detained those who sat to him to dinner, both for Society, and the opportunity of studying their countenances, and for retouching their pictures after dinner. He was, however, indefatigable, as appears from the number of his works, which, though he died so young, are scarcely surpassed in number by those of Rubens. His practice was peculiar. Sir Peter Lely told Mrs. Beale, that Laniere the painter assured him, that he had sat seven entire days, morning and evening, to Vandyck, for his portrait; and that he would not let him look at the picture, till he was himself satisfied with it. He was addicted to pleasure, was fond of music, and treated musicians with liberality; was a generous patron of all ingenious men, and painted the portraits of many gratuitously. But he paid dear for his indulgence; his luxurious and sedentary life brought on the gout, and hurt his fortune; and he unwisely could not, like his master, resist the temptation of the time, the pursuit of the philosopher’s stone; in which perhaps, as Mr. Wal- pole says, he might have been encouraged by his friend sir Kenelm Digby. Towards the close of his life, the king bestowed on him the daughter of the unfortunate Hord Gowry (Maria Ruthven) for a wife; with whom he -acquired only honour and beauty, and by whom he left -one daughter, afterwards married to Mr. Stepney, who was an officer of the horse-guards on the re-establish- ment of the royal family. Soon after his marriage he revisited his native city, and from thence went to Paris, hoping to be employed in the decoration of the gallery of the Louvre; but was disappointed, in finding the commission given to Pous- sin, who had been brought from Rome expressly for this purpose. Vandyck then returned to England, and still emulous of his great master's renown, was ambitious of -being employed upon some great national work; and pro- posed to the king, by sir K. Digby, to paint the walls of the banquetting-house (of which the ceiling had already been adorned by Rubens) with the history and proces- sion of the order of the Garter;for which he asked 8000l.; a proposal far more agreeable to the taste than to the purse of the king; and if it had been accepted, twe events which soon after occurred, would have totally 2 N 2 prevented V A N f V A N prevented its completion, viz. the double triumph of death over the patron and the artist. The former indeed lived some years after the decease of the latter; but his political demise followed shortly upon that event, which occurred on the 9th December 1641, when he had only attained the age of 42. Though Vandyck produced many valuable works, as we have seen, in historical painting, yet it by no means appears to have been his forte; as he seldom exhibited much expression, but a tame sweetness of effect reigns in them. It is doubtless in portraiture that he stands most decidedly conspicuous, and he may be placed at least alongside of Titian: for if the palm of superiority be giv- en to the latter for his heads; the former must have equal praise for every other part of his pictures, and par- ticularly for the ordonnance of the whole. His better compositions are conspicuous for their unity and pro- priety; but his great quality is his perfect understanding of the nature of all the parts, the head, the hands, drape- ry, skies, &c. and the delightful union of tone and beau- ty of execution, which he never failed to give. In iden- tity of character he was not often conspicuous: perhaps the cardinal Bentivoglio is the most perfect exemplar; but sir Joshua Reynolds has superadded that invaluable quality to all that he might have acquired from the works of Vandyck or of Titian. VANDYck, PHILIP, known by the name of the little Vandyck, was born at Amsterdam in 1680, of a differ- ent family to that of sir Anthony, and was a disciple of Boonen, under whose tuition he remained till he had be- come almost capable of teaching his instructor. He painted small portraits, and from them obtained his cog- nomen; but was more successfully employed in painting conversation pieces, ladies at their toilettes, gay assem- blies, &c. which he composed and painted ingeniously. He died at the Hague in 1752. VANDYKE's Islands, in Geography, two islands, Great and Little, in the West Indies, situated to the north-west of Tortola. VANE, Sir HENRY, in Biografi.hy, a person of pecu- liar talents and disposition, who exhibited a conspicuous character during the period of the English common- wealth, was the eldest son of sir Henry Vane, of Hadlow in Kent, and Raby castle in Durham, seeretary and treasurer of the household to Charles I. He was born about the year 1612, educated at Westminster school, and at the age of sixteen admitted, as a gentleman-com- moner at Magdalen college, Oxford. Here he remain- ed for some time withoutmatriculation, of which he dis- approved; and having visited France and Geneva, he re- turned with an avowed disaffection to the liturgy and government of the English church, which no efforts of Bishop Laud were sufficient to overcome, although he was employed by the king for this purpose. In the year 1634 he joined a number of persons, who being made uneasy by the measures that were pursued at home, emigrated to New England; and being favourably received in that colony on account of his rank and talents, he was soon appointed governor of the province of Mas- 'sachusetts. Here he incurred odium by his patronage of Antinomianism; and having taken an active part in disseminating those sentiments with.regard to religion that occasioned contentions very injurious to the colony, he was excluded from his high office, and in conse- quence of this degradation, he returned privately to England in the year 1639. Experience having taught him wisdom, and having produced a change in his principles and temper, he mar- ried a lady of good family, and occupied the place of joint-treasurer of the navy with sir William Russel. De- voting himself to business, he was chosen representative for Hull in the parliament of April 1640, and the sub- sequent Long parliament. He was also so much in fa- vour with the royal party, that he was knighted by the king. His public conduct seems at this time to have justified the character given of him by lord Clarendon, who says, “he was a man of extraordinary parts, a plea- sant wit, a great understanding, which pierced into and discerned the purposes of other men with wonderful sagacity, whilst he had himself vultum clausum, that no man could make a guess of what he intended. He was of a temper not to be moved, and of rare dissimulation, and could comply when it was not reasonable to con- tradict, without losing ground by the condescension.” A crisis, however, was approaching, which required his taking a decided part; and accordingly he enlisted with those who were adverse to the court. On occasion of the trial of lord Strafford, he produced from his father’s papers evidence against him, which served in no small degree to produce his condemnation. He also carried up to the lords, the articles of archbishop Laud’s impeachment. In 1643, he was nominated one of the Assembly of Divines for the settling of church govern- ment: and he was appointed in the same year one of the parliamentary commissions for negociating a treaty with the Scotch. His persuasion induced the signature at Edinburgh of the Solemn League and Covenant; and in accomplishing this object, he overreached the Presby- terians, of that country by an article which established the existing form of religion in Scotland, but left ambi- guous the nature of the reform in the two other coun- tries. About this time he became sole treasurer of the navy, but without any view to his own emolument: for he gave up his own patent for life from the Jºing, and for an agent whom he substituted in his own place, he obtained a salary of 2000l. fier annum, the residue being brought to the public account. Of his religious principles and character at this time, lord Clarendon speaks in the fol- lowing terms: “Vane was a man not to be described by any character of religion, in which he had swallowed some of the fancies and extravagancies of every sect or faction; and was become (which cannot be expressed by any other language than was peculiar to that time) a man above ordinances, unlimited or unrestrained by any rules or bounds prescribed to other men, by reason of his per- fection. He was a perfect enthusiast, and without doubt did believe himself inspired, which so far corrupted his reason and understanding, that he did at some time be- lieve he was the person. deputed to reign over the saints upon earth for 1000 years.” In connection with the par- ty denominated Independents he opposed terms of peace, when he acted as one of the parliament’s commissioners at the treaty of Uxbridge in 1645, and when he nego- ciated in the Isle of Wight in 1648. Although he had from artifice or feeling no concern in the king's death, he was one of the council of state invested with Supreme power after that event. He was a steady adherent to the rupublican government, under which he occupied an im- portant station; and in 1641 he was one of the commis- sioners sent into Scotland for introducing the English government there, and for affecting an union between the two countries. On V A N V A N On this occasion he is represented by Burnet as hav- ing ſomented the division prevailing between two par- ties in the kirk, and as having discouraged all attempts to unite them, with a view of maintaining over them more easily temporal authority, whilst they disagreed among themselves. To Cromwell, in all his attemps to assume the Supreme power, he was a determined adver- sary; and on account of his efforts for this purpose, he was summoned before the council by Cromwell in 1656, and ordered to give security that he would not disturb the nation, and for his refusal he was for a short time imprisoned at Carisbrook castle; and though attempts were made to intimidate him by disputing his title to the Raby estate, he remained inflexible during the period of the Usurpation. In Richard’s parliament of 1659, he was a representative of the borough of Whitchurch in Hamp- shire, and was active in his endeavours for restoring the republican government, and his spirited speech for this purpose, on record, is said to have had no small effect in subverting the new phantom of single authority. After the revival of the Long parliament, he was nominated one of the committee of safety, and proposed a new model of government, of which it was a fundamental principle, that in the delegation of the supreme power from the People to their trustees, there were some points which could not be assumed by the latter; and of these he spe- cified the admission of any king or single person to the legislative or executive power, and the exercise of com- pulsion in matters of faith and worship. Baxter asserts, that Vane’s model was that of a “fanatic democracy;” and his notions have been as much reproached by Pres- byterian writers as by Episcopalians. Vane maintained his adhension to the republican cause, and prosecuted his efforts for supporting it, till the con- test was terminated by the Restoration. His conduct on this occasion, though he was not one of the regicides, caused his name to be inserted in the list of those who were excluded from the act of indemnity. Apprehend- ing no personal danger, he continued in his house at Hampstead, till he was taken into custody and committed to the Tower, as a person whom it was hazardous to permit to be at large. A petition, however, was presen- ted to the king by the Convention parliament in favour of him and Lambert, that they should be pardoned as to their lives, to which was returned a gracious answer. Nevertheless in July 1661, in the succeeding parliament, an order was issued by the house of commons, that both Vane and Lambert should be proceeded against accord- ing to law. Upon this order Vane was brought from his prison in the isle of Scilly, and committed to the Tower for trial. For his conduct after the death of Charles I., comprehending his active efforts in opposition to the present king, as a member of the council of state and a person in office, he was indicted of high-treason. In June 1662 he was put to the bar, and is said to have defended himself with ability and resolution, or, as his enemies say, with arrogance and insolence. Among other pleas, he urged that treason could only be commit- ted against a king de facto, and not de jure, which was the situation of Charles II: till the Restoration; and that he had in all changes adhered to the commons, as the foun- tain of all regal authority: a principle for which he had exposed himself to the tyranny of Cromwell, and for which he was now ready to undergo all the rigour of per- verted law and justice. Nevertheless he was found guil- ty, and sentenced to suffer the whole penalty adjudged to high-treason, which, however, was commuted for be- heading. It has been not unreasonably suggested, that though the king could not easily be defended for breach of his promise to the former parliament on this occasion, his death was a retaliation for the part he had acted on the impeachment of lord Strafford. On the 14th of June he was brought to the scaffold on Tower-hill, and though considered as a person possessing little natural courage, he behaved with wonderful composure and firmness. In his address to the spectators, whilst he justified himself on certain points that were construed to reflect upon the govern- ment and judges, he was rudely interrupted by the lieu- tenant of the Tower, who repeatedly ordered the trum: pets to sound that his voice might not be heard. He died about the 50th year of his age, and left one son. His Writings, chiefly on religious topics, were confused and obscure. Bishop Burnet says of him, “that though he sat up a form of religion of his own, yet it consisted ra: ther in a withdrawing from all other forms, than in any new or particular opinions or forms, from which he and his party were called “Seekers,’ and seemed to wait for some new and clearer manifestations. In these meetings he preached and prayed often himself, but with so pecu. liar a darkness, that though L have sometimes taken pains to see if I could find out a meaning in his words, yet I could never reach it. His friends told me he leaned to Origen's notion of an universal salvation of all, both of devils and the damned, and to the doctrine of preexis- tence.” As to his political conduct, it is observed by one of his biographers, that “though he employed craft and dis- simulation as his means, there seems no reason to doubt of his sincerity as to his ends, which appear to have been those of a visionary, but not of a selfish statesman. His enemies scarcely charge him with mercenary views, and his friends represent him as a real, though mistaken, lover of his country.” Clarendon. Ludl. Mem. Biog. Brit. Hume. Gen. Biog. VANE, in a Shih, is a thin slip of bunting hung to the mast-head, or some other conspicuous place, to show the direction of the wind. It is commonly sewed upon a wooden frame, called the stock, which contains two holes, by which to slip over the spindle, upon which it turns about as the wind changes. VANE, Dog, in Sea Language, is a small light, vane, formed of a piece of packthread of about two feet in length, upon which are fixed five or six thin stices of . cork stuck full of light feathers. It is usually fastened to the top of a staff, two yards high, which is placed on the top of the ship's side, on the quarter-deck, in order to show the direction of the wind to the helmsman, par- ticularly in a dark night, or when the wind is extremely feeble. Falconer. ty VANES, on Mathematical Instruments, are sights made to move and slide upon cross-staves, fore-staves, quadrants, &c. VANES, or Fanes, of Feathers. See FEATHER, VANES, Weather. See WEATHER. VANEs ºf Windmills. See WINDMILL, VANEERING. See VENEERING. VAN-EFFEN, Jp.STUs, in Biografiny, was born at. Utrecht in 1685, and losing his father during the course of his academical studies, he commenced the profession of an author for a subsistence. His first work, published, in 1711, was entitled “Le Misanthrope,” written after the model V A N V.A. N. innodel of the English-Spectator, which he continued till it amounted to two vols. 8vo. To the “Literary Journal,” established by a society of young persons at the Hague in 1713, he was a hiberal contributor; and the profits were assigned to him. The contributions to this Journal were examined by the whole society, so that every arti- : le was sanctioned by the judgment of the whole body. This was continued till the year 1718, when 'Van-liffen engaged in a new periodical paper, entitled “Bagatehle, ou Discours Ironiques,” designed to ridicule the vices and follies of the time. This publication failed of suc- cess. The author afterwards engaged in various literary undertakings, and agreed to continue the “Nouvelles Literaires,” when the prince of Hesse Philipstahl, in 1719, took him as a companion in a journey to Sweden. Of this tour he-published an account in 1726, in a second edition of his “ Misanthrope.” He afterwards occupied himself in translations, chiefly from the English; and at Leyden, where in 1724 he superintended the education of a young man at the university, he undertook to trans- Hate from Dutch to French Gerard Van Loon’s “ Me- dallic History of the United Provinces;” but a dispute occurring between him and the booksellers, he finished only two volumes. In 1725 he commenced a new peri- odical work, under the title of “ Nouveau Spectateur François,” of which twenty-nine sheets appeared. In 1727 he accompanied the count of Welderen, ambassa- dor from the States to the court of London, as his secro- tary, when he wrote an ode in French on the coronation of George II. In 1731 he began a work, entitled the “ Dutch Spectator,” and continued it till the whole amounted to 12 vols. 8vo. Van-Effen died in Septem- ber, 1731, at Bois-le-Duc, where he had for some years occupied the post of inspector of the magazines. He sustained the character of an ingenious and worthy man. Moreri. Gen. Biog. VANELLOE, in Botany. See VANILLA. VANELLUS, in Ornithology, a name given by many to the lapwing, more commonly known by the Iname cafiella. VANETTI, CLEMENTINo, in Biografhy, knight of the holy Roman empire, and lord of Villanova, was born at Roveredo in 1755; and being educated under the care of his uncle, after the death of his father, he became, by incessantly reading Plautus and Terence, so good a Latin scholar, that, in his 16th year, he wrote a Latin comedy, entitled “ Lampadaria;” and, in the follow- ing year, recited an inaugural oration in the Academy degli Agiati at Roveredo, in the true language of Plau- tus. Before the age of 22, he was elected secretary of this Academy, and he had improved his taste by a fami- liar acquaintance with the works of Cicero. In 1776 he defended Tiraboschi against the attack of the Spa- niard Serrano, for his censure of some passages in the epigrams of Martial; and the letter he published on this occasion, considered as the production of a young man 23 years of age, was much admired. Upon the death of his intimate friend, the abbé Zorzi of Venice in 1779, he paid an honourable tribute of respect to his memory by publishing, his life, and a collection of letters that had passed between them, and also an examination of a ques- tion suggested by d’Alembert, whether any one at pre- sent should venture to write Latin, which he decided in the affirmative. But Vanetti’s most humorous writing, in the Latin language, was a bitter satire on Cagliostro, who deluded the people at Roveredo, in 1788, by his pre- tended prophecies and miracles. Vanetti, in order to exc pose this juggler, wrote a small work in the manner of the book of Chronicles, and in the Latin style of the Vul- gate, entitled “Liber Memorialis de Cagliostro.” En- couraged by Betinelli and others, he became a classical writer in his native language, beginning with a well- written life of the younger Pliny. But his chief fame was derived from his “Observations on the Poems of Horace, with Imitations of that Poet,” which, with re- 'spect to matter and language, are said to exceed any thing of the kind in Italian. He also published fourteen dialogues in the manner of Lucian; and having tried his talents in various kinds of poetry, his “ Sermoni” in the true Horatian spirit are preeminent, and hence he ob- tained the name of the Italian Horace. Besides the re- putation which he acquired as a poet, he also excelled in crayon painting. To the noise and bustle of the worki he preferred the tranquillity of domestic life on his es- tate, which he compared to the Sabine farm of Horace, and never travelled farther from home than Verona, Mantua, or Venice; and he died, universally lamented, in his native city, of an inflammation of the lungs, in the 40th year of his age. The abbé Lorenzi published at Roveredo, in 1795, “Commentarium de Vita et Scriptis Clementini Vanetti,” from which the preceding account of him has been extracted. Gen. Biog. VAN-EYCK. See Eyck. VANGAC, in Geograft hy, a river of the island of Luçon, which runs into the Chinese sea, N. lat. 18° 45'. VANGEN, a town of France, in the department of -the Lower Rhine; 9 miles S. E. of 'Saverne.—Also, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne; 4 miles E. of Soleure. * ANGION ES, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of Belgic Gaul, and originally of Germany. According to Cluvier, they were bounded on the north and east by the Rhine, on the south by the Nemetae, and on the west by the Mediomatrices. V ANGOLE, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in Coimbetore; 5 miles N. of Aravacourchy. VAN-GOYEN, in Biography. See Goy EN. VANGS, in Sea Language, are a sort of braces to support the mizzen-gaff, and keep it steady. They are fixed on the outer end or peak, and reach downwards to the aftmost part of the ship’s side, where they are hooked and drawn tight, so as to be slackened when the wind is fair; and drawn in to windward, when it becomes unfa- vourable to the ship’s course. Falconer. VANG-TCHOU ANG, in Geography, a town of China, in Kiang-nan, on the river Hoang; 15 miles W. N.W. of Fong-yang. VANGUERIA, in Botany, a barbarous and intolera- ble name, made by Commerson out of the Madagascar appellation of this plant, Voa-vanguier. Von Rohr called the same genus Vavanga; which Wahl has un- willingly adopted, expressing at the same time a wish, that he could have dedicated the genus to professor Wittmann. We should now have taken advantage of this wish, had there not already been a VITMANNIA, which will appear in its proper place. Thus circum- -stanced, and without meaning, on this or any other oc- casion, to uphold such names, except for reprobation, we for the present here introduce Vangueria.—Juss. Gen. 206. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 976. Poir. in Lamarck JDict. ºf 8. 33 1. Lamarck Illustr. t. 159. Venten. Tabl. 586. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1. 20. (Vawanga; Vahi V A-N V A N Vah! Tr. of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Copenhagen, v. 2. part 1. 207.)—Class and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord, Rubiaceae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth superfor, of one-leaf, with five spreading; somewhat reflexed, permanent teeth. Cor. of one petal; tube bell-shaped, twice the length of the calyx, closed at the upper part with erect hairs; limb in five deep; ovate, acute, equal, spreading, at length re- flexed, segments, rather shorter than the tube. Stam. Filaments five, awl-shaped, very short, inserted between the segraents of the corolla; anthers heart-shaped, pointed, incumbent. Pist. Germen inferior, turbinate; style awl-shaped, rather longer than the tube, inclining to-one side; stigma thick, obtuse, furrowed, two-lipped. Peric. Berry globose, coriaceous, with a scar at the top, containing four or five seeds, imbedded in pulp. Seeds elliptical, compressed, with a lateral scar, and a small incomplete tunic, of two mermbranous, lanceolate, fal- cate valves, attached to the scar. Ess. Ch. Corolla bell-shaped, five-cleft, hairy within. Stigma two-lipped, furrowed. Berry inferior, coriace- ous. Seeds four or five, each with a lateral bivalve tunic. 1. V. edulis. Madagascar Medlar. Willd. n. 1. Vahl Symb. v. 3. 36. (V. Commersonii; Jacq. Hort. Şchoenbr. v. 1. 20, t. 44. Vavanga edulis; Vahl Tr. of Nat. Hist. Soc. of Copenh. v. 2. pt. 1. 208. t. 7.)—Ga- thered in the isle of Bourbon, by Commerson, whose specimens are before us. Cultivated in Guadaloupe and Santa Cruz, for the sake of its eatable fruit. Von Rohr, who communicated this phant to professor Vahl, thought it a native of China, but Commerson was told it came from Madagascar, and was there called Voa-vanguier, or Woo-wangi. Jacquin mentions it as flowering every year in the stove at Schoenbrun, but never ripening fruit. The stem is shrubby, six feet, or more, in height, with round, smooth, opposite branches, slightly quad- rangular when young. Leaves opposite, on short stalks, deciduous, elliptical, acute, entire, smooth, five or six inches long, and two or three broad, with one central rib, and many transverse ones connected by reticulated veins; paler beneath. Stiftulas intrafoliaceous, triangu- lar, pointed, in pairs connected at the base, embracing the branch above the footstalks, and much resembling those of Strychnos, Panicles lateral, opposite, cymose, many-flowered, downy, much shorter than the leaves, springing flom between the insertion of last-year’s foot- stalks. Flowers greenish-yellow, smaller than lily of the valley, frequently four-cleft. Fruit the size of a targe gooseberry, with a leathery, or somewhat woody, ÇOat. V A NHALL, John, in Biografhy, an instrumental composer of great and original genius, was born at Vi- enna in 1740. previous to his symphonies, which were composed in 1767, and seen circulated in-MS. all over Europe. The duke of Dorset, we believe, first brought them to Eng- land about the year 1771. Several excellent sympho- nies of the Manheim school had been previously pub- lished by Bremner, which introduced us very agreeably to the new style of German symphony founded by the elder Stamitz; but till we were acquainted with the Symphonies of JHaydn, the spirited, natural, and unaf- feeted style of Vanhall excited more attention at our concepts than any foreign music which we had imported for a long time. They were admirably played at the We know not what he had published: Pantheon concerts, when led by La Motte, Giardini, and the elder Cramer. He composed too much perhaps, and for too great a variety of instruments; but his sym- phonies, quartets, and other productions for violins, cer. tainly deserve a place among the first productions, in which unity of melody, pleasing harmony, and a free and manly style are preserved. s VAN-HUYSUM. See Huysumſ. VANI, a name of the Hindoo goddess Saraswati; which see. This name is also given to Agni or Pava- ka, regent of fire; when, however, it is usually written Vahni, VAN1, Cafe, in Geografhy, a cape on the N. coast of the island of Milo. N. lat. 36° 46'. E. long. 24° 20'. VANIAMBADDY, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; 1 12 miles E. of Seringapatam. N. lat. 12° 41'. E. long. 78o 45’. VANJEMSOAR, a town of Hindoostan, in Golcon- da; 2 1 miles S.W. of Damapetta. VANIERE, JAMEs, in Biography, a learned Jesuit, was born in 1664, at Causses, in the diocese of Beziers, Languedoc, and having studied at the Jesuits’ college at Beziers, entered into the society in 1680. His poetic talents were exhibited by two pieces, one entitled “Stag- na,” during his regency at the college of Tournon; and another entitled “ Columbae,” at Toulouse: and his cha- racter as a poet was established by his “Praedium Rus- ticum,” in sixteen books, on the subject of a farm, in imi- tation of Virgil’s Georgics. The most complete edition of this work is that of Paris, in 1756. Vaniere was suc- cessively professor and rector in the schools of his order at Montpelier, Toulouse, and Auch, and died at Toti- louse in 1739. His other works were a volume of “Opuscula,” consisting of eulogics on moral topics, epistles, odes, epigrams, &c.; a “Dictionary of Poetry,” in Latin, quarto, a work in high estimation, and abridged for the use of students; and a “Dictionary, Latin and French,” which he began, but did not live to finish. For his encouragement in his studies, the king allowed him a pension. Moreri. Nouv. Dict. Hist, Gen. Biog. VANIERIA, in Botany, received its name from Loureiro, in memory of father James Vanière, a French Jesuit, who was born in 1664, and died in 1739; cele- brated for a poem on rural life, in which various plans are beautifully described.—Loureir. Cochinch. 564.— Class and order, Monoecia Pentandria. Nat. Ord. Ur- ticae, Juss. * Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth in four deep, ovate, fleshy, erect, converging segments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments scarcely any; anthers five, inserted into the calyx below its middle, of two kidney-shaped, compres- sed, peplucid lobes. Female, on the same common receptacle, Cal. as in the male. Cor. none. Pist. Germen superior, round- ish, compressed; style capillary, very slender, the length of the calyx; stigma simple. Peric. none, except the permanent juicy calyx. Seed solitary, lenticular, smooth, tipped with the permanent style. Common Re- ceptacle ovate, bearing from ten to twenty flowers, crowding each other into an angular shape, and mostly confluent, forming a roundish, compound, fleshy berry, tubercular externally, with small intermediate spaces. Ess. Ch. Male, Common Receptacle many-flowered. Calyx fleshy, in four deep segments. Corolla none. Female, on the same receptacle. Calyx like the male. Style one. Seed one; enveloped in the pulpy calyx. l j tº & V. A N V A N 1. V. Cochinchinensis. Cày vang lá of the Cochin- 'chinese.--Stem prickly. Leaves alternate.—Native of thickets in Cochinchina, in which country it serves for the smaller kinds of fences. Stems shrubby, erect, nu= merous, branched, round, smooth, three feet high, beset with many long straight prickles. Leaves ovato-lanceo- late, entire, smooth. Fruit roundish, about eight lines in diameter, very red, sweet, eatable, on simple axillary twin stalks. 2. V. chinensis. —Stern without prickles. Leaves tufted.—Native of bushy places about Canton. A shrub fifteen inches high, erect, branched. Leaves lanceolate, entire, smooth, collected into tufts. Flower a round head, on a long, simple, solitary, erect, axillary stalk. Common Recefutacle scaly. Loureiro never met with any female flowers, and therefore conceived that this species might be dioecious. We have no acquaintance with any thing answerable to the above descriptions. The genus seems very near Morus. VANIESSA, or Devil's Key, in Geografthy, a small island in the Spanish Main, near the Mosquito shore. N. lat. 14° 5'. W. long. 82° 35'. VANILLA, in Botany, a name of Spanish origin, or at least very common among the Spaniards in South America, adopted by Plumier as generic. Though barbarous, it may for its sound be tolerated; and we have little doubt that whiters of the Augustan age would have adopted such, had they, like Caesar, met with them in describing any new country. However this may be, we merely yield unwillingly to the example of writers of the first botanical authority, who have now established this name, and we should greatly have pre- ferred Mr. Salisbury’s appellation of Myrobroma.- Plum. Gen. 25. t. 28. Juss. 66. Swartz Ind. Occ. 1513. Act. Nov. Upsal. v. 6. 66. t. 5. f. 1. Schrad. Journ. v. 2. 208. t. 1. f. 1. Schrad. Neues Journ. v. 1. 82. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4, 121. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 219.-Class and order Gynandria Monandria. Nat. 6)rd. Orchideae. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth superior, of three nearly di- rect, lanceolate, equal, coloured leaves, deciduous. Cor. Petals two, lanceolate, of the size and colour of the ca- lyx. Nectary a lip, proceeding from the lower part of the style, convoluted at the base, dilated at the margin, without a spur, falling off with the petals. Stam. Anther a hemispherical, moveable, terminal, deciduous lid, of two cells, attached by its posterior edge to the top of the style; masses of pollen globular, granulated. Pist. Ger- men inferior, elongated, nearly cylindrical; style erect, semicylindrical; stigma convex, towards the top of the style, in front. Peric. Capsule elongated, slightly trian- gular, fleshy, of one cell. . Seeds very numerous, lenti- cular, destitute of a tunic, imbedded in pulp. . . Ess. Ch. Calyx-leaves direct, slightly spreading. Lip convoluted at the base, without a spur; spreading at the border. Anther a terminal deciduous lid. Capsule linear-oblong, fleshy. Seeds imbedded in pulp, without a tunic. & 1. V. aromatica. Aromatic Vanilla, Vainilla, or Va- nelloe. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (V. flore viridi et albo, fructu nigricante; Plum. Ic. 183, t. 188. V. maxima; Merian Surin. t. 25. Epidendrum Vanilla; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1347.)—Leaves ovate-oblong, ribbed. Calyx and petals undulated. Lip acute. Capsule nearly cylindri- cal, very long.—Native of South America. Stem para- 'Húng hòang Xiong of the Chinese. . purple. sitical, climbing by means of simple, fleshy, fibrous, soli- tary radicles from each joint. Leaves a span long, suc- culent, as thick as those of houseleek. Flowers large, variegated with green, and white. Fruit eight or ten inches long, acquiring, after it is gathered, a peculiar and delicious fragrance, like the flowers of Orchis migra, and some others of that family; on which account the Vanilla is used to perfume chocolate, and becomes a valuable article of commerce. g 2. V. angustifolia. Narrow-leaved J apan Vanilla. Willd. n. 2. (Epidendrum Vanilla g; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1348. Angurèk Warnã; Kaempf. Amoen. 867. t. 869. f. 2.)— Leaves linear-lanceolate. Calyx and petals flat. Lip acute.—Native of Japan. By Kaempfer's account this. is a parasitical climber like the last, and agrees with that in the colours of its flower, except being dotted with Nothing is said concerning the fruit. 3. V. claviculata. Tendril-bearing Vanilla. Swartz Ind. Occ. 1515. Willd. n. 3. (Cereo affinis scandens planta aphylla, &c.; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 160. t. 224. f. 3, 4.)—Leaves lanceolate, acute, concave, rigid, recurved. Calyx and petals flat. Capsules somewhat triangular. —Native of woods, on a very dry calcareous soil, in the mountainous inland parts of Jamaica, Hispaniola, &c. flowering in July. It is vulgarly called Green-with, and the negroes use a decoction of the whole plant for syphilitic complaints. The stem climbs to the height of twenty or thirty feet, and is swelled, as if jointed, at the insertion of each leaf, and tendril-like radicle. Leaves sessile, an inch long. Flowers large, white, in axillary clusters. Fruit long and large, fleshy, with black shin- ing seeds. Swartz. The figure of the flower in Swartz's plate belongs to this species. * 4. V. filanifolia. Fragrant Vanilla. Ait. n. 2. Andr. Repos. t. 538. (Myrobroma fragrans; Salisb. Parad. t. 82.)—Leaves oblong-lanceolate, flat, slightly striated. Calyx and petals even. Lip fringed, abrupt.—Native of the West Indies, said to have been introduced into our stoves by the present Duke of Marlborough. In size this rivals the first species, but the leaves are not so thick; the calyx and fetals are not undulated, nor the lift pointed. We have no account of the fruit. The jlowers are said to be very fragrant, especially at night. Mr. Salisbury is erroneously charged, in Andrew’s work, with having confounded this and the W. aroma- tica. . The species of this genus are far from being all known. or understood. The plant which produces the fruit called vanilla, or banilla by the Spaniards, or the efidendrum vanilla of Linnaeus, has a trailing stem, somewhat like the com- mon ivy, but not so woody, which fastens itself to any tree that grows near it by small fibres or roots produced at every joint; these attach themselves to the bark of the tree; and by them the plants are often nourished, when they are cut or broken off, from the root, at a conside- rable height from the ground, as is the case with the iyy in England. The leaves are as large as those of the common laurel, and are produced alternately at every joint. It rises to the height of eighteen or twenty feet, and the flowers are of a greenish-yellow mixed with white, which, when fallen, are succeeded by the fruit, which is eight or ten inches long. The sort which is manufactured, grows not only in the bay of Campeachy, but also at Carthagena, at the Caraccas, Honduras, Darien, and Cayān, at all which * * places V A N WAN places the fruit is gathered and preserved; but it is rare- iſ found in any of the English, settlements, though it might be easily propagated in them: for the shoots are so full of juice, that they will continue fresh, out of the ground, for several months. s & When these plants are intended for propagation in the warm parts of America, nothing more is required than to make cuttings of three or four joints in length, which should be planted close to the stems of trees in low marshy places, and the ground about them kept clear of weeds. The method used to preserve the fruit is, when it turns of a yellow colour, and begins to open, to gather it, and lay it in small heaps to ferment two or three days, in the same manner as is practised for the cocoa pods; then they spread them in the sun to dry; and when they are about half dried, they flat them with their hands, and afterwards rub them over with the oil of palma Christi, or of the cocoa; then they expose them to the sun again to dry, and afterwards they rub them over with oil a se- cond time; then they put them in small bundles, covering them with the leaves of the Indian reed to preserve them. These plants produce but one crop of fruit in a year, which is commonly ripe in May, fit for gathering, for they do not let them remain on the plants to be perfectly mature. When they are about half changed yellow, they esteem them better for keeping than when tho- roughly ripe; at which time the fruit splits. While the fruit is green it affords no remarkable scent, but as it ri- pens it diffuses a most grateful aromatic smell; but when it begins to open, the birds attack them, and de- vour the seeds greedily. The fruit which is brought to Europe is of a dark- brown colour; wrinkled on the outside, and full of a vast number of black seeds, like grains of Sand, of a pleasant smell, like balsam of Peru. This fruit is only used in England as an ingredient in chocolate, to which it gives an agreeable flavour to some palates, though it is disagreeable to others; but the Spa- nish physicians use it in medicine, and esteem it grateful to the stomach and brain, good for expelling wind, for provoking urine, resisting poison, and curing the bite of venomous animals. Miller’s Gard. Dict. The vanillas, or vanilloes, have an unctuous aromatic taste, and a fragrant smell, like that of some of the finer balsams heightened with musk. They are used chiefly in perfumes: scarcely ever among us in any medical in- tention: though they should seem to deserve a place among the principal medicines of the nervous class. By distillation, they impregnate water strongly with their fragrance, but give over little or nothing with pure spi- rit. By digestion, spirit totally extracts their smell and taste; and in great measure covers or suppresses the smell. VANINI, LUCILIo, in Biografthy, a reputed atheist, was born about the year 1585, at Taurosano, in the dis- trict of Otranto, and kingdom of Naples. He studied philosophy and theology at Rome, where he changed his baptismal name for “Julio Cesare,” and completed his education at Naples and Padua, comprehending medi- cine, law, and astronomy. Possessing himself unfortu- nately of the works of Cardan and Pomponazzi, he im- bibed their reveries; which, with the philosophy of Aris- totle and Averroes, and the delusions of astrology, con- tributed to complete what may be called the confusion of his mind. Having entered into orders, and began to Vol. XXXVIII. preach, his discourses were a medley of singular notions, which neither he nor any one else could understand. With a view of propagating his opinions, he travelled into Ger- many, the Netherlands, France, and England, in which latter country he was for a short time imprisoned, on ac- count of his theological disputations. At Geneva, where he set up a school of philosophy, he was suspected of unsound and dubious faith, and therefore removed to France, passing some years at Lyons and at Paris. At this time, he was so far from being willing to acknowledge his desertion of the Catholic faith, that he proposed to the apostolic nuncia at Paris to write an apology for the council of Trent. In 1615 he published at 1.yons his “Amphitheatrum aeternae Providentiae, Divino-magi- cum, Christiano-physicum, Astrologico-catholicum, ad- versus veteres Philosophos, Atheos, Epicureos, Peripa- teticos et Stoicos,” which was not suspected of Atheism, and which indeed contains every thing incompatible with atheistical principles. In the following year he pub- lished at Paris another work, entitled “De admirandis Naturae Reginae Deacque Mortalium Arcanis,” which was printed with a privilege; but on a closer examination of its tendency, it was publicly burnt by a decree of the Sorbonne. As the author of this work ascribes to his goddess, Nature, attributes which belong only to the Su- preme Being, he is chargeable with the same kind of atheism, that was maintained by some ancient sects of philosophers. He was likewise accused of stating argu- ments against religion, to which his replies were so un- satisfactory, as to furnish ground for suspicion that he designed to favour the cause of infidelity. Being under a necessity of qitting Paris, he withdrew in 1617 to Tou- louse, where he taught medicine, philosophy, and theo- logy; but there it was discovered, that he availed himself of his opportunities for general instruction to dissemi- nate his impious and atheistical opinions; he was tried, and being found guilty, was condemned to have his tongue cut out, and then to be burnt alive. It is said, that on his examination, when he was asked if he believ- ed in God, he took up a straw, and replied, tº this is suf- ficient to convince me of the existence of a Creator,” and that he afterwards made a long discourse on Providence. However, after his condemnation, he is said to have thrown off the mask, and to have uttered horrid impieties. He suffered death in 1619, (in 1629, according to Moshiem,) at the age of 34, and on his me- mory has been entailed every kind of reproach which could have been suggested by a detestation of his doc- trines. But Moshiem says, “that several learned and respectable writers consider this unhappy man rather as a victim to bigotry and envy, than as a martyr to impiety and atheism; and maintain that neither his life nor his writings were so absurd or blasphemous as to entitle him to the character of a despiser of God and religion.” An Apology for Vanini was published in Holland in 1712, by Peter Frederick Arp, a learned lawyer. Moreri. Mosheim, vol. v. VANISHING FRActions, are fractions in which, by giving a certain value to the variable quantity or quan- tities entering into them, both numerator and denomi- nator become zero, and consequently the fraction itself is then #. The idea of fractions of this kind first originated about the year 1702, in a contest between Varignon and Rolle, two French mathematicians of some eminence, ºws the principles of the differential calculus, of V A N VA N of which the latter was a strenuous opposer; and amongst other arguments against the truth of the doc- trine which had then been recently introduced, he pro- posed an example of drawing a tangent to a certain curve, at the point where the two branches intersect each other; and as the fractional expression for the subtan- gent, according to that method, had both its numerator and denominator equal to zero, or 0, he regarded such a result as absurd, and adduced it as a proof of the falla- cy of this mode of solution. But the mystery was soon after explained by John Bernouilli; and upon a renewal of the dispute, still farther by Saurin, who showed that the fraction in the case here mentioned had a real value. These fractions were also the cause of a violent contro- versy between Waring and Powell in 1760, when these gentlemen were candidates for the mathematical profes- sorship at Cambridge: Waring maintaining that the ... acº — ac e - fraction T. when x is 1, equal to 4; and Powell, Or ac — * Y rather Maseres, who is commonly supposed to have con- ducted the dispute on the part of the latter, that it was equal to 0, or indeed that it could have no value what- ever: and it must be acknowledged that the same diffe- rence of opinion relative to this kind of fractions still exists in all its force. Woodhouse, in his “Principles of Analytical Calculation,” in treating of these quanti- 2? – n° JC + to find JC - Q. the value of it, when ac = a, observes, that the significa- tion of this expression is, that ac” – a”, is to be divided by ac — a, and the result of that division is a + a, or putting a = a, it becomes a + 'a, or 2a. This result, however, he remarks, is no direct and natural conse- quence arising from the principles of calculation, but, on the contrary, it is a result arbitrarily obtained, by ex- tending a rule, and observing a certain order in the pro- cess of calculation. ties, after assuming the simple case of 3:2 — a 2 - ſº To the question, what does become when ac 2 — te . Cl a2 = a, the obvious and local answer is —, and the - Q. question is, whether in this form it will admit of any fur- ther reduction. It is true, if we operate upon this quan- tity according to the rules laid down in other apparent- * a? — a” * Q. = a + a = 2 a; but ly similar cases, we obtain a – here is evidently an extension given to a rule beyond what was first intended; for this rule was instituted for operating on real quantities, whereas in this case, we have employed it on quantities having no value what- ever, being in fact the division of 0 by 0, for which ab- stractedly no rule can be given. This, however, is not a case peculiar to these fractions. It is to the same source we must attribute the introduction of the nega- tive symbol, and all the mysteries attendant upon it, as well as to every kind of imaginary quantity. In vol. i. p. 219, of Bonnycastle’s Treatise of Algebra, we have the following, rule for finding the value of wa- nishing fractions. - & 1. If both the terms of the given fraction be rational, divide each of them by their greatest common measure; then, if the hypothesis which is found to reduce the ori- ginal expression to the form # be applied to the result, it will give the true value of the fraction under conside- Tatl OI). - , - 2. When any part of the fraction is irrational, observe what the unknown quantity is equal to, when the nume- rator and denominator both vanish, and put it equal to that quantity + and – i, then if this be substituted for the unknown quantity, and the roots of the surds be ex- tracted to a sufficient number of places, the result, when i is put equal to 0, will give the true value of the frac- tion. From which rule the author obtains the following results; viz. - ac? — a” 1. = 2 a, when ac =a. JC - (t. ~ ac — 25 2. I = 4, when ac = 1. 6 (ac — J/ a 3- 3. **º-yº, when r=a. Jº - (Z - achi — ath - 4. = m a”T", when ac = a. 3C - Q. See Bonnycastle's Algebra, Woodhouse’s Principles of Analytical Calculation, and Barlow’s Dictionary. VANISI, in Geography, a town of Turkish Arme- nia; 21 miles W. of Akalzike. VAN-LAER, in Biography. See BAMBoccio. VANLOO, CARLo, was the son of an artist little known, and was born at Nice in 1705. For some time he resided at Rome, and studied under Benedetto Luti. In 1723 he went to Paris, where he gained the first prize for an historical painting, and was employed with his elder brother, John Baptist Vanloo, in repairing the paintings of Primaticcio, at Fontainbleau. In 1727 he again visit- ed Italy, and afterwards passed some time at the coprº of Turin, where he painted a series of pictures from Tasso. On his return to his native country in 1734, he was admitted into the academy, the king conferred upon him the order of St. Michael, and appointed him his principal painter; and he repaid these compliments by his assiduity and his ability. He had acquired by his studies in Italy more correctness than his countrymen generally possessed, and he certainly prevented the French school from running farther into the affected style of Coypel and De Troyes, and yet his style can only be called loose and mechanical, with little relish of the higher beauties of art. He died in 1765, at the age of sixty. VANLoo, Mad., the daughter of Somis, the great vio- linist of Turin, concert-master to the king of Sardinia, and wife to the celebrated painter Vanloo of Paris, was born in 1710, and in 1726 she was thought the best singer of her time. We have seen a beautiful print of Mad. Somis, from a painting of Vanloo previous to her marriage. After her nuptials, she settled at Paris, and was living there in 1754. The first wife of the elder Cramer, the excellent performer on the violin, and leader of a band, was a daughter by this marriage; which accounts for her good taste and captivating manner of singing to her own accompaniment on the pedal harp. She was a most accomplished and elegant woman, and we never heard any thing more pleasing than her per- formance. º VAN-MALDER, concert-master and chamber-mu- sician to prince Charles at Brussels, and leader of the band V A N V.A. N. band at that theatre; a composer of spirited and pleas- ing symphonies, which were long in favour at our na- tional theatres. He composed a comic opera, “La Ba- garre,” 1754, for the Italian theatre at Paris, and died at Brussels in 1771. & VAN-MANDER, a painter and author, was born at Meulebeke, near Courtray, in 1548, of a noble family, and received an education suited to his rank. His tal- ents developed themselves at an early period of his life, and particularly a disposition to painting; and he was placed under the tuition of Lucas de Heere; afterwards he became a disciple of Peter Vlerick, an historical painter of some eminence at Courtray, and finished his education in art by a journey to Italy, where he studied for three years. From thence, after painting several pic- tures, he went to Vienna, accompanied by Spranger, whose friendship he had cultivated, and there received a pressing invitation to enter the service of the empe- ror; but love for his native country prevailed, and thither he returned. He then experienced much encourage- ment, and was in possession of full employment, when the wars in the Low Countries prevented his enjoyment of it. He took refuge in Haerlem, and there with Goltzius founded an academy. Van-Mander united with the talents of a painter that of a poet, and compos- ed tragedies and comedies, several of which were acted with success, with decorations painted by himself; and we are indebted to him for a very useful history of the painters of antiquity and of his own country. He died at Amsterdam, in 1606. • 2 VANNABUS, Lat., VANNEo, STEFFANo, Ital., the name of an Augustine monk, born at Ricanati, a small town in the March of Ancona and Ecclesiastical State, was music director at Ascoli, who published at Rome in 1553, Small folio, a most ample treatise on music, in which he has inserted all that preceding books on the subject contained. - There is nothing that was new in this at the time of its publication; but no one book then published contains half its contents. Walther has given a long list of the divisions and subdivisions of this work, which is written in Latin, and which, perhaps, is all that will ever be read by those who may obtain possession of the book, which is now become very scarce. VANNE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Yonne, near Sens. VANNEN, a small island in the North sea, on the coast of Norway. N. lat. 70° 10'. E. long. 19° 44'. VANNES, a sea-port town of France, and capital of the department of the Morbihan, at the union of two small rivers, which form a harbour in the lake Morbi- han; before the revolution, the see of a bishop. The principal commerce is in corn, bar-iron, and fish. It has two suburbs, one of which is larger than the town itself. In 1800, the royalists, under Georges, were de- feated by the republicans, under Brune; 13 posts N.W. of Nantes. N. lat. 47° 39'. W. long. 2° 40'. VANNES, La, a town of France, in the department of the Ardèche; 6 miles S.W. of Joyeuse. VANNI, FRANCEsco, Cavaliere, in Biografthy, was the son of a painter of little celebrity at Vienna, who died whilst he was very young, and was born in 1563. He went to Rome when he was about sixteen, and en- tered the school of Giovanni de Vecchi, and became an imitator of Baroccio. He also went to Parma to draw from the same fount as Baroccio, viz. the works of Cor- regio and Parmegiano. He was invited to Rome to as- sist in adorning St. Peter’s, and there he painted his Simon Magus, which yet, though much injured, attests his capacity. For this performance Clement VIII. con- ferred upon him the order of Christ. He also painted several other pictures for public edifices in that city; but his best performances are at Sienna, as his Marriage of St. Catharine, in the church of Il Refugio; and S. Raimondo walking on the Sea, in the Dominicans; which is considered the finest work in the city. He died at Sienna in 1610, at the age of forty-seven, leaving a son, Raffaelle Vanni, then only thirteen, who afterwards be- came a painter, and imitated the works of Pietro Cor- tona. He became a member of the academy of St. Luke in 1655. * . w VANNICUM REGNUM, in Ancient Geografihy, a kingdom of European Sarmatia, according to Pliny. Tacitus reports that it was the kingdom of Vannius, which Drusus assigned as a portion to the Suevans, when he fixed their abode on the Danube, between Marus and Cusus. VANNING-Shovel, among Miners, an instrument used for washing the ores of any metal, after being re- duced to powder, by which to discover the richness and other qualities of the ore. See Shoad, TIN, and VAN. t - r VANNUCCI, in Biography. See Andrea del SAR- To, and PERUGINo. VAN-OORT. See Ooſtt. VAN-OOST. See Oost. VAN-ORLAY. See, ORLAY. VAN-OSTADE. See OSTADE. VANOUISH, a disease in sheep, which has often the titles of fining and daising given to it by shepherds. It is described as most severe among young sheep by some, and as, in a great measure, confined to some par- ticular districts in the western portion of the north part of the island, where the land is very coarse, hard, dry, and heathery. It is said that it constantly fixes on the best of the flock, and that although they continue to feed most greedily, they daily pine away to a mere skeleton. But that it is fortunately not a disease that is attended with great danger, as on removing them to soft grassy pastures, especially such as have been recently limed, they almost immediately recover, and never fail, in fu- ture, to become excellent and remarkably healthy sheep: —that although, in regard to the gradual wasting of the animal, this disease has some resemblance to the rot in its nature and cause, it is directly the reverse:—that it arises from an excess of moisture, is a disease of debility, and is characterised by extreme thinness of the blood; while in this, or the vanquish, on the contrary, the condi- tion of the animal is too high, its blood too thick, and its pasture too arid, dry, and parched. Others, however, describe it in so different a manner, that it scarcely appears to be the same disease. On peat-moss lands much exposed to the north-east, in cold moist seasons, where sheep-farmers have not the com- mand of drier sounder pastures, on which the sheep can be turned in the autumn and winter months, the young sheep are liable to be attacked by the vanquish, which consumes them entirely away. This malady has its seat, as is supposed by practical shepherds, chiefly in the blood and bones: but it seems, in a little time, to spread over the whole system, which becomes debilitated and emaciated. Cold and moisture are said to assist in bring- ing it on, and also to aggravate the appearances; but 2 O 2 the V A N V A P the principal fault must, it is believed, be in the mossy land. The mosses become the earliest common pastures for sheep in these places in the spring season, but some part of the food they supply is dry, wiry, and unpalata- ble; and the heath less kindly and grateful to the sheep than that on dry mooryland on gravel, being often scan- ty, woody, and rigid. The excess of moisture, too, in them may probably, it is thought, affect the qualities and healthiness of the heath, as food for sheep. Besides, there is in such mosses a greater proportion of the cross- leaved sort than is found on dry sheep-walks; and it is thought by many that sheep do not relish it so well as the common kind, when the shoots are young. From these accounts, it would seem that the true na- ture of the cornplaint is not yet well understood, but it is probably some defect in the lacteal organs, by which a due supply of nourishment is prevented from being taken up, the consequence of which is a state of atrophy and emaciation in the animal. - The remedies which have been chiefly depended up- ôn in these cases by sheep-farmers, are those of either removing the sheep into fresh grassy lands, or the change of them from the peaty pasture to one that is sweet and dry, during the autumn and winter. The lat- ter, it is said, not only proves a cure of the disease, but wholly prevents it. In some cases, medicines of the mild stimulating balsamic kind might perhaps be used with benefit. VANRHEEDIA, in Botany, Plum. Gen. 45. t 18. See RHEEDIA. VANS les Dames, or Vanaut, in Geógrafthy, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 12 miles N.E. of Vitry le Français. - VANSIRE, in Zoology, a species of weasel wit short ears; the hair brown at the roots, barred above ‘with black, and ferruginous; the tail of the same colour; the length from nine to about fourteen inches, and the tail nearly ten. This, animal inhabits Madagascar. VANSOMER, PAUL, in Biografthy, a portrait paint- •er, born at Antwerp in 1576; he for a while resided at Amsterdam, and with his brother Bernard practised his art there with success. About 1605 or 1606, he visited England, and was very much employed here; as many of his portraits are to be found in the houses of our nobili- ‘ty. He had the honour to be employed to paint king James I., and his queen, Anne of Denmark. He died at 'about the age of 45, and was buried in St. Martin’s, as appears by the register, January 5, 1621. - VANSTOWN, in Geography, a town of the Chero- ‘Kees, on the river. Alabama. VAN-SWIETEN, in Biography. See Sw1ETEN. VANT, or VAUNT. See VAN. VANTANEA, in Botany, Juss. 434, a name of Aub- let’s, which Schreber, according to correct rule, could not retain. See LEMNIscIA. - - VANT-CHIN, in Geography, a city of China, of the "second rank, in Quang-si; 1147 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 23° 1'. E. long. 106° 5'1'. VAN-TIEN, a city of China, bf the second rank, in Yun-nan; 1295 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 24° 29'. E. Hong. 109° 14'. f VAN-UDEN, Lucas, in Biografthy, a landscape painter, born at Antwerp in 1595. He was principally his own instructor, and cultivated his talents by an assi- duous attention to nature, and studying the landscapes of Rubens, whom he imitated, and who employed him to Paint on the back-grounds of his pictures; which he did With so much congeniality of style, that they appear to be the work of the same hand. He lived to the age of 65. He had a brother, Jacques-Van-Uden, also a land- Scape painter, but inferior to him. - " * VANVEY, in Geografiky, a town of France, in th department of the Côte d'Or; 6 miles E.S.E. of Châtil- lon-sur-Seine. VANZE, a town of Naples, in Basilicata; 10 miles S.E. of Venosa. --- VAPINCUM, in Ancient Geography, Gah, a town of Gallia Narbonnensis, between Caturigae and Alabons. VAPORARIUM, or VApoRosum Balneum, Wahour- Bath, in Chemistry, a term applied to a chemist’s bath, or heat, in which a body is placed, so as to receive the fumes of boiling water. * The balneum vañorosum consists of two vessels, dis- Posed over one another in such manner, as that the va- pour raised from the water contained in the lower, heats the matter enclosed in the upper. The vapour-bath is very commodious for the distilling of odoriferous waters, and the drawing of spirit of wine. On this subject, see BATH, in Chemistry. - - We also use the term vañour-bath, when a sick per- son is made to receive the vapours arising from some li- quid matter placed over a fire. Many contrivances have been proposed for this pur- pose; and their expediency and utility are best known to those who are conversant in this business. See Aqueous BATH.S. ~~ VAPORATION, VApoRATIo, in Chemistry, a term applied to the action of a fume, or vapour. VAPORATION is a kind of bathing, or rather of foment- ation, by which the warmth, or humidity, of a vapour is made to act on some other body, that is to be warmed or moistened. VAPOROSUM BALNEUM. See VAPor ARIUM. VAPOUR, WAPOR, in Meteorology, a thin vesicle of water, or other humid matter, filled or inflated with air; which, being rarefied to a certain degree by the action of heat, ascends to a certain height in the atmosphere, where it is suspended, till it returns in form of rain, snow, or the like. An assemblage of a number of par- ticles, or vesicles of vapour, constitutes what we call a cloud. - Some use the term vapour indifferently, for all fumes emitted, either from moist bodies, as fluids of any kind; or from dry bodies, as sulphur, &c. But sir Isaac New- ton, and other authors, better distinguished between hu- -mid and dry fumes, calling the latter eachalations. For the manner in which vapours are raised, and again precipitated, see CLoud, DEw, RAIN, BAROMETER, and particularly Evaporation and METEoRology. We shall here add, with respect to the principles of solution adopted to account for evaporation, that Dr. Halley, about the beginning of the last century, seems to have been acquainted with the solvent power of air on water; for, he says, that, supposing the earth to be co- ºvered with water, and the sun to move diurnally round it, the air would of itself imbibe a certain quantity of aqueous vapours, and retain them like salts dissolved in water; and that the air, warmed by the sun, would sus- tain a greater proportion of vapours, as warm water will ‘hold more dissolved salts; which would be discharged in dews, analogous to the precipitation of salts on the cool- ing of liquors. Phil. Trans. Abr...vol. ii. p. 127. XI ...Y} }. V A P O U R. Mr. Eeles, in 1755, endeavoured to account for the ‘ascent of vapour and exhalation, and their suspension in the atmosphere, by means of the electric fire. The sun, he acknowledges, is the great agent in detaching va- pour and exhalations from their masses, whether he acts immediately by himself, or by his rendering the electric fire more active in its vibrations: but their subsequent ascent he attributes entirely to their being rendered spe- 'cifically lighter than the lower air, by their conjunction with electrical fire: each particle of vapour, with the electrical fluid that surrounds it, occupying a greater space than the same weight of air. Mr. Eeles also en- deavours to show, that the ascent and descent of vapour, attended by this fire, are the cause of all our winds, and that they furnish a satisfactory solution of the general phenomena of the weather and barometer. (Phil. Trans. vol. xlix. p. 124, &c.) Dr. Darwin, in 1757, published remarks on the theory of Mr. Eeles, with a view of con- futing it; and attempted to account for the ascent of va- pours, by considering the power of expansion which the constituent parts of some bodies acquire by heat, and also that some bodies have a greater affinity to heat, i. e. acquire it sooner, and retain it longer than others. On these principles, he thinks, it is very intelligible how wa- ter, whose parts appear from the aeolipile to be capable of immeasurable expansion, should by heat alone become specifically lighter than the common atmosphere. A small degree of heat is sufficient to detach or raise the vapour of water from the mass to which it belongs; and the rays of the sun communicate heat only to those bo- dies by which they are refracted, reflected, or obstruct- ed, whence, by their impulse, a motion or vibration is caused in the parts of such bodies. Hence he infers, that the sphericles of vapour will, by refracting the so- lar rays, acquire a constant heat, though the surrounding atmosphere remain cold. If it be asked, how clouds are supported in the absence of the sun? it must be remem- bered, that large masses of vapour must for a considera- ble time retain much of the heat they have acquired in the day; at the same time reflecting, how small a quan- tity of heat was necessary to raise them, and that doubt- less even a less will be sufficient to support them; as from the diminished pressure of the atmosphere at a given height; a less power may be able to continue them in their present state of rarefaction; and lastly, that clouds of particular shapes will be sustained or elevated by the motion they acquire from winds. Phil. Trans. vol. i. p. 246. For the effect of vapour in the formation of springs, &c. see SPRING and River. The quantity of vapour raised from the sea by the warmth of the sun, is far greater than one would imagine. Dr. Halley has attempted to estimate it. The result of his estimate is contained in the following articles. 1. That water salted to about the same degree as salt- water, and exposed to a heat equal to that of a summer’s day, did, from a circular surface of about eight inches diameter, evaporate at the rate of six ounces in twenty- four hours. Whence, by a calculus, he finds that the thickness of the pellicle or skin of water, evaporated in two hours, was the fifty-third part of an inch; but, for a round number, he supposes it only a sixtieth part; and argues thence, that if water as warm as the air in sum- mer evaporates the thickness of one-sixtieth part of an inch in two hours, from its whole surface; in twelve hours it will evaporate the tenth of an inch; which quan- tity, he observes, will be found abundantly sufficient to furnish all the rains, springs, dews, &c. - In effect, on this principle, every ten square inches of the surface of the water yield in vapour fier diem a cubic inch of water; and each square foot half a wine pint; every space of four feet square, a gallon; a mile square, 6914 tons; and a square degree of sixty-nine English miles will evaporate 33 millions of tons a day; and the whole Mediterranean, computed to contain 160 square degrees, at least 5280 millions of tons. Phil. Trans. N° 189, or Abr. vol. ii. p. 108, &c. See River. 2. A surface of eight square inches, evaporated pure- ly by the natural warmth of the weather, without either wind or sun, in the course of a whole year, 16,292 grains of water, or sixty-four cubic inches; consequently the depth of water thus evaporated in one year amounts to eight inches. But this being too little to answer the experiments of the French, who found that it rained nineteen inches of water in one year at Paris; or those of Mr. Townley, who found the annual quantity of rain in Lancashire above forty inches; he concludes that the sun and wind contribute more to evaporation than any internal heat or agitation of the water. It has since been discovered, that there was a source of error in Mr. Townley’s experiments, with which the world was not at that time acquainted: his rain-gauge was fixed ten yards above the surface of the earth; but Dr. Heberden has found, that a rain-gauge fixed below the top of a house, received above a fifth part more rain than another of the same size above the top of the same house; and that there fell upon Westminster Abbey not much above one-half of that which fell in the same space below the tops of the houses; and by several ex- periments made by Dr. Dobson of Liverpool, it appears, that the quantity of rain received in a vessel placed on the ground exceeded that received by another of the same dimensions eighteen yards higher more than one- third, and less than one-half. Phil. Trans. vol. lix. art. 47, and vol. lxvii. art. I 3. p. 256. See RA1 N. With regard to the cause of this difference, it may be observed, that as in chemical precipitations a greater portion of the precipitating substance will be received on the real bottom of a vessel containing the solution than on a supposed false bottom placed any where above it, and that in proportion to its height above the real bot- tom; so a greater quantity of water, considering rain as a precipitation of water before dissolved in air, ought, on Aparting with its former solvent, to fall on the surface of the earth than on an imaginary horizontal plane of the same dimensions above it; and though the cases are not exactly parallel, yet the drops of rain in their descent must be somewhat increased either in number or size; partly by successively impinging on the aqueous particles contained in the air through which they pass, and by at- tracting others in virtue of their being possessed of a dif- ferent electricity; and partly by the spontaneous separa- tion and precipitation of that moisture, which is known to be contained in considerable quantities in the air at all times, and the appearance of which, dripping down the walls of our houses, &c. is one of the popular signs of approaching rain. (Monthly Review, vol. xliv. p. 322.) Dr. Dobson states the annual evaporation at Liverpool, taking the medium of four years, at 36.78 inches. Dr. Halley fixes the annual evaporation of London at 48 inches. See Phil. Trans. vol. lxvii. part i. p. 252. 3. The effect of the wind is very considerable, on a - s double V A P V A R double account; for the same observations show a very odd quality in the vapours of water, viz. that of adhering and hanging to the surface that exhaled them, which they clothe, as it were, with a fleece of vaporous air; which once investing the vapour, it thenceforward rises in much less quantity. Whence, the quantity of water lost in twenty-four hours, when the air was very still from wind, was very small, in proportion to what went away when there was a strong gale of wind abroad to dis- sipate the fleece, and make room for the emission of va- pour; and this, even though the experiment was made in a place as close from the wind as could be contrived. Add, that this fleece of water hanging on the surface of waters in still weather, is the occasion of very strange appearances, by the refraction of the vapour’s differing from and exceeding that of common air; whence every thing appears raised, as houses like steeples, ships as on land above the water, the land raised, and as it were lift- ed, from the sea, &c. 4. The same experiments show, that the evaporation in May, June, July, and August, which are nearly equal, are about three times as great as those in the months of November, December, January, and February. Phil. Trans. No 2 12. or Abr. vol. ii. p. 1 1 0, &c. Dr. Brownrigg, in his “ Art of making Common Salt,” p. 189, fixes the evaporation of some parts of England at 73.8 inches during the months of May, June, July, and August; and the evaporation of the whole year at more than 140 inches. The evaporation of the four summer months at Liverpool, on a medium of four years, was found to be only 18.88 inches. Dr. Hales calculates the greatest annual evaporation from the sur- face of the earth in England at 6.66 inches; and there- fore the annual evaporation from a surface of water, is to the annual evaporation from the surface, of the earth in Liverpool, as 36 to 6, or as 6 to 1. Phil. Trans. vol. lxvii. ubi supra. - VAPou Rs, Fiery, Halitus Ignei, a term used by some to express those exhalations from the earth, which either take fire of themselves on their bursting forth into the air, or are readily inflammable on the bringing of a can- dle to them. See DAMP, GAs, HYDROGEN, METEOR, and VENTILATION. Many of the supposed burning lakes are owing to these fumes bursting up through the water, and not to any quality of the water itself. Our famous burning- well at Wigan, in Lancashire, is of this kind. The com- mon people affirm, that the water of this spring burns like oil; but there is nothing of truth in this. There bursts up a vapour through the earth in this place, which keeps the water bubbling, as if boiling over in the fire, though it is not warm; and the stream of this breath may be felt issuing up in these places like a strong wind. This breath alone is inflammable, and takes fire at the approach of a candle, burning with considerable vio- lence for some time. There are coal-pits in the neigh- bourhood, and the air is certainly of the same kind with that inflammable vapour often met with in those places, and which may also be prepared from iron dissolved in a proper menstruum. The water itself, taken from the place, does not burn; and if the bottom be made dry, the vapour which ascends from it will burn as strongly as if the water were there. The flame is not discoloured like that of sulphureous bodies, nor has it any bad scent; and the fumes, as they are felt bursting out of the earth, No. 20. -r- VAPOUR-Bath. See VApoRARIUM, and BATH. VAPours, in Medicine, a disease popularly called the hypo, or the hypochondriac disease; and in men particu- larly the shleen. See HYPoc HoNDRIAs.Is. Vapours supposed to be emitted from the womb, in women, are what we otherwise call hysteric affections, or suffocations, or fits of the mother. See HySTERIA. VAPPA, a word used by the ancients to express dead wine, or wine deprived of all its spirituous part. The word is also metaphorically applied to a peculiar state of the blood, when it is in a low, dispirited condi- tion, as is the case even in healthy persons, when worn out with excessive labour, and in cachectic and scorbutic persons. VAR, in Geografhy, one of the twelve departments of the S.E. region of France, formerly Lower Provence, a maritime territory in N. lat. 43° 30', bounded on the N. by the department of the Lower Alps, on the E. by the county of Nice, on the S. and S.E. by the Mediter- ranean, and on the W. by the department of the Mouths of the Rhone. Its territorial extent in kiliometres is 7510, and in square leagues 378; and its population con- sists of 269,142 inhabitants. It is divided into 4 circles or districts, 32 cantons, and 210 communes. The cir- cles are, Brignoles, containing 66,034 inhabitants; Dra- guignan, 71,383; Grasse, 55,240; and Toulon, 76,485. According to Hassenfratz it is 30 French leagues in length, and 20 in breadth; its circles are 9, its cantons 89, and its population consists of 275,472 persons. Its capital is Draguignan. Its contributions in the eleventh year of the French era amounted to 2,258,028 francs; and its charges for administration, judiciary, and for public instruction, were 274,032 francs 28 centimes. The northern districts, covered with mountains, yield little grain; but throughout the department, grapes, fruits of all sorts, medicinal plants, forests and pastures abound. The plains of Brignoles and Toulon are planted with fruit-trees and vines. Here are mines of different metals, and quarries of marble. VAR, a river which rises in the department of the Lower Alps, about 10 miles S. from Barcelonette, crosses the county of Nice, and, in part, separates it from France, till it runs into the Mediterranean, 4 miles W. of Nice. It gives name to the department. - VARA, in Ancient Geografthy, an estuary of Britain, which is the firth of Tayne in Sutherland. VARA, in Commerce, a long measure in Spain and Por- tugal. At Lisbon, the vara is 5 palmos (or spans), and by the hand held over the place, are hot. Phil. Trans. the covado (another long measure) is 3: the palmo is 8 inches of Lisbon, or 8% English inches: the covado is 300+ French lines, or 26% English inches. Goods not sold by the piece, are generally sold by the covado, except some sorts of coarse linens, which are sold by the vara. The Lisbon foot is half a covado, or 134 English inches; and 9 feet of Lisbon are = 10 English feet. At Oporto, the vara is always 5 palmos de craveira (see PALMo), or 40 Portuguese inches = 434 English inches; but the covado is 3 palmos de craveira avantejados (or good measure), and is - 24; inches of Portugal, or 26.73 English inches. The vara (as a brass or wooden measure) is sometimes divided on pne side into 43} Eng- lish inches, and on the other side it is marked at 2 English inches. Each of these measures is divided into 3 tercas, 4 quartas, 6 sexas, and 8 oitayas. In Sr. thè V A R V A. R. the vara, a measure for cloth, linen, and silk, is 3 feet, or 4 palmos; and is, therefore, 33% English inches; the palmo measuring 9 pulgadas, or 12 dedos, which equal 84 English inches; but the palmo de ribeira, used for measuring masts, &c. is only 3 inches. A braza or toesa is 2 varas, or 6 feet; i. e. 66; English inches: a paso or pace is 5 feet; an estadal, 12 feet, or 4 varas; and a cu- erda, 8% varas. The distances in Spain, on roads made since the year 1766, are laid down at the rate of 8000 varas to the league, i. e. 7416 English yards; so that 5 such leagues are = 21 English miles nearly; but the juridical league is 5000 varas, or 4635 English yards; hence 8 of these are = 21 English miles. Kelly’s Un. Camb. See Tables of WEIGHTs and MEASUREs. VARADA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hispania Citerior, belonging to the Carpetani. Ptolemy. - VARADEH, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the coast of the Mediterranean; 22 miles N.E. of Catieh. VARADES, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Loire; 6 miles N.E. of Ancenis. VARAGE, a town of France, in the department of the Var; 4 miles N.W. of Barjols. VARAGGIO, a town of Genoa; 5 miles N.E. of Savona. VARAGIANS, VARANGIANs, or Varingians, called also Worthmanni, the name of a people who had a con- siderable share in founding the Russian state, and who were a northern tribe of Gothic descent and of warlike disposition and character. Their original country was probably Scandinavia; and they consisted of a combined multitude of Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians, who, per- petually in quest of adventures, established governments in the western and eastern parts of Europe, and produc- ed revolutions, especially in the south, the consequences of which extended through one quarter of the globe. The first trace of their maritime expeditions is discoverable about the year 516; though it is thought probable that they carried on their piracies at an earlier period, and were generally comprehended under the name of Franks, who already appeared under the emperor Probus as en- terprising mariners. In the year 795, they were first perceived in Ireland. About the year 813, they began their incursions by the Elbe into Friesland and Flanders; in process of time they advanced to Aquitain and along the Seine: about the year 840, they ravaged France; and in 857, made the conquest of Luna, and afterwards of Pisa, in Italy. In the year 862, Rurik founded the Russian monarchy, and became the father of a dynasty which reigned above 700 years. Accordingly, in the ninth century the Varangians conquered from the Rus- sians, a kindred north-gothic people, the earliest mention of whose name is in the year 839, before Rurik's recep- tion in Novgorod, the modern districts of Reval, St. Pe- tersburg, and Archangel; and subjected the Sclavonians, Krivitsches, Tschudes, Vessenians, and Maerenes, to a tribute. The Russians retired to Finland and Karelia; but the Sclavonians, in conjunction with the rest of the forenamed nations, drove out the Varangians, and form- ed themselves at the lake Ilmen, near Novgorod, into a federative democratical republic. Although the Varan- gians composed the predominant, and under Rurik the most consequential part of the people, yet Sclavonians and Russians were soon blended into one nation. As pi- racy was the exercise, the trade, the glory, and the virtue of the Scandinavian youth, the Baltic was the first scene of the naval achievements of the northern adventurers; they then visited the eastern shores, the select residence of Finnic and Sclavonian tribes; and the primitive Rus- sians of the lake Ladoga paid a tribute, the skins ef white squirrels, to these strangers, whom they saluted with the title of Varangians, or corsairs. Their su- periority in arms, discipline, and honour, commanded the fear and veneration of the natives. In their wars against the more inland savages, the Varangians conde- scended to serve as friends and auxiliaries, and gradually, by choice or conquest, obtained the dominion of a people, whom they were qualified to protect. At length Rurik appeared; his influence was extended by his brothers; the example of service and usurpation was imitated by his companions in the southern provinces of Russia; and their establishments, by the usual methods of war and assassination, were cemented into the fabric of a power- ful monarchy. As long as the descendants of Rurik were considered as aliens and conquerors, they ruled by the sword of the Varangians, distributed estates and subjects to their faithful captains, and supplied their numbers with fresh streams of adventurers from the Baltic coast. But when the Scandinavian chiefs had struck a deep and perma- nent root into the soil, they mingled with the Russians in blood, religion, and language, and the first Waladimir had the merit of delivering his country from these for- eign mercenaries. They had seated him on the throne; his riches were insufficient to satisfy their demands; but they listened to his pleasing advice, that they should seek, not a more grateful, but a more wealthy master; that they should embark for Greece, where, instead of the skins of squirrels, silk and gold would be the recom- pense of their service. At the same time the Russian prince admonished his Byzantine ally to disperse and em- ploy, to recompense and restrain, these impetuous chil- dren of the north. Contemporary writers have record- ed the introduction, name, and character, of the Varan- gians: each day they rose in confidence and esteem; the Whole body was assembled at Constantinople to perform the duty of guards; and their strength was recruited by a numerous band of their countrymen from the island of Thule. On this occasion, the vague appellation of Thule is applied to England; and the new Varangians were a colony of English and Danes who fled from the yoke of the Norman conqueror. The habits of pilgrimage and piracy had approximated the countries of the earth; these exiles were entertained in the Byzantine court; and they preserved, till the last age of the empire, the inheritance of spotless loyalty, and the use of the Danish or English tongue. With their broad and double-edged battle-axes on their shoulders, they attended the Greek emperor to the temple, the senate, and the hippodrome; he slept and feasted under their trusty guard; and the keys of the pa- lace, the treasury, and the capital, were held by the firm and faithful hands of the Varangians. * * About the time of Rurik, a Norman of a similar name, Rurich, became famous in the history of Holland. Soon after this, Oskold and Dir founded another sovereignty at Kief. In the tenth century Ragnvald reigned in Polotsk, from whose daughter, Rogned, the Russian annals derive the grand-dukes of Lithuania. About the year 1000, they took Apulia from the Greeks, and Sicily from the Arabians. They gave Normandy its name, after Rollo had wrested that country from the kings of France. Even the conquest of England by the Danes, in some degree formed a part of the history of these northern ad- WCI) tu l'éf'S, V A R v AR venturers. Tooke's Russ. vol. i. Gibbon's Rom. Emp. vol. x. See SCLAvonians. VARAHA, in Hindoo Mithology, a name of the god Vishnu, inéaning a boar; he having in one of his ten grand incarnations assumed that form, called Varahava- tara; which see. VARAHAVATARA, is one of the ten grand incar- nations of their god Vishnu. In this the god assumed, as is commonly said, the form of a boar, Varaha; but is usu- ally represented in pictures, with the head of that animal on the body of a man, four-armed, holding the attributes of Vishnu. On the elevated tusks of the boar rests a crescent, containing in its concavity an epitome of the earth, which had been submerged in the ocean, as a pun- ishment for its iniquities. So that this avatara, or incar- nation, the third of Vishnu, seems to be a repetition of the story of the deluge, like the two former, which are nam- ed Matsyavatara and Kurmavatara, noticed under those articles. The second combines with it a portion of as- tronomical allegory, and none of the other ten avataras have any apparent reference to the general catastrophe, so pointedly indicated by the three first, which are un- derstood to have occurred in the earliest ages of Hindoo history; if such a chaotic mass as their fabulous records may be dignified by such a title. There are many fables accounting for the shape as- sumed on this occasion by Vishnu, which our limits will not allow us to recite. t VARALLO, in Geografhy, a town of Italy, in the department of the Gogna, on the Sesia; 24 miles N.N.W. of Novara. N. lat. 45° 49'. E. long. 8° 14'. VARAMBON, or VAREMBon, a town of France, in the department of the Ain; 2 miles S.W. of Pont d'Ain. VARAMUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Venetia, which discharges itself into the Anassus. Pliny. - º RANASI, the classical name for the city of Be- nares, in the East Indies. (See BENAREs.) This name is said to comprise that of two rivers which form a junc- tion near the city. VARANGI. See Acol, UTHI. VARANGUEBEC, in Geografiſhy, a town of France, in the department of the Channel; 10 miles W. of Ca- rent Oil. VARANIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Servia, taken possession of in the year 1143 by Perigord, gene- ral of Manuel, emperor of Constantinople. VARANO, in Geography, a lake of Naples, in Capi- tanata, which communicates with the Adriatic; 13 miles N.N.W. of Monte St. Angelo. VARANo de Marchesi, a town of the duchy of Parma; 12 miles W.S.W. of Parma. VARASDIN, a town of Croatia, on the S. side of the Drave, with a castle and citadel; near it is a warm bath; 186 miles N.W. of Belgrade. N. lat. 46° 30'. E. long. 16° 25'. - VARASELLY GUNGE, a town of Hindoostan, in Bahar; 14 miles S.S.E. of Bahar. N. lat. 25° 2'. E. long. 85° 50'. VARBRESIE, a town of France, in the department of the Rhône and Loire; 9 miles N.W. of Lyons. VARCES, a town of France, in the department of the Isere; 7 miles S. of Grenoble. VARCHI, BENEDETTo, in Biography, was born at Florence in the year 1502, and destined to trade; but manifesting an inclination for literature, he was sent to the university of Padua. His progress in the belles let- tres induced his father to educate him for the law at Pisa. But Benedetto, after the death of his father, devoted him- self entirely to literature; and when the Strozzi, to whom he was attached, were obliged to quit Florence, he fol- lowed them, in-1534, first to Venice and then to Bolog- na. At Bologna, and also in Padua, he spent some years in study, and in cultivating an intercourse with learned men. At Padua he became a member of the Academy degli Infiammati, and read public lectures on morals, and several dissertations on the poems of Petrarch, Bem- bo, and others. Cosmo I. grand duke of Tuscany, ap- prized of his reputation, recalled him to Florence, and assigned to him the office of writing a history of the late revolution in that city, with a yearly stipend. Whilst he was thus employed, he was attacked in the night by se- veral persons, who apprehended that his narrative would not be favourable to them, and inflicted on him many wounds. When he recovered, he declined, from motives of prudence or lenity, to inform against the perpetrators, though he knew them. In the Florentine academy, of which he was one year consul, he delivered lectures. Cosmo recompensed his services with the provostship of Monte Varchi, on which occasion he took holy orders; but before he could remove thither, he died of an apoplexy in 1565, at the age of sixty-three; and his eulogy was de- livered, at his funeral, by Lionardo Salviati. Varchi was a man of general literature. He wrote a Florentine history, comprising the period from 1527 to 1538, in which he was chargeable with gross adulation to the house of Medici. He also published several ha- rangues, academical and funeral; poetical pieces, and a comedy in Italian. As a grammarian, he gained repu- tation by his dialogue “Ercolano,” treating particularly of the Tuscan language. His translations of “Seneca on Benefits,” and of the “Philosophical Consolation of Boe- thius,” into Italian, are deemed elegant. His “ Lezioni lette nel Accademia Fiorentina” comprehends much va- rious erudition. Upon the whole, Varchi ranked as a man of learning, to whom Italian literature was much indebted. Moreri. Tiraboschi. Gen. Biog. VARCIA, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Belgic Gaul, upon the route from Cambrai to Andematunum, between Vesontio and Andematunum, according to An- tonine’s Itinerary. VARDANUS, CoupAN, a large liver which dischar- ges itself into the Euxine sea, and into the Palus Maeotis. - VARDAR, in Geografthy, a river of European Tur- key, which rises near Kolumbatz, in Macedonia, and runs into the gulph of Saloniki; 16 miles W.S.W. of Saloniki. VARDEGUS, a small island of Russia, in the Frozen ocean; 100 miles N.N.W. of Kola. N. ſat. 70° 25'. E. long. 30° 34'. VARDEN, or WARDAN, or Ouardan, a town of Egypt, on the W. branch of the Nile, anciently called Latopolis. In modern times it has been famous or rather infamous for the abode of pirates, who robbed the ves- sels which navigated the Nile. These robbers were rou- ted out, and dispersed by Ali Bey. Here Father Sicard. burned heaps of ancient manuscripts, deposited in a dove- house, as books of magic; 18 miles N.N.W. of Cairo. VARDHUYS. See WARDHUYS, - VARDLE, V A R V A R WARDLE, in Rural Economy, a term applied in some |cases to the eye or thimble of a gate, which has a spike only. See GATE. e VARDON, in Geography, a town of Abascia, on the Black sea; 28 miles W.N.W. of Marſhak. VARDONES, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of Germany, who formed a branch of the Vandals. VARDULI, a people of Hispania Citerior, upon the coast, between the Pyrenees to the E. and the Caristes to the W. Ptolemy has assigned to them the town of Menosca, - VARECA, in Botany, a bad and merely temporary name, taken from Walwareka, by which this fruit ap- pears to be known in Ceylon. Gaertner received it, with that appellation, from the collection of seeds at the Ley- den garden, and thought it might constitute a new genus. We shall give his description.—Gaertn. v. 1.290, t. '60.-Class and order, as well as the Nat. Ord, unknown. Gen. Ch. Flower unknown. Peric. Berry superior, of one cell, half an inch long, ovate, with six angles, tipped with a short point; supported at the base by a small round disk, having six slight notches. Coat coriaceous, £hin. Pulp by age become spongy and membranous, di- vided into partial cells for the reception of the seeds. Recent, three prominent ribs, attached to the inner coat of the berry, into which the external seeds are inserted. Seeds numerous, rather large, nearly ovate, rendered va- riously angular by mutual pressure, their colour a smoky brown, all inclosed in separate partial cells; the outer seeds attached to the coat of the fruit; the inner imbedded in its pulp. Integument double; the outer thick, coriaceous; inner membranous, very thin. Albu- men the shape of the seed, thick, white, of the substance of an almond. Embryo nearly the size of the albumen, compressed, pale yellow. Cotyledons ovate, or rounded, leafy, flat, very thin. Radicle long, nearly cylindrical, centrifugal, or indeterminate. Ess. Ch. Flower . . . . Berry superior, of one cell; pulp in many partial cells, appropriated to each seed. Seeds inserted into the coat of the berry. Gaetner observes, that the structure of this fruit agrees, in many points, with that of the Gourd tribe, Cucurbita- ceae; but it differs from all hitherto known of that tribe, in being superior, and in having remarkably albuminous seeds, whereas the Cucurbitaceae usually have no albu- men. We would remark, with due deference to this just- ly celebrated carpologist, that the partial cells of the pulp appear to be merely what must occur, in the dry- ing up of any such berry, and probably have no existence in a recent state of the fruit. They are therefore scarce- ly entitled to be mentioned in the essential character. VAREILLES SoMMIEREs, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne; 7 miles N.N. E. of Civray. VAREL, a town of Germany, in the county of Olden- burg; 22 miles N. of Oldenburg. VARELLE, a small island in the Chinese sea, near the E. coast of Malacca. N. lat. 3° 18'. E. long. 1042. VAREN, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron; 18 miles N.N.W. of Alby. . VARENA, a town of Italy, on the lake of Como; 15 miles N.N.E. of Como. VARENNE, a town of Canada, on the right bank of the St. Laurence. N. lat. 45° 41'. W. long. 73° 10'.- Alsº, a tºwn of France, in the department of the Allier; Vol. XXXVIII. 10 miles N. of Cusset.—Also, a town of South Carolina; 20 miles S.E. of Queenborough. VARENNE le Grand, a town of France, in the depart- ment of Saône and Loire; 6 miles S. of Châlons. - VARENNES, a town of France, and seat of a tribu- nal, in the department of the Meuse. In this town the king and queen of France, with the dauphin, the prin- cess royal, and the princess Elizabeth, were stopped in their journey to Montmedy, when they attempted to es- cape, in the month of June 1791; 7 miles N. of Clermont en Argonne. N. lat. 49° 14'. E. long. 5° 7'.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne; 6 miles S.W. of Bourbonne. VARENT ANUM, VARENTUM, in Ancient Geogra- fihy, a town of Italy, in Etruria, according to the Itine- rary of Antonine. - VARESA, in Geography, a town of Genoa; 10 miles N.N.W. of Brugneto. * VARESIO, a town of Italy, capital of the department of the Verbano; 24 miles N.N.W. of Milan. N. lat. 45° 50'. E. long. 8° 49'. VARGAS, LUIs DE, in Biography, a Spanish painter of celebrity, was born at Seville in 1528. He went to Italy to improve his talents, and passed seven years in Rome, where he principally directed his attention to Raffaelle and P. Perugino's works. When he returned to Seville, he found a formidable rival in Pedro Campana, and he therefore returned to Italy to cultivate his pow- ers still farther; and on returning a second time to his native city, obtained reputation, and employment. He painted for the cathedral two pictures, viz. Christ bear- ing his Cross, and Adam and Eve; the latter of which is regarded as his master-piece. He executed several other works for the churches in Seville, both in oil and fres- co; and he was no less distinguished for his skill in pot- traiture, particularly in his portrait of donna Juana Cor- tes, dutchess of Alcala. He died at Seville in 1590, aged 62. VARGAs MEx1A, FRANCEsco DE, a Spanish lawyer, who occupied several posts in the judicature under Charles V., and became advocate-fiscal in the supreme council of Castile, was sent by Charles, in 1548, to Bo- logna, to protest against the translation of the council of Trent to that city. After the dissolution of this council, he spent seven or eight years in a public capacity at Ve- nice. Being ordered by Philip II. to act as resident de- puty to the Spanish ambassador at Rome, his known learning and integrity caused him to be much consulted by the cardinals on the subject of episcopal jurisdiction. On his return to Spain, he was nominated a counsellor of state; but at length retired from the world to the monas- tery of Cislos near Toledo. He was author of several works; particularly “De Episcoporum Jurisdictione, et Pontificis Maximi Authoritate,” Venet. 4to. 1563; “Commentaries upon War against the Infidels,” &c. &c. In 1700, Le Vassor published in French, at Amsterdam, “Letters and Momoirs of Vargas,” relative to the coun- cil of Trent, which are said not to be very respectful to that assembly. Moreri. - VARGAs, in Geografhy, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Biscay; 11 miles S.S.W. of Santander. VARGEL, or VARGULA, an ancient town of Germany, in the territory of Erfurt; 10 miles N.W. of Erfurt. VARGO, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 14 miles N. of Solsona. - VARHELY, a town of Transylvania, built on the 2 P ruins V AR I. ruins of Sarmizagethusa, the ancient capital of Dacia, afterwards named by Trajan, Ulpia Trajana; 60 miles E. of Temesvar. VARI. Persons were formerly so termed, when their legs were deformed, and their toes turned in an unusual degree inwards. VARI, in Medicine, hard, inflamed tubercles, occuring on the face and neck of young people, of both sexes, af- ter the commencement of the period of puberty. This eruption, which disfigures the countenance at that period of life when personal appearance is usually of the greatest importance in the estimation of the per- sons affected, has been therefore the object of medical attention from the earliest ages, though in itself but a trivial complaint. Celsus observes, that the Roman la- dies in his time were so solicitous of maintaining their beauty, that he deemed it necessary to mention the re- medies for this affection of the skin, which otherwise he considered as too trifling for the notice of the physician. “ Pene ineptiae sunt, curare varos et lenticulas et ephe- lides (freckles and sun-spots); sed eripi tamen foeminis cura cultús suinon potest.” (De medicină, lib. vi. cap. 5.) The circumstance of this eruption occurring at the age of puberty has given rise to the appellations given to it by the Greek physicians, namely, ionthos and acne. The term ionthos signifying the lanugo, or first down of the beard, during which it begins; and azy”, quasi oºzºon, implying that it appears at the acme, or period of full growth and evolution of the body. (See Julius Pollux, Onomasticon, lib. iv. cap. 25. Aëtius, Tetrabile ii. serm. iv. cap. 13, &c.) Under this term acne, Dr. Willan ar- ranged the disease in the order of tubercles, and describ- ed four varieties of the eruption, with the epithets sim- filez, flunctata, indurata, and rosacea. See Dr. Bate- man’s Practical Synopsis of Cutaneous diseases, accord- ing to the Classification of Dr. Willan, p. 275. The acne, then, consists of an eruption of these vari, or distinct, hard, inflamed tuberches, which are some- times permanent for a considerable length of time, and sometimes suppurate very slowly and partially, forming only a little matter at the top. They usually appear on the face, especially on the forehead, temples, and chin, and not unfrequently on the neck, shoulders, and upper part of the breast, to the extent that might be covered by a tippet; but never descending to the lower parts of the trunk, or appearing on the extremities. This, how- cver, does not depend on the parts being uncovered; for the limitation is the same in both sexes. As the pro- gress of each tubercle is slow, and they appear in suc- cession, they are generally seen at the same time in their various stages of growth and decline; and, in the more violent cases, are intermixed also with the marks or ves- tiges of those which have subsided. In different cases, the progress and appearance of the eruption vary considerably, which has given rise to the subdivision into species suggested by Dr. Willan. Thus in the acne simplex, the eruption consists of small vari, which appear singly, and are not very numerous, nor ac- companied by much inflammation, nor by any interme- diate affection of the skin. Many of the tubercles do not proceed to suppuration; but gradually rise, become moderately inflamed, and again slowly subside, in the course of eight or ten days, leaving a transient purplish- red mark behind. But others go on to a partial suppu- ration, the whole process of which occupies from a fort- night to three weeks. The tubercles are first felt in the skin like a small hard seed, about the size of a pin's head, and enlarge for three or four days, when they be- gin to inflame: about the sixth or seventh day they at- tain their greatest magnitude, are prominent, red, smooth, and shining, and hard and painful to the touch. After two or three days more, a small speck of yellow matter appears on the afiices of some of the tubercles; and when these afterwards break, a thinner humour is secreted, which soon dries into a yellowish scab. The inflammation now gradually declines, the size and hard- ness of the tubercles diminish, and the small scab be- comes loosened at the edges, and at length falls off at about the end of the third week. The individual tuber- cles, which rise and suppurate in succession, pass through a similar course. - - In the acne indurata, the tubercles are larger, as well as more indurated and permanent, than in the former va- riety. They rise often in considerable numbers, of a co- nical, or oblong conoidal form, and are occasionally somewhat acuminated, as if tending to immediate sup- puration, being at the same time of a bright roseate hue; yet many of them continue in a hard and elevated state for a great length of time, without any disposition to sup- purate. Others, however, pass on very slowly to suppura- tion, the matter not being completely formed in them for several weeks, and then only a small part of the tuber- cles are removed by that process. Sometimes two or three coalesce, forming a large irregular tubercle, which occasionally suppurates at the separate apices, and sometimes only at the largest. In whatever mode they proceed, the vivid hue of the tubercles gradually becomes more purple or even livid, especially in those which show no tendency to suppurate. Slight crusts form upon the suppurating tubercles, which after some time fall off, leaving small scars, surrounded by hard tumours of the same dark red colour; and these some- times suppurate again at uncertain periods, and some- times slowly subside and disappear, leaving a purple or livid discoloration, and occasionally a slight depression, which is long in wearing off. - The tubercles, even when they do not suppurate, but especially while they continue highly red, are always sore and tender to the touch; so that washing, shaving, the friction of the clothes, &c. are somewhat painful. In its most severe form, this eruption nearly covers the face, breast, shoulders, and top of the back, but does not descend lower than an ordinary tippet in dress: yet this limitation of the disorder is independent of the exposure of those parts; for it occurs equally in men and women. In a few instances in young men, an extensive eruption of acne indurata has been seen affecting these covered parts, while the face remained nearly free from it. By the successive rise and progress of the tumours, the whole surface, within the limits just mentioned, was spotted with the red and livid tubercles, intermixed with the purple discolorations and depressions left by those which had subsided, and variegated with yellow sup- purating points and small crusts, so that very little of the natural skin appeared. Sometimes the black puncta of the sebaceous ducts were likewise mixed with the vari and their sequelae. - Cure of Vari.—Vari being generally a local disease, the acne is to be treated chiefly by external applications. Except in females, indeed, this variety of the eruption seldom calls for the attention of medical men. The an- cients agree in recommending a number of stimulant applications, V A R I. applications, with the view of discussing the “thick humours,” which were supposed to constitute the vari. Lotions and liniments, containing vinegar and honey, sometimes combined with an emulsion of bitter almonds, and sometimes with turpentine, resin, myrrh, and other gums, or with alum, soap, and Cimolian earth, or the bruised roots of the lily, cyclamen, narcissus, &c. were the substances which they principally employed. They were doubtless correct as to the principle, as a gentle stimulus to the skin is the most safe and effectual re- medy. The apprehensions, which have been strongly expressed by the humoral pathologists, of producing in- ternal disorder by the sudden repulsion, as it has been called, of these cutaneous eruptions, are not altogether hypothetical. Head-ache, and affections of the stomach and bowels, have sometimes been thus produced, which have ceased on the reappearance of the eruption; but, on the whole, as far as our observation goes, this alternation of disease is less frequent and obvious in this form of acne, than in the pustular and crustose eruptions of the face and head. * The stimulant applications, which are most easily pro- portioned to the irritability of the tubercles, are lotions containing alcohol, which may be reduced or strength- ened, according to circumstances, by the addition of any distilled water. It is not easy to describe the appearan- ces of the eruption, which indicate any certain degree of strength in the lotion; but a little observation will teach this discrimination. If the tubercles are considerably inflamed, and a great number of them pustular, a dilute mixture will be requisite; containing, for example, equal parts of spiritus tenuior and of rose or elder-flower water. The effect of a very acrid lotion, under such circum- stances, is to multiply the pustules, to render many of them confluent, and to produce the formation of a crust of some extent, as well as to excite an inflammatory redness in the adjoining skin. A slight increase of the inflammation, indeed, is sometimes occasioned by the first applications of a weak stimulus; but this is of short duration, and the skin soon bears an augmentation of the stimulant; until at length the pure spirit is borne with advantage, as the inflammatory disposition subsides. Under the latter circumstances, even a considerable ad- ditional stimulus is often useful; such as from half a grain to a grain or more of the muriate of mercury, in each ounce of the spirit; or a drachm or more of the liquor pro- tassae, or of the muriatic acid, in six ounces. Acetous acid, as recommended by the ancients, and the liquor ammo- niae acetatis, afford also an agreeable stimulant, in proper proportions. Sulphur yields a small portion of its sub- stance to boiling water, poured upon it, and allowed to infuse for twelve or fourteen hours; a quart of water be- ing added to about an ounce of broken sulphur. A lo- tion of this nature has been found advantageous in slight cases of acne simplex, and especially in removing the roughness and duskiness of the face connected with it. Connected with the eruption of vari, and often giving rise to them, is that appearance of black points in the skin of the face and neck, surrounded by a raised bor- der of cuticle, to which the appellation of acne functata was given by Dr. Willan. These are vulgarly con- sidered as the extremities of small worms or grubs, be- cause, when they are pressed out, a sort of worm-like appendage is found attached to them; but they are, in #act, only little plugs of concreted mucus or sebaceous matter, moulded in the small ducts of the cuticular glands into this vermicular form, the extremity of which is blackened by contact with the air. In consequence of this distension of their ducts, the glands themselves Sometimes inflame, and form small tubercles, or vari, with the little black points upon their surface, which partially suppurate, as in the preceding species; but many of them remain stationary for a long period, with- out ever passing into the inflammatory state. Not un- frequently they are intermixed with a few vari, in which the fizincta have not appeared. . . These concretions may be extracted by pressing on both sides of the specks with the nails, until the harden- ed mucus is sufficiently elevated to be taken hold of. A blunt curved forceps may be employed with advantage for this purpose; and such a one has been contrived by a surgeon’s instrument-maker in London. When the plugs are removed, the disorder becomes simfile vari, and requires the treatment above-mentioned. The for- mation of these concretions, indeed, seems to be in a con- siderable degree prevented, by increasing the tone of the skin, both by the use of the stimulant lotions before re- commended, and by friction, using always a strong rough towel. The preceding varieties of the eruption of vari occur only in young persons, of either sex, from the period of puberty to the age of thirty or thirty-five, and principal- ly in those of the sanguine temperament, and they are generally accompanied by good health, and are totally unconnected with any disorder, or with habits of interm- perance; but there is another variety of this eruption, which does not uccur till after the age of forty, which is always, except from strong hereditary taint, sympathetic of some disease of the digestive organs, or viscera con- nected with them, and which therefore is not so easily cured, and is not even benefited by the same local means which are so efficacious in the former species. This variety of the disease is the gutta rosea of medical au- thors, and the acne rosacea of Dr. Willan. This eruption of vari, indeed, differs in its appearance very essentially from the preceding species. In addition to the eruption of small suppurating tubercles, there is also a shining redness, and an irregular granulated ap- pearance of the skin of that part of the face which is af- fected, which is not the part usually occupied by the former species. The redness commonly appears first at the end of the nose, and afterwards spreads from both sides of the nose to the cheeks; the whole of which, how- ever, it very seldom covers. In the commencement the redness is not uniformly vivid; but is paler in the morn- ing, and readily increased to an intense scarlet after din- ner, or at any time if a glass of wine or spirits be taken; or if the patient be heated by exercise, or by sitting near a fire. After some continuance in this state, the texture of the cuticle becomes gradually thickened, and its surface uneven or granulated, and variegated by re- ticulations of enlarged cutaneous veins, with smaller red lines stretching across the creeks, and sometimes by the intermixture of small suppurating vari, which succes- sively arise on different parts of the face. Where there is a strong heriditary predisposition, or by the constant immoderate use of wine and spirituous liquors, this dis- ease may effect the greater part of the face, even the förehead and skin; but the nose especially, in such ca- ses, becomes tumid, and of a fiery red colour: and, in ad- vanced life, it sometimes enlarges to an immoderate *: 2 P 2 - the V A N V A N the nostrils being distended and patulous, or the ala fis- sured, as it were, and divided into separate lobes. - Little can be done in way of cure for this species of vari, the visceral or constitutional malady being the root of the disease; against which, of course, the reme- dies, both moral and physical, must be directed. VARI, in Zoology, a name given to the maucuaco, or lemur catta of Linnaeus, with his tail marked with rings of black and white; it is about the size of a cat, and inha- bits Madagascar and the neighbouring isles. The vari of Buffon is the ruffed maucuaco of Pennant, the black maucuaco of Edwards, and lemur caudatus niger, col- lari barbato, of Linnaeus. It has orange-coloured irides; long hair round the sides of the head, standing out like a ruff; long tail; the colour wholly black, but sometimes white spotted with black; the feet black. It inhabits Madagascar; it is very fierce in a wild state; and makes so violent a noisé in the woods, that the noise of two may be easily mistaken for that of a hundred; when tanued, gentle and good-natured. Pennant. . r VAR1, in Geography, a town of Hindoostan, in Con- can; 25 miles N. of Goa. . . . VARIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hispania Citerior, on the Iberus, N.W. of Calagaris. VARIA, Vico- Varo, a town of Italy, in the Sabine ter- ritory, but belonged to the Latins; situated on the Vale- rian way; 8 miles from Tibur, and 27 from Rome. It was also called Valeria. --- VARIA, in Zoology, a name by which some authors have called the leopard, or fiardalis, from the beautiful variegations with which it is marked. VARIABLE, in Geometry and Analytics, is a term applied by mathematicians to such quantities as either increase or diminish, according as some other quantity either increases or diminishes. Thus, the semiordinates and abscisses of an ellipsis, &c. are variable quantities; because, if the one increase, . the others increase likewise. They are thus called, in contradistinction to constant, or given, or stable quantities; which are always the same though others change: as the semidiameter of a circle, which remains the same, though the abscisses and semi- ordinates increase. Variable quantities are usually denoted by the last letters of the alphabet, ar, y, z. Some authors, instead of variable and constant quan- tities, use the terms fluent and stable quantities. The infinitely small quantity by which a variable quan- tity is continually increasing or diminishing, is called the increment or decrement, or difference; and the velocity with which it increases or decreases at any given point, is called its fluºrion; the calculation of which is the subject of the new methodus differentialis, or doc- trine of fluxions. VARIABLE Wind. See WIND, - VARIAM, in Geography, a town of Persia, in the rovince of Irak; 120 miles E. of Hamadan. VARIANA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Lower Moesia, upon the route from Viminacium to Nicome- dia, between Augustae and Vzleriana. Anton. Itin. VARIANA, a town of Pannonia, upon the route from CEmona to Sirmium, between Siscia and Men- neianae. Anton. Itin. - VARIANCE, VARIANTIA, in Law, an alteration or change of condition in a person, or thing, after some former concern or transaction there with. sº Thus, if the commonalty of a town make a composi- tion with a lord, and afterwards bailiffs be granted by the king to the same town, there, if the lord commence any suit for breach of the composition, he must vary from the word commonalty, used in the composition, and use bailiffs and commonalty. - - VARIANCE is also used for an alteration of something formerly laid in a plea: or where the declaration in a cause differs from the writ, or from the deed u pon which it is grounded. VARIATION of Quantities, in Algebra. See CHANGEs and CoMBINATIon. * VARIATION, in Astronomy. The variation of the noon, called by Bullialdus the reflection of her light, is the third inequality observed in the moon’s motion; by which, when out of the quadratures, her true place dif- fers from her place twice equated. See PLACE, Equa- TION, &c. - Sir Isaac Newton takes the moon’s variation to arise partly from the form of her orbit, which is an ellipsis; and partly from the inequality of the parts of space, which the moon describes in equal times, by a radius drawn to the earth. - * * To find the greatest variation, observe the moon’s longitude in the octants; and, for the time of observation, compute the moon’s place twice equated: the difference between the computed and the observed place is the greatest variation. -- Tycho makes the greatest variation 40' 30”; Kepler. makes it 51' 49”; sir Isaac Newton makes the greatest variation, at a mean distance, between the sun and the earth, to be 35' 10": at the other distances, the greatest. variation is in a ratio compounded of the duplicate ratio of the time of the moon’s synodical revolution directly, and the triplicate ratio of the distance of the sun from: the earth inversely. And, therefore, in the sun’s apogee, the greatest variation is 33° 14'', and in his perigee, 37. ll’’; provided that the excentricity of the sun be to the transverse semidiameter of the orbis magnus, as 1643 to 1000. Or, taking the mean motions of the moon from the sun, as they are stated in Dr. Halley’s tables, and the greatest variation at the mean distance of the earth from the sun will be 35' 7", in the apogee of the Sun 33' 27", and in his perigee 36' 51". Phil. Nat. Princ. Math. prop. 29. lib. iii, apud Horsley’s Newtoni Opera, vol. iii. p. 71. VARIATION, in Geografthy, JWavigation, &c. a term. applied to the deviation of the magnetic needle, or com- pass, from the true north point, towards either east or west; called also the declination. - The variation, or declination, of the needle, is properly defined, the angle which a magnetic needle, suspended at liberty, makes with the meridian line on a horizontal plane; or an arc of the horizon, comprehended between the true and the magnetical meridian. In sea-language, the variation is usually called north- easting, or north-westing. All magnetic bodies, we find, range themselves, in some degree, to the meridian; but it is rare that they fall. in precisely with it: in one place they decline from the north to the east, and from the south to the west; and in another place, on the contrary, from the north to the west, and from the south to the east; and that too differ- ently at different times. - The variation of the compass could not be long a se- cret, after the invention of the compass itself; according- ly, Ferdinand, the son of Columbus, in his life written in ~~ Spanish, V A R I A TI O N. Spanish, and printed in Italian at Venice in 1571, asserts, that his farther observed it on the 14th of September, 1492: though others seem to attribute the discovery of it to Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian, employed in the ser- vice of our king Henry VII. about the year 1500. And as this variation differs in different places, Gonzales d’Oviedi found there was none at the Azores; whence some geographers have thought fit in their maps to make their first meridian pass through one of these islands; it not being then known that the variation altered in time. See Gilbert de Magnete, Lond. 1600, p. 4, 5: or Pur- chas’s Pilgrims, Lond. 1625, book ii. sect. i. See Wa- riation of the MAGNET. * Various are the hypotheses framed to account for this extraordinary phenomenon; of which we shall mention some of the later, and more probable, only premising, that Mr. Robert Norman, the inventor of the diffing- needle (which see), disputes against Cortes’s notion, that the variation was caused by a point in the heavens, con- tending that it should be sought for in the earth, and proposes how to discover its place. • The first is that of Gilbert (De Magnete, lib. iv. p. 151, &c.) which is followed by Cabeus, &c. This notion is, that it is the earth, or land, that draws the needle out of its meridian direction; and hence they argue, that the needle varied more or less, as it was more. or less distant from any great continent; consequently, that if it were placed in the middle of an ocean, equally distant from equal tracts of land on each side, eastward and westward, it would not decline either to the one or the other, but point justly north and south. Thus they say, in the Azores islands, which are equally distant from Africa on the east, and America on the west, there is, in effect, found no variation: but as from the Azores you sail towards Africa, the needle begins to decline from. the north to the east; and that still more and more, till you reach the shore. t If you still proceed eastward, the declination gradual- ly diminishes again, by reason of the land left behind on the west, which continues to draw the needle. The same holds till you arrive at a place where there are equal tracts of lands on each side; and there again there is no variation. - The observations of our mariners, in their first East Endia voyages, seemed to confirm this system; as they proceed towards the Cape of Good Hope the variation is still eastward; at length arriving at the Cape De las Aguillas, g. d. of the Necdles, the meridian line, then di- viding Africa into two equal parts, there is no variation at all; but as they proceed farther, and leave the African coast on the west, the variation becomes westward. But the misfortune is, the law does not hold univer- Sally; in effect, a great number of observations of the va- riations, in various parts, made and collected by Dr. Halley, overturn the whole theory. Some, therefore, have recourse to the frame and com- pages of the earth, considered as interwoven with rocks and shelves, which being generally found to run towards the poles, the needle has been observed to have a gene- rah tendency that way; but which seldom going perfectly in the direction of the meridian, the needle, of conse- quence, has commonly a variation. - Others hold various parts of the earth to have various degrees of the magnetic virtue, as some are more inter- mixed with heterogeneous matters, which prevent the free action or effect of it, than others. . Others ascribe all to magnetic rocks and iron mines, which, affording more of the magnetic matter than other parts; draw the needle more. Lastly, others imagine earthquakes, or high tides, to have disturbed and dislocated several considerable parts of the earth, and so changed the magnetic axis of the globe, which originally was the same with the axis of the globe itself. - But still, that great phenomenon, the variation of the variation, i. e. the continual change of the declination in one and the same place, which the modern observations daily confirm, is not accountable for on any of these . foundations, nor even is it consistent with them. Dr. Hooke communicated to the Royal Society, in 1674, a theory of the variation, the substance of which is, that the magnet has its peculiar pole distant ten de- grees from the pole of the earth, about which it moves, so as to make a revolution in 370 years; whence the va- riation (he adds) hath altered of late about ten or eleven minutes every year, and will probably so continue to do for some time, till it begins to become slower and slower, and will at length be stationary and retrograde, and in all probability may return. Birch’s Hist. of the Royal So- ciety, vol. iii. p. 131. - - Dr. Halley, in the Philosophical Transactions, N° 148, invented a new theory, founded on a great number of ob- servations, many of which were made expressly for the purpose by order of the government; but as they do not extend to a more recent date than about 1680, and as perpetual changes are going on in the variation of dif- . ferent places, the table of results of this learned philo- sopher is now of little use; we shall therefore avaiſſour- selves of the history.of these changes, as published in 3, . recent work on the variation of the compass by W. Bain, master in the royal navy; which contains much im- portant information on this subject, and is deserving of . the particular attention of every one engaged in the ma-. nagement and navigation of vessels. 3: ... At London, in 1580, the quantity of variation was found to be 11° 15' E.; in 1662, 6° E.; in 1634, 4° 5' E.; and in 1657, the needle coincided with the true poles of the world; so that a period of 87 years elapsed in changing the 11° 15' of easterly variation in that city to zero, or until the variation began to take a westerly direction. In 1672, the variation was 2° 30' W.; in 1723, 14° 17' W.; in 1747, 17° 40' W.; in 1780, 22° 41' W.; and in 1793, viz. 136 years after the time when the variation was zero, it was nearly 243' W.; and it is still nearly the Saille. At Paris, in 1550, the variation was 8° E.; and in . 1660, the needle pointed to the true poles of the world; in 1681, the variation was 2° 2' W.; in 1760, 18° 20'. W.; in 1804, 22° 20' W. Hence it follows, that, whilst the variation was undergoing an annual change of 1 O’ 4” during a period of 213 years in London, the yearly change at Paris during a term of 254 years was only 7’ 10”. At Dublin, in 1657, the needle coincided with the true poles of the world; and in 1791, the variation was 27°. 23' W.; exceeding the variation observed at London by 3° or 4°; and, consequently, the annual change during 134 years, must have been about 12' 10". While the variation was undergoing this change at London, Paris, and Dublin; we find very nearly a cor- responding change at Cape Aguillas, and at the Cape of . Good. Hope. - At the former of these, places there was no variation #It v ARIATION. * in 1600, and in 1692, it amounted to 11° W. And at the Cape of Good Hope, in 1700, the variation was near. ly 10° W.; and in 1791, it had increased to 24° 31'52" W.; so that during a period of 91 years, the annual change in the variation at the latter place, must have been about 9° 15'. - - - At St. Helena, the variation in 1600 was 8° E.; in 1692, 19 W.; in 1776, 1sº 15' W.; and in 1794, it was found to be 16° 16' W.; consequently, the mean annual change in the variation at this place, during a period of 194 years, has been at the rate of 7'52". - At Cape Comorin, in 1620, the variation was 14° 20' W.; in 1688, 7° 30'; in 1756, 0° 15' W.; and in 1816, there was still no variation at this place; therefore, dur- ing a period of 137 years, the mean annual change was 6' 17"; but this includes a term of 60 years, in which there appears to have been a very small change in the declination, viz. about 1.5” annually. The phenomena presented by the variation at Cape Horn and its vicinity, are extremely different from those observed at the Cape of Good Hope, Paris, and London. In 1683, in S. lat. 57° 27'. W. long. 57° 28′, the va- .riation was found to be 23° 10' E.: in 1775, in S. lat. 560 27'. W. long. 54°, the variation was 24° 23' E.: in 1786, in S. lat. 53°. W. long. 70}^, the variation was 22° 47' E.; and in 1795, in S. lat. 57°. W. long. 67°, the varia- tion was exactly 23° E. Hence it follows, that during a period of 112 years, the variation near Cape Horn has neither increased nor diminished in a perceptible man- In ef. At Cambridge, in Massachusetts, in 1708, the varia- tion was found to be 9° W.; and since that period, it has been diminishing at the rate of 13' annually; whilst at Ja- maica, Barbadoes, and Lima, the variation has under- gone no change during a period of 140 years. . In the northern hemisphere, in the parallel of Spitzbergen, Davis’s Straits, Hudson’s Bay, &c. the same quantity of variation appears to have existed during the space of 150 years. The quantity or variation from Cape Co- morin eastward, towards Nicobar islands, Java, Ceram, Amboyna, Timor, &c. is so very small, as seldom to in- duce navigators to advert to it in their calculations; and is subject to little or no change. It may, however, be worthy of remark, that 60 miles east from the coast of Coromandel, about the meridian of Madras, the varia- tion changes from east to west; and the same local changes probably take place on the coasts of Chili, Pe- ru, and Mexico. In 1704, from Valparaiso to Acapul- co, a distance of 50° of latitude, the variation was very inconsiderable; for from the former of these places to Linna, it never exceeds 3° E.; and from Lima to the lat- ter place, never more than 4° W. The greatest variation that the author, from whom the preceding abstract has been made, is acquainted with, is that which has been observed between Cape Farewell and Labrador, in Hudson’s Straits and Baffin’s Bay. In N. lat. 52°. W. long. 52°, it was found by the author above alluded to, to be 40° 10'53" W.; and as high as N. lat. 60°, in about the same longitude, it was found to be 508 or 52°; but he expresses some doubt whether this great excess of variation might not have been par- tially produced by the effects of local attraction. In 1616, in N. lat. 78°. W. long. 80° (Baffin's Bay), the variation was found to be 57° W.; and in 1757, N. lat. 62° W. long. 65°, the variation was 41° W.; and in the same year, in N. lat. 63°. W. long. 79°, the varia- tion was 43° W.; and in all these high latitudes, the va- riation still continues nearly the same. On the west side of America, in the same parallel of latitude as Davis’s Straits, Cape Farewell, &c. we per- ceive the variation assuming another character, and sel- dom exceeding half the quantity found at the above-men- tioned places. - In 1786, in N. lat. 53°. W. long. 145° 21' from Paris, the variation was from 23° to 24° E.; in the same year, in N. lat. 584°. W. long. 138°, it was 25° E.; and in Port des François, in N. lat; 58° 37'. W. long. 137° 30', the variation, as ascertained by the meridian line, amounted to 27° E. In 1793, in N. lat. 53°. W. long. 129°, the variation was only 20° 41' E.; and in 1794, in N. lat. 61° 17'. W. long. 149° 7', 29° 30' easterly variation was found the greatest quantity observed by Vancouver while on that coast. - But of all the places on the globe with which we are acquainted, none exhibit such wonderful phenomena in the variation as the coast of China, Corea, Tartary, Ja- pan, and Kamtschatka northward. In 1787, from Macao to N. lat. 41°. E. long. 136° from Paris, the quantity of westerly variation never ex- ceeded 2°; and from this last point to N. lat. 5,140. E. long. 1424°, where the variation was only 53' E., the quantity never exceeded 3°. In 1804, in N. lat. 52°. E. long. 143° from Paris, there was no variation; 16° farther to the E., and 4° to the S., 5° 20' of westerly variation was observed; and in 1779, in N. lat. 69° 55'. E. long. 195° 14' (Bhering's Straits), there was found 35° 37' E. variation. From observations made between 1700 and 1775, there appeared three places or points on the globe where the change in the variation was much greater than elsewhere. - * These were, first, in the middle of the Indian ocean, from 10° to 15° S. lat., and from 64° to 69° E. long., where the change was 11° and 11° 45'; secondly, in the Ethiopian sea, from 5° N., to 20 or 25° S. lat., and from 100 to 15° or 20° E. long., the change in the varia- tion was about 10°; and thirdly, at 50° N. lat., and be- tween 17° E. and 10° W. long., the change was nearly 1 18. In these different places, the variation has since continued to increase at nearly the same rate. During the same interval it was also ascertained, that there were four places or points on the globe where the variation has undergone no change. These were, first, from the eastern point of Africa to the farthest of the Bermuda islands; secondly, the envi- rons of the isle of Madagascar and part of Zanguebar; thirdly, that part of the ocean which is to the S. and S.E. of the Sunda islands, between them and New Holland; and fourthly, in the same sea, about 4° S. lat., and 970 E. long., that is, in the middle of the space comprised be- tween the western angle of New Holland and the south- ern point of Africa. In all these places, the variation did not vary perceptibly during 56 years. And it may be remarked, that observations made since the above period, have not shown any change worthy of notice in its quantity at the above-mentioned places. Some intelligent sea-officers are of opinion, that in the western part of the English Channel, the westerly varia- tion has begun to decline, whilst others assert, that the variation is still increasing in the Channel, and as far westward as W. long. 150, in N. lat. 51°; at which place they say the variation amounts to 30° W. Neither of these V A R I A T' I O N. these opinions, however, can, according to Mr. Bain, be relied on as correct, though each may have been de- duced from observation. If the head of the ship is on the east point of the compass at the time of observation, from 20° to 230 of variation will be observed; but on the other hand, if the ship’s head is at the west at the time, the observed variation will amount to 30° or 33°. The circumstance above alluded to, of the apparent variation being so much influenced by the local attrac- tion of the ship, is certainly of the highest importance; and the means which Mr. Bain has adopted of making it generally known are highly laudable: at the same time, we cannot but feel considerable doubt, after this fact is once pointed out, of the accuracy of many of the observations stated in the preceding pages, as several of these were made by persons wholly un- conscious of such an influence, which seems to have been entirely unknown till Mr. Wales, the astronomer, who sailed with Capt. Cook, first noticed the pheno- menon; and his observations have been since confirmed by Capt. Flinders; and Mr. Bain, in the work we have above alluded to, has added many additional facts to those before known, and to which we shall have again oc- casion to refer; but in the first place, it will be proper to insert a general table of variations in different latitudes, as given in the Philosophical Transactions for 1757, with additional observations of the above author. It may not be amiss to add here, as belonging to the history of this subject, that we owe the first variation chart to Dr. Halley. Previously to this period he had collected, and made, a multitude of observations on the variation of the needle in many parts of the world, and was enabled to draw on a Mercator's chart, lines show- ing the variation of the compass in the places through which they passed. But as the deviation of the magne- tic meridian from the true one was then, as now, sub- ject to continual alteration, this chart was soon found useless. However, in 1744, Mountain and Dobson published a new variation chart, adapted to that year; which being well received, they published a second, adapted to 1756; and a third in the following year: the last we know of. Nicholson strongly recommends the employment of the variation as a means of finding the longitude at Sea; but navigators are long since convinced of its in- adequacy. Vancouver, speaking of this subject, says, “This very able seaman, Nicholson, still wedded to for- merly-adopted opinions, strongly recommends the varia- tion of the compass as a means of ascertaining the longi- tude at sea; yet, had we been no better provided, we might have searched for the Cape of Good Hope, agreea- ble to his propositions, to little effect; for when we were in lat. 35° 7' S., with 20° 16' W. variation, we had only reached the long. of 6° 30' W.; and again, when in lat. 35° 22' S., with 220 7' W. variation, we had only advan- ced to the long. of 110 25", instead of being, according to Mr. Nicholson’s hypothesis, in the first instance, near- ly under the meridian of the Cape of Good Hope, and in the second, under that of Cape Aguillas; and it was not until we had nearly 26° W. variation, that we ap- proached the meridian of the Cape of Good Hope. The observations for the variation were made with the great- est care and attention; and though generally considered as correct, they differed from one to three, and some- times to four degrees; not only when made by different compasses, placed in different situations on board, and the ships on different tacks, but by the same compass in the same situation, and at moderate intervals of time; the difference in the results of such observations, at the same time, not preserving the least degree of uniformity. Hence the assertion amounts nearly to an absurdity, which states, ‘ that with 200 to 200 10', or 200 30' wester- ly variation, you will be certain of such and such longi- tudes;’ and it is greatly to be feared, that navigators who rely on such means for ascertaining their situation in the ocean, will render themselves liable to errors that may be attended with the most fatal consequences. A TABLE V AR I. A T J O N: A TABLE exhibiting the Changes of Variation from the Year 1700, in the most frequented Seas. A § * Lat. Long Year'variation Year. Variation \Year. Variation. Lat. Long Year. Variatiºn Year. Variation Year. Variation Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. - Deg. 50N. 5W.]1700 74 W.1756, 194 1814, 27; W. 20N.) 60E. 1700 123 |1757| 6 W. 5O || “10 7; | 19% 20 70 9% 2} 50 15 8} 2O 2O 90 3} 1 E. 5O 2O 9 2O 15 2OW l; 9 W. 1772 l l W. 50 25 93. 2O 15 25 O} 6; 1800. 96, 45 5 6 16; 1776|| 25 15 35 l; 3# - 45 10 6# 16# 22} 15 45 . 2% l E. 45 1 5 6% 16 15 55 4. 3} 45 2O 7 16 15 60 5 5 45 25 7% 15% 15 70 6 7 45 3O 8 15% 1 5 80 7: . 8 45 || 35 8#. 15 1 5 || 50E. 154W. 93. 45 40 9% 15% 15 55 14% 73 45 45 10} | 6 1 5 60 1 14 6 -45 5O 11% 17 I 5 || 65 93. 4} 45 55 12} 18 1813, 234 I 5 7O 8 2: 45 60 13# 18% 20} 1 5 80 53 O 40 10 5 15} || 79 || 264 1 5 85 43 0; 40 2O 5} 13; 1775) 18: 15 90 33 O} 40 3O 5} 11+ 1 5 95 24 of W. 40 40 5} 1 O | 8 || 3: 19 1 O 15W 1} 1 O 40 5O 6 O# 1 O 2O 0; 8 1772 9 40 60 6# | 1 1 O 25 O} E. 54 |1800 74 46) 70 *| 7 12# 10 3O l 3 -35 1 O 4} 14} |1800 184 10 35 13 |1756. 1 E. 35 2O 4. 13 I O 45 3# 2% *35 3O 3# 10} I () 55 5 5#. 35 40 3# 7# l 775 IO IO 60 6; 6; 35 50 3# 5% 1 O 5OE. 16 W. 10 * W. 35 60 3# 5} 1 O 55 15 8 35 7O 2} 6; 10 60 13; 6 30 1 O 3# 13; 1O 65 12 4% 3O H. 15 3# 12 1791. 164 I O 70 1 O 3 3O 25 2# 9 $. 1 O || 75 8 l E. 30 35 2% 7 10 80 5; O} 30 40 1# 54 ||775|| 8 10 || 90 3# O} 3O 50 O# 1757 3 10 || 95 2} Oy W. 3O 60 O#E. 2} 5 O 4} l 5+ 3O 7O 1} 13 5 IOW. l; ll # 1772. 13.1 30 8O 2# O 5 2O O 7+ 1776 loi 25 2O 2 10, 1800 15 5 25 I E 4} iso(; 9° 25 3O 1% 7; 5 35 2} O# 25 40 O# 3; 1775, 6 5 45 4} 4. 25 5O O# } 5 55 6} 6} 25 6O 2 14E. 5 5E. 64W 164W. 25 7O 3# 24 5 | Q 7# . 173 25 8O 4} 3 5 45 16# 13: 25 6O E. 123 W. 6 W. 5 5O 16# | l 25 7O 10} 23 5 55 15% 84 2O 25 W. 1% 8 1800 1 1 5 6O 144 6 2O 35 O#E. 4. 5 65 123 4} 2O 45 1} 0} 5 || 70 103 I # 2O 55 2# 2 E. 5 75 83 O# 20 65 4} 4. 5 8O 6} 04 E. 20 75 6# 54 5 85 4% }} à-dº- TABLE V A R I A T I O N. TABLE-Continued. Lat L : • T. ong- Year. Variation. Year. V ariation Year. *Variation Lat L D --- - º ong. Year. Variati & . * * § ! º:# º Deg. De D * Year. Variation. Year. Variation 5 :: *|zoo :#WH1736 ºf * | *s, *ś, Deg. 1756 De O O i | 11}w ió ºwlſo 3 E. *w. Deg. 154 J 4. • ºw. | # | |# |;,] . . |}|...}º " - 4. O † - -º-, O O 15 ; 1 1 1772] 144 W 10 ić E. 53W. is w. 2 O 15 i 9 ** IO 15 73 16# O 2O § 9 10 | 40 94 173 () # E. 64. l 83. 4. 25 1% 2 1 O || 45 4, 194 O 3O 2 4. 191. 18 * 2} 1 O || 50 2 O 35 1 - || 04 |1800. 53 1 O 18} l 44 3: 14. E 2. 5.5 17 Zº O 40 4% 2 *—- 1 O || 6 10; 45 55 2 1 O 65 4. 7} O 5 3 5 144. 5 O 67; 1 O || 70 2 O 5 E 6 W 6} 1 O 12% 3.1 O 10 73 164W. 1 O 75 103 .* O | 40 16# 17+ | | . 8# I O Z, I 63. 85 63. T 45 | 73 4. 1 O 4. O O || 5 O iží 1.4% 10 . 5 of O 55 isi l l; 1 O 5 3} lº O || 60 iší 8; ; : 2# 2 O 65 igi 6 10 1 O 5 2 23 O 70 # 4} l 1 10 l 3i O || 75 '# 3# ; 34 14 O 8O # J 15 5.W. l; 12 1. O 85 Zł O] E. I () O1 91 1775. 12; } | . 4% 1° 1780 0 l 5 || 20 ; “ 7 : O J 3# O4 W’ 80 0} E. 15 || 25 33 5 1772] 4: ... 1 OO 24 2 " . . 15 Zº I 5 S. 5 W ź #" lyril 12,w} is lº 5 2 E 5 1 O 2} l 31 13: " ' 5 35 61. , “ſº 9 5 l 103. Zº 1 5 || 40 73 44 1800 0# * 15 O # 15 5 E {w 6% . . . 11 E. * || | 15 | 10 " # 15+ W. i. Zº | 8 l * : . *} ; so * | * | * 19; ; 41 23 15 50 9} 5 5 E. 6°w l Z; E. 1 5 55 204 l 64 5 10 71 e 6 W. 15 193 13; 5 | 40 13° 17 ;: ||. 184 9° 5 45 181 17 l 5 68 17 6 5 50 igi º 1 5 º: 153 44 5 55 17% 2} 1 5 || 8 14 31. 5 60 16i 94 ;: | * 12 2i. 5 |. 2. 64. 85 l O 2 65 l 43. 4í 1 5 90 2} : ſº 13° º 1 5 || 95 *} 2} 5 5 | 1 l 15 || 100 ** 2# 1780. 2; 8O 15 3+W Z; 5 || 90 . 03 E. ; 19. 2% 5 95 33 0; 2O ºw 3} 134 |1775|| 13% 5 || 100 º O}W. 2O e l; 113 Z, | O 5 E 14 10 O# E Z, | O 1 O # 14; 2O 15 lí, § 1O 15 ºir 12; 1755] 1 14 3. 39 3 3° lizza 8: 10 || 20 # * | | |} 33 ||. # | | } Zº 4. - Vol. XXXVIII. # 1772' 93. 20 35 73 # E. 1800. 14 2 Q lºſſº 4 E. TABLE V A R I A T I O N. TABLE-Continued. - Lat. Long. Year. variation Year variation: Year i Variation. Lat. Long. Year, Variation Year-IVariation. Year. Variation. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg, Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. 20 S. 40 W.[1700 94E, 1756, 7} E. 30 S 35 E. 1770 204 W.]1756. 243W. 20 5 E. 5} W.] 15% W.] 30 || 40 21; 25} 20 10 7+ { 16+ 30 || 45 23 24; 2O 15 93. 173 3O || 50 23# 23# 2O 3 | 9 22 30 || 55 23 2 1 2O | 40 20} 22 3O || 60 21; 18 2O 45 2}} 2.1% 3O || 65 20% 15- 2O 50 214 18; 3O || 70 18; 13 2O 55 * 20.1 I 5 3O || 75 174 l 13. 2O 66) igi "| 1 }} 30 80 15; 10; 2 65 183 8 3G | 85 14 10# 2O 70 16# 6 18OO 9W. 30 || 90 12} 9} 2O 75 ; 15 4; 30 || 95 10% 9 20 | 80 J 3# 4; 3O || OO # 9 20 | 85 114 4# 3. O 2; 103 |1800. 14 W. 2O 9 O IO 4% 35 5 W. O 9 12; 2O 95 8 4; 35 | 10 2# E. 7; 1 O 2O || 1 OO 64 4% 35 | 1.5 4% 5% 9 2O 105 43 4; 35 | 20 6# 2#. 25 O 3 12} 35 || 25 # O} E. 25 5 W. l 1 O 3 30 lož 3 25 || 1 O i E. 7} | 35 | 35 12% 5: 25 15 24 4} 35 5 E. 5 W. 13; W.]1772 14, 25 2O 4. 2#. 35 | 10 7# 15; | 6 25 25 6 1 E. 1772; 14 35 | 1.5 93. 17; 1800 224 25 3O 71. 3; 1800 0} 35 | 20 12# 193 |1775 21; 25 || 35 9i 6. 1776|| 34E. 35 25 153. 22# 1791 25; 25 40 1 1 6} 35 | 30 18% 24; 28 25 5 E. 51 W. 14; W. 1775] 17W. 35 35 21 26 2 1 O 7? I 6 || 19 35 | 40 223 26; 25 35 9i 173 35 | 45 24% 26% 27 25 40 194 23# 35 50 24; 24; 25 45 21 23# 35 | 55 24; 23 26 25 50. 221 23 3 60 23 21 25 60 22* 18 1780, 19 35 | 65 21; 183 2 65 204 1.4% 35 || 7 O 19; 16# 25 7O 19; J.1% 35 | 75 18#. 154 25 75 17; 9; 35 | 80 16; 144 25 || 8O 16# 8." 35 | 85 l 5 13} 25 85 143 74 35 | 90 13; 12; 25 90 1 3 74 40 O 2} 94 25 95 114 7 40 5.W. 03 E. 63 25 || OO 94 6 40 || 50 3# 4; 3O O 2+ 113 40 20 5% 1% r 30 5 W. O} 9} 40 || 25 8 14 E. 3 1 O 1} E. 6} | 1772| 7 40 || 30 10} 4. 30 15 3# 3# 40 5 E. 4;W. 6; 3 2O 5 # 40 || 1 O 7} 12 W. 30 J 25 74 2 E. 1800, 1} 40 || 1 5 93. 14; 1772, 194 | 3O 30 9 # 40 || 20 12; 17, 1776. 234 30 H 35 1 l 7; 40 || 25 16 2O 30 5 E. 5 W. 183W. 40 || 30 19 223 30 10 74 154 |1775, 18 40 || 35 21; 25} |1791 33 3O 15 94 18 2O 40 l 40 23# 27 30 || 30 17% 23# 1780) 26; 40 45 25} 284 Of V A R IAT I O N. of the Curves of no Variation.—In the preceding part of this article, we have principally alluded to the variation east or west, at different times and in different places; but it is no less interesting to trace the curve in which no variation is observed. We have seen, that there are certain points in the northern and southern hemispheres where the needle points to the true poles of the world; these points, however, are not all situated on the same meridian, but form an irregular curve, inflect- ed different ways, and in perpetual motion. In the northern hemisphere, a curve of no variation moved from west to east during two centuries prior to 1662. This curve first passed the Azores, then the meridian of London, and, after a certain number of years, the meridian of Paris. But in the southern he- misphere, there was another curve of no variation mov- ing from east to west. This curve first passed Cape Aguillas, and then the Cape of Good Hope; the wester- ly variation following the easterly, the same as in the northern hemisphere, but in a contrary direction. And from the observations that have since been made, it ap- pears that the curve of no variation in the northern he- misphere, after passing the meridian of London and Paris, has discontinued its eastern progress; while the curve of no variation in the southern hemisphere, still , continues its course north-westward. The variation on the east side of the curve of no varia- tion, which passed the meridian of Aguillas in 1600, and extended north and south to a high degree of latitude in both hemispheres, being westerly; and the curve which passed the meridian of London in 1662 being easterly; it follows, that the curve which passed London could not reach beyond the 18th degree of east longi- tude, as the denomination of the variation was the same eastward of that meridian in 1600 that it now is, namely, westerly. The exact point where the southern curve of no variation passed the northern curve cannot be sa- tisfactorily ascertained; but it is known, that while the northern curve passed London eastward, the southern curve passed westward in nearly the same longitude. Dampier, in his voyage to the East Indies in 1669, found, that from 6° south latitude and 25° west longi- tude, to the point where the 37th degree of south lati- tude was intersected by the meridian of Greenwich, the variation was easterly, but never exceeding 13°; at which latter point the easterly variation was 0, and thence became westerly, and continued to increase to 47° E. long., and 25° S. lat., where it appears to have attained its maximum; i. e. 25° or 26° W.; and from this point the variation gradually diminished, till it again assumed another denomination in S. lat. 10°, and E. long. 125°; and from this last point, as far north of the equator as 10°, the variation appears to have then been, as it still is, influenced by local attractions; the quantity being always small, sometimes east, and at others west. Captain Cook, in 1772, in S. lat. 6°, and W. long. 16°, found 9° 30' westerly variation; and in S. Jat. 24°, and W. long. 23° 5 l', found only 39' west variation. From this point the westerly variation gradually increased, as the southern latitude and eastern longitude augmented to 96° of east longitude, and 60° 49' south latitude, where it attained its maximum; i. e. 43°45' west. From this last point is rapidly decreased, and became east in S. lat. 58°53', and E. long. 143° 40'. But as the tract of D’Entrecasteaux, in 1791, nearly coincides with Dampier's in 1669, the change in the position of the curve of no variation, will be best illustrated by a come parison of their respective observations. D’Entrecasteaux found the variation in S. lat. 6°, and W. long. 25°, to be 7° 15' west; and in S. lat. 25°, and W. long. 25°, only 1° 56' west; from which last point it again increased as the west longitude diminished, till the meridian of Greenwich intersected the 33d degree of south latitude, where the variation was 15° west; and it attained its maximum of 30° 48' 9” in S. lat. 34° 52', and E. long. 38° 14′ 18” from Paris; and from hence, to S. lat. 44°, and W. long. 133°, the variation continued Westerly, but it there changed and became east. The space between the two curves, observed by Dam- pier in 1669, reached from the meridian of Greenwich to 130° E. long.; and the distance between them, ac- cording to D’Entrecasteaux, in 1791, must be 155°, Dampier having cut the curve in 80° E. long, and the other in 25° W. The curve of no variation must therefore have advanced from the westward annually about 16', in the parallel of 34° south latitude, to have shifted its place 25° in ninety-two years, and at a yearly rate of 14' 8" from the time it passed Cape Aguillas in 1600 to 1791. This curve is now known to extend across the magnetic and terrestrial equators, to a point in N. lat. 37° 27', and W. long. 70° 44'. From a comparison of the above results, and others drawn from the observations of captain Flinders, and the Russian navigator Krusenstern, it appears, that a curve of no variation bending westward, extends from the highest degree of southern latitude, in about 144° E. long. to 52° N. lat. in the same parallel, intersecting the equator in 130° E. long. Now from the observations of La Perouse and Krusenstern, the westerly variation ceased, and the curve of no variation terminated in about 52° N. lat., and 153° E. long.; for the variation north- east of this point assumes another character; and 18° farther north, and 52° to the east, captain Cook found near 36° of easterly variation. It appears also, from a comparison of observations made in Persia and the frontiers of China by Schubert, with those of Perouse, Krusenstern, and others, made on board his majesty’s ship Sybille by Mr. Bain, that a curve of no variation again takes its rise in about 52° N. lat., and 143° E. long., and terminates a little east from Spitzbergen, extending in a direction nearly east by south, and west by north, through 6780 miles of longi- tude. Biot, in speaking of this subject, says, “ that a curve of no variation seems to take its rise in the great Southern ocean, passing through the western part of New Holland, traverses the Indian ocean, enters the continent of Asia at Cape Comorin, and thence passes through Persia and West Siberia, and proceeds towards Lapland. But what is more remarkable, that line di- vides itself into two in the great Asian archipelago, and gives rise to another branch, which, pointing directly from the south to the north, passes that archipelago, traverses China, and is again found in Eastern Siberia, The'existence of this branch, and its separation from the former, are clearly indicated by the observations made in the Chinese seas; but I am able to offer a still farther confirmation of it, by the observations made in . Russia and the frontiers of China, by the celebrated astronomer Schubert, who has been kind enough to communicate them to me;” which latter are the observations spoken of above. 2 q 2 We V A R I. A T I O N. We have seen that a curve of no-variation, extending from 60° of south latitude to 52° of north latitude, in about 143° east longitude, but taking a small bend to the westward, is intersected by the meridian of Amboy- na: and by comparing with each other different obser- vations made by Mr. Wales, in his voyage with captain Cook, and those of Vancouver in 1791, and others made by sir Home Popham, and by Humboldt, it appears, that from the westerly part of the curve of no variation, found in about 130° east of the meridian of Greenwich, where the westerly changes to an easterly variation, to the meridian where the easterly variation was found to ter- minate by captain Cook, S. lat. 58° 27'. W. long. 13° IO’, the distance east and west will be 216° 50'. To the meridian of Perouse, S. lat. 20° 39'. W. long. 28° 38', the distance is 201° 22'. To the meridian of Vancouver, S. lat. 35°. W. long. 28', the distance is 202°. To the meridian of sir H. Popham, S. lat. 30°. W. long. 26°, the distance is 204°. To the meridian of Humboldt, N. lat. 13°. W. long. 59°, the distance (taking the mean) is 171°. And if the curve of no variation extends to N. lat, 37° 27'. W. long. 70° 40', the easterly variation in that pa- rallel will only measure 158° 16'. These different distances point out, under different parallels of latitude, the direction which the curve of no variation at present assumes; and we may perhaps con- clude, that the variation of the magnetic needle is caused by two different and distinct systems of magnetic forces; the one producing a westerly variation in the northern he- misphere, over the space of 200° 44'; and in the southern hemisphere, in the same parallel of latitude, of 143° 10'. and the other an easterly variation in the northern he- misphere, over a space of 159° 16'; and on the southern, of 216° 50'. From these facts it would seem, that the north end of the curve, which passed Cape Aguilias in 1600 north westward, was in 1804 found to extend from S. lat. 60° W. long. 13° 10', to N. lat. 37° 27'. W. long. 70° 40', intersecting the 13th degree of north latitude, and the 21st, 30th, and 35th of south latitude; whence the medi- um rate of its motion is found about 26;' annually: but it is extremely probable, that the south end of this curve has during the same period remained stationary; and this difference in the motion of the two extremes of the curve in the southern hemisphere, may perhaps point out to us the reason why the quantity of variation should have continued the same off Cape Horn during 133 years, while at the Cape of Good Hope, Paris, and London, it should have increased 25° or 27° in the same period. The curve of no variation which passed through Lon- don eastward, about the same time the curve in the southern hemisphere passed the meridian of Greenwich westward, appears to have been lost among the smaller magnetic powers at present found in the continent of Europe and Asia. The viewsyhich we have given of this perplexing sub- ject, deduced from actual observation, renders it obvi- ous that all attempts, by theory, to fix on charts the ex- act positions of the curves of no variation, or lines of given variation, must prove, as they have always hither- to done, entirely abortive. There are indeed places in the world, such as Spitzbergen, Cape Horn, Chili, and Mexico, the great Asian archipelago, the coast of Co- romandel, Peru, Brasil, &c., where the curve of varia- tion, and the variation itself, has not undergone any per- * ceptible change since first observed; but we have good reasons to believe, that at all the above-mentioned places the variations are regulated by incidental magnetic at- tractions, which are lost or merged in the two great pow- ers already described, at a little distance from their re- spective spheres. In all other places of the globe, it is continually undergoing a regular and progressive change; but it is impossible accurately to determine when this change may cease, or to foresee what quan- tity our present westerly variation may attain, though there is some reason to believe it has very nearly or en- tirely arrived at its maximum. At present, we have spoken only of those great and in some measure continued changes in the variation which takes place, and become very obvious after a long period; but there are others of a more minute quantity, and of daily, and we might add of hourly occurrence, to which it will be proper to refer in the present article. Mr. George Graham made several observations of this kind in the years 1722 and 1723, professing himself alto- gether ignorant of the cause of the variation which he ob- served. Phil. Trans. N° 383, or Abr. vol. vii. p. 290, &c. About the year 1750, Mr. Wargentin, secretary of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Sweden, took notice both of the regular diurnal variation of the needle, and also of its being disturbed at the time of the aurora borealis, as recorded in the Phil. Trans, vol. xlvii. p. 126, &c. About the year 1756, Mr. Canton commenced a se- ries of observations, amounting to nearly 4000, with an excellent variation-compass, of about nine inches diame- ter. The number of days on which these observations were made was 603, and the diurnal variation on 574 of them was regular; i. e. the absolute variation of the needle westward was increasing from about eight or nine o’clock in the morning till about one or two in the afternoon, when the needle became stationary for some time; after that, the absolute variation westward was de- creasing, and the needle came back again to its former situation, or near it, in the night, or by the next morning. The diurnal variation is irregular when the needle moves slowly eastward in the latter part of the morning, or westward in the latter part of the afternoon; also when it moves much either way after night, or suddenly both ways in a short time. These irregularities seldom hap- pen more than once or twice in a month, and are always accompanied, as far as Mr. Canton observed, with an aurora borealis. Mr. Canton lays down and evinces by experiment the following principle, viz. that the attractive power of the magnet (whether natural or artificial) will decrease while the magnet is heating, and increase while it is cooling. He then proceeds to account for both the re- gular and irregular variation. It is evident, he says, that the magnetic parts of the earth in the north on the east side, and the magnetic parts of the earth in the north on the west side of the magnetic meridian, equally at- tract the north end of the needle. If then the eastern magnetic parts are heated faster by the sun in the morn- ing than the western, the needle will move westward, and the absolute variation will increase: when the at- tracting parts of the earth on each side of the magnetic meridian have their heat increasing equally, the needle will be stationary, and the absolute variation will then be greatest; but when the western magnetic parts are either heating faster, or cooling slower than the eastern, the needle will move eastward, or the absolute variation will decrease; and when the eastern and western magnetic parts V A R I A T O N. parts are cooling equally fast, the needle will again be stationary, and the absolute variation will then be least. By this theory, the diurnal variation in the summer ought to exceed that in winter; and accordingly it is found by observation, that the diurnal variation in the months of June and July is almost double that of De- cember and January. The irregular diurnal variation must arise from some other cause than that of heat communicated by the Sun; and here Mr. Canton had recourse to subterranean heat, which is generated without any regularity as to time, and which will, when it happens in the north, affect the attractive power of the magnetic parts of the earth on the north end of the needle. That the air nearest the earth will be most warmed by the heat of it, is obvious; and this has been frequently taken notice of in the morning, before day, by means of thermometers at different distances from the ground. Phil. Trans. vol. xlviii. p. 526. Mr. Canton has annexed to his paper on this subject a complete year’s observation; from which it appears that the diurnal variation increases from January to June, and decreases from June to December. Phil. Trans. vol. li. p. 398, &c. It has also been observed, that different needles, espe- cially if touched with different load-stones, will differ a few minutes in their variation. See Poleni Epist. Phil. Trans. N° 42 1. We shall here subjoin a method practised by M. Du Hamel, who was one of those who attempted, and succeeded in the preparation of artificial magnets, for enlarging the scale of the variation. At each extremity of the needle, composed of two magnetic bars, and which is fourteen inches long, a slender pointed piece of steel is erected perpendicularly; and at the distance of fifty-two feet, in the direction of the needle, he has placed on two pillars, and in a line perpendicular to that direction, a graduatcd limb six feet long; being a seg- ment of a supposed circle, described from the centre on which the needle turns. The observer, placing himself so as to bring the two pieces of steel at the extremities of the bar into a line with the eye, observes where that line prolonged, or the visual ray, points to the grad- uated arc. As, at this distance, each of these degrees measures a foot, the true direction of the needle is as- certained with the greatest precision; and lest the ob- server’s eyes may not be good enough to enable him to see distinctly the particular divisions at that distance, an assistant occasionally moves a certain index, conforma- bly to his direction. Hist. de l’Acad, Roy. des Scienc. Paris, for 1772, part ii. Mem. 2. On the Effect of the local Attraction of the Shift uſion the Variation of the .Veedle.—We have already had oc- casion to notice the necessity of attending to the direc- tion of the ship’s head, in observations made on ship- board relative to the direction of the compass; and that this may have a very sensible effect will appear very obvious, when we recollect the quantity of iron with which a ship of war, in particular, is generally loaded; and that this is mostly forward, while the compass is generally aft. The great attraction between the iron and the needle is generally known; and consequently, if we could imagine the magnetic power of the earth to cease entirely, we should have no difficulty in conceiv- ing that the attraction of the guns, &c. would incline the needle to assume a direction coinciding with that of the vessel; and consequently, when the magnetic meri- dian and the direction of the ship are the same, that is, when the vessel lies north and south, both forces acting in the same manner, the position of the needle will be the same as if no such local attraction existed. But if the ship’s head is put over to the east or the west, then the local attraction of the ship will incline the needle to the east and west, while the terrestrial attraction will draw it towards the north; and it will, therefore, assume a direction which corresponds with the resultant of these two distinct forces: and we may observe, that the direc- tion of this resultant would furnish, if well observed, most important data towards determining the intensity of this mysterious power. Simple and obvious as this idea is, it does not appear to have been formed till Mr. Wales, the astronomer in captain Cook’s voyages, was struck with certain irregu- larities, which he could in no way at first account for, and of which we have the following account in the Intro- duction to the astronomical observations in the Second. Voyage. “In the English Channel, the extremes of the ob- served variation were from 194° to 25°; and all the way to the Cape of Good Hope, I had frequently observed differences nearly as great, without being able in any way to account for them; the difference in the situation being by no means sufficient. These irregularities con- tinued after leaving the Cape, which at length put me upon examining into the circumstances under which they were made. In this examination it soon appeared, that when most of these observations were made, where- in the greatest variation had happened, the ship's head was north and easterly; and that when those #. it. was the least had been taken, it was south and westerly. I mentioned this to captain Cook, and some of the offi- cers, who did not at first seem to think much of it; but as opportunities happened, some observations were made under those circumstances, and very much contributed to confirm my suspicions; and throughout the whole voy- age, I had good reason to believe that variations obser- ved, with the shift’s head in different fiositions, and even in different farts of her, will differ very materially from one another, and much more will observations made on board different ships, which I now find fully verified, on comparing those made on board the Adventure with my own, made about the same time in the Resolu- tion.” Mr. Wales again recurs to this subject, in the course. of his astronomical observations made in Cook’s third voyage, and points out the quantity of the deviation in . several cases; yet the true cause of these anomalies does not appear to have suggested itself to this able astrono- mer: he merely states the results, but offers no explai nation of them. Nor does it appear that they were af-. terwards particularly noticed by any navigator, till cap- tain Finders’s attention was called to the subject in the early part of his last voyage. Here that experienced . navigator found such unaecountable differences in the quantity of variation, deduced from the different obser- vations he occasionally made, that he determined on in- stituting an inquiry into their causes; and, if possible, to ascertain the laws by which they were regulated. “Several instances,” he observes, “ have been mention- ed in the course of this voyage, where the compass show- ed a different variation, on being removed from one part of the ship to another. Thus, observations on the bin- nacle V ARIA TI O N. nacle gave 294° off the Start, where the true variation was 25%"; whilst others taken from the booms before the main-mast, 68 miles lower down the Channel, gave only 24°; and in the experiments made with five compasses, the mean variation on the binnacle was 4° 37' greater than on the booms. - “It soon became evident, however, that keeping the compass to one spot was not alone sufficient to secure accuracy: a change in the direction of the ship’s head was also found to make a difference in the needle; and it was necessary to ascertain the nature and proportional quantity of this difference, before a remedy could be ap- plied. This inquiry was attended with many difficulties, and no satisfactory conclusion could be drawn, until a greater variety of observations was collected. It then appeared, that when the ship’s head was on the east side of the meridian, the differences were mostly one way; and when on the west side, they were the contrary: whence I judged that the iron in the ship had an attrac- tion on the needle, which drew it forward. But there was this remarkable distinction: in the northern hemis- phere, it was the north end of the needle which was at- tracted; and in the southern hemisphere, it was the south end. In the instances off the Start, before cited, when the ship's head was west, the north end of the needle had been drawn forward, or to the left of the north, nearly 4°, and the west variation thereby increased to 29}*; with the head at east, it would be drawn to the right of its natural position, and the variation diminished to about 213"; but at north, the attraction of the ship was in the same line with the magnetic poles of the earth, and would, therefore, produce no change. The same thing took place at south, for the two attractions were still in the same continued line, though on opposite sides of the compass; and throughout the voyage, I found the variation, taken with the head at north and south, agreed very nearly in themselves, and with the observations themselves near the same place, when such observations were not affected by local attractions.” The following table contains a few of the instances, where the change in the variation was observed by cap- tain Flinders. TABLE of Variations observed in a Voyage of Discovery to Terra Australis, in 1801 and 1802, by captain Flinders, - in His Majesty’s Ship Investigator. - - Tima. Latitude. Longitude. Ship’s Head. Variation. Difference. Remarks. D. M. D. M. D. M. D. M. - 18O1 ; : N. f s: W. West. : ; W. ; Off the Start. - 16 5 G e º - : : -- i. ; § § º : : ; Off the African coast. . 1802 || 35 48 S. 139 3 E. W. by S. 5 l l E. ) 35 49- 139 12 S.E. o 50 w. |& 6 | Encounter Bay. 36 42 1 39 50 . S.S.E. A. E. O 25 E. 37 3O 1 39 40 South. 4. 8 37 50 1 39 4 l S.E. by S. 2 39 ; I 29 || Off Cape Buffoon. 37 56 l 39 4 l S.S.E. 2 2 - 37 5.5 l 39 48 N.E. 2 2 39 38 144 40 W. S. W. | 1 52 £º - º 39 38 l 44 l South. 7 59 : 3 50 Bass Straits. 38 36 144 20 N.E. by E. & E. 3 41 3 7 38 38 144, 30 N.N.E. g. E. 6 48 : J. - 9 e e © : : #: 1 O Wºw . : W } 5 16 At Anchor in Goose Bay. 34, 5 135 9 S.E. by E 1 33 5 28 34, 6 135 9 S.W. by W. 3 56 E. ; 34 7 137 19 S.W. by S. 4 48 & 34 6 137 16 E. by N. O 1 O W. { 4 48 Off Point Pearce. 34 22 1 37 2 l S.E. O 35 2 40 34 42 137 14 S.S.W. 3 1.5 : 6 18 e º 22 - * * * * : . º G S ºw : 27 W. ; 2 59 || At anchor off St. Vincent. 32 30 125 25 E. by N. 7 25 32 32 125 40 South. 4, 26 } 2 49 || Off South Cape. 32 24 125 55 N.E. 6 H3 1 55 32 7 126 23 S. by E. 4, 18 32 1.7 128 1 E. by N. Ö 4 2 56 32 15 128 2 S. by E. 3 8. 32 23 1 32 39 E. by N. 2 49 - • 1 32 sº S. 4 º O 19 ; 3 8 Nuyt's Archipelago. & 2 * @ - 4. After V A R IAT I O N. After various other observations, and much examina- tion, (for the needle was not always deflected the same quantity, when the position of the ship was the same,) captain Flinders found that the errors had a close con- hection with the dip. When the north end of the needle had dipped, it was the north point of the compass that had been attracted by the iron of the ship; and as that dip diminished, so had the attraction, until at the mag- metic equator; where the dipping-needle stands ho- rizontal, there seemed to have been no attraction; and, upon the whole, it seemed probable that “the error produced at any direction of the ship’s head would be to the error at east or west, at the same dip, as the sine of the angle between the ship’s head and the magne- tic meridian was to be the sine of eight points or radius.” After captain Flinders's arrival in England, he made application to the lords commissioners of the Admiralty to have experiments tried on board some of his majes- ty’s ships, that the observations made during his voyage might be verified; and a series of observations was ac- cordingly made on board five different ships at Sheer- ness and Portsmouth, which fully established the accu- racy of his former conclusions. Should this rule, upon farther trial, be found to an- swer under all circumstances, we must consider it as a most important acquisition to our present know- ledge of navigation; but those who wish fully to appre- ciate all the consequences of this discovery, should con- sult Bain’s treatise on the “Variation of the Compass,” to which work we have been much indebted in the com- position of this article, and where they will find every information of a practical kind connected with the sub- €Ct. J Theory of the Variation of the JVeedle.—Dr. Halley, as we have already stated, was the first who attempted any theory relative to the variation of the compass; and from the observations which he collected, many of which are included in our preceding remarks, he con- ceived “ that the whole globe of the earth is one great magnet, having four magnetical poles, or points of at- traction; near each pole of the equator two; and that in those parts of the world which lie nearly adjacent to any one of these magnetical poles, the needle is governed thereby; the nearest pole being always predominant over the more remote.” The pole which at present is nearest to us, he conjec- tures to lie in or near the meridian of the Land’s-End of England, and not above 7° from the Arctic pole: by this pole the variations in all Europe and Tartary, and the North sea, are principally governed; though still with some regard to the other northern pole, whose situation is in the meridian passing about the middle of Califor- nia, and about 15° from the north pole of the world, to which the needle has chiefly respect in all North Ame- rica, and in the two oceans on either side thereof, from tº: , Azores, westwards, to Japan, and farther. The two southern poles, he imagines, are rather far- ther distant from the south pole of the world; the one about 16°, in a meridian 20° to the westward of Magel- lan straits, or 95° west from London: this commands the needle in all South America, in the Pacific sea, and the greatest part of the Ethiopic ocean. The other seems to have the greatest power, and the largest domi- nion of all, as it is the most remote from the pole of the world, being distant from it little less than 20°, in the me- sidian which passes through New Holland, and the isl- and Celebes, about 120° east from London; this pole is predominant in the south part of Africa, in Arabia, and the Red sea, in Persia, India, and its islands, and all over the Indian sea, from the Cape of Good Hope eastwards, to the middle of the Great South sea that divides Asia. from America. Such appears to have been the disposition of the mag- netic attraction in the time of Dr. Hailey; and from these data this author draws the following conclusions; viz. 1. Then, it is plain that, as our European north pole is in the meridian of the Land’s-End of England, all places more easterly than that will have it on the west side of the meridian; and, consequently, the needle, re- specting it with its northern point, will have a westerly variation, which will still be greater as you go to the eastward, till you come to some meridian of Russia, where it will be the greatest, and from thence will decrease again. Accordingly, in fact, we find, that at Brest the variation is but 14°; at London, 44° (in 1683); and at Dantzic, 7° west. Again, to the westward of the meridian of the Land’s-End, the needle ought to have an easterly varia- tion, were it not that, by approaching the American nor- thern pole, (which lies on the west side of the meridian, and seems to be of greater force than this other,) the needle is drawn thereby westward, so as to counterba- lance the direction given by the European pole, and to make a small west variation in the meridian of the Land’s-End itself. Yet, about the isle of Tercera, it is supposed our nearest pole may so far prevail as to give the needle a little turn to the east, though but for a very little space; the counterbalance of those two poles ad- mitting no considerable variation in all the eastern parts of the Atlantic ocean, nor upon the west coasts of Eng- land and Ireland, France, Spain, and Barbary. But to the westward of the Azores, the powers of the Ame- rican pole overcoming that of the European, the nee- dle has chiefly respect to this, and turns still more and more towards it as we approach it. Whence it happens, that on the coast of Virginia, New England, Newfound- land, and in Hudson’s straits, the variation is westward, , that is, it decreases as you go from thence towards Eu- rope; and it is less in Virginia and New England than in Newfoundland and Hudson’s straits. 2. This westetly variation, again, decreases as you pass over North America; and about the meridian of the middle of California, the needle again points due north; and from thence westward to Yedzo and Japan, it is supposed the variation is easterly, and half-sea over, not less than 15°; and that this east variation extends over Japan, Yedzo, Tarlary, and part of China, till it meets with the westerly, which is governed by the Eu- ropean north pole, and which is the greatest somewhere in Russia. 3. Towards the south pole the effect is much the same, only that here the south point of the needle is at- tracted. Whence it will follow, that the variation on the coast of Brasil, at the river of Plata, and so on to the straits of Magellan, should be easterly, if we suppose a magnetical pole, situate about 20° more westerly than the straits of Magellan. And this easterly variation ex- tends eastward over the greatest part of the Ethiopic sea, till it be counterpoised by the virtue of the other southern pole, as it is about midway between the Cape of Good Hope and the isles of Tristan d’Alcunha. 4. From thence eastwards, the Asiatic south pole be- coming V A R I A TI O N. `, coming prevalent, and the south point of the needle be- ing attracted thcreby, there arises a west variation, very great in quantity and extent, because of the great dis- tance of this magnetical pole from the pole of the world. Heace it is, that in all the Indian sea, as far as Hollandia Nova, and farther, there is constantly a west variation; and that, under the equator itself, it rises to no less than 11°, where it is most. And that, about the meridian of the island of Celebes, being likewise that of this pole, this westerly variation ceases, and an easterly one begins, which reaches to the middle of the South Sea, between Zelandia Nova an Chili, leaving room for a small west variation, governed by the American south pole. 5. From the whole it appears, that the direction of the needle, in the temperate and frigid zones, depends chief- ly on the counterpoise of the forces of two magnetical poles of the same nature; as also why, under the same meridian, the variation should be in one place 294° west; and in another 204° east. 6. In the torrid zone, and particularly under the equi- noctial, respect must be had to all four poles, and their positions must be well considered, otherwise it will not be easy to determine what the variation shall be, the nearest polé being always strongest; yet not so as not to be counterbalanced, sometimes, by the united forces of two more remote. Thus, in sailing from St. Helena, by the isle of Ascension, to the equator, on the north- west course, the variation is very little easterly, and in that whole tract is unalterable; because the South Ame- rican pole (which is considerably the nearest in the afore- said places,) requiring a great easterly variation, is counterpoised by the contrary attraction of the North American and the Asiatic south poles; each of which singly, is, in these parts, weaker than the American south pole: and upon the north-west course, the distance from the latter is very little varied; and as you recede from the Asiatic south pole, the balance is still preserved by an access towards the North American pole. In this case, no notice is taken of the European north pole; its meridian being a little removed from those of these places, and of itself requiring the same variations which we here find. After the same manner may the variations in other places, under and near the equator, be accounted for, upon Dr. Halley’s hypothesis. But in order to account for the variation of the va- riation, it was observed, that from many of the observed phenomena, it seemed to follow that all the magnetic poles have a motion westward: but if it be so, it is evi- dent that it is not a rotation about the axis of the earth; for then the variations would continue the same in the same parallel of latitude (the longitude only changed), as much as the motion of the magnetical poles: but the contrary is found by experience: for there is no where, in the latitude of 51.4% north, between England and Ame- rica, a variation of 11° east, at this time; as it was once here at London. Wherefore it seems, that our Euro- pean pole is become nearer the Arctic pole than it was heretofore; or else, that it has lost part of its virtue. But whether these magnetic poles move altogether with one motion, or with several; whether equally, or unequally; whether circular, or libratory: if circular, about what centre; if libratory, after what manner; are things yet unknown. This theory seems yet somewhat obscure and defec- tive: to suppose four poles in one magnetical globe, in order to account for the variation, is a little unnatural; but to conceive those poles to move, and that by such laws as to solve the variation of the variation, is still more extraordinary. In effect, the solution appears not much less implicit and arbitrary than the problem. The learned author of the theory, therefore, found himself under a necessity to solve the phenomena of his solution; and with this view, he presented the following hypothesis. The external parts of the globe he consi- ders as the shell, and the internal as a nucleus, or inner globe; and between the two, he conceives a fluid medium. That inner earth, having the same common centre and axis of diurnal rotation, may turn about with our earth each twenty-four hours. Only the outer sphere having its turbinating motion some small matter either swifter or slower than the internal ball; and a very minute diffe- rence in length of time, by many repetitions, becoming sensible; the internal parts will, by degrees, recede from the external; and not keeping pace with one another, they will appear gradually to move either eastward or westward, by the difference of their motions. Now, suppose such an internal sphere, having such a motion, the two great difficulties in the former hypothe- ses are easily solved; for if this exterior shell of earth be a magnet, having its poles at a distance from the poles of diurnal rotation; and if the internal nucleus be likewise a magnet, having its poles in two other places, distant also from the axis; and these latter, by a gradual and slow motion, change their place in respect of the exter- na!, we may then give a reasonable account of the four magnetical poles afore-mentioned, as likewise of the changes of the needle’s variation. The period of its motion being wonderfully great, and there being hardly a hundred years since these variations have been duly observed, it will be very hard to bring this hypothesis to a calculus; especially since, though the variations do increase and decrease regularly in the same, place, yet in different places at no great distance, there are found such casual changes thereof, as can no ways be accounted for by a regular hypothesis; but seem to depend upon the unequal and irregular distribution of the magnetical matter within the substance of the ex- ternal shell, or coat of the earth, which deflect the nee- dle from the position it would acquire from the effect of the general magnetism of the whole. . Of which the va- riations at London and Paris give a notable instance; for the needle has been constantly about 14° more easterly at Paris than at London: though it be certain that, ac- cording to the general effect, the difference ought to be the contrary way; notwithstanding which, the variations, in both places, do change alike. Hence, and from some other things of like nature, it seems plain, that the two poles of the external globe are fixed in the earth, and that if the needle were wholly go- verned by them, the váriations thereof would be always the Sãme, with some irregularities, upon the account just now mentioned. But the internal sphere having such a gradual translation of its poles does influence the needle, and direct it variously, according to the result of the attractive or directive power of each pole, and, consequently, there must be a period of the revolution of this internal ball; after which the variations will return. again as before. But if it shall in future ages be observ- ed otherwise, we must then conclude that there are more of these internal spheres, and more magnetical poles, than V A R I A T I O N. than four; which, at present, we have not a sufficient number of observations to determine, and particularly in that vast Mar del Zur, or South sea, which occupies so great a part of the whole surface of the earth. . If, then, two of the poles be fixed, and two moveable, it remains to ascertain which they are that keep their place. The author thinks it may be safely determined, that our European north pole is the moveable one of the two northern poles, and that which has chiefly influenced the variations in these parts of the world; for, in Hudson's Bay, which is under the direction of the American pole, the change is not observed to be near so fast as in these parts of Europe, though the pole be much farther re- moved from the axis. As to the south poles, he takes the Asiatic pole to be fixed, and, consequently, the Ame- rican pole to move. This granted, it is plain that the fixed poles are the poles of this external shell, or cortex, of the earth; and the other the poles of the magnetical nucleus, included and moveable within the other. It likewise follows, that this motion is westwards, and, by consequence, that the aforesaid nucleus has not precisely attained the same de- gree of velocity with the exterior parts in their diurnal revolution; but so very nearly equals it, that, in 365 re- volutions, the difference is scarcely sensible. That there is any difference of this kind arises hence, that the im- pulse by which the diurnal motion was impressed on the earth, was given to the external parts; and from thence, in time, communicated to the internal; but not so as yet perfectly to equal the velocity of the first mo: tion impressed on, and still conserved by, the superficial parts of the globe. As to the precise period, we want observations to de- termine it, though the author thinks we may, with some reason, conjecture, that the American pole has moved westward 46° in ninety years, and that the whole period thereof is peformed in about seven hundred years. Mr. Whiston, in his “ New Laws of Magnetism,” raises several objections against this theory. See MAG- NETISM, M. Euler, the son of the celebrated geometrician of that name, has also controverted and censured the above theory: he thinks that two magnetic poles placed on the surface of the earth will sufficiently account for the va- riation; and he then endeavours to show, how we may determine the declination of the needle, at any time, and on every part of the globe, from this hypothesis. But we must refer for the particulars of this reasoning to the Histoire de l’Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres of Berlin, for 1757. Various other theories have been suggested by later authors, but most of these have been already alluded to under our articles MAGNETISM, DIPPING-JWeedle, &c.; we shall, therefore, here conclude this article, by refer- ring the reader for a more minute account of the various theories, particularly that of Coulomb, to Haüy’s “Ele- mentary Treatise on Natural Philosophy,” translated by Gregory, and to the first chapter of the third volume of Biot’s “Traité de Physique.” VARIATEoN or Declimation of the JWeedle, To observe the-Draw a meridian line, as directed under MERI- p1AN, then, a style being erected in the middle of it, place a needle thereon, and draw the right line which it hangs over. Thus will the quantity of the variation appear. Or thus: as the former method of finding the declina- Vol. XXXVIII. tion cannot be applied at sea, others have been thought of, the principal of which follow: suspend a thread and plumbet over the compass, till the shadow pass through the centre of the card; observe the rhumb, or point of the compass, which the shadow touches when it is the shortest. For the shadow is then a meridian line; con- sequently the variation is shown. Or thus: observe the rhumb in which the sun, or some star, rises and sets; bisect the arc intercepted between the rising and setting; the line of bisecting will be the meridian line; consequently the declination is had as be- fore. The same may be had from two equal altitudes of the same star, observed cither by day or night. Or thus: observe the rhumb in which the sun, or a star, rises and sets; and from the latitude of the place find the eastern or western amplitude, for the difference between the amplitude, and the distance of the rhumb observed, from the eastern rhumb of the card, is the variation sought. Or thus: observe the altitude of the sun, or some star, S I (Plate II. Wavigation, ſig. 7.) whose declination is known; and note the rhumb in the compass to which it then corresponds. Since then, in the triangle Z PS, we have three sides, viz, P Z, the complement of the ele- Vation of the pole PR; SP, the complement of the de- clination D S; and Z S, the complement of the altitude SI; the angle PZ S is found by spherical trigonometry; the contiguous one to which, viz., A Z S, measures the azimuth H. I. The difference, then, between the azi- muth, and the distance of the rhumb observed from the South, is the variation sought. See Azimuth CoMPAss. Note, to have the eastern or western amplitade accu- rately, regard must be had to the refraction. See RE- FRACTION. ~, For the more commodious observing in what rhumb of the compass the sun, or a star, is seen, it will be pro- Per to have two little apertures, or glass windows, oppo- site to each other, under the limb of it, with a telescope- sight fitted to one of them, and to the other a fine thread. The use of the variation is to correct the courses a ship has steered by the compass: e. g. given the course set, and the variation of the compass, and let it be re- quired to find the true course the ship steers: if the va- riation is west, call the N.W. quarter the 1st, the S.W. the 2d, the S.E. the 3d, and the N.E. the 4th; but if the variation be east, call the N.E. quarter the 1st, the S.E. the 2d, the S.W. the 3d, and the N.W. the 4th. Then, if the coure be set in the 1st or 3d quarters, add the va. riation to the points or degrees in the given course; but if in the 2d or 4th quarters, subtract, and the sum in the former, or the difference in the latter case, will be the course corrected by the variation. *. VARIATION of Curvature, in Geometry, is used for that inequability, or change, which happens in the cur- vature of all curves, except the circle. And this varia- tion or inequability constitutes the quality of the curva- ture of any line. - Sir Isaac Newton makes the index of the inequability or variation of curvature, to be the ratio of the fluxion of the radius of curvature to the fluxion of the curve: and Mr. Maclaurin, to avoid the perplexity that different nations, connected with, the same terms, occasion to learners, has adopted the same definition; but he sug- gests, that this ratio gives rather the variation of the ray of curvature, and that it might have been proper to have measured the variation of curvature rather by the ratio 2 R of V A R I A TI O N. of the filixion of the curvature itself to the fluxion of the curve; so that the curvature being inversely as the radius of curvature, and, consequently, its fluxion as the fluxion of the radius itself directly, and the square of the radius inversely, its variation would have been di- rectly as the measure of it, according to sir Isaac New- ton's definition, and inversely as the square of the radius of curvature. * According to this notion, it would have been measured by the angle of contact contained by the curve and cir- cle of curvature, in the same manner as the curvature itself is measured by the angle of contact contained by the curve and tangent. The reason of this remark may ap- pear from this example. The variation of curvature, according to sir Isaac Newton’s explication, is uniform in the logarithmic spiral, the fluxion of the radius of curvature in this figure being always in the same ratio to the fluxion of the curve; and yet, while the spiral is produced, though its curvature decreases, it never van- ishes, which must appear a strange paradox to those who do not attend to the import of sir Isaac’s definition. Newton’s Meth. of Flux. and Inf. Series, p. 76. Mac- laurin’s Fluxions, art. 386. Phil. Trans. N° 468. Sect. 6. p. 342. The variation of curvature at any point of a conic sec- tion, is always as the tangent of the angle contained by the diameter that passes through the point of contact, and the perpendicular to the curve at the same point, or to the angle formed by the diameter of the section, and of the circle of curvature. Hence the variation of cur- vature vanishes at the extremities of either axis, and is greatest when the acute angle, contained by the diame- ter, passing through the point of contact and the tan- gent, is least. * When the conic section is a parabola, the variation is as the tangent of the angle, contained by the right line drawn from the point of contact to the focus, and the perpendicular to the curve. See CURVATURE. VARIATION of Ratios. In the investigations of the relation which varying and dependent quantities bear to each other, conclusions are frequently more readily ob- tained by expressing only two terms in each proportion, than by retaining the four. But although in considering the variation of such quantities two terms only are ex- pressed, it will be necessary to bear constantly in mind that four are supposed, and that the operations by which our conclusions are in this case obtained, are in reality the operations of four proportionals. 1. One quantity is said to vary directly as another, when their magnitudes depend wholly upon each other, and in such a manner, that if the one be changed, the other is changed in the same proportion: thus, let A and H be mutually dependent upon each other in such a way, that if A changes to any other value a, B is changed to another value b, such that A : a 3: B : 5; then Aºis said to vary directly as B, which is denoted by the sym- bol of general proportion oc placed between the two quantities. Thus, for example, while the altitude of a triangle remains constant, the area varies directly as the base, or the area oc base; for if the base be increased or diminished, the area is increased or diminished in the same proportion. 2. One quantity is said to vary inversely as another, when one cannot be changed in any manner; but the re- ciprocal of the other is changed in the same proportion. B º we have 7, tº º 1 . s A varies inversely as B, or A or T” if when A is chang- ed to a, B is changed to b, in such a manner, that A : a .. l 1 or A 5 : B - C - - - E => : (2 :: 0 : Jij. B 5 ° For example, if the area of a triangle be given, the base varies inversely as the perpendicular altitude; for let A and a represent the altitude of two triangles of equal areas, and B and 5 their two bases; then A × B a × 5 —i-=—; ; or A X B = a X b : therefore, l B 3. One quantity is said to vary as two others jointly, if, when the former is changed in any manner, the pro- duct of the other two is changed in the same proportion: that is, A varies as B and C jointly, or A cc B C, when A cannot be changed to a, but BC is changed to b c, such that A : a ... BC : b c. The area of a triangle, for ex- ample, varies as the base and altitude jointly; for let A, P, B, represent the area, perpendicular, and base of one triangle, and a, f, b, the corresponding quantities in ano- ther; we know that A = } P B, and a = 4 ft 5; conse- – tº or A a B P : 5 h. fl 6 4. One quantity is said to vary directly as a second, and inversely as a third, when the first cannot be chang- ed in any manner; but that the second, multiplied by the reciprocal of the third, is changed in the same proportion. B B B 5 That is, A varies as - A or oc -, when A : a 3:2: : -; S5 C’ C’ C c” A, B, C, and a, b, c, being corresponding values of these quantities. For example, the base of a triangle varies as the area directly, and as the altitude inversely; for as in the pre- 1 A : a = b : B; or A : a 2: : 7 : A quently 7. º B A tº ceding example #– 7; if we multiply both sides by _1, A tº tº º A tº (Z * Ta’ whence B º 6 g o F & fi' The following are some of the principal propositions relating to the ratio of variable quantities. If A CC B, and B Co C; then A oc C. If A & B, and B &l; then A & '. C C If A oc C, and B oc C; then A + B oc V BA or C If A & B, and m is any given number, A & m B. L L If A CC B; then An oc Bn, or An oc Bn. If A ce a, and M. o. m; then AM oc a m. A If A oc BC; then B *ē, and c o: E. l I If A B be constant; then A oc E” and B oc A " If A oc B, and C oc D; then A C oc B D. º Wood's Algebra. VARIATION, Calculus of, is a department of the mo- dern analysis, which we owe, as a distinct branch, to the inventive V A. R. I. A 'T I O N. \ inventive genius of Lagrange, who published his first memoir on this subject in the second volume of the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences of Turin, in 1762; and his second memoir, published in the fourth volume of the same Transactions, in 1770, gave to this theory a perfection and generalization far beyond what it was supposed capable of possessing. This method was also in the interval illustrated in the most simple and elementary manner by the celebrated Euler, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh for 1764, as it was afterwards in the third volume of his Calcul Integral, and again in the Acta Petro. for 1771. Since that time it has been treated of by different au- thors at greater or less extent; and to Mr. Woodhouse, of Cambridge, we are indebted for a very meat little volume, in which this subject is handled in a very clear and conspicuous manner, from which work we have al- ready given a few extracts under the article IsoPERIME- TRy. Bossut, also, in vol. ii. of his “ Traités de Calcul Differentiel et de Calcul Intégral,” has a very perspicu- ous chapter on the calculus of variations, of which we shall avail ouselves in the present instance. Let there be any indefinite expression or function compounded of variable and constant quantities, which changes its value by the increase or diminution of one or more of the elements which it contains: it will thus undergo a variation, and the method of finding this is what is called the calculus of variations. In the same manner as ac is made to denote the fluxion of ac, and d ac the differential of ac; so 9 x is used to in- dicate the variation of ac; and the fundamental rules of this calculus are founded on the same principles as those of the differential calculus: at the same time, however, it is necessary to guard against confounding the one with the other. A very simple example will show clear- ly the distinction that must be made between the two C3 SCS. Let us suppose the equation y2 = a ac, which denotes the relation between the absciss A P = x, and ordi- nate P M = y, of a parabola A M (Plate XIII. Analysis, Jig. 1.), a being the parameter. By drawing fl m indcfi- nitely near to PM, and M r, parallel to the axis A V; the line Pf, or M r, will represent the differential d ac, and M r the differential d y; and the relation of these differentials is found by the differenciation of the equa- tion y2 = a x, which gives 2 y d y = a d 2, or d y = a d x ..., | a d ac - or a y = 5·7Hz: I.et us conceive now that the equation y2 = a ar, vary by the indefinitely small augmentation of its parameter a, which is one of its elements; and let us construct a second parabola A N, which has a + 3 a for its parame- ter. Then supposing the absciss A P to continue the same for both parabolas, it is obvious that the ordinate P N, of the parabola A N, will have for its value the primitive ordinate PM, augmented by the small quan- tity M N, which therefore represents the variation that the ordinate P M undergoes in consequence of the va- riation of the parameter a; hence, in representing by 3 y the variation of y, as that of a is denoted by a + 3 a; the new equation will be (y –- 3 y) = (a + 3 a) ar; from which subtracting the original equation y2 = a ac, we shall have (neglecting, as in the differential calculus; the variations of the second order) 2 y º y = x 3 a., or ac 3 a 2 V a 3- hibits the relation of the variations 3 a and 3 y. If, also, we make the absciss A P vary by the indefi- nitely small quantity Pfi = 3 ac, the corresponding or- dinate for the parabola A N will be q n, and the line s n will represent the variation of the primitive ordinate P. M. Now to find the relation between the variations 2 a, 3 ac, 9 y, we must substitute in the equation y2 = a r, (a + 3 a) for a, (x + 2 x) for ar, and (y -- 3 y) for 9, and the equation becomes (y -- 3 y) = (a + 3 a) (c. 4- 3 c); from which subtracting y? = a ae, we shall have 2 y 3 y = x 3 a + a 3 x; 3. 3C º, or 3 y = 2 y 3 y = , an equation which ex- therefore, z à a + a 3 x 2 3 a + a 3 r 3 y = := te 2 y 2 V a r * which is an expression for the variation s n, of the ordi- nate P M. In this example, (and the same has place for all si- milar equations,) the parameter, a, and its variation 3 a, are constant quantities for the entire parabolas, while those of the co-ordinates P M and A P continually change; the changes, therefore, relative to the same parabola belong to the differential calculus, and those which result from the passage of one parabola to another, to the calculus of variations. Any one of the variations 3 a, 3 x, 3 y, may be arbitrarily assumed; as, for exam- ple, we may suppose 3 x = d ar, but this"su >psition being once made, the values of the other Wºº. must be subordinate to this, and we cannot therefore af. terwards make 3 y = d y, or 3 y = 3 a. There is no difficulty in determining the variations of every order for algebraical and circular quantities, and common exponentials; the operations being exactly the same as in the differential calculus; we therefore obtain the variations by the same rules, and have only to write 3 instead of d, and in this respect the calculus of variations return again to the differential calculus; but this latter will not be sufficient when it is required to determine the variation of formulae, which contain in themselves the sign of integration: thus, for example, let the integral formula be s V d z, where V is any function of ac, y, and z, and constant quantities; we dif- ference this by omitting the sign /; that is, d (/V d x) = V d z; but the expression 9/V d x is very different, as we shall see in what follows. Now the principal object of the calculus of variations, is to determine the variation of these sorts of integral formulae; let us, therefore, endeavour to establish the principles which are to serve as the basis of this re- search. First Principle.—The variation of a differential is equal to the differential of a variation, and reciprocally; that is, we shall have 3 d ºr = d 3 ºr. For let us suppose that the variable ºr represent the ordinate of a curve; then this ordinate will change by dif: ferentials while it belongs to the same curve, and by varia- tions in passing from the proposed curve to the curve in- definitely near to the first. In the primitive curve, let ºr’ be the consecutive value to ºr, and consequently ºr' = r + d ºr, or d ºr = ºr' — ºr. Now taking the variation of this last equation, we shall have 3 d ºr = 3 ºr'—3 ºr; and 2 R 2 in V A R I A TI O N. in the same manner as ºr and ºr' are consecutive values in the series of ºr's, we may consider 3 ºr and 2 w" as consecutive values in the series of 3 ºr's, so that 3 ºr' = 3 ºr + d 3 ar, or d > x = 3 ºr' — 3 ºr; thus in equating these two values of 3 ºr' — 3 ºr, we shall have 3d r = d 3 ar. Hence if we have an expression which contains any number of d’s and 3’s affecting one and the same varia- ble, we make these characteristics change place at plea- sure; for we have seen that 3 d ºr = d 3 ºr, and in the same manner, we may for 3 d” ºr write d 3 d ºr, or d? 3 ºr; and for 3 dº ºr we may write d 3 dº ºr, or d? 3 d ºr, or d8 3 ºr, and so on of others. Second Principle.—The variation of an integral for- mula is equal to the variation of its differential; that is, Let ſå = z, and consequently # = d z, we shall have by taking the variations 3 # = 3 d z, or 3 # = d 3 z; mºrning this last equation, we obtainſ 3 # = 3 z Já. Hence in repeated integrations, we change at pleasure the signs ſ and 3; for we have seen that 3/3 = / 3 #; and in the same manner, 3// # = ſ.3 f : = ſ/ 3 #; so also 3./// # = / 3./J # = ſ/ 3/# = ſ/./ 3 #; and so on of others. º On the Method of determining the Variations of in- definite integral Formulae.—By indefinite integral for- mulae, is here to be understood those expressions which contain the sign /, and such at the same time that the in- tegration cannot be effected: these formulae are said to be simfile, when they contain only one sign ſ, and com- founded, when they contain two or more such signs, or when they are any function of simple integral formulae, combined or not with algebraical quantities, by addi- tion, multiplication, or division. Let us begin by considering those formulae which con- tain only two variable quantities ac and y, and between which we shall always suppose the relation d y = f; d ºr, d f = g d ar, d g = r d ac, d r = s d ar, &c. a supposition which it will be very necessary to bear in mind. -mº * PROBLEM I. To investigate a general rule for determining the va- riation of any indefinite integral formula / ºr d ar. Whatever may be the quantity ºr, we have always from the second principle given above, 3/ ºr d x = / 3 (ºr d x); but 3 (ºr d x) = d x * r + r 3 d ar; and the first principle gives 3 d x = d 3 ar; whence & / ºr d x = f d x 3 r + / ºr d 3 c. Now by the method of integrat- ing by parts, the last term fºr d 3 c = w d x — ſ d ºr 3 ×; whence by substitution, 3 ſ ºr d a = ºr 3 z + / d x 3 ºr – f d ºr 3 ar, or 3/ x d x = x 9’ x + ſ^{d a 3 ºr – d ºr 9 ac) Now the different values that we may attribute to z, will give rise to different general problems; of which we shall develope a few of most common use, and which will open the way to others of a higher kind. PRob. II. To determine the variation of the indefinite simple in- tegralſ V d x, V being a given function of ar, y, z, f, g, r, &c. First, by the preceding problem we have 3.ſ V d x = V d x +/ (d a 3 V – d V 9 ac)... (A) Again, the quantity V being a function of ac, y, z, &c. we shall have, by taking the differentials and the variations, the two equations d V = M d x + N d y + Pdf. -- Q d g + R d r + &c. * V = M 3r + N 3 y + P ºn + Q 3 g + R 3 r + &c. in which the co-efficients M, N, P, Q, R, &c. (which are the same for both equations) represent given func- tions of ac, y, fi, g, r. Multiply the first of these equations by 3 x, the se- cond by d ar, and subtract the first product from the second, and we shall have d x * V — d.V 3 2 = N (d a 3 y – d y 3 x) + P (d ac ºf — d.f. ºz) + Q (d a 3 g – d g ) ar) + R (d a 3 r – d r ) ar) If now we put for dy, d fi, d g, d r, &c. their values f, d x', q d ar, r d x, s d ac, &c. we shall find §§§ {}}Lºf{}:%-4 *ac) + Q d a (3 g — r 3 ar) + R d x (ºr — s 3 ac) + &c. Consequently our equation (A) becomes 3/V d x = V d x + ſ $Ndzów—n 3r) +. P d x (3 f – g 3 ac) + Q d x (3 g — r 3 c) + R d x (ºr -— s 3 c) + &c. : V 3 c +/'Ndr (3y—fºr) +/Pdx (2n—gºr) + / Qda (34–rðar) +/ Rdz (ºr—sºr) ....(B) This being established, let us make 3 y —f 3 ac = }w, (a substitution that will be employed in what follows,) and differencing, we shall have d 3 y – d f 3 x – f d 3 c = d 3 w. But the formula d y = f; d a gives, by taking the varia- tions, 9 d y = d x * f. -- f 3 d ar, or d 3 y = d ac ºf + f\ d 3 ac, or d 3 y – f d 32 = d a 3 h. Whence, by substitution, we have d x * f – d.f. 3 ac = d 3 w. Now putting for d f its equivalent g d ar, we shall have d x * f – 7 d x 9’ x = d 3 w, or d 3 ºv: C: JC tº * and as the quantity 9 w has for its value 3 y – ſh 3 ac, by hypothesis we have again ºf — q \z = d(*y-ºr) d ac º And a calculation exactly similar to the preceding gives also, 3 g — r 3 a. _*(**- : **) – ºr d x Ci acº 3 r — s 3 & - * (*Z- r **) =t 3 x d ac d 2-3 &c. = &c. consequently the equation (B) becomes Aſ V da = V 32 + / N da 3 w -- ſp dºw Qd29 w for d4 ºv +/º/*#4 &c.(c) Now by the method of integrating by parts, we find, by making d a constant, f P d V ARIATION. y P d 3 w = P 3 w – f d P 3 w Q dº 3 w Q d 3 w d Q d 3 w à- – -H- — ; – H- R d5 3 w R dº. 3 w d R d2 ) w —Tri- *#t —ſ —Ha- FR 12 º' tu d R d 3 w H- – d acº Whence, making the necessary substitutions, we ob- tain finally r d P , d? Q dº R J'd a 3 w (N–H ++...-H...--&c.) d d2 R ; d 3 w d R d2 ) w +++ (R — &c.) - + &c. . . . . . . . (D) a formula in which d x is supposed constant. It will be seen from this expression for the variation 3 ſ W d ar, that it includes two distinct orders of terms, the one affected with the sign /; and the other free from it. And farther, that the integration by parts necessarily introduces certain constant quantities which must be an- nexed to the terms of the latter species. The aggregate But therefore, _ Q d ? w d Q & w + ſtºº – d ac d z d ac * R d2 º' ºw d R d 3 w + ſºlº * Ha- - -īz; à- = d2 R ) ºv dº R 3 w + ~q := - sº ++, and so on. of the terms affected with the sign ſextends through all the variation, viz. from its commencement to its termi- nation, while the other quantities answer only to the be- ginning and end of the variation. This remark finds its application in treating of the maxima and minima of quantities. PRob. III. To determine the variation of the indefinite compound integral f Z d z, Z being a given function of the indefi- nite simple integral formula f V d ar, where again V is a function of x, y, z, f, g, r, &c. as in the preceding prob- lems. First by Prob. I. 3/ Zd r = Z 3 x + f(d a 3 Z – d Z *z) . . (E) And supposing ſ V d ac = t, or V d x = d t, since Z. is by hypothesis a function of t, we shall have d Z = T d t, T'being a given function of t, and we shall thus have 3 Z = T 3 tº therefore d x 3 Z – d Z 3 z = T d a 3 t – T d t 32. * • # 3 t = ºf V d c = V 3 z + f(d a 3 V – d V 3 x); .* d x & Z – d Z 2 z = T V d a 3 r + T d arſ (d 2 3 V – d V 3 c) — T d t ºr = T d x ſ (d a 3 V – d V 3 ar); because T V d a 3 x = T d t 3 ac, Consequently we have 3/Z d x = Z 3 z + / T d z ſ (d a 3 V – d V 3 x) . . . . . . *: * → -* . (F) Now integrating the last term by parts, and representing the integral f T d x by h, for the sake of abridging, the preceding equation becomes (F) 3/Z d x = Z 2 r + h_ſ(d a 3 V – d v 3 c) — ſh (d a 3 V – d V 3 ar). This being premised, and making here for the values of d V and 3 V the same suppositions, and the same cal- culations as in the preceding problem, we shall obtain h f(d 2 3 V – d V 3 r) = d P , dº Q dº R ºf d > *w (N–H. †:- Tº + &c.) + a 2 w (P-3 #—se) *#Q-º: + &c.) *# (R-ke). . . . . (G) And we shall find in the same manner, by putting h N for N, h P for P, h Q for Q, &c. d (h P), d2 (h Q) d8 (h R) } Jºda ºw (, N-(++++---. - + &c.) + 3 − (, P-49+ *#3-se) d 3 w d (h R) + Tz-32 (a Q—-i-22 + &c.) d? ) w Finally, substituting in Equation (G), instead of h/(dzöV – d.V3+) and ſh (dzºW – d.V3r), their va- fires, which we have found above, we shall have the ex- pression for the variation of ºf Z d x. As in these sorts of problems, it is required to find the variation which answers to a given absciss a, it is evident that in denoting by H the integral fºſdr, corres- ponding to this absciss, we may regard H as a given constant quantity relative to the total variation, while h constantly represents the indefinite integralſTaac, that is to say, the integral for an indeterminate part of the ab- Sciss a. Then, V A R Iſ A TI O'N. Then, in writing H for h in the part h/(dz}V – dvºr), and passing H under the sign of integration, the ex- pression * * hf (drà V – dv2z)— ſh(dzºW – d.V 3r) will become - fH(dzöV — dV}r) — ſh(dx^V ->{{Vºx) = f(H — h) (29 W – dVºx). If, for the sake of abridging, we make H — h = k, which gives d(H- h) = dk, H being constant: now, making conformably to these remarks, and to these ab- breviations, the substitutions indicated at the end of the preceding article for equation G, we shall find that this equation becomes r. —d (&P) -, *(*Q) — d"C&R) — 5: ſazºw(kN -j- + -ī- – -ir, &c.) d(kQ) Zºc -- k3 w(kP — -ºº! -- &c. */z da = 3 +. - º # + kg) 7ty + 1-(kø– “... + &c.) kd2) w L-F —Tri- (kR — &c.) º e e º e (H.) PROB. IV. To determine the variation of the indefinite integral formulaſ Zdar, Z being a function of ar, y, f, g, r, &c.; and of the indefinite simple integral formula / Vdar, where V is the same as before. First, we have 3/Zdz = Zör -- f(dz}Z —dZ}r) (I) Let us suppose / Vdar = t, or Vdar = dt. The quan- tity Z being given in t, z, y, fi, g, &c. we shall have dZ = L'dt + M'dac. -- N'dy + P'dh + Q'dg -- &c. 3Z = L'ºt + M'}x + N’3 y + P'ên + Q'9q + &c. expressions in which the quantities L', M', &c. are func- tions of t, z, y, f, g, &c. Whence we draw, by a proceeding similar to that which has been employed in the second problem, da:3Z —dZ}x = L'(dzøt—dtºr) + N'dac(3y — fºr) + P'dac(3h – gºr) + Q'dac(34 – rºz) + R'dac(ºr — sºr) + &c. - But dt = Vdz, and ºt = ºf Vdar = V2 c + f\dzøW - d.V 3 c); therefore . . L'(d2xt — dººr) = L'dz(drºv – d.V3r;) and thus equation I. becomes * 3/Zdz = Zºx + /3 L'dzſda 3V – d.V 3r) ; +/{N’dºſºy – per); + P'dz(3h – gºr) + Q'dac(34 —rºr) + R'dac(ºr — sºc) + &c. . . . . (K) Now if we represent by h’ the integral ſl'da, and take, by parts, the integration of the second term, we shall have , - / L'dz/(drºv – d.Vær) = h!/(dzöV — dVºx) — ſh'(dzöV — dV3r). Let us suppose now that the value of the integral J L'dz for any determinate absciss a, is H', and that h’ still continues to represent the indeterminate integral fL'dar; then, by passing H under the sign of integration, the term J’ #Livºrºv —dvº.); becomes - f(H' — h') (dzøV – dv2r): or if H’ — h’ = k, then ſk' (d a 3 V – d V 3 r). If now, as in the second problem, we make d V = M d x + N d y + P d n + Q d g + &c. we shall have dröV—dVºx-Ndz (3y—fºr)+Pdar(2n—gºr) + Qdz (37—rðr)+Rda (3r—sºr)+&c.) Substituting, in equation (K), instead of ſI'd ac (d a 3 V – d V 9 ac), its actual value ſk' (d 2 3 V – d V 9 ac), and instead of d x 3 V – d V 33r, the value assumed above, reuniting the several parts, and for the sake of abridging, making k' N + N' = N*, k'. P + P’ = P', k' Q + Q' = Q” &c. this equation will become 3ſ Zd 2 = Z da +/ {N” droy —f 3a) + P” d a (3 h – g 3 c) -** + q"d r ( , — »r) + R'd r(ºr — ºr + &c.; = z*z +/N" d = (2 y—f ºr) +/P” da' (ºp-a 3r) + / Q" d = (34–r 22) +/R" da (ºr—s 3r) + &c. V AR IAT I.O. N. An equation which, being of the same kind as Equation (B), Prob. II, will give in the same 3 y → p 3 r = 3 w, and supposing d x constant, ſ/dz - w (N"— d x- // + Z 3 x + *(P"—# + —- 3rza w = 3 d 3 w d2 3 w ” — +++(R It may be remarked here, the same as in Problem II., that the expression of this variation includes two distinct species of terms; viz. those which are affected with the sign /, and those that are free from it; and moreover, that the integrating by parts introduces certain constant quan: tities, which are additive to the terms of the second species; and that the aggregate of the terms affected with the sign /, extends through all the variation, viº. from the place where it commences to that where it finishes; while the other terms answer only to the beginning and end of the variation. PROB. V. To determine the variation of the indefinite simple integralſ V d ar, where V is any given function of three variables ar, y, and z, and their differentials. We shall have at first, the same as in the formula of two variables, - ºf V d x = V 3a – ſì z 3 V – d V ºr) ... (M) Let us suppose d y = f; d c, d f = q d 2', d ? = r d ºr, d r = & d ac, &c. d z = fi'd ac, d fl' == q' d x., d q' = g” d ac, &c. the letters fi, q, r, s, &c. f.', q', r', &c. ex- pressing functions of ac, y, z, and their differentials. Now making a y_ S M dº + N d g + Pº, H Qºzi, Bºi.” T -- F d z + G d fl' + H d g’ + I d r' + &c. and hence, also, 3 V = M 3 + -ī- N 3 y + P 3ſ + Q 3 g + R.3 r + &c. * * -- F 3 z + G ºf + H 3 g’ + I 3 r + &c. expressions in which N, M, P, Q, R, &c. F, G, H, I, &c. are given functions of x, y, z, fog, r, &c. 1'', g', r', &c. we shall find - r d x \V- d V 3 c = - N d x (3 y — h 3 ac) + P d x (ºf - g º z) + Q d x (3 g – r 3 z) + R d x (3 r—s 3 c) + &c. + F d a (3 z – f' ºr) + G d x (ºft'—— 4' 3a) + H d x (ºg'—r' 3r) + I d x (3r' — s' 33r) + &c. Now let 3 y – f. 3 c = } w, and 3 z – f' 3 x = 3 wº, and supposing d ac constant, we shall have, by precisely similar operations to those performed in Prob. II. -- d P” d2 Q” manner, by making 05 R” º- T-3 + &c.) d2 R!' d ac2 — &c.) // +++(Q"—H·· + &c.) &c.) + &c. . . . . . . . (L) a-ºº: * 9/– d r d P d2 d3 R yd r *w (N–H +++++ sc) d G d2 H d3 I *-ºs -- - d x T. T. T. T.; + V *2+ w(e–48 + dº R _ &c.) d x * - d acº d 3 w d R . + (Q–1. 4. &c.) d2 3 ºv - * + = (R – ke) + &c. &c. d H d2 I 3 w' (G — — — — — — + 2 w" ( †: + i = &c.) d 3 w! d ac d2 ) ºv' + H-(I — &c.) + &c. &c. To which it will be necessary to add certain terms, in or-. der to complete the integral, as stated in the conclusion of our second and last problem. The formulae above considered are the simplest of their kind, and the solution of them is found by a calcula- tion comparatively direct and easy to perform; but it may happen, that in the general expression / Zd z, of which the variation is required, the quantity Z is a function of many variables, consisting of algebraical expressions and various indefinite simple integrals; or the quantity Z may depend upon the integration of an equation of any order; it may also, in some cases, be required to find the varia- tion of a formula under a double or triple, &c. sign of in- tegration, as // Z d x d y, in which Z is any function of ac and y, and so of others. In all these cases, except the last, the variations are determined in the same man- ner, but the calculus of course becomes more long and intricate, which our limits will not allow of our entering upon in this place. On this head, therefore, the reader is referred to the several works mentioned in the intro- duction to the present article. We only proposed giving here one problem, by way of illustrating the preceding calculus; viz + f d a 2 w" (F + &c.) + + (H _d L -- &c.) d x Tø v A R IAT I O N. To determine the curve O M D (Plate XIII. ſig. 2.) through which a body will pass from the point O to D, not in the same vertical line, in the shortest time possi- ble. i.et A V represent the vertical plane, in which are situated the two given points O and D; A V the axis of the absciss; and the horizontal line A F that of the ordi- nates. Also, let us suppose any absciss A P = x, the ordinate P M = y, and consequently the element of the arc M m = V (d acº -- d y?) = d 3: V (1 + f2), mak- ing d y = t d ?. 3 Now whatever may be the nature of the curve O M D, the velocity of the body along and in the direction of the element of the curve M m, is equal to that which it would have acquired in falling from a certain vertical height; all these heights deriving their origin in the same horizontal line, which we may suppose to be the axis of the ordinates A Z, the position of this axis being arbi- trary. - Thus, calling g the gravity of the body, the velocity along M m will be expressed by V 2 g ac, and con- M sequently the time in passing M m = d x v (1 + f2). V 2 g acT’ d x, V (1 + f2) V 2 g ac d x v (1 + f2) . Now generally, when a quantity becomes a maximum or a minimum, its variation is equal to zero; consequent- ly we shall have - ºſt-ºriº = vº 2 g ºr therefore we shall have = a minimum, or, simply = a 7minimum. O. Now this agrees with our formula / V d ar in the se- 2 cond problem; viz. in the present case V = “H”, _ _ v'(1 + fº) consequently w shall have d V = — ==z-. d x + .V. a . . #(l F75 d fi; an expression which, being com- pared with the general value d V = M d a + N d y + Pd fi + &c. gives here - • tº- - I 2 M = =#4 } N = 0, P = fi 7-zip-H; Q = 0, R = 0, ke Now the expression of the variation 3 ſ V d a com- prehends generally, as we have seen in Equation (D), two parts, the one indefinite, containing the sign f; and the other definite, in which that sign is not found; and it is evident that these two parts are wholly independent of each other; and consequently, if the whole is equal to zero, these two parts are each also equal to zero; thus the equation ºf V d x = 0, gives in generál the two follow- ing equations, of which the one is definite, and the other indefinite; viz. - - f d P d2 (1) O = f d a 3 w (N–H + #3– ke) ſv 3 d Q , de R e d 3 ºv d R - 2) O = – *-* - sy- (2) ++: (Q #4 se) - d? ) w . - t + H+ (R— &c.) + & c. + C, correction. Equation (1) is that on which depends the nature of curves, since the second member of this equation is an in- determinate expression, which being made equal 0, gives to the curve O M D the character of a maximum or a minimum. . As to Equation (2), it belongs only to the extreme points of the curve O M D, which may be sub- ject to particular conditions, wholly independent of the nature of the curve. Now differencing Equation (1), and dividing the whole by d a 3 w, we shall have 2 3 (3) o – N–H ++8–tº-1 &c. d a ' d x2 d ac3 which gives generally the solution of the problem, where only the nature of the curve is required, that renders JV d x a maximum, or a minimum; V being a function of the perpendicular co-ordinates ac and y of the curve, and of the quantities fi, q, r, &c. which are given by the hy- pothesis d y = f; d ac, d f = q d x, &c. remembering that the differential d ac has been supposed constant. Now to apply these general results to our problem; f. v a . V (1 + f2), Q = 0; R = 0, &c. our Equation (3) becomes since we have N = 0, and P = ; also — 1 o = T-d (vº +7) or ! - 0 = d (=#| Tº). which is the differential equation of the curve O M D; e ſº * f - Consequently, by integrating we shall have —t-— Q y; by § § vac. V(1 +f.”) , a being an arbitrary constant quantity. Now *- l T v a substitute for f its value #. and we shall have - JC d y ––– vz. V(d. 23-Fú y?) T va’ which gives d 2/ - d 3C ./ the equation of the reversed cycloid, its base being hori- zontal, and its generating circle having for its diameter the constant quantity a. This equation being integrated, will receive a second arbitrary constant 5; and we shall have then, in the final equation, two constants, a and b, which will be deter- mined from the condition that the cycloid passes through the two points, O and D, given in position. For other examples illustrative of this calculus, see the article IsoPERIMETRY. - 3C j (1 - JC VARIA’rion, V A R *V AR VARIATION, in Music, is the different manner of play- ing or singing the same air, tune, or song, either by subdividing the notes into several others of less value, or by adding graces, in such a manner, however, as that the tune itself may still be discovered through all its embellishments, which the French call Broderies. Thus, great masters of the last century, flattering the bad taste of the public, have condescended to make va- riations to old tunes; as Corelli to Farinel’s ground, or “All Joy to great Caesar,” which the Italians call’ “La Follia d’Espagna,” and which he has made the theme of his whole twelfth solo. Handel and Tartini have com- posed simple airs on purpose to be the ground-work of variations. The late John Christian Bach, Fischer, Giardini, &c. have varied Scotch and Irish tunes to cor- rupt the public taste, instead of improving it by new compositions, which would have done them more credit, and given them less trouble. See THEME and Double. “All Paris,” says Rousseau, “used to go to the con- cert spirituel, to hear the variations of Messrs. Guignon and Mondonville; and still at a more recent period, those of Messrs. Guignon and Gaviniès, to the tunes of the Pont-neuf, which had no other merit than that of being trifled with by the two greatest performers on the violin in France.” - VARICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Asiatic Iberia, according to Ptolemy. VARICELLA, in Medicine, a diminutive of Variola, (the small-pox,) signifying a vesicular eruption, accom- panied with slight febrile symptoms, and occurring but once in the period of human life, which is popularly termed chicken for and swine-for. It will not be matter of surprise that this disease should bear the name of a lesser small-floar, and that it should have been described by the older writers as a modification of that distemper, under various similar ap- pellations, such as variolae flusillae, volaticae, shuria, &c.; when we are informed by a late acute investigator of diseases, Dr. Willan, that, from the year 1800, to the time of the publication of his essay on vaccination, in i806, he had seen seventy-four cases of chicken-pox that had been mistaken for small-pox, after vaccine ino- culation. It is true, indeed, that the distinction has been rendered somewhat more difficult, in consequence of the milder degree, shorter duration, and modified form, which the small-pox iſ self has been made to as- sume by the influence of the previous cow-pox, in the few cases where it has occurred after this disease. Nevertheless, the resemblance is sufficient at all times to misiead ordinary observers; and the foreign nosolo- gists, from Sauvages down to Burserius, have considered the disease as a species of variola. (See Sauvages Nosol. Method. class iii. gen. 2. Vogel, De Cogno- scend. et Curand. Hominum Morbis, S 128. Burserius, Inst. Med. vol. ii. cap. 9.) It is singular, however, that not only some of the earliest Italian writers on the small-pox, who lived three centuries ago, have distinctly described the chicken-pox under a specific name, crys- talli, and with the mention of the scarcely perceptible fever, and absence of all danger (see Vidus Vidius, De Crystallis; and Ingrassias de Tumoribus praeter Natu- ram, lib. i. cap. 1.); but that the vulgar, in several coun- tries of Europe, had distinguished it by popular appella- tions, even while physicians were regarding it as a modification of small-pox. Thus Daniel Sennert, who was a professor at Wittemberg, at the commencement of the seventeenth century, observes, in his Treatise on Small-pox and Measles, that there are other varieties, Vol. XXXVIII. “ praeter communes variolas et morbillos,” which are popularly known in Germany by the terms scaffsblattern (sheef-for, or sheef-blebs or blains) and windăocten (wind-ho.c.). (See his Med. Pract, lib. iv., cap. 12.) And Riverius, who was professor at Montpellier at the same period, speaks of it as familiarly known by the common people in France by the name of veirolette. (See his Praxis Med. cap. ii.) In Italy it was also known to the vulgar under the appellation of ravaglione. Again, in our country, Fuller, who published his “ Exanthema- tologia” in 1730, acknowledges himself indebted to the old women for his appellation. “I have adventured to think,” he says, “ this is what among our women goeth by the name of chicken-pock.” (P. 161.) Other po- pular names have been given to the disease in different parts of this country. Thus it is in many places called swine-ſioac; in some, hives; and at Newcastle and Sun- derland, water-jags. (See Dr. Wood in the Med. and Phys. Journal, vol. xiii. p. 58.) In some places, how- ever, the different forms which the disease itself assumes, three of which have been distinctly described by the late ingenious Dr. Willan, are designated by the terms chicken-floz, swine-floz, and hives, respectively. The character of each of these varieties, under which the varicella occasionally appears, we shall copy from the work of that excellent observer of diseases, as there is no other description of them extant of equal accuracy; and it is highly necessary to be able to descriminate be- tween this eruption and the milder forms of small-pox, and especially that modified and altered variola which sometimes succeeds vaccination. The only other ac- count of the chicken-pox in our language, which bears the stamp of observation, is a paper of the late excellent Dr. Heberden, another physician of the true Hippocra- tic school, written in the year 1767, and published in the first volume of the Transactions of the College of Phy- sicians, and which we shall have occasion also to quote, on the point of diagnosis, in the sequel of this article. Dr. Willan observes, “there are three varieties of the varicella, which, from the different forms of the vesi- cles, may be entitled the lenticular, conoidal, and glo- bate.” And he adds, in a note, “ In the northern parts of England, and in some counties of Scotland, these vari- eties are denominated the chicken-pox, the swine-pox, and the hives. In the south, both the latter varieties are called swine pox. . * 1. “ The lenticular varicella exhibits, on the first day of eruption, small red protuberances, not exactly circu- lar, and having a flat shining surface, in the centre of which a minute vesicle is formed. This, on the second day, is filled with a whitish lymp, and it then somewhat resembles a miliary vesicle, but is not so prominent, so tense, or so regularly circumscribed: its diameter is about the tenth of an inch. On the third day, the extent of the vesicles continues the same, but the lymph they contain becomes straw-coloured. On the fourth day, many of the vesicles are brokén at the most prominent part; the rest begin to shrink, and are puckered at their edges. Few of them remain entire on the fifth day, but the orifices of several broken vesicles are closed; or ad- here to the skin, so as to confine a little opaque lymph within the puckered margins. On the sixth day; small thin brown scabs appear universally in the place of the vesicles. The scabs, on the seventh and eighth days, become yellowish, and gradually dry from the circumfe- rence towards the centre. On the ninth and tenth days they fall off, leaving for a time red-marks in the skin, without depression. 2 S “ The V A R I C E L L A. “The eruption is generally first observed on the breast and back, and afterwards on the face and extre- mities. As fresh vesicles arise during two or three suc- cessive days, and go through the same stages as the first, the duration of the disease is sometimes longer than I have stated above. - 2. “In the conoidal varicella, the vesicles rise sud- denly, and have a hard inflamed border. They are, on the first day of their appearance, acuminated, and con- tain a bright transparent lymph. On the second day they appear somewhat more turgid, and are surrounded by more extensive inflammation than on the preceding day; the lymph contained in many of them is of a light straw-colour. On the third day, the vesicles are shri- velled; those which have been broken exhibit at the top slight gummy scabs, formed by a concretion of the exud- ing lymph. Some of the shrivelled vesicles, which re- main entire, but have much inflammation round them, evidently contain on this day purulent fluid. Every vesi- cle of this kind leaves, after scabbing, a durable cicatrix or pit. On the fourth day, thin dark-brown scabs appear intermixed with others, which are rounded, yellowish, and semi-transparent. These scabs gradually dry and separate, and fall off in four or five days. r “A fresh eruption of vesicles usually takes place on the second and third day, and as each set has a similar course, the whole duration of the eruptive stage in this species of varicella is six days; the last-formed scabs, therefore, are not separated till the eleventh or twelfth day. 3. “In the swine-pox, or hives, the vesicles are large and globated, but their base is not exactly circular. There is an inflammation round them, and they contain a trans- parent lymph, which, on the second day of eruption, re- sembles milk-whey. On the third day, the vesicles sub- side, and, as in the two former species, become pucker- ed or shrivelled. They likewise appear yellowish, a small quantity of pus being mixed with the lymph. Some of them remain in the same state till the following morning, but before the conclusion of the fourth day, the eutºcle separates, and thin blackish scabs cover the basis of the vesicles. The scabs dry and fall off in four or five days. - -- - “The eruption is usually completed in three days, but I have sometimes observed a few fresh vesicles on the fourth day; in which case, therefore, the eruptive stage occupied eight days. “The fever in varicella commences two or three days before the eruption appears, and it sometimes continues to the third day of the eruption, but is generally very slight. Its symptoms are, langour, with disposition to sleep, loss of appetite, thirst, heat of the skin, occasional flushing of the cheeks, a severe cough, soreness of the throat, a white fur on the tongue, a quick but unequal pulse, pains in the head, back, and limbs, sometimes pain in the stomach and bowels, with nausea, or vomiting of bile. - - - “The eruption usually commences on the breast and back, appearing next on the face and scalp, and lastly on the extremities. It is attended, especially in chil- dren, with an incessant tingling or itching, which leads them to scratch off the vesicles, so that the characteris- tics of the disease are often destroyed at an early period. Many of the vesicles, thus broken and irritated, but not removed, are presently surrounded by inflammation, and afterwards become pustules, containing thick yellow matter. These continue three or four days, and finally leave pits in the skin. The eruption is usually fullest in the conoidal form of varicella: I have seen the vesicles close together, or coherent, but seldom confluent. When they are numerous on the scalp, some of the glands below the base of the cranium are enlarged. “The incidental appearance of pustules among the vesicles sometimes occasions a doubt respecting the na- ture of the eruption.” (See Dr. Willan’s “Treatise on Vaccination,” page 86.) Dr. Heberden says, “ the principal marks by which the chicken-pox is distinguish- ed are: - - 1. “ The appearance, on the secend or third day from the eruption, of the vesicle full of serum upon the top of the pock. The pustules which are fullest of the yel- low liquor resemble what the genuine small-pox are on the fifth or sixth day, especially when there happens to be a larger space than ordinary occupied by the ex- travasated serum. It happens to most of them, either on the first day that the little vesicle arises, or on the day after, that its tender cuticle is burst; a thin scab is then formed at the top of the pock, and the swelling of the other part abates, without its ever being turned into pus, as it is in the small-pox. 2. “Slight scabs cover the chicken-pox on the fifth day; at which time the small-pox are not at the height of their suppuration. w 3. “The inflammation round the chicken-pox is very small, and the contents of them do not seem to be owing to suppuration, as in the small-pox, but rather to what is extravasated immediately under the cuticle by the serous vessels of the skin, as in a common blister. No wonder, therefore, that this liquor appears so soon as on the second day, and that upon the cuticle being broken, it is presently succeeded by a slight scab. Hence too, as the true skin is so little affected, no mark or scar is likely to be left.” See Med. Trans. of the Coll. of Physicians, vol. i. art. 16. - To these remarks Dr. Willan adds, that “ variolous pustules, on the first and second day of their eruption, are small, hard, globular; red, and painful. The sensa- tion of them to the touch, on passing the finger over them, is similar to that which one might conceive would be excited by the pressure of small round seeds under the cuticle. In the varicella almost every vesicle has, on the first day, a hard, inflamed margin, but the sensa- tion communicated to the finger in this case, is like that from a round seed, flattened by pressure.” He also ob- serves that, “ on the third and fourth days, the shrivelled or wrinkled state of the vesicles which remain entire, and the radiating furrows of others, whose ruptured a pi- ces have been closed by a slight incrustation, fully cha- racterise the varicella, and distinguish its eruption from the firm and durable pustules of small-pox. As the vesicles of the chicken-pox appear in succession during three or four days, a partial examination will not always discover the characteristic here specified. In order to form a proper judgment, practitioners should inspect the eruption on the face, -breast, and limbs, attending more especially to the places in which it was first ob- served. If the whole eruption be viewed on the fifth or sixth day, every gradation of the progress of the vesi- cles will appear at the same time. This circumstance may be added to the diagnostics of varicella, as it cannot take place in the slow and regulated progress of the Small-pox. - - “The globated vesicles not having any resemblance to variolous pustules, distinguish the varicella from the small-pox, whenever they appear; for it is to be remaem- bered, V A R V A R bered, that these large vesicles are occasionally inter- mixed, both with the lenticular and conoidal vesicles of the chicken-pox. It may be said, that an acknowledged co-existence of different sets of vesicles in the same per- son tends to abrogate the distinctions I have made. The vesicles, however, are, in many cases, all of the same kind; or, where they are intermixed, one sort greatly predominates. I do not contend for the perfect accuracy of nosological arrangement, but I adopt it be- cause it is in many respects convenient. Systems of bo- tany and zoology are useful, though they have not been yet brought to perfection, for we find some species which break the order of every classification proposed.” Loc. cit. p. 95. -- With respect to the treatment of varicella, under any of its forms, very little need be said: since it is seldom attended by any severe indisposition, and often by scarce- ly any perceptible disorder of any of the functions, ex- cept a little lassitude and inability for the usual exertions, a whitish tongue, and some loss of appetite. In these cases, the treatment consists rather in avoiding all causes of irritation, especially in the way of diet, than in the actual administration of medicines. Where the fever is more considerable, however, not only are these cautions ne- cessary, but it will be proper also to evacuate the bow- els, by gentle means, as by a little rhubarb, or neutral salts, to take diluent drinks, and gently diaphoretic me- dicines. - VARICOCELE, in Surgery, derived from varia, a dilated vein, and x 42n, a tumour, sometimes denotes a varicose enlargement of the veins of the spermatic chord; but, more commonly, a similar disease of the veins of the scrotum; the term cirsocele being usually applied to the other affection. Varicocele, or a varicose enlargement of the veins of the scrotum, is a subject of but little importance; be- cause these vessels are never thus affected, except in Consequence of some other more serious disease of the testicle and its coats. Indeed the varicocele is to be regarded as the mere effect of another complaint, the removal of which is the only necessary indication. This having been attended to, the swelling of the scrotal veins, which was never itself a source of much inconve- nience, always subsides without farther trouble. Varicocele, considered as a varicose enlargement of the spermatic veins, is a disease that demands greater at- tention; but as it has been explained in a previous vo- lume (see C1RsocFLE), we do not mean to detain the reader with it in the present place. One remark, howe- ver, appears to merit particular attention: a varicose. swelling of the spermatic veins is more frequently than any other disease mistaken for an omental hernia. Mr. Astley Cooper has given the following rule, by which the two diseases may be distinguished. Place the patient in a horizontal posture, and empty the swelling by pres- sure upon the scrotum: then put the fingers firmlyupon the upper part of the abdominal ring, and desire the patient to rise; if it be a hernia, the tumour cannot reappear as long as the pressure is continued at the ring; but if it be a cirsocele, the swelling returns with increased size, on account of the return of blood into the abdomen being prevented by the pressure. See Cooper on Inguinal Hernia. - * . VARICOSE VEINs. The term variac is applied by surgeons to the permanently dilated state of a vein, at- tended with an accumulation of dark-coloured blood, the circulation of which is materially retarded in the aſ- fected vessel. When veins are varicose, they are not only dilated, but they are also evidently elongated, presenting a cylinder larger than natural, irregular, and in severaí places studded with knots. They likewise make a varie- ty of windings, and, coiling themselves, form actual tu- mours from the assemblage of their convolutions in one particular place. The trunk and branches of a vein, thus dilated and elongated, constitute a very distinct swelling, when they are numerous, and confined to a certain part of the body. Indeed, when the diseased vessels are situat- ed near the integuments, the surgeon can feel, and even see the outlines of their tortuous course. These things, for instance, are remarkably obvious in the vena saphae- na interna, where the affection is particularly common. This vessel may be observed to form in its course seve- ral of these swellings, in the interspaces of which it runs in a very serpentine tortuous manner. Varices are most commonly observed in the lower ex- tremities, reaching sometimes even as far up as the ab- domen. They have, however, been noticed in the up- per extremities, and it is probable that the whole venous system is susceptible of the affection. As a well-inform- ed writer observes, “the great venous trunks sometimes become varicose. When the disease is situated near the heart, it is attended with pulsation, which renders it lia- ble to be mistaken for aneurism. Morgagni observed that the jugular veins were occasionally very much di- lated, and possessed a pulsation. (Letter xviii. art. 9, 10, 11.) He also relates a case in which the vena azygos, for the length of a span, was so much dilated, that it might be compared with the vena cava. The patient died suddenly in consequence of the rupture of this va- rix into the right side of the chest. (Letter xxvi. art. 29.) A similar case is related by Portal, who also men- tions an instance, in which the right subclavian vein was excessively dilated, and burst into the chest. (Cours d’Anatomie Medicale, tom. iii. pp. 354. 373.) Mr. Cline described in his lectures the case of a woman who had a large pulsating tumour in her neck, which burst, and proved fatal by hemorrhage. A sac proceeded from the internal jugular vein; the carotid artery was lodged in a groove at the posterior part of this sac. The veins of the upper extremity very rarely become varicose. Excepting cases of aneurismal varix, the only instance of this disease with which I am acquainted is mentioned by Petit. (Traité des Maladies Chir. tom. ii. p. 49.) In this case a varix was situated at the bend of the arm: the patient was so fat, that no other vein could be found for the purpose of venesection, which operation Petit repeatedly performed by puncturing this varix. The superficial epigastric veins sometimes become varicose; but the most frequent seats of this disease are the venae saphenae, the spermatic and hemorrhoidal veins.” (See Hodgson’s Treatise on the Diseases of Arteries and Veins, pp. 538, 539.) The deep-seated veins of the ex- tremities seldom become varicose. - The disease rarely occurs before the adult period of life, and its progress is extremely slow. It is very fre- quently remarked in pregnant women, who have passed a certain age; but it is particularly unusual for it to hap- pen in young women, even during a series of repeated pregnancies. Surgeons have not hitherto made out any very precise information respecting the places, climates, and kinds of constitution which promote the occurrence of a varicose enlargement of the veins. Nor has it been 2 s 2 - wéll VARICOSE VEINS. well proved, that the disease often proceeds from swell- ings of the abdominal viscera, or any other species of tu- mour capable of mechanically obstructing the venous circulation. One or more veins of the same limb are at first most commonly affected with a slight degree of dilatation, without pain,” or any sensation of uneasiness. This beginning change ordinarily advances with great slowness, except in cases where it accompanies preg- nancy, in which circumstance one or both the lower ex- tremities, as early as the first months, are frequently seen covered with largely dilated veins, or even with tu- mours formed by an assemblage of varices. The veins gradually become more and more distended, lengthened, coiled up, and tortuous. The patient then begins to complain of a sense of heaviness, numbness, and some- times of very acute wandering pain through the whole of the affected limb. In a more advanced stage, in pro- portion as the varices increase, and especially when the dilated veins actually form tumours, the limb swells, and becomes more or less occlematous, according to the ex- tent of the disease, and the time which it has existed. M. Delpech thinks, however, that the oedema in this case is not such as to justify the conclusion, that the increas- ed size of the veins, and the way in which they distend the integuments, produce a mechanical interruption of the function of the absorbent system. For, says he, we meet with, though not oſten, enormous varices, which are not attended with any swelling of the cellular sub- stance; and we still more frequently see cases, in which there is a considerable degree of Oedema, while the vari- ces are scarcely remarkable. When the latter have pre- vailed a long while, and made much progress, the coats of the affected veins are not unfrequently thickened, swelled, and indurated, forming a sort of half canal, or solid tube, which has been regarded as an excavation made by the pressure of the varix against the neigh- bouring bone. But the same phenomena are equally observable, when varicose veins lie at a distance from any bone, against which it can be pressed. As Mr. Hodgson remarks, “the blood occasionally de- posits strings of coagulum in varicose veins: when this is the case, the vessel is incapable of being emptied by pressure, and is firm to the touch. The deposition does not in general fill the vessel, but, by diminishing its cali- bre, it retards the flow of blood, and causes the dilatation to increase in the inferior portion of the vein, and in the branches which open into it.” (On the Diseases of Arte- rics and veins, p. 54.1.) This gentleman has seen four cases, in which the coagulum accumulated to such an extent, that the canals of the dilated vessels were obliterated, and a spontaneous cure was the conse- quence. - * The excessive distention of the coats of a superficial vein produces an inflammatory irritation, at first in the ad- joining cellular membrane, and afterwards in the integu- ments. These organs become at first connected together by the adhesive inflammation; and if the distension con- tinue to operate, they may at length ulcerate, and burst, and hemorrhage be the consequence. In such cases, the effusion of blood has sometimes been very considerable; but, says M. Delpech, we have no example of its having proved dangerous. The syncope following it, or a mode- rate compression, has sufficed for its stoppage. A more common occurrence than bleeding, is the coagulation of the blood in the cavity of a varicose vein. The vessel then becomes hard and incompressible, and it loses that *. elastic yielding softness, which renders it capable of being diminished by gentle pressure. If the parts be already inflamed, Delpech conceives, that the clot in the diseased vein may act as an extraneous body, and bring on ulceration, by the effects of which it is at last brought into view. In this sort of case, it is extremely uncom- mon for hemorrhage to occur; for, in general, the vessel has been already obliterated by the preceding inflamma- tion. But the ulceritself is very difficult to heal, and may be kept up a long while by the oedematous swelling of the limb. Varices, or rather the oedema which is the con- sequence of them, has the same effect upon every other species of ulcer, and even upon the most simple solution of continuity. While the swelling of the limb cannot be dispersed; while the edges of a solution of continuity are kept asunder by the tense state of the skin; and while the divided parts are irritated by this painful tension; every thing is unfavourable to cicatrization. Thus, we see the most simple wounds, which have been allowed to sup- purate, and ulcers, which should have healed rapidly, continue uncured a great many years, merely because the limbs, on which they are situated, are affected with an oedematous swelling, the consequence of varices. Such is the condition of things in the case which has been improperly named the varicose ulcer. Delpech Traité des Maladies Chir. tom. iii. sect. 8. art. 3. In the investigation of the causes of varices, it is usual to dwell very much upon the mechanical obstructions which may affect the circulation of the blood in the veins, Surgeons have thought themselves justified in regarding this as the only cause, because a circular, moderate compression incontestibly retards the course of the blood in these vessels, and produces a temporary dilatation of them. The opinion has seemed also to derive confirma- tion from the knotty appearance of varicose veins, a cir- cumstance which has been accounted for by supposing, that the distention is greatest in the situation of the valves. Lastly, the idea is further supported on the well-known fact of the frequent occurrence of varices during the state of pregnancy. But it has not been remembered, that the use of garters, for example, is extremely com- mon; but varices of the legs infinitely less frequent; that very large varices are met with in persons who have never employed any kind of ligatures, to which the ori- gin of the complaint can be imputed; that when the dila- tation of the veins extends to the thighs and parietes of the abdomen, no causes of this description even admit of sus- picion; that varicose veins are observable round several .kinds of tumours, especially scirrhi, when there is no pos- sibility of pointing out any mechanical obstruction to the circulation of the blood; that varices sometimes make their appearance at the comencement of pregnancy, and long before the enlargement of the womb can impede the free return of the blood through the veins in the pelvis; that nothing is more unusual than a varicose dilatation of the veins of the lower extremities, in consequence of swellings of the abdominal vicera; and lastly, it has been forgotten that the knots of the dilated veins are far too numerous to admit of being ascribed to the resistance of the valves. It cannot be denied, that pressure applied in the tract of the vessels, tends to promote their dilata- tion; but it can neither be considered as the only cause, nor as the principal one. The foregoing observations made by Delpech, render it probable, that some unknown general cause is concerned in producing varices, the for- mation of which may also be facilitated by the impedi- mentS VARICOSE WEINS. ments to the free return of the blood, occasioned by cer- tain attitudes, and particular articles of clothing. º Mr. Hodgson conceives it probable, that in some in- stances, the valves are ruptured in consequence of mus- cular exertions, or external violence, in which cases, the pressure of the column of blood is the first cause of the dilatation of the veins. Sometimes, also, the disease ap- pears to arise from preternatural weakness in the coats of the veins, as in those instances in which, without any evident cause, it exists in various parts of the same per- SOſ). p. 537. • - e - Experience proves, says Delpech, that there is no certain mode of curing varices, strictly so called, which he thinks cannot be wondered at, since the nature and causes of the disease are completely unknown. The same source of knowledge, however, also proves, that the in- crease in the dilatation of varicose veins may be retarded, and that the oedematous swelling attendant on the com- plaint may be beneficially opposed. . But these effects cannot be produced by resolvent, tonic, astrigent appli- cations, nor by a perient, diuretic, and purgative reme- dies, as some even of the latest writers so inconsiderately assert; but only by means of methodical and permanent compression. When the whole of a limb affected with varices is subjected to this last mode of treatment, the dilated veins subside, the circulation is more regularly performed, and the eedema and pain cease. There is not, says Delpech, any better method of healing the solutions of continuity in the soft parts produced or kept up, by the varicose state of the limb and its consequences. But as soon as the compression is discontinued, the varices make their appearance again, the pain recurs, the Oede- ma returns, and the ulcers which were healed break out afresh. Compression, therefore, which absolutely re- quired to be constantly employed, can be regarded only as a palliative, the more useſul indeed, inasmuch as the changes which it brings about in the state of things are nearly equivalent to a perfect cure. Inflammation of the integuments covering a varix, or varicose tumour, cannot invariably be prevented by com- pression, not will this treatment always succeed even in removing the intolerable pain which sometimes attends numerous clusters of varicose veins. In the first case, rest and relaxing applications will often succeed; and in the second, the topical use of sedatives frequently gives relief. It has been proposed to puncture and empty varicose veins; but if a temporary emptiness and relaxa- tion of these vessels, which are rendered painful by their distension, could remove the pain for a time, things would fall into the old state again in the course of a few days. If it should appear also, that the clotted blood had the effect of keeping up the unfavourable symptons, it would be necessary to make a very considerable opening into the dilated vein, in order that the coagulum might be extracted. In such a case, it would be useless to tie the vessel above and below the opening, as has been recom- mended: the slightest compression is afterwards suffi- cient for the stoppage of the bleeding, and by the subse- quent inflammation the vessel is certain of being obliterated. . - - We learn from Celsus, that the ancients were accus- tomed to remove varices by excision, or destroy them with the cautery. (De Ré Medica, lib. vii. cap. 3.) When the vein was much convoluted, extirpation with the knife was preferred; but in ether cases, the dilated Treatise on the Diseases of Arteries and Veins, skin. dividing the vein between the two ligatures. has also had its failures. flammation of the tied vein has been observed extending vessel was exposed by an incision, and then cauterized. Petit, Boyer, and many surgeons in this country, have also sometimes practised the operation of cutting out clus- ters of varicose veins. - Delpech remarks, that the extirpation of tumours composed of numerous varices, has been practised either for the purpose of removing the pain in the situation of disease, or other inconveniences. This opperation has been successfully performed; but it appears also not to have constantly had the effect of preventing the forma- tion of new varices, and it has sometimes proved tedious, difficult, and severely painful in its execution. In fact, an erroneous judgment must necessarily be formed of the extent of these swellings, when they are judged of only from the appearance which they present under the When we attempt to operate, says Delpech, we may be led to organs which ought not to be meddled with, and a long and extremely painful dissection may be found requisite. Besides, varices are not always con- fined to the superficial veins, and a relapse would be in- evitable. These reflections tend to the concluson, that operations of this sort should never be undertaken, ex- cept when the disease is accompanied with perilous symptoms, or nearly deprives the patient of the use of his limb. . It has been thought, that one of the established prin- ciples in the treatment of aneurisms might be advan- tageously extended to the cure of varicose veins. By tying the principal venous trunk above the point to which the varicose affection reaches, it is said that the course of the blood in the morbid vessels may be totally, stopped; the column of this fluid contained in them madé to coagulate; and the consequent obliteration of the ves- sels themselves accomplished. - - - The practice of tying veins for the cure of varices ap- pears to have been employed in the days of Paré and Di- onis, (Cours d’Opérations de Chirurgie, p. 610.) who have accurately described the operation of tying and Sir Eve- rard Home has related many cases of varicose veins in the leg, some of them being accompanied with tedious ulcers, in which, after tying the vena saphaena major, where it passes over the inside of the knee, not only the dilatation of the veins of the leg was relieved, but the ul- cers were readily healed. This proceeding has unques- tionably been sometimes followed with success; but it Amongst other evils, an in- very far in the vessel, and succeeded by convulsions and death. Indeed, the dangers arising from an inflamma- tion of the internal coat of the veins are now generally acknowledged, and every endeavour should be made to avoid them. A case which lately happened in one of the large hospitals of this metropolis, has fully proved them: we allude to the example, in which the fernoral vein happened to be wounded in the operation for aneurism, and had a ligature applied round the small aperture accidentally made in it. Inflammation of its in- ternal coat took place to a considerable extent, and the patient is supposed to have died of the indisposition re- sulting from it. .* As Mr. Brodie observes, it seems to be now establish- ed by the experience of modern surgeons, that a me- chanical injury inflicted on the trunk of one of the larger veins, is liable to be followed by inflammation of its in- termal membrane, and a fever of a very serious naº. ** 3I) VARICOSE VEINS. and the occasional occurrence of these symptoms after he ligature, or even the simple division of the vena sa- phaena, has made surgeons less confident than formerly, of the propriety of attempting these operations for the re- lief of a varicose state of the branches of that vessel in the leg. Certain reflections, however, induced Mr. Brodie to think, that the same ill effects would not fol- low a similar operation performed on the branches them- selves. “Where the whole of the veins of the leg are in a state of morbid dilatation, and the distress produced by the disease is not referred to any particular part, there seem to be no reasonable expectations of benefit, except from the uniform pressure of a well-applied bandage. But not unfrequently, we find an ulcer which is irritable, and difficult to heal, on account of its connection with some varicose vessels; or without being accompanied by an ulcer, there is a varix in one part of the leg, painful and perhaps liable to bleed, while the veins in other parts are nearly in a natural state, or at any rate are not the source of particular uneasiness. In some of these ca- ses, I formerly applied the caustic potash, so as to make a slough of the skin and veins beneath it; but I found the relief which the patient experienced from the cure of the varix, to afford but an inadequate compensation for the pain to which he was subjected by the use of the caus- tic, and the inconvenience arising from the tedious healing of the ulcer, which remained after the separa- tion of the slough. - “ In other cases, I made an incision with a scalpel through the varix and skin over it; this destroyed the va- six as completely as it was destroyed by the caustic, and * found it to be preferrable to the use of the caustic, as *the operation occasioned less pain, and as, in conse- quence of there being no loss of substance, the wound was cicatrized in a much shorter space of time. I em- ployed the operation, such as I have described it, with advantage in several instances; but some months ago I made an improvement in the method of performing it, by which it is much simplified, rendered less formidable, not only in appearance, but also in reality; and followed by an equally certain, but more speedy cure. “ It is evident,” says Mr. Brodie, “ that the extensive division of the skin over a varix, can be attended with no advantage. On the contrary, there must be a disad- vantage in it, as a certain time will necessarily be requir- ed for the cicatrization of the external wound. The im- provement to which I allude consists in this; the varicose vessels are completely divided, while the skin over them is preserved entire, with the exception of a moderate puncture, which is necessary for the introduction of the instrument with which the incision of the veins is effect- ed. Thus the wound of the internal parts is placed un- der the most favourable circumstances for being healed, and the patient avoids the more tedious process, which is necessary for the cicatrization of a wound in the skin above. “For this operation, I have generally employed a narrow sharp-pointed bistoury, slightly curved, with its cutting-edge on the convex side. Having ascertained the precise situation of the vein, or cluster of veins, from which the distress of the patient appears principal- ly to arise, I introduce the point of the bistoury through the skin on one side of the varix, and pass it on between the skin and the vein, with one of the flat surfaces turn- ed forwards, and the other backwards, until it reaches the opposite side. I then turn the cutting-edge of the bistoury backwards, and in withdrawing the instrument, the division of the varix is effected. The patient expe- riences pain, which is occasionally severe, but subsides in the course of a short time. There is always hae- morrhage, which would be often profuse if neglected, but which is readily stopped by a moderate pressure, made by means of a compress and bandage carefully applied.” Mr. Brodie particularly enjoins the neces- sity of keeping the patient quietly in bed for four or five days after the operation, and removing the bandage and first dressings with the utmost care and gentleness. He also cautions surgeons not to make the incision more deeply than absolutely necessary. Inflammation of the coats of the veins has not occurred in any of the cases in which Mr. Brodie has adopted this method of treat- ment. This gentleman wishes it to be understood, however, that he does not recommend the practice in- discriminately, but with a due attention to the circum- stances of each individual case. “The cases for which it is fitted, are not those in which the veins of the leg generally are varicose, or in which the patient has little or no inconvenience from the complaint; but those in which there is considerable pain referred to a particular varix; or in which haemorrhage is liable to take place from the giving way of the dilated vessels; or in which they occasion an irritable and obstinate varicose ulcer.” See Medico-Chir. Trans. vol. vii. p. 195, et seq. On the subject of cutting through veins affected with varix, it is proper to observe, that even this plan has been known to bring on severe and fatal symptoms. Cases confirming this fact are recorded in a valuable modern work, which should be in the hands of every practical surgeon. (See Hodgson's Treatise on the Diseases of Arteries and Veins, p. 555, et seq.) It is but justice to state, however, that in these examples, Mr. Brodie’s manner of doing the operation was not adopted. As we have already noticed, cases of spontaneous varix in the veins of the arm are rarely observed. When these vessels become varicose, it is almost always in consequence of a communication being formed, in the operation of venesection, between the brachial artery and one of the veins at the bend of the arm. The superfi- cial veins in this situation then become more or less dilat- ed by the impulse of the stream of arterial blood which is thrown into them. There is, however, a good deal of difference between those accidental varices actually in- duced by a mechanical cause, and those which originate spontaneously, or from causes not very clearly under- stood. The former never acquire the size which the latter often attain; they never exceed a certain magni- tude, whether pressure be employed or not; they never form tumours composed of an assemblage of varicose veins; they are never filled with tough coagula of blood; their coats are never thickened, nor constitute the solid half canal remarked in the other species of yarices; the skin which covers them is not disposed to inflame and u?cerate; they are not subject to occasional haemorrhage; and the limb is not affected with any oedematous swell- ing. (See Delpech Traité des Maladiés Chir, tom. iii. p. 261.) These circumstances must render it sufficient- ly evident that all surgical interference in such a case would be entirely unnecessary. For additional observations connected with the subject of varicose veins, see the article ANEURISM, where the aneurismal varix is described; C1RSocELE, where thé va- * rix V A R V A. R rix of the spermatic cord is treated of; HEMORRHoIDES, where the diseased and enlarged veins of the rectum are considered; and VARIGod ELE, where those of the scro- tum are noticed. Delpech Précis Elementaire des Ma- ladies reputées Chirurgicales, tom. iii. Hodgson's Trea- tise on the diseases of Arteries and Veins. Cooper's Dictionary of Practical Surgery. VARIcos E Ulcer. See the preceding article, and UL- C ERS. * VARIcose, or Varicous, a term applied to a kind of soft puffy sweiling, or particular sort of ulcer in animals, mostly about the legs. See ULCERs, in Animals. VARICULA, (diminutive of variac,) in Surgery, a varicose enlargement and dilatation of the veins of the tunica conjunctiva of the eye; a frequent consequence of chronic ophthalmy. - VARJEAS, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 14 miles S.E. of Lamego. - VARIEGATED I,EAv Es, in Botany and Vegetable Physiology, folia variegata, or more probably variata, are such as are irregularly blotched with white or yel- low, constituting a variety, for the most part permanent, and which is not uncommon in several species of shrubs, trees, or herbs. The white variegation is most usually seen in Elder, some kinds of Elm, Round-leaved Mint, or Mentha rotundifolia, and Striped Grass, or Phalaris arundinacea; the yellow one in Jasmine, White Lily, and in many evergreens, as Holly, Rhamnus Alaternus, Phillyrea latifolia, Aucuba japonica, and many others. We have seen an accidental, very beautiful, specimen, in Rumex obtusifolius, but it was not permanent. A romantic garden, among some very uncommon and whimsical rocks at Plumpton, near Harrowgate, was originally planted with nothing but variegated shrubs, of every species that could be procured. It might have delighted a Chinese, but the effect was not picturesque. This change in the colour of leaves, more or less ex- tended occasionally to the rest of the herbage, can be considered but as a sort of disease. The plants affected with it are much more tender, and difficult of cultiva- tion, than in their natural state, as well as less luxuriant; witness Antirrhinum Cymbalaria, Fritillaria imperialis, and many others. Variegated Oaks are rare, and sickly. We do not recollect to have seen any Willow in this state, nor any Cherry, Plum, Currant, or Gooseberry. The Holly assumes different shades of yellow, some- times accompanied with pink. Prunus Lauro-cerasus now and then puts forth an entirely white or colourless shoot, and we have several times net with the same cir- cumstance in Rosa canina, but we do not know that either of these shrubs is permanently variegated. The cause of these blotches in leaves is probably among those secrets of Nature, hardly, if ever, to be dis- covered. That it must consist in some quality of the soil, in which the original stock vegetated, is a probable conjecture, but no more. The variety commonly con- tinues unimpaired, in offsets or cuttings from this origi- nal stock, in whatever soil they may be planted. Never- theless, a shrub thus marked, or diseased, will now and then, from luxuriance of health, return to the pristine and natural verdure of its species, making shoots of ex- traordinary vigour, which soon overtop and exclude the variegated parts of the same individual. VARIETIES, in JYatural History, a word used to express an accidental change in some body, which is not essential to it, and therefore does not different species. g º - The naturalists of former ages have run into great errors, in mistaking the accidental varieties of plants, animals, and minerals, for distinct species. Many of them have called a plant a new species, because its flower, which should have been blue or red, is white, on account of the poorness of the soil, or some other such reason. Mr. Ray has established a very good test for varieties in botany; he allows every thing to be a distinct plant, which will propagate itself in its own form by its seeds; but such as, when sown, lose their difference, and run back to the old standard, he accounts varieties, how- ever great their distinctions may appear. In the history of fish, as much confusion has been in- troduced, by mistaking varieties for distinct species, as in botany. Artedi is the only author who has rationally attempted to bring this part of natural history into order in this respect, and to settle regularly the rules by which to distinguish real and essential from accidental differ- CII CCS, The principal grounds of the error of supposing va- rieties distinct species of fish have been these: the va- riable and inconstant colour of fish hath been mistaken for a specific difference; in this manner Rondeletius has described many varieties of the turdi, labri, and other fish, under the names of distinct genera. Others have paid the same too great regard to the more constant varieties of colour, which are found only to differ in degree in the several individuals of the same species, and their differences to be only in the degrees of the same colour, which is much more intense in some, and more remiss in others. These differences can only make varieties of the same fish, the species remaining always the same. Of the same kind are the mistakes of those who esteem size or magnitude a specific cha- racter; and thus, out of the varieties of the same fish, occasioned by scarcity or plenty of food, or other such occasions, make larger or smaller species. The place where fish are caught is also another cause of making new species with these authors: thus, though the fierca Jitzviatilis of Bellonius, and the fierca marina of other authors, be the same fish, yet they are pretended to be different species. The time of spawning is also with Some made a distinction of species; and thus we find the common pike divided into three species, according to its spawning, in spring, summer, and autumn, which it does according to the heat or coldness of the climate. See SPECIFIc JWames. ~. All these differences are false and frivolous, and the utmost they can do is to make what are properly called varieties, though few of them are sufficient even for that. A salmon caught at sea is not different from one of the same brood caught in a river; and if the fierca marina, falsely so called, be a little different from the fierca flu- viatilis, yet if its spawn will produce regular fierce Jiu- viatiles, its difference. can only amount to a variety, not a distinct species. . The time of spawning is no essential difference; for we daily see the change of climate make changes of that kind in all creatures; and even in the same climate, and under the same circumstances, the same species of birds will afford some individuals much earlier or later in laying their eggs than others. Artedi Ichthyol. VARIETIES, in Botany and Vegetable Physiology, are certain differences between individuals of the same spe- CMCS constitute a v A R I ET I E S. cies, which are not sufficiently important to constitute a specific distinction, nor, however important or striking, are they permanent, except in offsets, buds, cuttings, or layers of the same individual. Even these are observed, Sooner or later, to wear out; while, on the other hand, some varieties do appear to be continued, by seed, through successive generations, at least in annual plants; but a very slight degree of observation will show that these gradually return to their original nature; some- times very speedily. Varieties amongst eatable fruits seem to be the most numerous and the most lasting; but whether they are more so than others, which, being un- important to mankind, pass unnoticed, as in the Fungus tribe, may be doubted. Mr. Knight, the learned and Cxperienced President of the Horticultural Society, has convinced himself, and we believe most of his intelligent readers, that varieties of Apples and Pears have only a limited duration. (See SPECIEs of Plants.) Thus the most valuable, perhaps, of all, the Golden Pippin, and particularly the russet-coated kind of that fruit, is gene- Tally wearing out. It may be propagated by grafting; but the young trees, thus obtained, quickly canker, and cease to bear any fruit worth notice. Numbers of Ap- ples and Pears, celebrated in the horticultural works of the French, and many known to have existed formerly in England, are no more to be found. Those who plant orchards draw out admirable plans upon paper, buy trees, and wait with great complacency for the produce, till they find themselves miserably deceived. Half their trees, possibly, bear something different from what was promised. So far they have a right to complain of an ignorant, careless, or dishonest nurseryman. The greater part of their whole stock, whether the fruit be good or bad in quality, cankers, turns mossy, or dies, in a few years. Some few hardy trees only, of ordinary fruits, perhaps remain. The soil is concluded to be un- fit for apples, and thc possessor bears his disappointment as well as he can. This is the literal history of several orchards, which have passed under our observation. We have also seen fine trees of Golden Pippins and Nonpa- reils, which twenty years ago bore full crops of excellent fruit, canker and die, without any apparent cause, so that “the places which knew them, know them no more.” Such is the melancholy history of our orchards. But it is still more grievous to observe, that new varie- ties, which Mr. Knight, and some other patriotic cultiva- tors, are obtaining every year from seed, prove far more transient than their predecessors, cankering and disap- pearing in four or five years. Some, however, we hope and trust, will remain, and that our descendants will not be destitute of the most valuable of all English fruits. With this important end in view, we cannot sufficiently recommend, to those who have the means, the raising of apple-trees from seed, every year, on a large scale. It has usually been the practice of such experimentalists to select the kernels of good apples, for their purpose; thinking such more likely to yield something analogous to their parent fruit. Perhaps they may inherit too much of the same constitution, and this may be the latent cause of their own short existence. Might it not be worth while to sow the seeds of healthy wild crab-trees, whose vigour might remain in their offspring? From such, doubtless, all our valuable varieties must, at first, have originated. Who can tell that the degeneracy so pre- valent among the new-raised stocks, as to duration, may not be owing to the repeated cross impregnation of dis- eased worn-out varieties, which must take place in a garden? The ornaments of our courts and drawing- rooms may descend from the heroes of Cressy and Agin- court, but our modern heroes commonly rise from the ranks, and the quarter-deck. - r . In the ornamental department of horticulture, varie- tles are much attended to. Cape Geraniums are raised, by cross impregnation, which often excel their parents in size and beauty, and for a while are continued by cut- tings, if not by seed. N othing, however, can be more transitory than these ephemeral productions. We have adverted to some of them under the article PELARG6- NIUM. Double-flowered varieties are produced from time to time, either by nature or by some accident of cultivation, for which we cannot in any manner account. Thus, if we sow an hundred seeds of the common Annual Stock, Cheiranthus annuus, one, or perhaps many, of the plants may bear nothing but completely double flowers, all the rest being quite single. When such a variety occurs in any perennial, or shrubby, species of plant, it is justly prized, being capable of multiplication by cuttings, layers, &c.; and when variations of colour are superadded, as in the favourite Camellia japonica, the treasures of the conservatory are still more multi- plied. We must be content, in the present state of knowledge at least, to seize each vegetable Proteus as it comes in our way, without attempting to explain, or to imitate, the cause of its transformation. • Colour is, of all things, most liable to vary in the fetals of flowers. Almost every, blue flower is capable of changing to white, and it appears that in several in- stances the seeds of the white variety more generally produce their like, than those of the natural-coloured flowers change to white. But this rule is not invariable. The seeds of Canterbury Bells, Campanula Medium, whether taken from a white or blue flower, appear, as far as we can judge, to produce a great majority of blue- flowered plants, with a few white ones. The elegant varieties of the Sweet Pea, Lathyrus odorotus, seem more constant; but they are comparatively of recent in- troduction amongst us, and it is probable they may in time wear out, like other more short-lived beauties. Varieties in the luxuriance or flavour of annual herbs, or their seeds, which make the riches of a kitchen gar- den, require, of ail things, the most assiduous attention of a cultivator. These are the most casual and fugaci- ous of all things. They do, however, appear to be more within the control of a skiiful gardener, than many above- mentioned; especially with regard to soil, or manure. An eminent London seedsman assured the writer of this, that he found it expedient to send lettuce seed to a re- mote country, the south of France, for instance, one sea- son, and its produce to Holland, or Germany, perhaps, the next, in order to preserve or improve its quality, Change of crops every body knows to be essential in farming, as well as change of seed. What are the vari- ous degrees of excellence in Wheat, Barley, or other grain, but varieties, in what possibly, when originally wild, resembled but an ordinary grass. These excellen- cies are kept up by culture, that is, by attention to the circumstances just detailed. Such attention is infinitely more requisite in the cultivation of high-fed, pampered, and delicate culinary vegetables, which, if at all neglected, soon return to their original. kind, or more frequently vanish altogether. Varieties of Peas, obtained by cross impregnation, are a late improvement in horticulture, which VA RI ET I E. S. which promises a more durable success. For this ac- quisition to our tables we are indebted to the skill and indefatigable exertion of Mr. Knight, who has also ex- tended his philosophical inquiries and experiments to Strawberries. It is much to be wished that the test of distinction between a variety and a species, which this gentleman has assumed, or rather adopted from animal physiologists, may hold good. This is, their power of generating together, without limitation. That unques- tionably distinct species in the vegetable kingdom will, like the horse and the ass, produce a mule; and that such mules will, for a longer or shorter period, continue to propagate themselves, as the animal mule is said oc- casionally to do, we cannot deny. It is sufficient for the preservation of order in nature, that such bastard pro- genies are limited ; nor have we any doubt that, if they were all diligently watched, their termination, sooner or later, might always be observed. But we are not the less aware of the hazard of drawing conclusions on this sub- ject, without a sufficiently long course of observation ; analogy, always in phylosophy to be followed with cau- tion, being in the present case peculiarly treacherous. In practical botany, varieties often cause no small trouble. Ilinnaeus was among the first who, upon sound principles, distinguished them from species. Tourne- fort, and most of his followers, enumerated all the diffe- rent appearances of plants that fell in their way, without regard to their permanency, or specific distinction. Hence a plant with a blue or a white flower stands, in the works of these authors, as two different species; though manifestly the same in every other character, and perhaps produced from seed out of one and the same capsule. Linnaeus blames Micheli for making sixteen species out of the common Dutch Clover. (See TRIFoll- UM rehens.) Of these, some indeed prove more certainly distinct species than Linnaeus imagined ; but the rest are, many of them, distinguished by casual marks, that may or may not exist, in the same individual plant, the following season. Some botanists contend that the red and the white Lychnis dioica, so different in colour, must constitute two species. We have found the larger kind, which is usually white, with a pink flower, and thinking we had made a great acquisition, transplanted it into a garden. Next year the same root bore pure white flowers, and no others. All cultivators know how Tulips, Hyacinths, Anemonies, and the garden Ranunculus, differ and vary in colour, from the same seed, and even on the same root at different seasons. The same plant of Hydrangea hortensis will produce pink or blue flowers according to the time of year, or the manner in which it is treated as to soil and watering. Bog-earth generally induces the blue tint. To multiply instances of this sort, would lead us beyond all bounds. Pubescence has been thought to afford a good specific distinction, and in some cases it unquestionably does. Its direction is certainly very material, and has been applied by the writer of this to discriminate species of Menthae, as it has by Dr. Roth to establish distinct species of Myo- sotis. But the quantity of hairiness on a plant is very variable, and can hardly be said to mark even a variety, A perfectly smooth wild plant of Mentha hirsuta, the calyx and flowerstalk excepted, being transplanted into a garden, proved as hairy all over as any of its brethren, the very next season. On the subject of the specific characters, as opposed to mere varieties, we have already been sufficiently explicit, under the head Species of Plants, nor need we here add any further illustrations. Some botanical writers, even of the present day, are VoI., XXXVIII. ber, melon, &c. curious to mark varieties under each species. This may on some occasions, and in gardening books, be useful"; but if their specific distinctions be well founded, each variety will of itself fall into its proper place. To dwell upon them is a trifling study, except so far as their diffe- rent qualities may lead to any practical utility; or their va- rious origins and changes, to any physiological instruction, With the latter intention, the ingenious Mr. R. Brown has, for some time past, been attentive to every strange deformity or monstrosity, that has fallen in his way, in the parts of fructification ; nor can it be doubted that, under so acute an inspector, new secrets of Nature are likely to be discovered. We shall conclude this subject with one remark, that, as in the establishment of generic or specific characters, no rule whatcver is perfectly abso- lute ; so there are several distinctions, in most instances decidedly indicative of a species, that in others hardly mark a variety. Such are, the leaves being opposite or alternate, simple or compound, serrated or entire : the flowers terminal or lateral, with or without petals. Examples of such differences, on the same individual plant, will occur to the recollection of every botanist; yet every one knows that, under the direction of common sense and the most trivial degree of observation, nothing can afford more clear and absolute specific characters. VARIETIES, in Gardening, the different variations of plants of the same general nature from that of the parent or particular sort from which they came. They are, of course, the offspring of certain peculiar determinate sorts, which vary in some accidental particular of their habits of growth, or some other circumstance, from the natural original sort, or parent plant. But although this is the case, as their variations are, for the most part, confined to some particular part or parts, they still retain the specific mark or marks of distinction of the parent plant, which discriminates them from those of other different sorts. Consequently there are frequently numerous vari- ‘eties from the same sort, all of which differ from it, either in their manners of growth, foliage, flowers, the econo- mical qualities which they possess, or some other par- ticular of a similar nature. All kinds of plants, both of the annual, biennial, and perennial descriptions, as weli as those of the herb and tree sort, are liable to vary in this way. This is effected by different modes and kinds of culture, by the nature of the climate, by that of the soil, by the use of particular sorts of manure and other materials, by frequent changes in their situation, by age, and in many other methods, and respects their diffe- rences in size and magnitude, their luxuriant, dwarfish, erect or trailing growths, their being smooth or prickly; the nature and shape of their leaves, as broad, narrow, entire, divided, curled, spotted, variegated, round, oval, sharp, blunt, &c.; smooth, hairy, downy : in their flowers, as single, double, proliferous, white, red, blue, yellow, vari- egated, &c.; in their smell, as sweet-scented, rank-scented, &c.; also in the form, size, colour, taste, quality, &c. of the *fruit, in some cases, as round, oval, oblong, smooth, fur- rowed, warted, hairy, downy, large, small, red, green, sour, sweet, compact, pulpy, &c. as in the cucumber, inelon, apple, pear, goosberry, currant, &c.; likewise, in particular instances, in the shape and appearances of the roots, as in the carrot, the radish, the turnip, the potatoe, &c.; in the manner of their producing their seeds, fruits, &c.; as in the hop, spinach, hemp, &c.; and the cucum- And it takes place in many other cir- CUl IT Stan CeS. However, notwithstanding these different modes of variation in the particular parts of the variating plants of 2 T a peculiar v A RIETIES. a peculiar sort, if those of each such sort still all maintain the same specific mark of distinction as that which cha- racterizes and discriminates the respective natural sorts from all others, it shows them all the offspring, or vari- eties, of the same original sort. For as every different and distinct sort, in any particular kind of plants, is dis- criminated by some peculiar, uniform, constant mark or appearance in some part of its growth, all the plants of the same particular kind unchangeably bearing exactly the same, are, notwithstanding their accidental variation in other parts of their growth, all varieties of one sort. Consequently all the plants which are produced from the seed of the same particular sort, however they may put on different forms and appearances, are to be con- sidered as the real varieties of it. The difference betwixt any particular sort and that of a variety, is, that a really true sort, raised from seed, will, though it may sport into many variations, still retain and keep its true and invariable mark of distinction through all its varieties.; and although there may be varieties of that particular sort with different sized leaves, and colours of the flowers, &c.; if the seed of any one be sown, it will probably produce young plants of all these kinds, each having the characteristic discriminating mark of the parent. * It is, indeed, in a great measure, from plants of the seedling kind, that the different varieties of particular orts were first obtained, as in the case of the auricula, polyanthus, &c. each being a distinct sort of the same kind, and each of which consists of innumerable varieties, in the colours and variegations of the flowers, first gained in this way, the seed of the same plant often producing a great diversity in this respect, each variation of colour, &c. forming a real variety; but probabably not one of them with a flower exactly like that of the original parent plant : yet each variety retains the specific difference of its respective particular sort, the auricula, for instance, never changing to the polyanthus, nor that to the auri- cula, but the varieties of each keep their proper distinc- tion ; as the auricula, in all its varieties, continues its smooth fleshy serrated leaves; and the polyanthus, its rough-toothed leaves. And the same is the case with the carnation, the ranunculus, the anemone, the tulip, and a great number of other flower-garden plants. The tree kind, especially those for the production of fruit, aré particularly disposed to form varieties, equally in their modes of growth, their foliage, and the fruit: for instance, one original sort of apple-tree is only admitted, but which furnishes an almost endless variety of fruit, in regard to shape, size, colour, taste, quality, &c. as well as in the growth of the trees, so far as respects their size or magnitude, the dimensions and colours of the foliage, &c.; the specific distinction of which is, serrated leaves, and close setting flowers in the form of an umbel, which runs through all the numerous varieties, however diffe- rent the trees may be in size, growth, leaves, and fruit. And the same takes place in the pear, the plumb, the common cherry, the peach, and many others, there being only one principal sort of each of these, but the varieties of the fruit are many in number, which, in all these sorts of trees, were originally obtained from seedling plants, that is, such trees as were raised by setting the stones or kernels of the fruit. Almost all the fruit-tree kind sport greatly in their seedling plants, so that out of hundreds of trees raised from the seeds of the best fruits, very few, if any, will produce fruit exactly like that of the parent plant, or which possess any good perfection. Therefore, on account of the uncertainty of producing and con- Ar’ tinuing the approved sorts of fruit from seedling plants, recourse is constantly necessary to be had, in the prac- tice of gardening, to the modes of grafting, budding, and, in some instances, the making of layers and cuttings, in order to propagate the intended and desired sorts, or to continue and increase any good newly acquired variety. The greater number of varieties in herbaceous plants, as well as many kinds of fruit and other trees, are of a variable and sporting nature, so that when raised from seed, there is no dependance on having the seedling plants coming again of the same sort, but varying into different sorts of one another. In cases of this nature, the propagation of such of them as are perennial, to con- tinue them with certainty, is to be accomplished either by means of planting their suckers, or the offsets or slips of the roots, and in some by layers and cuttings, or in the woody descriptions by layers, cuttings, grafting, and budding; but in the annual tribe there is no other means than by sowing or setting the seed, except in some few sorts, by the planting of their cuttings, as in the chrysanthemum, nasturtium, and some others; how- ver, in a great number of kinds, where particular atten- tion has constantly been bestowed in saving the seeds from only the most perfect, they will continue tolerably permanent, and frequently come again the same, or with but very little variation. r In many sorts of plants of the kitchen-garden an annual flower kind, though there be a number of vari- eties in each, yet by good care, and constantly saving seed from the most perfect plants, which shew no signs of degenerating, they remain, year after year, perma- nent from seed. But most of the perennial tribe, the herbaceous as well as the woody sorts, as being in general more varia- ble from seed, afford, great opportunities of continuing the permanency of any particular variety, by making use of the offsets from their roots, the suckers, layers, and cuttings, as well as by grafting and budding, as has been already scen. - - It sometimes occurs, however, that plants, although not immediately raised from seed, will, on account of some accidental cause, vary materially from their usual natural growths, and assume quite different appearan- ces, arising in consequence either of culture, climate, exposure, soil, age, disease, abundance, or deficiency of nourishment, contusions, or other similar circumstances; and by such means produce accidental varieties in some particular parts of their growth. The ascertaining of the reality of the varieties is, in many sorts, readily and easily accomplished by a com- parison of the variable, plant with the specific distinc- tions of the natural sort; and the variations of growth of the variety with the same parts in the natural plant. But, still there are many varieties that require all the skill and knowledge of the most expert gardener to fully distinguish and ascertain them. It is, however, of mate- rial importance, in many cases of practical gardening, to have a nice and correct notion of the varieties of the plants which are to be cultivated, and as the work can thereby be performed with greater certainty and advan- .tage, as well as with more and better effect, In the first volume of the Transactions of the Horti- cultural Society, T. A. Knight, esq., makes the follow- ing conclusions on the means of raising new and early varieties of fruits: after stating that “variation is the con- stant attendant on cultivation, both in the animal and vegetable world;” and that “in each the offspring are constantly seen, in a greater or less degree, to inherit the character V A R I, E. T. I E S. character of the parents from which they spring:” that as every particular sort of fruit acquires its greatest state of perfection in some peculiar sort of soil or situa- tion, and under some similar mode of culture; the pro- per choice of such “must be the first object of the im- prover's pursuit; and that nothing should be neglected which can add to the size, or improve the flavour of the fruit which it is intended to propagate. Due atten- tion to these points will, it is contended, in almost all cases, be found to comprehend all that is necessary to insure the introduction of new varieties of fruit, of equal merit with those from which they spring;” but that, at the same time, “the improver, who has to adapt his productions to the cold and unsteady climate of this country, has still many difficulties to contend with; he has to combine hardiness, energy of character, and ear- ly maturity, with the improvements of high cultivation. Nature has, it is maintained, however, in some measure, pointed out the path he has to pursue; and that, if it be followered with patience and industry, no obstacles will be found, which may not be either removed or passed over.” Thus, “if two plants of the vine, or other tree, of simi- lar habits, or even if obtained from cuttings of the same tree, were placed to vegetate, during several successive seasons, in very different climates; if the one were plan- ted on the banks of the Rhine, and the other on those of the Nile, each would adapt its habits to the climate in which it was placed; and if both were subsequently brought, in early spring, into a climate similar to that of Italy, the plant which had adapted its habits to a cold climate, would instantly vegetate, whilst the other would remain perfectly torpid. Precisely the same thing occurs in the hot-houses of this country, where a plant accustomed to the temperature of the open air, will ve- getate strongly in December; whilst another plant of the same sort, and sprung from a cutting of the same original stock, but habituated to the température of a stove, remains apparently lifeless. It appears, therefore, that the powers of vegetable life, in plants habituated to cold climates, are more easily brought into action than in those of hot climates; or in other words, that the plants of cold climates are most excitable: and as every quality in plants becomes hereditary, when the causes which first gave existence to those qualities continue to operate, it follows that their seedling offspring have a constant tendency to adapt their habits to any climate in which art or accident places them.” But it is remarked, that “influence of climate on the habits of plants, will depend less on the aggregate quantity of heat in each climate, than on the distribution of it in the different seasons of the year.” Where it comes on suddenly and violently after the plants have been long exposed to se- vere and intense cold, and their capability of being exci- ted is, of course, greatly increased, or become abundant, the progress of vegetation will consequently be extreme- ly rapid. But, on the contrary, where it takes place in a slow and irregular manner, and increases only in a tardy moderate way on plants which have been little ef- fected with the preceding cold, and in which the powers of life have scarcely at any time been suspended, the pro- gress is much more gradual and restrained. Thus the crab, which is a native of Russia as well as of England, has adapted alike its habits to each: the Siberian variety, when introduced into the climate of this country, retains its habits, expands its leaves, and blossoms on the first approach of spring, vegetating strongly in the same tem- perature, in which the native tree of that sort hardly displays any signs of life; and its fruit acquires a degree plants grown by the ordinary modes of culture. of maturity, even in the early part of an unfavourable season, which the variety of this country is rarely or ever seen to attain. It is likewise suggested, that “similar causes are pro- ductive of similar effects on the habits of cultivated an- nual plants,” but that “these appear most readily to ac- quire habits of maturity in warm climates; for it is in the power of the cultivator to commit his seeds to the earth at any season; and the progress of the plants to- wards maturity will be most rapid where the climate and soil are most warm.” This knowledge is not only of great utility in many cases of gardening, but of much practical advantage in the business of agriculture. It is added, that “the value to the gardener of an ear- ly crop has attracted his attention to the propagation and culture of the earliest varieties of many particular sorts of our esculent plants; but in the improvement of these, he is more often indebted to an accident than to any plan of systematic culture; and contents himself with merely selecting and propagating from the plant of the earliest habits, which accident throws in his way, without inquiring from what causes those habits have arisen; and few efforts have been made to bring into existence better varieties of those fruits which are not generally propagated from seeds, and which, when so propagated, of necessity exercise during many years the patience of the cultivator, before he can hope to see the fruits of his labour, industry, and attention.” The attempts which the writer has made to produce early varieties of fruit are, it is believed, all that have yet been made; and though the result of them is by no means sufficiently decisive to prove the truth of the hypothesis he is endeavouring to establish, or the eligi- bility of the practice he has adopted, it is amply suffi- cient to encourage future experiment on the subject. It is noticed, that the first sort of fruit which was sub- jected to experiment in this way, was the apple; some young trees of the desired varieties of which for pro- pagation were trained to a south walí, until they afforded buds containing blossoms. The branches of which then, in the following winter, were detached from the wall, and removed to as great a distance from it as possible, in which state they continued till so far advanced in their blossoms in the following spring, as to be in danger from frost. Then the branches were trained to the wall, where each blossom allowed to remain quickly expand- ed, and formed fruit, that in a few months attained per- fect maturity; and the seeds produced plants that have ripened the fruit much earlier than other trees raised at the same time from seeds of the same fruit grown in the orchard. In this trial, the blossoms of each variety were fecundated by the farina of another kind; from which is supposed to have been attained in this as well as other similar instances a greater vigour and luxuriance of growth; but no earlier ripening of the fruits than in the The early maturity of those mentioned, is consequently ascri- bed to the other peculiarity of circumstances, under which the fruit and seeds ripened from which they sprang. • By the same method of culture, several new, varieties, that are the offspring afforded by the Siberian crab and the richest apples of this country, were obtained in the ‘intention of providing fruits for the press that might ripen well in cold and exposed situations. The plants furnished in this manner possess a remarkable hardness and luxuriance of growth, appearing in every way per- fectly suited to answer the intended purpose. In each 2 T 2 (; ; V AR I ET I E.S. of these trials; some of the new varieties inherited the character of the male, and others of the female parent, in the greatest degree; and of some varieties of fruit, especially of the golden pippin, a better example was obtained by the introduction of the farina into the blos- som of another apple, than by sowing their own seeds. The new variety of the Downton pippin, obtained in this manner from the farina of the golden pippin, will, it is believed, be found, in a favourable season and situation, little if at all inferior to the golden pippin, when first taken from the tree; but it is a good deal earlier, and probably cannot be preserved so long in a perfect state. The next trials were on the grape, which, though Hess successful than the above in producing new varieties, were not less favourable to these conclusions. After supposing a vinery without fires in the winter, to afford a climate to the vine similar to that afforded by the South- ern parts of Siberia to the apple or crab-tree; the same extensive variation of temperature taking place in it, and the sudden transition from great comparative cold to excessive heat, as productive of the same rapid pro- gress in the growth of the plants and the advancement of the fruit to maturity; he states that his first attempt was to combine the hardiness of the blossom of the black cluster, or Burgundy grape, with the large berry and early maturity of the true sweetwater, often con- founded with the white chasselas and white muscadine. In this case, the seedling plants produced fruit in his vinery at the age of three or four years, and in some of them it was very early; but the bunches were short and ill-formed, and the blossoms did not set by any means so well as he had expected. On substituting the white chasselas for the sweetwa- ter, many varieties were obtained whose blossoms ap- peared perfectly hardy, and capable of setting well in the open air; and the fruit of some of them ripening a good deal earlier in the year than that of either of the parent plants. But the berries are smaller than those of the chasselas, having less tender and delicate skins: and though not without much merit for the desert, they are generally better calculated for the press. In the lat- ter intention, in a cold climate, it is supposed that one or two of them possess very great excellence. From the white chasselas and sweetwater, plants have since been obtained, the appearance of which is greatly more promising: and the earliest variety of the grape he has * ever yet seen was produced from a seed of the sweetwa- ter, and the farina of the red Frontignac. It is a very fine grape, resembling the Frontignac in colour and the form of the bunch; but it is feared that its blossoms will prove too tender to succeed in the open air in this country; a single bunch consisting of a few berries is, however, all that has yet existed of this kind. Two new varieties of the vine, with striped fruit and variega- ited autumnal leaves, have also been produced from the white chasselas and the farina of the Allipo vine: one of these has ripened extremely early, and is thought a good grape. As in all attempts to obtain new varieties of fruit, the propagator is at a loss to know the kinds which are best suited to answer his purpose, those varieties of the grape which he has employed with the most success are mentioned. In short, the facts which he has obtain- ed on this subject, leave no doubt in his mind that varie- ties of the grape capable of ripening perfectly in our climate, when trained to a south wall, as well as of other fruits better suited to this climate than those which are now cultivated, may be readily produced; but whether the method of cultivation which he has adopted and ad- advised be the most elligible, must be left to the deci- sion of future and more extensive practice and expe- TICI) CCs -- - Trials similar to these have been made on the peach; but it is stated that nothing more can yet be said of the result of them, than that the plants are perfectly heal- thy and luxuriant in their growth, affording sufficient evidence in their leaves of the good quality of the future fruit. And though he is uncertain at what age plants of this sort become capable of producing blossoms, the sudden changes in the character of the leaves and growth of those raised by him, which are now in the third year, lead him to believe that they will be in a state to produce fruit at the age of three or four years. - - Upon the whole, from these and a close attention to the subject for years, it may be maintained that new varieties of every particular sort of fruit will in gene- ral be better obtained from the introduction of the fari- na of one variety of it into the blossoms of another, than by propagating from any single kind. Where trials of this nature are made between varieties of different size and character, the farina of the smaller kind should be introduced into the blossoms of the larger, as under these circumstances it has generally, though with some cxceptions, been found that there is a prevalence in the fruit of the character of the female parent, probably on the following account. The seed-coats are wholly ge- nerated by the female parent, and these regulate the bulk of the lobes and plantula; and it has been noticed, in raising new varieties of the peach, that when one stone contained two seeds, the plants these afforded were inferior to others. The largest seeds, procured from the finest fruit, and from that which ripens most perfectly and most early, should constantly be chosen. When it is intended to propagate new varieties in this manner, it will be necessary for the gardener to extract the stamina of the blossoms from which he purposes to propagate some days before the farina begins to shed. After young trees have risen from seed, a certain time must elapse before they become capable of bearing fruit, which, it is believed, cannot be shortened by any means of cultivation. Pruning and transplanting are equally hurtful; and no alteration in the character or merits of the future fruit can be effected during this length of time, either by manure or any sort of culture. The young plants should be suffered to extend their branches in every direction, in which they do not inter- fere with each other in a hurtful manner; and the soil be just sufficiently rich to promote a moderate degree of growth, without exciting the plants to preternatural exertion, which constantly brings on diseases. The soil of an old garden is particularly destructive in this way. The length of time that different sorts of fruit-trees re- quire to attain the age of puberty, admits of great vari- ation. The pear demands from twelve to eighteen years; the apple, from five to twelve or thirteen; the •plum and cherry, from four to five years; the vine, three or four; and the raspberry, two years. The strawberry, if its seeds be sown early, affords an abundant crop in the following year; and he has produced several new and excellent verieties of this fruit; but the hautboy strawberry does not seem to propagate readily with the other varieties, possibly belonging to an original distinct sort. He has, however, obtained several offspring from its farina; but they have all afforded a feeble and abor- tive blossom, and been of little value. I Il V AR V A 18 In another paper in the same volume, the same wri- ter, in speaking of raising new and early varieties of the potatoe, says that those who have cultivated early varie- ties of this plant, must have noticed that they never af- ford seeds or even blossoms, and that the only mode of propagating them is by the division of their tuberous roots. Also farther, that each variety has been found by experience, when long propagated, to gradually lose some of those good qualities which it possessed in the early stages of its culture; the duration of a variety in the state of perfection, being limited to about fourteen years. A good new variety of an early potatoe is, of course, considered highly valuable by the person who raised it; and as such early varieties, according to any method of culture heretofore practised, can only be gained by chance from seeds of late kinds, they are not very frequently produced. But by the method here di- rected, seeds are readily obtained from the earliest and best varieties; and the seeds of these may possibly, in successive generations, finally afford much earlier and better varieties than have yet appeared. The cause of the constant failure of the early potatoe to produce seed has been suspected, and found “to be the preternaturally early formation of the tuberous root, which draws off for its support that portion of sap, which in other plants of the same sort affords nutriment to the blossoms and seeds.” After taking several methods of placing the growing plants so as readily to prevent this, he found the following to be the best. He fixed strong stakes into the ground, and raised the mould in a heap round the bases of them, in perfect contact with their bottom parts; and then plant- ed on their south sides the potatoes from which seeds were desired. As soon as the young plants were about four inches high, they were fastened to the stakes by means of shreds and nails, and the mould washed away, by a strong current of water, from the bases of their stems, so that the fibrous roots only of the plants entered into the soil. As the fibrous roots of this plant are perfectly distinct organs from the runners, which give existence and subsequently convey nutriment to the tuberous roots; and as the runners spring from the stems only of the plants, which are, in this mode of culture, placed wholly out of the soil, the formation of tuberous roots is easily prevented. Whenever this is therefore done, numerous blossoms will soon appear, and almost every blossom will afford fruit and seeds. It is also suggested as not improbable, that by introducing the farina of the small and very early varieties into the blos- soms of those of larger sizes, and somewhat later habits, moderately early varieties, adapted to field culture, and winter use, may be obtained; the value of which to the farmer in the colder parts of the kingdom, whose crops of this root are followed by one of wheat, would be ex- tremely great. It is likewise stated by Mr. Biggs, in the above work, that the different varieties of the apple-tree may be rais- ed in a ready manner by means of cuttings, and that the trees so produced, “from healthy one-year old branches, with blossom-buds upon them, will continue to go on bearing the very finest possible fruit, in a small com- pass, for many years. Such trees are also peculiarly proper for forcing, by way of curiosity or luxury, and, it is believed, that they are less liable to canker than when raised by grafting. This has been more than once ex- perienced in the golden pippin, cuttings of which have remained seven years in perfect health, when grafts, taken not only from the same tree, but from the very branch, part of which was divided into cuttings, canker- ed in two or three years. This mode of raising young apple-trees was discovered by accident, from sticking cuttings of these kinds of trees into the ground, as flower-marks during a wet season, which took root. In raising new varieties of carnations, much advan- tage has lately been found from ripening the seed of the old plants by means of placing them in the artificial heat or warmth of some sort of house, frame, or other con- trivance of these kinds, as they naturally flower late in the season, and, of course, fully ripe seed can seldom be procured in that way for the purpose. VARIETIES of Land, in Agriculture, the different sorts or qualities of it, as they relate to the nature and manner of its cultivation, or the uses to which it is applied. Though no general principles are probably yet capable of being laid down in regard to the comparative value or utility of different modes or plans of cultivation, or of the different methods of proceeding in respect to crops that are had recourse to in different cases and situations, as the real nature of it, and the particular circumstances to which it is exposed and liable, in every instance, are not sufficiently known; it is evident that all the less firm, close, and solid sorts of land are not so greatly benefited by much working over, as those of the stiff and cohesive kinds, in which minute division of their parts and ful? aeration are essentially necessary, effects which are pro- duced in the most extensive manner, under the drill practice of culture; but the labour, trouble, and expen- diture attending its use, in some cases, may not be ade- quate to its benefits. Thus, the former and all the dry and less moist sorts of land are commonly well suited for the purposes of tillage and those of sheep-pasture; while the latter and those of the more wet and retentive kinds are more fitted to the raising broad-leaved crops, and those of the artificial and natural grass sorts. Stiff clayey or aluminous lands are mostly best suited for wheat crops, and those of the lime-stone or calcareous descrip- tions for producing saintfoin and clover crops. The va- rieties of land, too, are considerable, as they relate to different practices, such as those of draining, watering, and many others. See So IL, SPRING and SURFACE- Draining, TILLAGE, and WATERING of Land. - VARIGNON, PETER, in Biography, was born at Caen in France, in 1564, and originally intended for the church; but imbibing an early taste for the mathematics, this kind of science became the object of his attention, in the prosecution of which he was discouraged by his relations, who obliged him to devote some part of his time to theology. With the Abbé St. Pierre, who stºdied philosophy in the same college, he formed an intimacy; and they mutually encouraged and aided each other in their favourite studies. The Abbé took him to his house, and in order to render him more independent, bestowed upon Varignon out of his own income, which was only 1800 livers a-year, 300. In 1686, the Abbé took him to Paris, where he wholly employed himself in the study of mathematics, and where he formed an inti- macy with Du Hamel, Du Verney, and De la Hire. From Du Verney he acquired a considerable knowledge of Anatomy, whilst in return he taught him the applica- tion of mathematical reasoning to that subject. In 1687 Varignon became known by his “Projet d’une nouvelle Mechanique,” dedicated to the Academy of Sciences. - * This V A R V AR This treatise was much admired, and served to intro- duce him to two considerable places, viz. that of geometrician to the Academy of Sciences, and that of Professor in the college of Mazarine. In 1690 he pub- lished “ Nouvelles Conjectures sur la Pesanteur;” and he became one of the most early cultivators of the science of infinitesimals. Of his application and indus- try we have ample evidence in the volumes of the Aca- demy of Sciences; his papers are numerous, and contain complete theories on the laws of motion, central forces, and the resistance of different media. In 1703 he suffer- ed much from his intense application, which impaired his naturally strong constitution, and reduced him for three years to a very languishing state. His physicians pro- hibited study, from which, however, he could not totally abstain. Having censured Dr. Wallis for asserting that there are certain spaces more than infinite, ascribed by this celebrated geometrician to hyperbolas, whilst Varignon maintained that they were finite, his criticism was shown to M. Carré, and by him caused to be print- ed in the Memoirs of the Academy, without his know- ledge. After his recovery, he resumed his application, by republishing his “ Projet d’une nouvelle Mecha- nique” in a new and enlarged form, by an extensive cor- respondence, and by reading lectures to his scholars in the college of Mazarine, as well as in the royal college, in each of which he occupied a professor’s chair. In the latter part of his life, much as he valued peace, he was engaged in a scientific dispute with an Italian monk on the subject of tangents, and the angle of contact in curves. In the two last years of his life he laboured un- der an asthmatic complaint, which baffled all remedies. At length, having finished his lecture at the Mazarine college, on the 22d of December 1722, he died suddenly on the following night. His character, says Fontenelle, was as simple as his superior understanding could re- quire. He had no jealousy of the fame of others; for, indeed, he was at the head of the French mathemati- cians, and one of the first in Europe. In the discharge of every personal and social duty he was conscientiously strict. On the theory of the mathematics few mathema- ticians have laboured more successfully than Varignon; introducing into this science that mode of generaliza- tion which characterises it, symplifying many of its prin- ciples, and resolving many questions that had not before been considered; such, especially, as relate to the doc- trine of motion. His works, published separately, were “Projet d’une nouvelle Mechanique,” 4to. Paris, 1687; “Des nouvelles Conjectures sur la Pesanteur,” 12mo. 1692; “ Nouvelle Mechanique,” 2. tom. 4to. 1725; and his papers in the different volumes of the Academy of Sciences are very numerous. Montucla Hist. des Ma- them. Fontenelle’s Eloges des Academiciens. - VARILHES, in Geograft hy, a town of France, in the department of the Arriege; 10 miles W.S.W. of Mire- poix. - VARILLAS, ANTony, in Biografthy, was born in 1624 at Gueret, in the Upper La Marche, and upon his settlement at Paris, Gaston, duke of Orleans, made him his historiographer; and in 1655 he obtained a place in the royal library, very favourable for the prosecution of his historical studies. Huet says of him, that no man ever brought to the illustration of French affairs so rich a provision of valuable observations, or so copious a store of domestic narrative. But he adds, that his excellent qualifications were disparaged by his immoderate assur- ance, which led him to confide in his own conjectures and SuSPicions, and to relate with as bold asseveration things for which he had no authority, and which were altogether fictitious, as if he had been an eye-witness of them. In fact, Varillas was destitute of the most es- sential and estimable quality of an historian, a love of truth; and this has rendered his voluminous labours of inferior value. His leading object seems to have been the giatification and amusement of his readers. In the Prosecution of this object he at first succeeded; his books were much read, and Colbert gave him a pension, which was afterwards withdrawn. In lieu of this, he contented himself with a pension which the French clergy granted him, as the reward of his services to the Catho- lic cause, obtained for his “ Histoire des Revolutions arrivées en Europe en Matiere de Religion,” a mere party performance, concerning which Menage said to the author, “You have given a history of heresy full of heresies.” . Bishop Burnet published a critique on part of it, which is said to have prevented Dryden from translating it; a task which was proposed to him, after his conversion to Popery, by James II. Bayle, and many others, have detected the errors and falsifications of Va. rillas. As his writings, which chiefly relate to French and Spanish history, are scarcely ever read or cited, it is needless to copy their titles. Varillas died in 1696, in easy circumstances, so that he left several legacies for pious purposes. Moreri. Heut. Nouv. Dict. Hist. Gen. Biog. VARINAS, in Geography, a province and city of South America, which in the year 1787 was detached from the government of Maracaibo, and made a separate government, constituted at the expense of those of Ve- nezuela and Maracaibo. The chief has only the title of political governor, although his functions, in the dis- trict assigned to him, are the same as those of other go- vernors, in the civil, military, and religious depart- ments. He has also, like them, a salary of 1000 dol- lars a-year. In order to secure its defence, a militia was raised in 1803, and a garrison allotted to the city of Varinas, consisting of a company of 77 men. Varinas has been long known in the European markets, from the reputed quality of the tobacco which its territory pro- duces; though it is in fact inferior to that which is raised elsewhere, particularly at Cumanacoa, in the province of Cumana. However, sugar, coffee, cotton, indigo, and in general all the fruits of the torrid zone, find here a soil adapted to each, and their quality is unrivalled. The commodities of this district are transported chiefly by water to Guiana; the shipping-place being five leagues below the city, at a spot called Tocunos. Within the jurisdiction of Varinas are also very large commons, furnishing a number of beeves and mules, that are ex- ported by the Oronoko, or consumed in the province. This city enjoys a tolerably pure air, and its inhabitants are reckoned at 6000. The public edifices consist of one parish church and an hospital. It lies in N. lat. 7° 40', 100 leagues S.E. of Caraccas. : VARIN-KEY, a small island in the Spanish Main. N. lat. 11° 10'. W. long. 83°. VARIOLA, in Surgery, the small-pox. See INocu- LATION and SMALL-Pox. - VARIola Vaccina, the cow-pox, sometimes termed by modern medical writers vaccinia. See Cow-pox and VAccINATIon. - VARIOLARIA, in Botany, a genus of the Lichen family, (see LichenEs,) named from the eruptive as- pect VARIOLARIA. pect of its fructification, resembling the small-pox, or meazles, variola of modern medical writers.-Persoon in Ust. Annal. fasc. 7. 23. Achar. Prodr. 27. Meth. 12. Lichenogr. 67. t. 5. f. 1–9. Syn. 129. Sm. Engl. Bot. 2409. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 305.-Class and erder, Cryfitogamia Algae. Nat. Ord. Algæ, Lichenes. Ess. Ch. Receptacles cup-shaped, with a torn border from the crust, powdery, with a fertile disk beneath. The whole of this genus was confounded by Linnaeus under his Lichen fagineus, and L. lacteus, so far at least as its species were then noticed. They now amount, in the last work of Acharius, to ten, all of a crustaceous na- ture, found, some on the trunks of trees, others on rocks or walls, one on the ground. We have several, of British origin, to add to this list. 3. - 1. V. velata. Veiled Variolaria. Achar. n. 1. (Lichen velatus; Engl. Bot. t. 2062. Parmelia velata; Turn. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 143. t. 12. f. 1.)—Crust limited, tar- tareous, thin, rugged, greyish, with a pale edge. Recep- tacles small; crowded; disk yellowish, veiled with a white membrane; border thick, even, of the substance of the crust.—Found by Mr. W. Borrer, but rarely, on the bark of ash-trees in Sussex. The crust is thin, spreading in roundish patches, two or three inches broad, of agreenish- grey, corrugated in the disk, minutely fibrous at the edge. Recefutacles numerous, sessile, shield-like, about a line in diameter, pale salmon-coloured, with a thick smooth border, from which a white membrane is drawn across the disk, so as entirely to conceal that part. 2. V. multifuncta. . Many-dotted Variolaria, Turn. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 137. t. 10. f. 1. Achar. n. 2. (Li- chen multipunctus; Engl. Bot. t. 2061.)—Crust. ash- coloured, warty, rugged, tartareous, thin, with a fibrous edge. Receptacles hemispherical, with a white, aggre- gate, powdery disk, and smooth, lobed border.—Found, not uncommonly, on the trunks of beeches in Sussex, by Mr. W. Borrer.—Nearly akin to the last, but the crust is more of a grey hue, and less uneven, though becoming rugged and warty by age. It changes nearly to white in drying. Fructiſications the size of the last, but essen- tially differing in the want of a separate membranous covering, and in having each receftacle marked with three or four depressions, making so many distinct disks, in one thick lobed border. The surface of these disks is white and powdery, their inside pale chesnut. 3. V. globuliſera. Vesicle-fruited Variolaria. Turn. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 139. t. 10. f. 2. Achar. n. 3. Prodr. Fl. Graec. n. 2432. (Lichen globuliferus; Engl. Bot. t. 2008,)—Crust spreading, faintly bordered, rugged, greyish with white powdery warts. Rcceptacles spheri- cal, closed; at length bursting, with a thin ragged bor- der, and blackish disk.-This also was discovered by Mr. W. Borrer, growing on the trunks of beeches and oaks in Sussex, but rarely. Dr. Sibthorp met with it in Greece. The crust agrees in appearance with the fol- lowing, but the globular vesicles, of the size of small peas, scattered over the disk, and each lodging a blackish re- ceftacle of seeds, are peculiar to the present species. 4. V. faginea. Common Bitter Variolaria. Pers, in Ust. Ann. fasc. 7. 24. Ach. Meth. 12. Prodr. Fl. Graec. n. 2433. (V. communis; Achar. n. 4. Lichen fagineus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1608. Achar. Prodr. 27. Hoffm. Enum. 18. A. t. 2. f. 4.)—Crust cartilaginous, rugged, polished, greyish, bor- dered with brown. Receptacles prominent, hemispherical, mealy, very white, with a pale, flattish, at length naked, disk-Very common on the trunks of beech, sycamore, oak, &c. throughout Europe, from Sweden to Greece. The crust, in a perfect state is circular, grey or greenish When young, corrugated, but with a smooth polished sur- face, and circumscribed by a thin border, eregantly co- loured with concentric shades of brown. Numerous, pro- minent, almost stalked, tubercular rechtacles are scattered over the central part, which are very white, especially in wet weather; powdery and somewhat convex in their disks, with a clumsy indistinct kind of border. By age these, like the crust, become of a dirty white. Mr. W. Borrer as first observed a very bitter taste in this species, not immediately perceptible, but after a while very strong, disagreeable and permanent, like the flavour of the Cyclamen root. No other species of Variolaria has been found to have this bitterness. We know not by what accident the learned Acharius, generally so accurate, has transferred it to our ediscoidea, which he has therefore called amara. His specific characters of the two spe- cies leave no doubt of what he intends under each, though we do not presume to decide on all his synonyms. This being the case, we do not feel authorized to change the old Linnaean name, though we readily allow that Linnaeus here confounded two species. - 5. V. discoidea. Flat-cupped Variolaria. Pers. in Ust. Ann. fasc. 7. 23. Achar. Meth. 14. (V. amara; Achar. n. 5. Lichen discoideus; Achar. Prodr. 28. Engl. Bot. t. 1714. L. fagineus; Hoffm. Enum. 19. B, C, D. t. 7. f. 2, 5. L. albescens; Huds. 529. L. carpineus; Lightf. 807. Lichenoides candidum et farinaceum, scu- tellis ferê planis; Dill. Musc. 131. t. 18. f. 11.)—Crust cartilaginous, cracked, somewhat rugged, polished, greyish, bordered with brown; at length powdery. Re- ceptacles flattish, mealy, very white; at length concave, depressed, with a dilated torn border.—This is probably as common as the preceding, with which it has been confounded. The chief mark of distinction consists in the little elevation of its receptacles, which, after discharging their powdery contents, become quite concave, with a thin expanded margin. Hence the present plant has been separated by several botanists from fagineus, even without their adverting to its insipidity; remarked by Mr. Borrer, and which obliges us to retain the old name discoideus, that of amara being only applicable to the former, where it is not wanted. On the trunks of old trees, particularly in wet weather, V. discoidea is very conspicuous for its whiteness. No proper recentacle, of a different colour from the frond, has been detected in this species. - 6. V. conglobata. Conglobate Variolaria. Achar. n. 6.-“Crust tatareous, thick, milk-white, plaited and conglomerated, with a smooth cartilaginous surface. Warts of the receptacles close-pressed, of the same co- lour. Disk powdery. Margin elevated, tumid. Nucle- us thick, included, yellowish; flattened above.”—Native of France. This appears by its colour, and the different habit of its parts, to be distinct from all the other known species. Acharius. 7. V. griseo-virens. Greyish-green Variolaria. Tur- ner and Borrer Lich. Brit. v. 1. 54, unpubl. Engl. Bot. t. 2400,—Crust elliptical, thin, slightly tartareous, rug- ged, grey, scarcely limited. Receptacles roundish, with a narrow border. Powder greenish.-Gathered by Mr. Borrer, on the smooth cuticle of the bark of birch and cherry trees, in Norfolk. The patches, about an inch or two in length, and half as broad, look like a dirty stain, or some decayed Leftraria; but when acurately examined, prove V A R V AR prove to consist of a continued, rugged, though thin, crust, of a dirty greenish-grey, bearing very distinct mealy re- centacles, of a yellowish rather bright green when wet, bordered with white. - 8. V. Cinchonae. Smooth Green Variolaria.-Crust clliptical, thin, cartilaginous, polished, nearly even, olive- coloured, slightly bordered with black. Receptacles round, white, mealy, with a smooth pale border-Found on the bark of Cinchona floribunda from the island of St. Lucia. Our only specimen is above an inch in diameter, of a brighter more olive-brown than the bark, but otherwise scarcely distinguishable therefrom. The whitish fructi- fications, scattered all over it, smaller than pins' heads, are very conspicuous. 9. V. ashergilla. Sprinkled Variolaria. Achar. Meth. 13. Turn. and Borr. Lich. Brit. v. 1.67. Engl. Bot. t. 2401. (V. communis g; Achar. Syn. 131. Lichen as- pergillus; Achar. Prodr. 28, excluding the reference to Persoon.)—Crust orbicular, tartareous, thickish, dull white, wrinkled, with a smooth, white, polished edge. Receptacles scattered, elevated, hemispherical, with an obsolete border. Powder very white.—Found by Mr. Borrer in Sussex, nore con, n.only on rails than on treeS. authority of an original specimen, determined the synonym of Acharius. That learned botanist has sent us, under the same name, what has a different aspect, being whiter and full of cracks; and such may perhaps have in- duced him to refer his plant to V. communis (foginea) as a variety. sipid, and surely distinct from faginea; yet, though like discoidea devoid of bitterness, it cannot be confounded with this latter. The edge is polished and white; the rest of a pale greyish or blueish hue, unaltered by moisture. Receptacles neither numerous nor crowded, but scattered, convex, very prominent; their border minute, and soon obliterated; their internal disk, or nucleus, pale flesh-coloured, concealed by the copious white powder, which forms a dense mass, and turns greenish by rubbing. 10. V. cinerea. Ash-coloured Variolaria. Engl. Bot. t. 241 1.-Crust orbicular, tartareous, thin, ash- coloured, cracked; its circumference indeterminate. Re- ceptacles orbicular, very small, white, with an elevated margin, and a flesh-coloured concealed disk.-Discove- red by the Rev. Mr. Harriman, on whinstone rocks, in the county of Durham. We conceive it to be of all things most distinct from the following, with which it is said to have been confounded. The colour and great tenuity of the crust; the want of an expanded or zoned border; the more evident red nucleus; and the much smaller recefutacles; all mank it with precision. white powder of the latter is easily abraded, and then the disk or nucleus becomes conspicuous. 11. V. lactea. Milky-white variolaria. Pers. in Ust. Ann. fasc. 7. 24. Achar. n. 7. Meth. 14. t. 1. f. 6. Engl Bot. t. 2410. Turn. and Borr. Lich. Brit. v. i. 69, un- publ. (Lichen lacteus; Linn. Mant. 131. Huds. 526. Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 3. 107. t. 4.)—Crust orbicular, tartareous, thick, white, cracked; thin, polished, zoned and flesh-coloured in the circumference. orbicular, very white, with an elevated margin when young.—Found on rocks in the north of Europe. Mr. Harriman’s specimen, on whinstone, from Durham, figured in Engl. Bot., shows this elegant species in great perfection. Its diameter is often from three to five inches. The finely granulated, tartareous, cream-coloured Franc. v. 2. 525? This gentleman and Mr. Turner have, on the However this may be, our asſier gilla is in- The Receptacles central part, is bordered by a broad thin circumference, polished almost like satin, marked with many concentric lines or plaits, and tinged with a delicate flesh-colour at the extreme edge. Fructification when young small, and shield-like, with a thick border; but the disk be- comes very white, powdery, and much elevated. Mr. Turner found a pale brown nucleus, which we have not SCCI). 12. V. dealbata. White-wash Variolaria. Decand. Engl. Bot. t. 2519. (V. corallina; Achar. n. 8. Lich. Univ. 319. t. 5. f. 6. Lichen dealba- tus; Achar. Prodr. 29. Isidium corallinum, a supposed variety; Achar. Meth. 138. t. 3. f. 7, D, E, bad. I. paradoxum; Turn. ard Borr. Lich. Brit. v. 1.97.-Crust tartareous, thickish, greyish-white, cracked, tumid, pa- pillary and rugged; obscurely zoned at the circumfer- ence. Receptacles orbicular, prominent, white, with an aggregate internal disk-Not rare on rocks in mountain- ous countries. Differs from the last in having a very narrow, imperfectly zoned, border, and especially in the cylindrical, papillary, erect processes, sometimes in pairs, scattered over the crust. The receptacles when young are small, concave, powdery, white cups; but the few which arrive at maturity become raised, con- vex, the size of hemp-seed, their surface still white and powdery, but finely displaying several little, concave, brownish or flesh-coloured, separate disks. We are not quite free from doubts, as to the plant of Acharius being the same as our’s, and therefore we would not hastily follow him in altering the name, by which we have already adopted this most distinct and curious spe- cies in the English Botany. 13. V. tiffea. Georgian Variolaria. Achar. n. 9.- “Crust somewhat tartareous, unequal, white. Recep- tacles minute, hemispherical, powdery, very white; nu- cleus lenticular, concealed, afterwards exposed, sur- rounded with a margin from the crust, and finally deci- duous.”—Found on the ground, near Tiflis in Georgia. A minute species. Wucleus slightly convex; at length nearly globose. Acharius. 14. V. gaditama. Spanish Variolaria. A char. n. 10.— “Crust nearly orbicular, tartareous, continued, rugged, grey, slightly powdery; its circumference somewhat crenate, with little imbricated lobes. Receptacles hem- ispherical, or partly cylindrical, crowded in the centre, and of the same colour.”—Gathered on walls near Cadiz, by Don Simon de Roxas Clemente. The warts, or receptacles, whether hemispherical or somewhat cy- lindrical, become concave with age. VARIOLITE, in Mineralogy, a name given by some mineralogists to porphyritic rocks, in which the imbed- ded substances are imperfectly crystallized, or are round- ed, giving the stone a spotted appearance. VARIORUM, in Matters of Literature, a term or phrase of abbreviation, used for an edition of a classic author, printed in Holland, with the notes of divers authors upon it: Cum notis variorum, or cum selectis variorum observationibus. In this sense we say, Plautus variorum; a set of Dutch variorums, &c. Many of the variorums are valu- able editions. The word is the genitive plural of the Latin varius, different, divers. VARIS, in Ancient Geografthy, a place of the Isle of Albion, on the route from Segontium (Caernarvon) to Deva (Chester), between Conovium (Caer-Rhyn) and Deva: V A R V A R Deva; supposed to be Bodvary; 32 miles from Deva, or Chester. VARIUS, in Ichthyology, aname used by most authors for a small fresh-water fish, common in brooks and run- ning waters, and well known in England by the name of the minow. VARIUs Mus, in the old authors of Zoography, a name used for the same creature they otherwise called mus fonticus; which seems to have been no other than the European flying squirrel. VARIX, from varius, irregular, in Surgery, denotes an uneven swelling of a dilated vein. The tumour is softish, generally not painful, and presents an appearance as if studded with several knobs, or tubercles, which correspond to the valves in number and situation. The diseased vein is also elongated as well as dilated, and describes in its course a variety of windings or convolu- tions. A particular account of the symptoms, causes, and treatment of this common disease, will be found under the head of VARIcose Weins. VARIx, in Animals, a sort of puffy dilatation or enlarge- ment in some part of a vein, forming a kind of knot. It mostly happens in the veins of the legs, and is of the nature of spavin. It may readily be removed, on its first appearance, by the use of cold solutions, and appli- cations of that sort, frequently applied, and suitable ban- dages. VARLER, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the bishopric of Munster; 4 miles N.N.W. of Coesfeld. VARLET. See VALET. VARMAT, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 12 miles N. N. W. of Zatmar. ~ VARMO, a river of Italy, which runs into the Taja- mento, 2 miles N. of Lastisana, in the country of Friuli. VARNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Asia, in the interior of Media. Ptolemy. VARNA, in Geograñhy, a sea-port town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria, situated on a gulf or bay of the Black sea, to which it gives name, at the mouth of the river Vrana; the see of a Greek archbishop. In the year 1444, Ladislaus, king of Hungary, was defeated and slain by Amurath I. emperor of the Turks, near this town; 144 miles N. of Constantinople. N. lat. 43° 14'. E. long. 27° 10'. VARNA. See VRANA. VARNAVA, a mountain of.Greece, near Athens. VARNAVIN, a town of Russia, in the government of Kostrom, on the Vetluga. N. lat. 57° 16'. E. long. 45° 14'. VARNI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of Asia, in Bactriana. Ptolemy. VARNISH, or VERNISH, Verniæ, a thick, viscid, glossy liquor, used by painters, gilders, and various other artificers, to give a gloss and lustre to their works, as also to defend them from the weather, dust, &c. There are divers kinds of varnishes; some of the principal of which are as follow: VARNISH, Amber, is prepared in the following man- ner: Put four ounces of amber into a crucible, and melt it with a small degree of heat, and pour it out upon an iron-plate; when cold reduce it to powder, and add to it two ounces of drying oil, that is, linseed oil thickened by boiling it up with litharge, and one pint of oil of tur- pentine, and dissolve the whole together into a liquid warnish. * This simple amber varnish is of great use for many purposes, and is said to be the basis of the fine warnishes Vol. XXXVIII, which we see on coaches, and may be prepared without drying oil, by boiling the powder of amber in linseed oil, or in a mixture of linseed oil and oil of turpentine. Dry ing oil is commonly used by the workmen; but Dr. Lewis thinks it more eligible to take the oil unprepared, that the boiling requisite for giving it the drying quality may be employed at the same time in making it act upon the amber. It has generally been thought, that amber will not at all dissolve in eils, till it has suffered a degree of decomposition by fire. But Hoffman relates an ex- periment, in his Observationes Physico-Chemicae, which discovers the solubility of this concrete in its natural state. Powdered amber, with twice its quantity of oil olive, was put into a wide-mouthed glass; and a digestor, or strong copper vessel, being filled about one-third with water, the glass was placed in it, the cover of the digestor screwed down tight, and a moderate fire continued an hour or more: when cold, the amber was found dissolved into a gelatinous, transparent mass. In Dr. Stockar's Specimen Inaugurale de Succino, printed at Leyden in 1760, we have an account of other experiments made by himself, in conjunction with M. Ziegler of Winterthur; from which we learn, that by continuing a simmering heat twelve hours, and confining the vapour as much as stone-ware vessels would bear without bursting, (the danger of which was avoided by making a small notch in the cork-stoppers,) powdered amber dissolved per- fectly in expressed oils, in turpentine, and in balsam of copaiba: a strong copper vessel, with a cover screwed on it, seems most eligible; and for the greater security, a valve may be made in the cover, kept down by a spring, that shall give way before the confined vapour is of suf- ficient force to endanger bursting the vessel. Moreover, by digestion for a week in close-stopped glass vessels, in which the compressure could not be very great, solutions equally perfect were obtained. The solution in rape- seed oil, and in oil of almonds, was of a fine yellowish colour; in linseed oil, gold-coloured; in oil of poppy- seeds, yellowish-red; in oil olive, of a beautiful red; in oil of nuts, deeper coloured; and in oil of bays, of a pur- ple-red. The solutions made with turpentine and with balsam of copaiba, were of a deep red colour, and on cooling, hardened into a brittle mass of the same colour. All the solutions mingled perfectly well with spirit of turpentine. Those made with the oils of linseed, bays, poppy-seeds, and nuts, and with balsam of copaiba and turpentine, being diluted with four times their quantity of spirit of turpentine, formed hard, tenacious, glossy varnishes, which dried sufficiently quick, and appeared greatly preferable to those made in the common manner from melted amber. An amber varnish may also be made by boiling down some colophony, or turpentine, till it becomes black and friable, and melting this in a glazed earthen vessel, sprinkling in, by degrees, thrice as much amber in fine powder, with the addition of a little spirit or oil of tur- pentine now and then. When the amber is melted, sprinkle in the same quantity of sarcocolla, continuing to mix them, and to add more spirit of turpentine, till the whole becomes fluid; then strain out the clear through a coarse hair bag, pressing it gently between hot boards. This varnish, mixed with ivory-black in fine powder, is applied, in a hot room, on the dried paper paste of which the flaſhier mâché is made; which is then set in a gently heated oven, next day in a hotter oven, and the third day in a very hot one, and let stand each time till the oven is grown cold. . The paste thus 2 U varnished sº .* V A R N IS H. warnished is hard, durable, glossy, and bears liquors hot or cold, Lewis’s Com. Phil. Techn. p. 367. - An amber varnish may be otherwise made by melting eight ounces of Chio turpentine, and when fluid, pouring into it, by degrees, a pound of fine powdered amber, and stirring it; and when it is properly mixed, setting it on a fire for half an hour, taking it off, and stirring it well, and adding to it two ounces of the white colophony. It is again to be put on a brisk fire, and covered close; when the mass is perfectly fluid, and taken ºff to cool, a pound of linseed or poppy oil, made drying, is to be poured in boiling hot, and stirred till it be incorporated with the mass; and then a quart of hot turpentine is to be added, and the whole well stirred. Let it then cool, and strain it off for use; when, if it has been properly made, it will be quite clear. See GILDING on Enamel and Glass. VARNISH, Black, for japanning on wood or leather, is prepared by mixing lamp black or ivory-black with a proper quantity of a strong solution of gum lac in spirit of wine. (See JAPANNING...) The lamp-black is com- monly preferred to the ivory-black, on account of its uniting better with the fluid, and working smoother. The thicker part of the varnish, which settles at the bottom, is used with the lamp-black for the first coatings, and the mixture applied at different times, in a hot room, one layer after another, is dry, till a full body of colour is ob- tained; after which, the piece is washed over in the same manner several times, with the finer part of the varnish, just tinged with the black, so as to make a coating of sufficient thickness to bear polishing with tripoli. Iron snuff-boxes, mourning buckles, &c. are coloured black, by making them considerably hot, and applying on them in this state a thick mixture of lamp-black, with a certain varnish called gold-size, consisting of drying oil, tur- pentine, and the pigment called Naples yellow; but the yellow might be omitted, and the varnish formed at once by mixing lamp-black with a proper quantity of turpen- tine and drying oil. The workmen, as Dr. Lewis says, frequently employ, as varnish for metals, a mixture of lamp-black, with the scummings, &c. of different oil paints; the mixture is applied with a pencil, and the piece afterwards baked in an oven with a heat somewhat greater than is used for the flaſhier mâché. Naples yel- low, a superfluous ingredient in the black varnish, is the basis of the dark-brown which we see on some iron snuff- boxes; this pigment changing to a brown in baking with the varnish. Lewis. See LAcquer. The excellent black varnish of China and Japan, which has been hitherto but imperfectly imitated in Europe, and which was formerly thought to be an artifi- cial composition of resinous bodies coloured with black pigments, has been discovered by the later travellers into those countries, to be a native juice, exuding from inci- sions make in the trunks of certain trees. Mr. Miller, in consequence of a letter from the abbé Mazeas to Dr. Hales containing a communication of the discovery of a plant by the abbé de Sauvages, which he calls toacicodendron Caro- linian um foliis finnatis, floribus minimis herbaceis, and the black juice of which adheres, without the least acrimony, to cloth with more force than any other known prepa- ration, takes occasion to show, that this American toxi- codendron is the same species of plant from which the inhabitants of Japan procure the varnish with which they stain all their utensils; adding, that the Calicuts are also painted with the juice of this shrub. This American toxicodendron (see Poison-Tree) is the same plant, as he affirms, which is mentioned by Kaempfer, in his Amge- nitates Exoticae, by the title of arbor vernacifera legitima, Jolio finnato juglandis, fructu racemoso ciceris facie; i.e. the true varnish-treg, with a walnut-tree leaf, and a branching fruit like cicers. It is called by the inhabi- tants of Japan sitz, or lesitz-dsju, and also urus, or urus- noki. Kaempfer has also described the wild or spurious varnish-tree, called fasi-no-ki by the natives, which he says agrees with the other in every part, except that the lobes of the leaves are narrower; but Mr. Miller is of opi- nion that this is a distinct species, if not a different genus, from the true sort; and says, that the varnish yielded by it is of little esteem. The account which the Jesuits at China have given of the manner in which the varnish is procured, is as follows: they first slit the back of the branches of the shrub, in different places, with a knife; and thus there flows out a white clammy juice, which is received into wooden vessels; and when these become dry, they tap the stems of the shrubs near the roots, so that all the juice is drawn out of them. The shrubs are then cut down to the ground, and from their roots new stems arise, which in three years will be fit for tapping. The juice turns black when exposed to the air; it heats without turning sour; but being of a poisonous nature, it is dangerous to handle it. This native varnish wants hardly any preparation; but if any dirt should happen to mix with it, it is cleansed by being strained through coarse gauze, put into wooden vessels, and covered with an oil called toi, and a skin, in order to prevent its evaporating. In this state it is carried over to China and Japan for sale. The shrub is chiefly cultivated in the provinces of Tsi-kocko and Figo; and the best varnish, according to Kaempfer's account, is produced about the city Jassino; but there is an ordinary sort of varnish, called nam-rak, brought from Siam, which is collected in the province of Corsama, and in the kingdom of Cambodia, from the tree anacardus, called by the inhabitants tong, or tue-rak, the fruit of which is called in our shops anacardium. To collect this liquor, they bore a hole in the trunk, and insert a tube. By this method they procure as much of it as is sufficient, not only to varnish all the utensils of China, Tonquin, and Japan, but it is even exported in close wooden vessels to Batavia, and other parts of India. This varnish, says Kaempfer, is not only sold quite pure, but likewise coloured, with Chinese native cinnabar, and a kind of red earth, which the Dutch formerly, but now the Chinese bring them, and also with the materials of which they make their common Japan ink. Mr. Ellis has controverted the opinion of Mr. Miller, and endea- voured to show that the American toxicodendron is not the same with Kaempfer's arbor vernicifera legitima; alleging, that Kaempfer's description of the true var- nish-tree does not agree with this toxicodendron; and he inclines to the opinion, that the Carolina pin- nated toxicodendron, or poison-ash, is the same with the fasi-no-ki, or spurious varnish-tree of Kaempfer. Mr. Ellis also thinks it is not improbable, that the varnish mentioned by Kaempfer, as obtained from the oriental anacardium, is the same with that men- tioned by father d’Incarville, in the Phil. Trans. vol. . xlviii. p. 254, called toengyeou; which is so univer- saily used in China for preserving and ornamenting their furniture. See this controversy between Mr. Miller and Mr. Ellis at large, in Phil. Trans. vol. xlix. part i. p. 157 —166. part ii. p. 806–876. vol. 1. p. 430–456. Poison-tree, LINEN, and JAPANNING: See VARNISB, V A R N IS H. VARNisk, Brown, for Metals. See Black VARNISH, supra. e * º VARNIsh, Cohal Oil, called in France vernis martin, is made by pouring into a well-glazed strong earthen pot, in shape resembling a chocolate-pot, and in size large enough to hold about a gallon, and made warm, four ounces of Chio or Cyprus turpentine, and when this is dissolved, eight ounces of finely powdered amber; mingling them well, and setting them on the fire for a quarter of an hour; take off the pot, and pour gent- ly into it a pound of copal, finely bruised, but not powdered; stir the mass, and add four ounces of Chio turpentine, and a gill of warm turpentine oil; then set it on a brisk fire for about half an hour, and taking it off, stir the contents well, and add two ounces of the finest and whitest colophony. Let the pot be put on a very brisk fire, and remain till the whole is dissolved, and be- come as fluid as water; let it be removed from the fire, and remain for a few minutes, and then gradually pour in twenty-four ounces of poppy, nut, or linseed-oil, made drying, and boiling hot, and stir the mass with a deal stick. When the gums and oil are thoroughly incorpo- rated, set them over the fire for a few minutes, still stir- ring them about, and let them boil once up; and having ta- ken off the pot, pour into it a quart of hot turpentine; stir them together, and give them one boil up; take off the pot, and pour into it a pint more of hot turpentine, still stirring it well. If the gums are thoroughly melted, and well incorporated, the varnish is made; which, being cool, is strained through a close cloth into another vessel, and, if it be too thick, thinned with oil of turpentine, till it becomes of the consistence of linseed-oil; strain it a se- cond time, bottle it for use and let it stand a month, at least, before it is used. This varnish is used for coaches, cabinets, &c.; and the piece, whatever it be, after having been varnished smoothly, and dried in the intervals half a dozen times, and suffered thoroughly to dry, must be rubbed with a wet coarse rag, dipped in pumice-stone, powdered and sifted, till the streaks of the brush and all blemishes are removed. When it is perfectly smoothed, washed, and dried, the coats of varnish are to be repeat- ed, for ten or twelve times, till there be a sufficient body. After having again used the powdered pumice-stone, and washed it off as before, let it be rubbed with fine emery, till the surface becomes even and smooth as glass; thcn with powder of fine rotten stone, till by passing the palm of the hand two or three times over the same place, you discover a gloss equal to that of glass: having dried it clean, dip a rag, or piece of flannel, in sweet oil, and rub the surface a few times over, and clear it off with fine dry powder, flower, or the hand; and a piece of fine flannel, dipped in flour, and rubbed over it, when cleared of the oil, will give it an excellent lustre. Between every coat of varnish it will be adviseable, if the subject admits of it, to set it in a warm oven; or to heat the var- nished pieces by stoves. See CoPAL. VARNISH, Gold-coloured. See LAcquER. The composition of a gold-coloured varnish, used by the English artists for brass and silver, was commu- nicated to some of the French academicians in 1720, by Mr. Scarlet, and in 1738 by Mr. Graham, and published in the volume of the French Memoirs for 1761. It is as follows: Take two ounces of gum lac, two ounces of yel- low amber, forty grains of dragon’s blood in tears, half a drachm of saffron, and forty ounces of good spirit of wine: infuse and digest in the usual manner, and then strain through a linen cloth. The piece to be varnished must be heated before the liquid is applied: it receives from the varnish a gold colour, and may be cleaned, when sullied, with warm water. - VARNISH for fireserving fiolished Iron from Rust. See IRoN. - - Many methods have been used for preserving iron utensils from rust, as animal fats, oils, boiled oil mixed with melted lead, &c. Homberg’s salve for this pur- pose consists of two pounds of hog's-lard, an ounce of camphor, and as much black lead as will render the mixture of an iron-colour; when this is used, the iron must be previously heated. M. Reaumur has discover- ed a better composition for this purpose: it is oil, inspis- sated by being exposed to the air in flat shallow vessels, so as just to cover the bottom, mixed with a solution of -copal in spirit of wine: this forms an elegant hard war- nish, which, rubbed on polished iron, made a little hotter than the hand can bear, will cover it with a solid, thin, transparent coat, without any injury to its colour or ap- pearance. See RUST. - VARNIsh, Lacca, is made of gum lacca and spirit of wine, frequently shaken till the gum be dissolved, then strained, and the clear liquor decanted off. - The lacca ought to be of the kind called seed lacca. (See LA.c.) Three ounces of this, well purified by re- peated ablution of water, dried and powdered grossly, should be put into a bottle with a pint of rectified spirit of wine, so as to fill about two-thirds of it, and the bottle placed in a gentle heat; proceeding as above: though for varnishing ordinary woods, shell lacca is often used. For this purpose, five ounces of the best shell lacca should be grossly powdered, and put into a bottle, hold- ing about three pints or two quarts, with one quart of rectified spirit of wine; and placed in a gentle heat: the mixture must be filtered through a flannel bag. To this varnish, the colours used in varnish painting may be added, and properly diluted with rectified spirit, and kept in phials, or tin vessels closely stopped for use. But this will not stand against the weather. For various preparations of this kind, see JAPANNING and LAC QUER. VARNISH, Mastich, is made by putting five ounces of powdered mastich into a proper bottle, with a pound of spirit of turpentine, and setting them to boil in balneo Mariae, till the mastich be dissolved, and straining the solution through flannel. This varnish may be convert- ed into a proper varnish for painting, by grinding one ounce of gum anime on a stone with water, till it be- comes an impalpable powder; then drying it, and grind- ing it again with half an ounce of turpentine, and after- wards with the proper colours, and moistening it with the mastich varnish, till the mixture be of a due consist- ence for working with the pencil. It must then be kept in phials or tin vessels, and diluted, as there may be oc- casion, with spirit of turpentine. - VARNISH for fireserving Paintings. See PICTURE. For this purpose some have recommended the follow- ing composition: viz. half a pound of gum sandarac; an ounce and a half of Venice turpentine; three-quarters of an ounce of each of the gums anime and copal; half an ounce of mastich; benzoin, gum elemi, and white resin, each two drachms, and one pound of rectified spirit, The benzoin and gum anime powdered, are put with the Venice turpentine into a phial, with eight ounces of the spirit of wine; the copal and resin powdered are also put 2 U 2 in VA R V A R in a phial with six ounces, and the powdered gum elemi. with two ounces of spirit of wine. The several phials are frequently shaken, till the gum, &c. are dissolved; then the solutions are strained through a fine linen in one bottle, and when the mixture has stood some days, it is decanted off clear, and kept in a separate bottle for use. Some have substituted the sarcocolla for the copal. Another composition is formed by dissolving mastich and Sandarac, grossly powdered, of each six ounces, and Ve- nice turpentine half an ounce, in a quart of highly recti- fied spirit of wine, and straining off the solution. If it be required harder, an equal weight of the gums anime and copal may be added, and the quantity of spirit of wine doubled. In the use of this varnish, the painting should be thoroughly dry, and it should be spread very gently with a pencil. The varnish should be laid on in a very warm place, or the picture itself warmed to a mo- derate degree, in order to prevent the chilling of the var- nish; in which case another coat should be added. And, indeed, two or three coats are necessary to preserve the painting, and to bring out a due effect of its colours, if they are in that state called sunk in, occasioned by the attraction of the cloth on the oils mixed with them. An oil of turpentine varnish may be added by grossly pow- dering mastich and sandarac, of each four ounces; two ounces of white resin; and sarcocolla, anime, copal, and olibanum, of each one ounce; and putting them into a phial with two pounds of oil of turpentine, stopping the phial gently, and placing it in any heat, so that the mass may not boil, and straining off the solution for use. Or, a varnish more simple, and equally good, may be made by powdering two ounces of sandarac, mastich and oli- banum, of each an ounce and a half; or three ounces of mastich, and Venice turpentine half an ounce; and dis- solving them in half a pound of oil of turpentine, and proceeding as before. Handmaid to the Arts, vol. ii. p. 227, &c. VARNISH for Pafter-hangings. ings. VARNISH for Printers' Ink. See PRINTING-Ink. VARNISH, White, is usually made of gum sandarac and gum mastich, dissolved in spirits, left to settle two days, then strained through a linen cloth, and, after standing some time, the clear poured off, and bottled for \{SC, The more curious artists dissolve the two gums sepa- rately; and having made a separate varnish of each, mix them occasionally, as their work requires a stiffer or a softer varnish. But for the best white varnish more gums are requir- ed; viz. Venice turpentine, gum copal, elemi, benzoin, anime, and white resin. Besides these, there are hard and soft varnishes, or grounds, used by the etchers and engravers. See ETCHING. - VARNISH is also used for a kind of glossy coat, with which potter’s-ware, Delf-ware, China-ware, &c. are co- vered, to give them a smoothness and lustre. Some preparation of lead is the varnish ordinarily used for the See PAPER-Hang- first; and earths for the second. See GLAZING and PoTTERY. • . The true varnish used by the Chinese and Japanese, to give that inimitable lustre to their porcelain, is one of the grand secrets in that manufacture; and is one of the great things wanting, to make Delf and French ware vie with the Chinese. Several have described the prepara- tion of it, particularly Kircher; but none ever succeeded in the trial. See Porc ELAIN and VARNIsh, supra. WARNISH is also a term applied to the colours which antique medals acquire in the earth. The value of a medal is heightened by a beauty, which nature alone was able to give, and art has never yet at- tained to counterfeit: we mean the colour or varnish with which certain soils tinge the medal; some with a blue, almost as beautiful as that of a turcois; others with an inimitable vermilion colour; and others with a glossy shining brown, infinitely beyond any of our figures in bronze. - f The most usual varnish, however, is a fine green, which hangs to the most delicate strokes without effacing them; much more accurately than the finest enamel does on metals. Brass alone is susceptible of it; for as to sil- ver, the green rust that gathers on it, always spoils it; and it must be scoured off with vinegar, or lemon juice. There is also a false, or modern varnish; which the falsifiers of medals give to their counterfeits, to give them the air of antiquity: it is discovered by its being softer than the natural varnish, which is as hard as the metal itself. - Some lay their spurious medals under ground, where they contract the degree of varnish, that they im- pose on the less knowing: others use sal ammoniac, mix- ed with vinegar; others the acid spirit of nitre, &c. VARODOPA, or VERodopA, in Ancient Geography, a province in the environs of Macedonia, according to Eutropius. Ortelius makes it a country of Thrace, writing at Rodofia. VAROE, in Geography. See VAFIRoE. VAROLI, Costa Nzo, in Biography, was born at Bo- logna in 1542, and became a professor of physic and surgery in his native city. In 1572 he was invited by pope Gregory XIII. to settle at Rome as his first physi- cian, and professor in the college of Sapienza. He was advancing in reputation by his anatomical discoveries, as well as in his practice of medicine and surgery, when a premature death cut him off in 1575, in the 33d year of his age. He was particularly distinguished in the ana- tomy of the brain, which he described in his work “De Nervis Opticis nonnullisque aliis praeter communem Opinionem in Humano Capite observatis Epistola ad Hieronymum Mercurialem,” Patav. 1570. Among the parts of the brain which he discovered, or more accu- rately described, was that known by his name, the “Pons Varoli,” formed by the union of the crura cerebri and cerebelli, and the place whence several nerves originate. After his death was published “De Resolutione Corpo- ris Humani,” a work which is a compendium of anato- my, chiefly according to the ancients, but with several new observations by himself. Haller. Eloy. VARoll Pons, in Anatomy. See Pons. VARORE, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in Baramaul; 14 miles N. N.W. of Darempoury. VAROTAR I, DARIO, in Biography. See PADUA- NITN O. VARPA, in Geography, an island near the N.E. coast of Sumatra, about 30 miles in circumference. S. lat. O° 36'. E. long. 103° 25'. VARRO, MARcus TERENTIus, in Biografhy, the most learned of the ancient Romans, received from Pom- pey the Great, in the piratical war, a nayal crown, and joined this chief in the civil war against Caesar; but af- terwards submitting to the latter, he was employed by him. V A. R. V A R him in making a collection of books for the public libra- ry which he proposed to establish at Rome. The death of Caesar prevented the accomplishment of this design; and Varro, being involved in the proscription by the triumvirates, escaped with his life, but with the loss of his library. After the restoration of tranquillity, he re- tired for the prosecution of his studies, and composed books till his 88th year. His life was prolonged to the age of 90, and he died about the year B. C. 27. He is highly extolled for his various talents and literary per- formances by ancient writers, and particularly by Cicero in his “ Academics.” Aulus Gellius cites a passage from Varro, in which he declares of himself, that to the 78th year of his life he had composed 490 books, and he continued to write to his 90th year. The subjects on which he wrote, as we learn from Fabricius, were gram- mar, eloquence, poetry, the drama, history, antiquities, philosophy, politics, agriculture, nautical affairs, archi- tecture, and religion. He was also the first Latin au- thor of that species of satire called the Menippean, from Menippus, a Greek, its inventor, which was written in prose, with a mixture of verse in different measures. (See MENIPEAN.) Such and so pre-eminent was the reputation of Varro, that when Asinius Pollio, in the reign of Augustus, opened the first public library at Rome, and placed in it the effigies of various learned persons, he was the only living writer who had the ho- nour of this distinction. The only relics of his numerous Works are six books, in an imperfect state, out of twenty- four, which he composed on the Latin language, with three books on agriculture, and a few fragments of his satires and epigrams. The former are printed among the “Auctores de Lingua Latina,” and the latter among the “Auctores de Re Rustică.” A contemporary of the preceding, named P. TEREN- TIUS VARRO ATACINUs, has been confounded with him. He was a native of Atace in Gallia Narbonnensis, and wrote an esteemed poem “De Bello Sequanico,” and translated into Latin verse the “Argonautics of Appol- lonius Rhodius.” Some fragments of his poetry are published in the “Corpus Poet. Latin.” Vossius. Tiraboschi, Gen. Biog. VARRONIA, in Botany, is so called in memory of MARCUs TERENTIUS VARRo, (see that article,) whose treatise De Re Rustică has procured him this botanical tribute. The name originated with Browne, but was speedily adopted by Linnaeus and Jacquin.—Browne Jam. 172. Linn. Gen. 102. Schreb. 146. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1079. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Jacq. Amer. 40. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 1 1. Juss. 129. Lamarck Dict. V. 4, 262. Illustr. t. 95.-Class and order Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Asherifolia, Linn. Borragi- nea, Juss. ..Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, tubular, with five long, slender, recurved teeth, permanent. Cor. of one petal, tubular; tube cylindrical; limb in five deep spreading segments. Stam. Filaments five, awl-shaped, the length of the corolla, inserted into its tube; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pist. Germen superior, ovate; style thread-shaped, the length of the corolla; stigmas four, bristle-shaped. Peric. Drupa ovate, of one ceil, inclosed in the swelling calyx, but not connected with it. Seed. Nut roundish, of four cells. Ess. Ch. four cells. g Corolla five-cleft. Calyx tubular. Drupa. *"Perior, covered with the permanent calyx. Nut of. A West Indian genus of shrubby plants, with simple, alternate, rarely almost opposite, rough leaves; and ter- minal, aggregate, rather ornamental, flowers. They are little known in our stoves, nor has any one species as yet been exhibited in our popular periodical works. Warronia is next akin to Tour.NEForTIA (see that arti- cle); but the less deeply divided calyx, and four slender stigmas, are sufficient to mark the present genus, with- out adverting to their fruits, which are not in all cases well understood. - 1. V. lineata. Round-spiked Varronia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 275. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Swartz Obs. 87. (V. fruticosa, foliis rugosis, ovatis, subhirsutis, serratis, alternis, capitulis subrotundis; Browne Jam. 172. t. 13. f. 2. V. humilis; Jacq. Amer. 41. Ulmi angustifoliae facie Baccifera jamaicensis, foliis supernē scabris subtils villosis, floribus flavis perpusillis, fructu botryoide mo- nospermo; Pluk. Almag. 393. Phyt. t. 328. f. 5.)— Leaves lanceolate, minutely hairy, marked with straight depressed veins. Flower-stalks mostly axillary, com- bined with the footstalks. Spikes globose.—Common in the lower woody lands of Jamaica. The stem is three or four feet high, with many slender, round, downy, crooked, entangled, leafy branches. Leaves spreading, or rather dependent, two inches long, taper-pointed, distantly and irregularly serrated; roughish, like a very fine file, with minute rigid hairs, above; densely downy and hoary beneath. Footstalks hairy, a quarter of an inch long, united for half their length, to the base of each simple, solitary, downy flower-stalk, which is about half the length of the leaf, and bears a round head of small whitish or yellowish flowers. Plukenet’s figure is a much better representation of the Linnaean specimen from Browne himself, than his own plate, particularly with respect to the situation of the flowers. We cannot but suspect some error, and that the said plate may repre- sent a species not hitherto well defined. 2. V. bullata. Blistered Varronia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 276, excluding Jacquin's synonym. Am. Acad. v. 5. 394 Willd. n. 2. Swartz Obs. 88?–Leaves ovate, veiny, rugose, rough with callous tubercles and bristles. Spikes globose, on long rough stalks, from the forks of the stem.—Native of Jamaica. The Linnaean specimen is from Browne, but does not answer to the description of either of his species. The branches are forked, ex- tremely rough with minute warts, and rigid ascending bristles, as are likewise the foot-8talks and flower-stalks. Leaves an inch and a half or two inches long, about four times the length of their stalks, nearly elliptical, acute, serrated, reticulated with copious veins, and minutely blistered in the interstices; besprinkled on the upper side with callous tubercles and bristles, which turn white by age, when the leaf becomes tawny; paler, with hairy veins, beneath. Flower-stalks from the forks of the branches, solitary, from one inch to two inches and a half long, erect, simple, very rough, quadrangular upwards. Shike globose, of six or eight flowers. Galyar corrugat- ed, bristly, with linear recurved teeth. Corolla not much longer than the tube of the calyx, with five plates in the limb. Fruit tuberculated. . Many doubts have arisen respecting this species. what We have here, with all possible precision, described, is certainly the Linnaean authentic specimen, which we should suspect to be the Lantana Radula of Swartz, Ind. Occ. 1057. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 317, to judge at least by the description, not having seen the plant. Nevertheless our's has the calyx. V AR V AR calyx and corolla of a Varronia, and the habit of the plant is so near V. mirabiloides, as figured by Jacquin, that Linnaeus may well be excused for supposing them one and the same. In the Linnaean herbarium are two other specimens, sent by Rolander, and marked likewise, W. bullata. It must be to these that Swartz alludes, when he says, in his obs. 88, “there is a specimen of Y. globo- sa in Herb. Linn. under the name of bullata.” Whether this be corrector not, these have never been described as bullata, though, by mistake, so named. - 3. V. mirabiloides. Salver-flowered Varronia. Jacq. Amer. 41. t. 33. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Swartz Ind. Occ. 465.—Leaves ovate, rough, serrated. Spikes roundish, unequal. Corolla salver-shaped; its tube thrice the length of the calyx-Native of Hispaniola, even in hedges near the town of Port-au-Prince. Jacquin: The most elegant of its genus, often twelve feet high. Ledºes two inches long, rough on both sides. Flower-stalks la: teral and terminal, measuring three or four inches, and bearing each a simple or divided round-headed shike, of numerous white inodorous flowers, very handsome, the size of Marvel of Peru. Segments of the calya small, ovate, ending in long bristles. Druña red, the size of a pea, full of sweet glutinous pulp. Wut depressed. Such is the plant of Jacquin, and we must suppose Swartz's the same, in spite of some slight incongruities of descrip- tion. We have never seen either. 4. V. martinicensis. Martinieo Varronia. Jacq. Amer. 41. t. 32. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3.-Leaves ovate, pointed. Spikes oblong, dense. Calyx-teeth linear, half the length of the tube.—Native of Martinico. Sent to Kew by sir Joseph Banks, in 1795. It is said to flower in the stove about August and September.—A shrub as tall as a man; the young branches only roughish with close-pressed hairs. Îleaves three inches long, sharply serrated: rough above, with minute depressed hairs; soft, and downy at the back. Flower-stalks solitary, a little above each fork of the branch, silky, an inch and a half long, each bearing a dense shike, about an inch long, of many funnel-shaped, probably white, flowers. Calyx silky, with broader and shorter teeth than any of the foregoing. 5. V. globosa. Globose Varronia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 276. Wild. m. 5. Jacq. Amer. 41–4 Leaves lanceolate- oblong. Stem forked. Flower-stalks axillary, elongated, naked. Spikes globose.—Native of the West Indies. An obscure species, of which we can give only the Pin- naean specific character, the author of which adds fied un- culus e dichotomiá nudus; meaning, probably, that When- ever a stalk springs from the fork of the stem, it is unac- companied by a leaf. Linnaeus further says, that the calyx-teeth are long, linear, and recurved. Whether the specimen above-mentioned from Rolander (see n. 2.) be this species or not, we have no authority to say. Sir Joseph Banks has favoured us with what he considers as W. globosa, from Von Rohr, which may be the same; the leaves and serratures are much blunter, but hardly enough to make a specific distinction.—In this the leaves are scarcely above an inch long, rough and rather hoary, especially beneath, as are also the branches and foot- stalks. Flowers numerous, in dense, globular, silky, stalked heads, either from the forks of the younger branches, or each opposite to a leaf. Calyac-teeth as de- scribed by Linnaeus. 6. V. curassavica. Long-spiked Varronia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 276. Willd. n. 6. Jacq. Amer. 40. n. 1. Swartz Obs. 88? (V. assurgens sarmentosa, foliis et capitulis abłongis; Browne Jam. 172?)-Leaves eiliptic-oblong, minutely toothed. Spikes oblong. Calyx-teeth trian- gular, slightly pointed.—Sent by Von Rohr from the West Indies, and given us by the late Mr. Dryander, as the authentic plant of Jacquin, compared doubtless with his specimen. Yet the calyx-teeth have less evident points than he describes, and the spikes are rather lax. Whatever our intelligent friend Dr. Swartz may have had for P. curassavica, we can assert that our's is cer- tainly distinct from martinicensis. (See his Obs. 88.) Jacquin describes it fifteen feet high, with round rough branches, rusty when old. Flowers small, white, without scent, in dense terminal shikes, two or three inches long. Druſia small, red. 7. V. angustifolia. Narrow-leaved Varronia. Willd. n. 7. “West. St. Cruc. 202.”—“Leaves linear, rough somewhat toothed. Spikes linear-oblong.”—Native ºf Santa Cruz. A shrub. Leaves lanceolate-linear, ob- tuse, revolute, rough above; downy beneath. Willde- 720719. 8. V. alba. White-fruited Varronia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 276. Jacq. Amer. 41. Wild. m. 8. (Mespilus ame- ricana, alni vel coryli foliis, fructu mucaginoso albo; Comm. Hort. v. 1, 155. t. 80.)-Leaves heart-shaped, pointed, flowers cymose.-Native of South America, about Carthagena and in Curassow. A tree, often thir- ty feet high, with an ample spreading head, and a trunk six inches in diameter; though in hedges it is scarcely more than a shrub. Leaves four or five inches long, serrated, rough; somewhat heart-shaped at the base. Cymes large, not uncommonly extending six inches, of numeous, whitish, scentless flowers. Calyz at first en- tire, but, as the corolla protrudes, it is pushed aside ho- rizontally, splitting into two valves, the upper withering, the under permanent, and the margin is seen to have five very slight teeth. Limb of the corolla bell-shaped. Dru- fia oblong, measuring half an inch, whitish, semipellucid, sweet, but insipid and glutinous, eaten by the inhabitants of Curassow. JWut oblong, striated, black. - 9. V. monosferma. Single-seeded Varronia. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1, 18. t. 39. Willd. n. 9.-Leaves ovate; entire at the base. Cymes lateral. Flowers ca- pitate.—Native of the Caraccas. It flowered in the stove at Schoenbrun all summer long, and bore fruit. The stem is twelve feet high. Leaves three inches in length, stalked, serrated from about the middle only. Flowers small, white, in little globular heads, collected into stalked cymes, which spring laterally from the branches, about half way between the leaves. Calyz- teeth triangular, scarcely pointed. Corolla bell-shaped, abrupt, crenate. Stigmas dilated, obtuse. Druña scar- let, the size of a pea. There being but one kernel, is probably owing to the plant not being in a natural situa- tion, and therefore is wisely omitted by Willdenow in the specific character. For the same reason, the name may probably prove exceptionable. In studying this genus, we cannot but observe that the species are not so distinctly known, nor so well de- fined, as could be wished, nor do we pretend to have placed them all beyond the reach of uncertainty, our ma- terials being, in several instances, defective on the score of authority. VARRONIAN SATIRE. See SATIRE. VARS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Charente; 6 miles N. of Angoulesme. VARSAKA, a town of Imiretta; 10 miles S.E. of Cotatis. VARSETCH, a town of Istria; 8 miles E. of Pedena. VARSHNEYA, Jacq. V A S V A S VARSHNEYA, in Mythology, a name of the Hin- doo deity Krishna; which see. - VARSOVIA, in Geografi.hy. See WARSAw. VARU, an island in the Caribbean sea, near the coast of South America, about sixteen miles long, and three broad. N. lat. 10° 12'. W. long, 75° 25'. VARVELS, in Falconry, small rings about a hawk's leg, with the owner’s name on them. VARUNA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the genius or regent of the waters, corresponding with the Neptune of western heathens. As light is thought to be exclud- ed from the deep, Varuna is also deemed the governor of the night, or of darkness; in this character, as well as that of lord of punishment, coalescing with the Hin- doo Pluto, who is named Yama; which see. Still he is one of the twelve suns, called Aditya, of which see un- der our article SURY A. As lord of punishment, the wealth of criminals is directed to be offered to him; or, in other words, thrown into the waters; or it may, instead, be bestowed on a learned priest. The latter, we may suppose, is likely, on most occasions, to outshare the deity. In the Institutes of Menu, ch. ix. v. 243, 4, 5, these texts occur. “Let no virtuous prince appropriate the wealth of a criminal in the highest degree; for he who appro- priates it through covetousness, is contaminated with the same guilt. Having thrown such a fine into the wa- ters, let him offer it to Varuna; or let him bestow it on some priest of eminent learning in the scripture. Va- runa is the lord of punishment; he holds a rod even over kings, and a priest who has gone through the whole Ve- da, is equal to a sovereign of the world.” In another text, c. ix. v. 308, it is said that “Varuna most assured- ly binds the guilty in fatal cords.” Like other Hindoo deities, Varuna has a consort, or sakti, assigned him. She is called Varumi; which see. He has likewise a terrestrial palace or paradise, situated far in the West, named Subhavati; which see. He has also had a terres- trial incarnation, under the name of Samvarna. VARUNI, the consort of the Hindoo Neptune, who is named Varuna; which see. As well as his consort, she is said to be his daughter; a double relationship not uncommon with the gods both of India and Greece. VARUS, or VARUM FLUMEN, the War, in Ancient Geography, a river, which, in the time of Strabo and Pliny, separated the Gauls from Italy. VARUSA, a river of Italy, in Gallia Cisalpina, which discharged itself into the Po, near the confluence of this river with the Ticini. VARUTHA, a town of Asia, in the Greater Arme- nia. Ptolemy. - VARY, in Geografthy, a town of Hungary; 10 miles S. of Munckacz. VARZEA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 9 miles S.S.W. of Lamego. VARZESKOI, a lake of Russia, in the government of A changel; 60 miles E. of Mezen. VARZY, a town of France, in the department of the Nievre; 7 miles S.S.W. of Clamecy. VAS, VESSEL. See VESSEL, VESICULA, and ANGEI- OLOGY. - Hence, in the style of anatomists, the vasa adiposa, firaeflarentia, &c. VAs Chyliferum, in Anatomy, the thoracic duct. See ABSORBENTs. VAs Deferens, the execretory tube of the testis. See GENERATI on. z VASA Brevia, the short arterial and venous ramifica- tions proceeding from the splenic trunks to the great end of the stomach. See ARTERY, and VEIN. VASA Efferentia and Inferentia; the latter are the lymphatic vessels, which enter an absorbing gland; and the former, those which go out of it. Sce ABsor- BENTS, x- The tubes which pass from the upper end of the testis, and unite to form the epididymis, are also called vasa efferentia. See GENERATION. VASA Lactea, or Wen a Lactea, the absorbents which take up the chyle from the small intestine. See AB- sor BENTs, and INTESTINE. V As A Vasorum, the vessels which belong to the coats of vessels. See HEART. - VASA Concordia, in Hydraulics, are two vessels, so constructed, as that one of them, though full of wine, will not run a drop; unless the other, being full of wa- ter, do run also. Their structure and apparatus may be seen in Wolfius, Element. Mathes. tom. ii. Hydraul. VASA, in Geografhy, a town of Turkestan, on the Sirr; 70 miles W. of Taraz. VASA, or Wasa. See WASA. VASAGUDA, or VAzAGUDA, in Ancient Geogra- fihy, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Caesariensis. Ptol. VASANTA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of the bosom friend of their Kama, god of love. Among the Mahrattas and low people he is called Bessant, Bes- sent, or Bussunt. He is a personification of the season of spring; and songs in his honour are chanted by min- strels of both sexes at vernal and other festivals. See under KAMA for some mention of his inseparable atten- dant. VASARHELY, in Geografhy, a town of Hungary, on a small river, which runs into the Theysse; 50 miles N.N.W. of Temeswar. N. lat. 46° 27'. E. long. 20° 33'.—Also, a town of Hungary; 22 miles E. of Caschau. —Also, a town of Transylvania; 40 miles E. of Colos- var. N. lat. 46° 37'. E. long. 25° 5'. VASARI, Gior Glo, in Biografthy, was born at Arez- zo in 1512, and was first instructed in design by a glass- painter, called Il Prete Gallo, but afterwards, being taken to Florence by the cardinal Passerini, studied under M. Angelo and Del Sarto. Another friendly car- dinal conveyed him to Rome, the cardinal Ippolito di Medici; and under his protection he acquired riches and honours. In Rome he laboured assiduously, attach- ing himself particularly to M. Angelo, of whom he ap- pears, by several letters preserved by Bottari, to have been very sincerely esteemed. He was employed in several public works at Rome, both as a painter and an archi- tect, particularly in the Vatican, in the Sala della Can- cellaria, where he painted, by the direction of the car- dinal Farnese, a series of frescoes, representing the principal actions of Paul III.; and in the church of S. Giovanni Dicollato, he painted for the principal altar the martyrdom of that saint, one of his most highly es- teemed performances. He was invited by Cosmo I. to Florence in 1553, and employed by that prince as superintendant of the impor- tant works then going on in the Palazzo Vecchio, where he executed, with the help of numerous disciples, the decoration of the principal apartments. Of his paint- ings VAS V A S ings there, pope Clement VII. crowning the emperor Charles V. was the most important, and it was accom- panied, in other compartments in the same hall, by rep- resentations of the actions of that monarch. There are many other works of Vasariscattered about Italy, as at Bologna, Arezzo, and Rimini, &c.; but after all he was a tame copyist of Michael Angelo's manner, and a very indifferent colourist. He is far more endear. ed to us by his writings than his pictures. His work, entitled “Lives of the most excellent Painters, Sculp- tors, and Architects, from the period of Cimabue till his own Time,” is the fountain of knowledge concerning the greater part of them: and though in many points he appears to have been too facile of belief, and to have related histories without sufficient inquiry into their correctness, yet upon the whole the world is indebted to him for an ingenious and useful work; without which, the history of the art would not now have been so distinct- ly understood, nor the profession so justly known and hon- oured. It was first published at Florence, in two vo- lumes, in 1550, and afterwards republished with con- siderable additions, and heads engraved in wood of most of the artists mentioned, in 1568, and has since been re-edited with copious notes by Bottari. Vasari died at Florence in 1576, at the age of 64. VASAVA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo god Indra; which see. VASBARIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in the interior of Mauritania Caesariensis. Ptolemy. VASBUHL, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 4 miles N.E. of Arnstein. VASCO, or VASIoRUM CiviTAs, in Ancient Geogra- fihy, a town of Gallia Narbonnensis, according to Pto- lemy and Pliny. _ _* VASCON ES, a people of Hispania Citerior, at the foot of the Pyrenées. These people, who in later times passed into Gaul, where they assumed the name of Gascons, lay to the east of the Cantabri, in the country now called Navarre; and they extended from the Pyre- nées as far as the Iberus towards the south. Their principal towns were Pompelo, Calaguris, and Grac- CUTIS. Y. VASCULAR, VAscularis, in Anatomy, is applied to any thing consisting of divers vessels, veins, arte- ries, &c. * We say, the vascular and valvular texture of the lungs. All the flesh, in an animal body, is found to be vascular, none of it parenchymous, as the ancients imagined. VAscular Glands. See GLAND. VAscular, Vascularius, in Antiquity, was the denomi- nation of a kind of artificers among the ancient Romans; who made silver and gold vessels without relievos, or figures embossed on them. Hence, according to Salmasius, it is, that Cicero, in his sixth oration against Verres, distinguished vascula- rius from calator, engraver. - In the art called by the Greeks spºral ruz”, which was the art of superadding ornaments of precious stones, or rich metals, to vases of other metals; the vascularii and calatores were different; the first being the goldsmiths who made the vase; the second the sculptors who add- ed the ornaments. But in the art called toge wrix”, or the art of cutting bas-reliefs, or stamping figures on me- tal, the vascularii were also caelators, or engravers; that is, they who made the vase, made also the relievos, or figures, with which it was enriched. façades, or frontispieces. led acroteria; and are usually insulate. VASCULIFEROUS PLANTs, in Agriculture and Gardening, are all such the seeds of which are contain- ed in vessels, divided in the cells. There are several of these in both these departments. See SEED. VASE, a term of equal import with the Latin vas, whence it is formed; and with the English vessel; which SCC, * It is applied to the ancient vessels dug from under ground, or otherwise found, and preserved in cabinets, &c. as vessels of sacrifice, urns, &c.; and to other more modern vessels, which are rather of curiosity and show than use; as those of crystal, porcelain, &c. . In the curious collection of ornamenal works, made by Messrs. Wedgwood and Bentley, after the antique, there are vases of various kinds; some formed of a com- position of terra cotta, resembling agate, jasper, porphy- ry, and other variegated stones, of the vitrescent or crys- talline kind; others of black porcelain, or artificial ba- saltes, highly finished, with bas-relief ornaments; others of the painted Etruscan kind; and others again ornamen- ted with encaustic paintings. The art of painting vases in the manner of the Etruscans has been lost for ages: however, these ingenious manufacturers set themselves to revive it; and, having carefully examined the origi- nal Etruscan vases, and having perused with attention the writings of the late count Caylus upon Etruscan an- tiquities, they were convinced that the colours of the fig- ures could not be successfully imitated with enamel; and that their success must chiefly depend upon the discov- ery of a new kind of enamel colours, to be made upon other principles, and to have effects essentially different from those that were then in use, and are of the nature of glass: the Etruscan colours being burnt in, smooth and durable, but without any glassy lustre. In conse- quence of this observation, and by a great variety of ex periments, they invented a set of encaustic colours, not only sufficient to imitate the paintings upon the Etruscan vases, but to give the beauty of design the advantages of light and shade in various colours; and to render paint- ings durable, without the defect of a varnished or glassy surface. These encaustic colours may be applied with great ease and certainty: they change very little in the fire, are not liable to run out of drawing, are perfectly durable, and not glassy, and possess the advantages of enamel, without its essential defects. Catalogue of Ca- meos, &c. by Wedgwood and Bentley, 1773. VAs Es, in Architecture, are ornaments of sculpture, placed on socles, or pedestals, representing the vessels of the ancients; particularly those used in sacrifice, as the praefericulum, fimpulum, incense-pots, flower-pots, &c. and occasionally enriched with basso-relievos. They are commonly placed there to crown or finish They are frequently also cal- In forming and decorating vases, fancy has great scope. Many excellent inventions of these ornaments are transmitted to us from the ancients. A vase differs from an urn, as it is in general of a more elegant con- tour, and is lofty; whereas an urn should be low and wide, and always covered. Vitruvius mentions a kind of theatrical vases, made of brass, or earthen-ware, called echeia, wxt tº, (see EcHEIA and VITRuvius); which they disposed in private places, under the steps and seats of the theatres, to aid and increase the reflection and resonance of the actors' VOICeS3 V A S -- V A S voices, &c. It is said, there are also vases of this kind in the cathedral church of Milan. - VAsF is particularly used in architecture to signify the body of the Corinthian and Composite capital; called also the tambour, or drum; and sometimes the camfiana, or bell. - - VASE is also sometimes used among Florists, for what they otherwise call the calyx. . The vase, or rather calyx of a tulip, is the top or head of a tulip; the leaves of which form a kind of vase, or cup. Goldsmiths, brasiers, &c. also use vase for the mid- dle of a church-candlestick; which is usually of a round- ish figure, bordering somewhat on that of a vase. VASE River, in Geography, a river of America, which runs into the Mississippi, 55 miles above the mouth of the Ohio. VASEN. See WESEN. VASH, a river of Grand Bucharia, which gives name to the country it waters; and runs into the Gihon near Termed.—Also, a province of Great Bucharia; which see. VASHAVAN, a town of Hindoostan; 30 miles S.W. of Dindigul. - VASHGERD, a town of Grand Bucharia, and prin- cipal town of a district watered by the Vash; 200 miles S.E. of Samarcand. N. lat. 38° 25'. E. long. 67° 50'. VASHON’s ISLAND, an island near the west coast of America, at the bottom of the Admiralty Inlet, and eastern branch of the gulf of Georgia. N. lat. 47° 10'. JE. long. 237° 25'. VASIL, a town of Russia, in the government of Nizegorod, on the Volga; 60 miles E. of Niznei Nov- gorod. N. lat. 56° 16'. E. long. 45° 44'. VASILICA. See BASILICA. VASILKOV, a fort of Russia, in the government of Kiev; 28 miles S.S.W. of Kiev. - VASINA, a town of the island of Corsica; 4 miles N. of Bastia. - - VASIR. See SIRVENT. .* VASISHT’HA, in Biografiſhy, is the name of a celebrated person of Hindoo history and mythology: one of a class called Rishi, meaning a sage. Of these divine persons we have given a list, and some remarks, under the articles RISH1 and KRITIKA; the latter being the Pleiades of the Hindoos, who have many very curious tales of their “shedding sweet influences.” Vasisht’ha is a character frequently mentioned in the romantic histories of the Hindoos, as being resorted to for advice by royal and other persons requiring spiritual or other consolation. He is, indeed, called the preceptor of the inferior gods. A very celebrated commentary on the Veda, the Hindoo scripture, is ascribed to Vasisht’ha. It is in prose, with poetry intermixed; and is quoted as high law authority. (See VEDA.) His wife, named Arundhati, is represented to have been exemplary in regard to holiness and sanctity, and to have been trans- lated to the skies with her sapient husband: she is still quoted as proverbial for virtue and constancy. Vasisht’ha is a star of the second magnitude, in N. lat. 60°, and Arundhati is a smaller star near it. In the Agni Purana, a hymn is addressed to Va- sisht’ha, affording some clue to the relative antiquity of the poetical romances bearing the common denomina- tion of Purana; which see. . . VASIT, or WAS11, in Geografthy, a town of the Ara- Vol. XXXVIII. - bian Irak, on the Tigris. This town was built in the beginning of the eighth century, by Al Hejāj, the Ara- bian general. A mint was established, and in 767, mo- ney was coined there by order of the caliph. In 1401 it was plundered by Timur Bec; 96 miles S.E. of Bagdad. N. lat. 32° 18'. E. long. 45° 38'. VASKINA, a gulf or bay of Russia, on the south coast of the island of Kalguev. VASKOVNIA, a town of Russia, in the government of Pskov; 120 miles S.S.E. of Pskov. VASLUI, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia, on the Birlat; 32 miles S. of Jassy. N. lat. 46° 40'. E. long. 27° 45'. - VASOKY, in Hindoo mythological Legend, is a name of a mighty serpent, commonly called Sesha; which see. The name of Vasoky, however, frequently occurs in the extravagant legends of the East. See KALIYA and KURMAvATARA. VASON, in Geografhy, a town and castle of Hun- gary; 20 miles W.S.W. of Stuhl Weissenburg. VASPINGE, a town of Persia, in the province of Adirbeitzan, containing about 600 houses; 9 miles from Tauris. VASQUEZ, a town of the island of Cuba; 66 miles N.W. of Villa del Principe.—Also, a river of Mexico, which runs into the Spanish Main, N. lat. 11° 30'. VASSAL, VASSALLUs, in our Ancient Customs, a person who vowed fidelity and homage to a lord, on ac- count of some land, &c. which he held of him in fee. Du-Cange will have the word to come from vassus, which anciently signified a servant or domestic of a prince, and sometimes also the comites, or assessores, in public trials. Menage, after Cujas, takes vassal to have been formed of gessel, an ancient German word, signifying comfanion. Caseneuve derives it from the Gaulish gessus, a brave man, from gesso, or gessum, or jesum, a kind of javelin used among them. Vossius de- rives vassal from was, vadis, filedge; whence also he will have it to be, that they are sometimes called Jideles. The vassal was also called fliratus, lord’s-man, and jee-man; but now the denomination is changed into that of tenant in fee. Accordingly the vassal, or feudatory, was only another name for the tenant or holder of the lands; though, on account of the prejudices we have justly conceived against the doctrines that were afterwards grafted on this system, we now use the word vassal opprobriously, as synonimous to slave or bondman. The manner of the grant, on the part of the proprietor or lord, who re- tained the dominion, or ultimate property of the feud, or fee, was by words of gratuitous and pure donation, dedi et concessi; which are still the operative words in our modern infeodations, or deeds of feoffment. This was perfected by the ceremony of corporal investiture, or open and notorious delivery of possession, in the pre- sence of the other vassals, which perpetuated among them the era of the new acquisition, at a time when the art of writing was very little known; and, therefore, the evidence of property was reposed in the memory of the neighbourhood: who, in case of a disputed title, were afterwards called upon to decide the difference, not only according to external proofs, adduced by the parties litigant, but also by the internal testimony of their own private knowledge. 2 X They V A S : V A S They sometimes also used the term vassour for vas- sal; whence vavasour. - If a vassal offended his lord grievously, either in per- son or in honour, he committed the crime of felony; which carried with it a confiscation of his fee. VAssaL, a Rear, is he who holds of a lord, who him- self is vassal of another lord. VAssal was anciently used for soldier; by reason fees, at first, were given to none but military men. VASSALAGE, the state of a vassal; or a servitude and dependency on a superior lord. Anciently, they distinguished between liege vassalage, and simſile vassalage. Ziege vassalage only belonged to the king; as carry- ing with it an obligation on the side of the vassal to serve his lord in war, against all persons whatever. See LIEGE. In all simfile vassalage, the fealty, or liege vassalage, was still reserved to the king. Some also distinguish active vassalage, and flassive: the first is the right of fealty residing in the lord; the second, the service and duties incumbent on the tenant. - VASSALBOROUGH, in Geography, a town of the province of Maine, on the Kennebeck; 204 miles N.E. of Boston. VASSEN, or WAEssBN, a town of Holland, in the department of Guelderland; 12 miles S. of Hattem. VASSIETTE, a river of America, which runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 44° 38'. W. long. 85° 18'. VASSY, a town of France, in the department of the Calvados; 8 miles E. of Vire.—Also, a town of France, and seat of a tribunal, in the department of the Upper Marne. In the year 1562, a bloody persecution against the Protestants began in this town; 9 miles S. of St. Dizier. N. lat. 48° 30'. E. long. 5° 2'. VASTAN, a town of Curdistan, on lake Van. In 1386, it was taken by Timur Bec; 20 miles S.W. of Van. VASTANFORS, a town of Sweden, in Westman- land; 32 miles N.N.W. of Stroemsholm. VASTAUNA, in .Ancient Geography, a town of Asia, situated in the S.E. part of the lake Arsisa, to- wards the 38th degree of latitude. VASTO, in Law, a writ that lies against the tenant for life, or years, for making waste. VASTUS, in Anatomy, the name of two very large muscles belonging to the thigh. The body of the femur is completely enveloped, except at the linea aspera, by a thick muscular mass: this may be distinguished at its origin into three portions, which soon become blended together, so as not to admit of separation. The part which covers the outside of the bone is called vastus exter- nus; that which covers the inside, vastus internus; and the middle, cruralis, or cruraeus. These have usually been described as three distingt muscles; but some modern anatomists have more properly considered them as one, under the name of triceps femoris: they form the tri- femoro-rotulien of Dumas. . * The triceps cruris then is a very thick fleshy mass, of a rounded or convex figure, covering the thigh-bone, and extending from the bases of the trochanters to the pe- tella and tibia. - The anterior surface is covered, towards the outside, by the tendon of the gluteus maximus, the tensor vagi- mac, the fascia lata, and the short portion of the biceps; at the middle, by the iliacus internus, rectus extensor cruris, and the external circumflex vessels; on the in- side, by the Sartorius, the femoral artery, and the fascia. The Posterior surface covers the body of the femur, with the exception of the linea aspera; it is attached to the an- terior, external and internal surfaces of the bone, from the bases of the trochanters to within four fingers breadth of the knee; then it is separated from the femur by a loose and fatty cellular substance, and lastly, it co- vers the synovial membrane of the knee-joint. The outer margin is fixed to the rough line, which descends from the great trochanter to the linea aspera, together with the gluteus maximus, to which it is closely connected: it is then fixed to the external edge of the linea aspera, in its whole length, and to the upper two- thirds of that line, which descends from the linea aspera to the external condyle of the femur, being connected in the latter situation with the fascia lata. The internal edge is fixed to the corresponding inner edge of the linea aspera, from the trochanter minor downwards; and to the upper two-thirds of the line descending from it to the external condyle, being connected here with the ten- don of the triceps adductor. Its upper extremity is di- vided into the three portions already mentioned. The ex- ternal (vastus externus) and most considerable is fixed to the circumference of the basis of the great trochan- ter; it descends on the outside of the thigh, increasing in size to the middle of the limb, and then diminishing again. At first it is separated from the middle portion by a thin stratum of cellular substance; but they are soon confounded in one mass. The internal portion (vastus internus) is not in general very distinct from the middle. Commencing at the root of the little tronchan- ter, it descends on the inside of the femur, first increas- ing in size, and then diminishing again. On its outside it is separated from the middle portion, if at all, by a very slight cellular line, for about an inch or two, after which they are confounded in one mass. The middle and smallest division,(cruralis) commences at the basis of the neck of the thigh-bone, by an attachment to the rough line, which reaches from the great to the small trochan- ter: it descends perpendicularly, increasing in size, se- parated at first from the lateral portions, but soon inse- parably joined with them into one mass, surrounding the body of the femur, and ending in a tendinous extremity, attached to the basis and sides of the patella, and to the tuberosities of the tibia. The last-mentioned attachment is effected by means of a broad and thick tendon, connected in front to that of the pectus extensor cruris, and expanded laterally into aponeuroses fixed to the tuberosities of the tibia. Of these aponeuroses, the outer is closely connected to the fascia lata. The tendon of the triceps is divided above into three broad portions, which ascend on the three divisions of the muscle. A thick and broad apo- neurotic sheet commences from the basis of the trochan- ter major and the linea aspera, and covers the upper half of the vastus externus: a similar but smaller apo- neurosis descends from the linea aspera on the vastus internus. The muscular fibres of the vastus externus pass obliquely downwards and forwards from its superi- or aponeurosis, and from the aponeurotic Septum, which separates it from the short head of the biceps to the inferior tendon. Of these fibres, the upper are the longest and most perpendicular; the succeeding ones become more and more oblique, and the lowest approach - £O V A T V A T to the transverse direction, accompanying the tendon to within an inch of its insertion. - The fleshy fibres of the vastus internus pass with a corresponding obliquity between the two aponeuroses; the inner or anterior being the longest and straightest, the lower shorter, and more transverse. Of the middle portion, the muscular fibres are parallel to the axis of the thigh, arising from the anterior and lateral surfaces of the bone, and terminating in the lower tendon. A prolongation of the synovial membrane of the knee extends for some distance behind this portion, above the patella, and thus supplies the place of a bursa mucosa. The lateral portions of the inferior tendon adhere very closely to the synovial membrane of the knee. The triceps femoris straightens the knee-joint, either by moving the leg forwards on the thigh, or the thigh on the leg. These are very important muscles in progres- sion, when they bring the thigh forwards on the leg of the advanced limb. When we are descending an in- clined surface, and the heels slip, they make a great ef- fort, by drawing forwards the thighs, to prevent the body from falling: in this exertion the patella is sometimes fractured. In standing, they preserve the thigh-bones perpendicular over the legs. They extend the leg on the thigh, where the limb left behind in progression is. advanced in its turn in front of the foot which has just reached the ground. - VASU, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of the regent of the winds, more commonly called Pavana; which see. But the word occurs more frequently in the plural, when “ the Vasus” seem to imply the eight winds collectively; the Hindoos having many fables connected with this number of winds. It is not easy to discriminate at all times between the Vasus and the Maruts of the Hindoos. See MARUT. VASUDEVA is the name of the mortal father of their god Krishna: his mother was Devaky. (See KRishNA.) The name Vasudeva is said to mean giver of wealth. Krishna himself is sometimes called by this Iſla In C, - VASUGAN, in Geography, a river of Russia, which runs into the Oby, N. lat. 59°. E. long. 80° 14'. VAT, in Commerce, &c. See FAT. - VAT, an oil measure of Holland, containing of oil of olives 717 mingles, and weighing 1730 lbs. avoirdupois. Train-oil is sold in quarteels of 18 or 21 stekans; also in vats of 12 stekans, or 192 mingels: the mingel of 2 pints, or 8 muses of rain-water, weighs about 2 lbs. 43 oz. Am- sterdam weight. The aam, by which Rhine and Mo- selle wine, and also spirits distilled from corn are sold, contains 4 ankers, 8 stekans, 21 viertels, 64 stoops, 128 mingels, 256 pints, or 1024 musies: and holds 8966. Dutch, 7705 French, or 9351 English cubic inches, or about 40% English wine gallons. A vat of French wine contains 4 oxhoofdens, or 6 tierces. The -oxhoofden should hold 200 mingels, but is commonly reckoned at 180 mingels, and the tierce at 120. - VAT, or Wate, in Mineralogy, denotes a square hollow place on the back of a calcining furnace, in which they lay the next serving of tin-ore to dry, before it is let down into the furnace, into which it passes through a plug- hole in the bottom of this vat, or dry. - $ VATABLE, or GASTEBLED, FRANCIS, in Biografthy, was born at Gamache, a village in Picardy, and having first distinguished himself in Greek literature, and by a translation into Latin of Aristotle’s “Parva. Naturalia,” devoted himself to the study of the Hebrew language, in which he excelled, and which he restored in France. He was appointed Regius professor of Hebrew at Paris by Francis I., in 1531, and the lectures which he made on the Old Testament were delivered to large audiences. His brief and clear explanations of the literal meaning of the texts were preserved by some of his hearers, col. lected by Robert Stephens, and added to his publication in 1545, of Leo Judae's Latin version of the Bible. But as they contained some free passages, they were con- demned by the doctors of the theological faculty in Paris, Who, imperfectly acquainted with the Hebrew, reposed their confidence in the Vulgate. However, the univer- sity of Salamanca reprinted the text and notes in Spain, R. Stephens defended them against the Paris theolo- gians, and they have since been approved by men of learning. He not only encouraged Clement Marot to translate the Psalms into French verse, but assisted him in the undertaking. Vatable, though suspected of here- sy, was an orthodox Catholic, and opposed the discipline and opinions of the Calvinists. He died in 1547, posses- sed of the abbacy of Bellozane. Dupin. VATAN, in Geografhy, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Indre; 11 miles N.W. of Issoudun. N. lat. 47° 5'. E. long. 1954'. WATERIA, in Botany, was so named by Linnaeus, in honour of Abraham Vater, professor of Medicine at Wittenberg, and author of Catalogus Horti Witten- bergensis, (a mere catalogue,) as well as of some bota- nical dissertations, on the Balsam of Mecca, on Hippe- mane, &c. This gentleman was born in 1684, and died in 1751. He succeeded his father in the professorship, who died in 1732, aged eighty-one, and was also a natu- ralist.—Linn. Gen. 269. Schreb. 359. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4, Juss, 258. Lamarck Illustr. t. 475.-Class and order, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. akin to Guttiferae, Juss. # - Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five acute segments, permanent, at length reflexed. Cor: Petals five, ovate, thick, entire, spreading. Stam. Fila- ments numerous, very short; anthers vertical, awl- shaped, much longer than the filaments, with two capil- lary points. Pist. Germen superior, roundish; style simple, short; stigma capitate. Peric. Capsule turbi- nate, coriaceous, seated on the reflexed calyx, marked with three furrows, separating into three valves, with one cell. Seed solitary, ovate, with a reddish skin. Ess. Ch. Petals five, undivided. Calyx five-cleft, per- manent. Capsule coriaceous, of three valves and one cell. Seed solitary. - Obs. Retzius and Vahl have removed this plant to ELAEocARPUs, see that article; but without giving any sufficient reason. On the contrary, they describe the fetals as entire; nor have they thrown any light upon the jºruit, which, as described in the Hortus Malabaricus, cannot accord with Elaeocarpus. The large figure, on the right hand, in that book, cannot be reconciled with the rest, unless it be a seed vegetating. Jussieu seems staggered as to the character of this fruit, by finding the rudiments of three seeds in the germen. But this may very well be, and yet only one may ever come to perfec- tion. The same learned author remarks, that Linnaeut- in his Systema, attributes three seeds to Pateria. Thin is true; but we believe it a typographical error, originat- ing in the tenth edition of Syst. JVat. especially as the synoptical table, at the head of the class, remains with 2 x 2 - - the V A T 'V A T the character of a single seed. This contradiction, whichever of the two characters be correct, is heedlessly perpetuated through every following edition. On the whole, there appears more reason to retain than to abo- lish the genus in question. 1. V. indica. Copal Vateria. Linn. Sp. Pl. 734. (Elaeo- carpus copalliferus; Retz. Obs. fasc. 4. 27. Vahl Symb. v. 3. 67. Willd. n. 5. Paenoe; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 4.33. t. 15.)—Native of Malabar and Ceylon. and handsome tree, generally sixty feet high, with wide extended branches, and a thick bark, which when wound- ed discharges a clear, pellucid, fragrant resin, acrid and bitter to the taste, at length becoming yellow and brittle like glass. This, according to Coenig, is one kind of Co- PAL; see that article. Persons experienced in the use of this gum, so useful for varnishing anatomical prepara- tions, know that there are, as Koenig says, several different things imported under the same name, which are not all equally soluble, even in oil of lavender. The leaves of this tree are alternate, stalked a span long, elliptical, acute, coriaceous, entire, smooth. Flowers in large ter- minal, downy panicles, white with yellow stamens; their scent sweet, like a lily. Fruit the size of a walnut in its green coat, swelling and blunt at the extremity, dark purple; its kernel white, bitterish and rather astringent, inclosed in a reddish skin, like that of a filberd. This description, taken from the Hortus Malabaricus, is pre- cise; and as nothing is said of any hard shell, we do not see how the fruit can agree with that of Elaeocarpus. The above-mentioned kernel, triturated with hot water, is reckoned strengthening to the stomach, and is given to stop vomiting or nausea. Having formerly examined at sir Joseph Bank’s a spe- cimen of Wateria, in order to distinguish this genus from VATICA, (see that article,) we have corrected the gene- ric characters from observations then made, particularly respecting the anthers, of which Retzius and Vahl have also given a faithful account. Linnaeus had no speci- men, but described the genus from one in Hermann’s herbarium, now at Sir Joseph Banks’s. Vahl is surely mistaken in saying the corolla and fruit agree with Elaeo- carſ, us! VATES, in Mythology, the name of a class of Druids. VATHI, in Geography, a town on the north coast of the island of Samos, in a bay called the Gulf of Vathi. N. lat. 37° 49'. E. long. 260 54'. VATHIA, or BERBATHI, anciently Tyrinac, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea; 16 miles N.E. of Napoli di România. VATI, a town of the island of Siphanto. N. lat. 36° 57’. E. long, 24° 46'. - VATICA, in Botany, an unexplained name of Lin- natus, apparently derived from the same source as vati- cinatio, a prophesying. Hence the writer of the present article ventured to suggest, as a query, whether the plant might have any superstitious use among the Chi- nese, from whose country it is said to have been brought. This conjecture appears in the form of a general opinion in De Theis, strengthened by a reference to Boehmer’s Lexicon, p. 208, a book not within our reach. Notwith- standing all this, there is great doubt whether the plant comes from China, the specimens being marked India, just like many others, known to have been received from Java by Linnaeus. In fact, these specimens are so like VATERIA (see that article) in appearance and character, that if it were possible to suppose the anthers could vary A tall . so remarkably, we should suspect these plants might be only sexual differences of one species. Having started this difficulty without having the means of overcoming it, we proceed to describe Vatica.--Linn. Mant. 2. 152. Schreb. Gen. 318. 831. “Willd. Sp. PI. v.2, 847. Mart. Mill. Dict, v. 4. Sm. Plant. Ic. 36. Juss. 259. La- marck Illustr. t. 397.-Class and order, Dodecandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. akin to Guttiferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five. deep, erect, ovato-lanceolate, acute segments. Cor. Pe- tals five, sessile, obovate, entire, thrice the length of the calyx, folded over each other, in some flowers to the left, in others to the right; their inner surface smooth; outer, in the exposed half, hoary. Stam. Filaments none; anthers fifteen, sessile, three on the base of each petal, small, ovate, smooth, of four obtuse cells, the two outer cells terminated by a small, intermediate, upright spine, the two inner but half as long, without any spine. Pist. Germen superior, conical, with five angles, obtuse, hoary; style cylindrical, with five angles, twisted; stigma bluntish, obscurely three-lobed. Peric. unknown, but the germen has three cells, with the rudiment of a soli- tary seed in each. - Ess. Ch. Petals five, undivided. Calyx five-cleft. Anthers fifteen, sessile, of four cells. 1. V. chinensis. Chinese Vatica. Linn. Mant. 2, 242. Willd. n. 1. Sm. Plant. Ic. t. 36.-Native of China, ac- cording to Linnaeus, but his authority, as we have said, does not appear. This seems to be a tree, very near Wateria indica, from which it chiefly differs in the num- ber and form of the stamens. As to the fruit, Jussieu’s having found three cells and as many seeds, in the ger- men of Wateria, renders the supposed distinction in the ripe fruit very doubtful. The leaves, inflorescence, &c. discover no difference, and the flower-stalks and calyx, as well as footstalks, are clothed with the same fine, short, close, hoary pubescence, in both. It is much to be wished that some East Indian botanist would clear up these doubts respecting two very fine, and hitherto little- known plants. We must add, that if this be Wateria, nothing can be more distinct in its fetals from Elaeo- carfi us; for instead of the thin texture, and curiously. laciniated margin, appropriate to the latter, their thick undivided substance, and partial hoariness at the back, prove that those genera ought never to be confounded together. * . - VATICA, in Geografthy, a sea-port town of European Turkey, in the Morea, situated in a large bay, to which it gives name; 44 miles S.E. of Misitra. VATICAN, VATIcANUs, is properly the name of one of the seven hills on which Rome stands: on the foot of this is the famous church of St. Peter, hence call- ed the Vatican; and a magnificent palace of the pope, which has the same denomination. Hence arise divers. figurative expressions; as the thunderbolt of the Vati- can, g. d. the pope’s anathema, &c. The word, according to Aulus Gellius, is derived from vaticinium, from hecy; by reason of the oracles and predictions which were used to be delivered there by the inspiration of an ancient deity, called Vaticanus; who was supposed to unbind the organs of speech in new- born children; and whom others will have to be no other. that Jupiter, considered in that capacity. VATIcAN, The Library of the, is one of the most cele- brated in the world; it is particularly remarkable for its manuscripts. It was first erected, according to * - - - * at V A T V. A. V. (Rat. Temp, lib. ix. cap. 9.) by pope Nicholas V., who succeeded to the papal chair in 1447. It was re-esta- blished, after the books had been dispersed, under the pontificate of Calixtus III., by Sixtus IV.; and after having been almost entirely destroyed by the army of Charles V. it was not only restored to its former state by Sixtus V., but greatly enriched with books and ma- nuscripts. It was finaliy fixed in the Vatican, under the pontificate of Martin V. cº Towards the beginning of the 17th century, it was greatly augmented by the addition of that of the elector palatine. It is open to all the world three or four times a week. In it are shown a Virgil, Terence, &c. above a thousand years old; as also the manuscript on which the edition of the Septuagint was made; and abundance of rabbinical manuscripts. VAT1cAN Manuscript, is one of the most celebrated ma- nuscripts of the Greek version of the Bible now extant in the world. It was published at Rome by cardinal Ca- rafa, at the command of Sixtus Quintus, in 1587; and in the preface, it is said to have been written ante millesi- mum ducentesimum annum, i. e. before 387; but Blan- chini supposes it a few years later. A Latin edition from this manuscript, with notes, was printed at Rome in 1588, by Flam. Nobilius; and an edition, with the Greek and Latin, with the division of the verses accord- ing to the Vulgate, and Nobilius’s Latin notes, and the Greek scholia of Carafa, by J. Morinus, at Paris, in 1628. This manuscript is written in large or text let- ters, and has no distinguishing chapters, verses, words, nor any marks of accents. It is mutilated both at the beginning and end; and wants the first forty-six chapters of Genesis, thirty-two Psalms, viz. from the 105th to the 137th, and the latter part of the Epistle to the He- brews, from chap. ix. ver, 14. with the other Epistles of Paul to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon, and the whole book of Revelation. It appears also that the whole ma- nuscript has been repaired, with fresh ink laid over the letters which were disappearing through age. In the edition of Carafa, the mutilated passages have been sup- plied from other copies. - It has been asserted, by two eye-witnesses, that this manuscript has undergone some alterations by a later hand. See Le Long’s Biblioth. Sacra, cap. 3. sect. 4. and Wetstein’s Prolegomena, Nov. Test. p. 24. It is difficult to estimate the comparative value of this and the Alexandrian manuscript, in which thirty Psalms, a few chapters, and a few verses, are now lost, as well as parts of verses in different places; and in which there have been some rasures and insertions, as Grabe allows. If, as Grabe states it, that manuscript be the most re- spectable, which comes the nearest to the Hexapler copy, the Alexandrian manuscript seems to claim that merit in preference to its rival. But if it be thought a matter of superior honour to come nearer the old Greek version, unaltered by Origen, that merit seems to belong to the Vatican. For farther particulars, see the Prole- gomena of Walton, Grabe, Wetstein, Mills, and Le Long, ubi sufra. VATICANAE PILULAE, the name of an old form of medicine, intended as a purge. The recipe is in the old London Pharmacopeia; but the late ones have dis- carded it. VATICANO, CAPE, in Geography, a cape on the W. xoast of Calabria Ultra. N. lat, 38° 40', E. long. 16° 52', * caput non habent sicut baronia.” VATICINATION, VATICINATIo, the act of prophe- sying, or divining. See DIvin Arion, and PROPHEcy. VATIMONT, in Geografhy, a town of France, in the department of the Moselie; 8 miles W. N.W. of Morhange. VATISA, or FATISA, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the government of Sivas; 90 miles N. of Sivas. VATO, a town on the W. coast of the island of Ne- gropont. N. lat. 38° 20'. E. long. 24° 2'. VATRAN DEL, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carna- tic; 4 miles N. of Vellore. VATTIER, PETER, in Biography, an Arabic scholar, was born at Lizieux, in Normandy, and having been edu cated for the medical profession, was appointed physi- cian and counsellor to Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Lewis XIII. To an extensive acquaintance with the ancient naturalists and physicians, both Greek and Latin, he added a peculiar attachment to Arabic writers, and translated many of their works. Among these are “The Mahometan History, or the Forty-nine Caliphs of Elmacin;” “The History of the Great Tamerlane, from the Arabic of Achamed, Son of Gueraspo;” “The Egypt of Murtadi;” “The Elegy of Tograi, with some Sentences from the Arabian Poets,” &c. He also wrote a work, entitled “Nouvelles Persées sur la Nature des Passions,” 1659, 4to. The time of his death is not known. Moreri. VAVANGA, in Botany. See VANGUERIA. VAVAO, or VAvou, in Geography, one of the Friendly islands, in the South Pacific ocean, seen by Pe- rouse in 1787, who says, “this island, which capt. Cook never visited, is almost equal in size to Tongataboo, and has the advantage of being never in want of water, with a good harbour.” It had been before discovered by the Spanish pilot Maurelle, and with a number of islands al- most as considerable as those already explored by Capt. Cook, which he called the islands of Majorca. S. lat. 18° 34' of the western point. See TongA. VAVASOR, VALVAso R, Vavasour, or Valvasour, in our Ancient Customs, a diminutive of vassal, or vassour; signifying a vassal of a vassal, or one who held a fee of another vassal. Yet Camden, and others, hold vavasor to be a digni- ty, next below that of a baron: he adds that the word is formed of was sortium ad valetudinem, a vessel chosen for safety and health. Others derive it d valvis, guas: obligatus sit adstare ad valvas domini, vel indigºnus sie eas intrare; as being a person obliged to wait at his lord's door, or as unworthy to enter thereat; but this etymolo- gy is ridiculous enough. Du-Cange distinguishes two sorts of vassals under this denomination: the great, called valvasores, who held of a king; such were counts and barons: and the lesser, called valvasini, who held of the former. The valvasors are mentioned by our ancient lawyers as viri magna dignitatis; and sir Edward Coke speaks highly of them. But they are now quite out of use; and , our legal antiquarians are not agreed upon even their original or ancient office. - VAVASORY, VAvAsoHIA, the quality of the land, or fee held by a vavasor, 4 * “ Quod dicitur de baronia non est observandum in va- vasoria, vel aliis minoribus feodis quam baronia, quia Bract. lib. ii. cap. 39. There are base vavasories, and frank or noble vava- sories; according as it has pleased the lord to make his *W aVåSOT, V A U V. A U. vavasor. Base vavasories are those for which the lord of the fee owes summage, light-horse, rents, or other ser- vices. Free vavasories are such as are exempt from these services. - - - VAVASSEUR, FRANC1s, in Biografthy, was born in 1605, at Paray, in the diocese of Autun; and entering into the society of the Jesuits in 1621, and acting as re- gent in the schools for some years, he was called to Pa- ris to occupy the chair of positive theology, the duties of which he discharged honourably for thirty-six years; and he died in this city in 1681, aged seventy-six years. He has been reckoned one of the most elegant and cor- rect Latin writers, and wrote several theological pieces, some against Jansenism, and one of a singular subject, “On the pérsonal Beauty of Jesus Christ;” and also poems chiefly on sacred subjects. The work which has chiefly distinguished him is a treatise “De Ludicra Dictione,” or on the burlesque style, dedicated to Bal- zac. He also wrote a treatise “On the Epigran;” and “Remarks on the Poetics of Father Rapin.” Moreri. VAUBAN, SEBASTIAN LE PRESTRE, Seigneur de, marshal of France, and an eminent engineer, was born in 1633, and began to bear arms at the age of seventeen under the prince of Condé, general of the Spanish army. Being taken prisoner by a French party, he was engaged by cardinal Mazarin on the royal side, and employed in 1653 at the second siege of St. Menehoud, by which it was recovered to France. He also acted as engineer in the five following years at several other sieges. After the peace of the Pyrenées, he was em- ployed in demolishing some places and fortifying others; and he also suggested a variety of ideas, by the maturity and developement of which he contributed in a high degree to the improvement of the science of for- tification. On the renewal of the war in 1667, he con- ducted several sieges, at which Lewis XIV. attended in person, and he was commissioned to fortify several places, and in 1668 nominated governor of the citadel of Lille, which he had constructed. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, he visited Piedmont, and gave designs to the duke of Savoy for some important fortresses. In the war of 1672 he again distinguished himself, particu- larly at the siege of Maestricht, in which he introduced his famous method of attack by parallels and places of arms; and also on other occasions, when an opportunity offered for the display of his inventive genius. In car- rying his schemes into execution he was anxious for saving life, and he therefore preferred a slow and regu- lar advance in sieges. The peace of Nimeguen afford- ed him leisure for fortifying towns; and of these, his master-piece was the port of Dunkirk. On the com- mencement of war, he again resumed his active ser- vices, and had the honour of taking Luxemburg, which was regarded as impregnable. Upon the whole, he for- tified one hundred old places, constructed thirty-three new fortresses, and had the principal direction of 53 sieges. In recompense of his various exertions, he was advanced to several posts of honour, and in 1703 ap- pointed marshal of France. At Dunkirk, whither, he was sent in a state of great alarm, he died of a fluxion in his lungs, in March 1707, at the age of seventy-four years. The character of Vauban, as a man and a citizen, was no less estimable than his superior talents and achieve- ments in his professional capacity. Loyal and faithful to his sovereign, he studied to serve more than to please, Bot. t. 1766. a- tº * t. 2. f. 5.)—Floating. Capsules in pairs and solitary, on opposite partial stalks, growing out of one common stalk and he manifested on all occasions an inviolable attach- ment to truth. As a liberal and zealous patriot, he made such observations, and collected such facts in his vari- ous travels, as contributed most effectually to the im- provement and prosperity of his country. These were comprised in twelve large MS. volumes, which he modestly denominated “ Mes Oisivatés;” and Fontenelle observes of him in relation to these, that if all his projects could be executed, his “ idleness” would be more useful than his labours. In 1699, he was nomina- ted an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences: The following works were either written by himself, or in consequence of ideas which he suggested: viz. “ Ma- niére de Fortifier, par M. de Vauban, mise en ordre par le Chevalier de Cambrai,” Amst, 1689 and 1692, print- ed at Paris under the title of “L’Ingenieur F rançois,” with notes by Herbert, professor of mathematics; and af. terwards with notes by the Abbé du Fay; “ Nouveau Traité de l’Attaque et de la Defence des Places, suivant le Systeme de M. de Vauban, par M. Desprez de Saint-Sevin,” Paris 1736; “Essais sur le Fortification, par M. de Vauban,” Paris 1740; “Project d’un Dime Royale,” Rouen, 1707, often reprinted. This last work is attributed by Voltaire to Bois-Guillebert, author of a “Testament Politique” in the name of Vauban. Fon- tenelle Eloge. Moreri. VAUBECOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Meuse; 9 miles N. of Bar-le- Duc. VAUCHERIA, in Botany, was so named by M. De- candolle, in his Flore Française, in honour of the dis- coverer of the genus, the Rev. M. Vaucher of Geneva, author of an excellent work in quarto, entitled Histoire des Conferves d’Eau douce, where this genus is estab- lished by the name of Ectosfierma. The latter appel- lation has very properly given way to the above, previ- ously chosen by M. Decondolle.—Sm. Engl. Bot. v. 25. 1765. “Decand. Rapport, sur les Conserves, Soc. Phil. 15.” De Theis 478. Vauch. Conf. 25.-Class and order, Cryſhtogamia Algae. Nat. Ord. Algae. Ess. Ch. Anther solitary, awl-shaped, incurved. Cap- sules adjoining to the anther, ovate, single-seeded, in pairs or solitary. 1. V. sessilis. Sessile-fruited Vaucheria. Engl. Bot. t. 1765. (Ectosperma sessilis; Vauch. Conf. 31. t. 2. f. 7. Conferva vesicata; Dillw. Conf. t. 74, without the anther. Ceramium caespitosum; Roth Catal. v. 3. 120.) —Floating. Capsules in pairs and solitary, sessile on each side of the anther.—Found floating on the surface of pools, in large green patches, about February; and consisting of capillary, branched, smooth, rather elastic, tubular filaments, filled with a green pulpy substance, which separates in oblong portions, giving the filament a jointed appearance. Caftsules lateral, sessile, pellucid, commonly in pairs, each containing one large green seed, and having next to them an awl-shaped body, asserted by Vaucher to be the anther. Yet sometimes this body seems to shoot out into a branch. Vesicles are often found on the branches, perhaps of the nature of galls, in- habited by the aquatic animalcule called by Muller Cy- cloſis Luftula, in considerable numbers, with one dark- coloured animal besides. 2. V. geminata. Twin-stalked Vaucheria. Engl. (Ectosperma geminata; Vauch. Conf. 29. i with V. A U V A U. with the anther.—Sent by Mr. W. Borrer, along with the preceding, from Sussex. The habit is the same in both, but the fructification, furnished with partial stalks, and with a common stalk for both organs, appears to af- ford a good specific character. Some botanists never- theless, and among them, if we mistake not, Mr. Dill- wyn, consider these two plants as mere varieties of each other. - 3. V. velutina. Velvet Vaucheria. (Conserva velu- tina; Engl. Bot. t. 1556. Dillw. Conf. t. 77. Byssus ve- Iutina; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1638. B. tenerrima viridis, velutum referens; Dil. in Raii Syn. 56. Musc. 7. t. 1. f. 14. B. terrestris viridis herbacea et mollissima, filamentis ramo- sis et non ramosis; Mich. Gen. 21 1. t. 89. f. 5.)——Erect, tufted. Filaments beaded, somewhat rigid. Capsules sessile. This covers the earth, in moist shady places, with a most beautiful fine green velvet carpet, fragrant like several of the Jungermanniae, even for a long time after it is dried. It appears to be perennial, occurring in summer as well as winter, but has been thought more common than it really is, because Dillenius and others have confounded with this plant a much more general one, Conferva muralis, Engl.B ot. t. 1554, which is pros- trate, resembling satin rather than velvet, and has no sweet scent. M. Vaucher is our authority for removing this species hither. Micheli has but imperfectly figur- ed the capsules, and in such a manner that they rmay be- long either to those Confervae which make Roth’s genus of Ceramium, or to Waucheria. Of the anther we know nothing. % We have here limited ourselves to the British species, which may possibly prove but a small part of the genus, when the subject has been sufficiently examined. VAUCLAIN, LE, in Geografi.hy, a town of the island of Martinico, situated in a bay on the N.E. coast. N. lat. 14° 36'. W. long. 60° 46'. VAUCLUSE, a town of France, in the department of the Doubs; 8 miles S.W. of St. Hypolite. VAUCLUSE, formerly Venaissin, and the principality of Orange, on the left hand of the Rhone, in N. lat. 44°, one of the twelve departments of the S.E. region of France, bounded on the N. by the department of the Drôme and Ardèche, on the E. by the department of the Lower Alps, on the S. by the department of the Mouths of the Rhone, and on the W. by that of the Gard. It derives its appellation from the fountain of Vacluse, (see Fonta INE de Vacluse,) which is the source of the river Sorgues, and made memorable by the near residence of Petrarch and Laura. Its territorial extent is 3700 kiliometres, or 186 square leagues, and its popu- lation consists of 190,180 inhabitants. It is divided into 4 circles or districts, 22 cantons, and 150 communes. The circles are, Orange, including 54,293; Avignon, 47,351; Carpentras, 39,714; and Apt, 48,822 inhabitants. According to Hassenfratz, its length in French leagues is 15, and its breadth 10: its circles are 4, its cantons 52, and its population consists of 200,500 persons. Its capi- tal is Avignon. Its contributions, in the eleventh year of the French era, amounted to 1,367,701 francs; and its charges, administrative judiciary, and for public in- struction, were 227,109 francs, 14 cents. This depart- ment consists of plains, marshes, gentle eminences, and hills. Mont-Ventoux is upwards of 6000 feet above the level of the sea. The soil is various, and indifferently cultivated. The products are grain, silk, fruits, and roots. In this department are coal impregnated with Sulphur, a few metallic substances, potter's-earth, mine. ral springs, &c. - VAUCOULEURS, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Meuse; 8 miles N.E. of Gondrecourt. N. lat. 48° 36'. E. long. 5° 44'. VAUD, PAYS DE, a country of Switzerland, of which travellers and historians speak with rapture, particularly of that part which borders on the lake of Geneva. It is almost wholly a gradual ascent from the edge of the lake, richly laid out in vineyards, corn-fields and luxu- riant meadows, and chequered with continued hamlets, villages, and towns: the shores are generally of the clear- est, gravel, and the water of the finest transparency. This country is one of the two great divisions into which the canton of Berne is divided; the other being the German district. The Pays de Vaud, after the decline of the Roman empire, made a part of the kingdom of Burgundy, from which it fell to the empire of Germany, under which the dukes of Zaringen held it as a fief, and at the extinction of that family, it became annexed to the estates of the counts of , Savoy. It was conquered from the house of Savoy by the canton of Berne in 1536, and in this year the reformation was introduced. From that period the whole Pays de Vaud, excepting the common bailliages of Grenson, Orbe, and a small portion of it which was ceded to Friburgh, has been subject to Berne, and forms a part of that canton. The German district was gained by conquest from the estates of the empire. In each of these divisions justice is administered and taxes regulated by peculiar laws and customs. Each division has its treasurer and chamber of appeal resident in the capital; the chamber of appeal belonging to the Pays de Vaud judges in the last resort; but the inhabi- tants of the German district may appeal to the sovereign council. During the French revolution, the Pays de Vaud was separated from the canton of Berne, and formed into an independent republic under the protec- tion of France, in January 1798. In the new division of Switzerland, it forms the canton or department of Leman, of which Lausanne is the capital. The Pays de Vaud is estimated to be about 60 miles long, and as many broad; bounded on the N. by the county of Neufchatel, on the E. by the canton of Friburgh, on the S. by "the lake of Geneva and the river Rhône, and on the W. by France. It includes the towns and baili- wicks of Lausanne, Yverdun, Moudon, Avenche, Vevay, Morges, and several others. VAUDEMONT, a town of France, the department. of the Meurte; 4 miles S. of Vezelize. - VAUDEVILLE, a song sung in the streets by bal- lad-singers, the subject of which is generally jocose or satirical. The origin of this little kind of poem is tra- ced up to the time of Charlemagne. But according to the more general opinion, it was invented by a man of the name of Basselin, Foulon de Vere in Normandy; and in order to dance, as people used to assemble in the Val de Vire, they were called Vaux de Vire, and after- wards, by corruption, Vaudevilles. The air of these Vaudevilles is generally very unmu- sical. But as people merely listen to the words, the tune only helps to enforce the voice and render the words more audible. But, as music, there is in general neither taste, melody, nor measure in their tunes. The Vaudeville, with respect to the words, belongs exclusive- ly V A U V A U. ly to the French, and they are sometimes very piquant and pleasant. Rousseau. VAUDIER, in Geografhy, a town of France, in the department of the Stura, late in the province of Coni; 5 miles S.E. of Demont. VAUDOIS, VALDENses, or Waldenses, in Ecclesias- tical History, a name given to a sect of reformers, who made their first appearance about the year 1160. Of all the sects that arose in this century, none was more distinguished by the reputation it acquired, by the multitude of its votaries, and the testimony which its bitterest enemies bore to the probity and innocence of its members, than that of the Waldenses, so called, says Mosheim, from their parent and founder Peter Waldus, or Valdus. They were also called Leonists, from Leo- na, the ancient name of Lyons, where their sect took its rise. The more eminent persons of that sect manifested their progress towards perfection by the simplicity and meanness of their external appearance: hence, among other things, they wore wooden shoes, which, in the French language, are termed sabots, and had imprinted upon these shoes the sign of the cross, to distinguish themselves from other Christians; and on these accounts they acquired the denomination of Sabbatati and Inasb- ðatati. The origin of this famous sect, according to Moshiem, was as follows: Peter, an opulent merchant of Lyons, surnamed Valdensis, or Validisius, from Vaux, or Wal- dum, a town of the marquisate of Lyons, being extreme- ly zealous for the advancement of true piety and Chris- tian knowledge, employed a certain priest, called Ste- phanus de Evisa, about the year 1 160, in translating from Latin into French the four Gospels, with other books of Holy Scripture, and the most remarkable sentences of the ancient doctors, which were so highly esteemed in this century. But no sooner had he perused these sa- cred books with a proper degree of attention, than he perceived that the religion, which was now taught in the Roman Church, differed totally from that which was originally inculcated by Christ and his apostles. Struck with this glaring contradiction between the doctrines of the pontiffs, and the truths of the Gospel, and animated with zeal, he abandoned his mercantile vocation, distri- buted his riches among the poor (whence the Waldenses were called floor men of Lyons), and forming an associa- tion with other pious men, who had adopted his senti- ments and his turn of devotion, he began, in the year 1 180, to assume the quality of a public teacher, and to instruct the multitude in the doctrines and precepts of Christianity. - Beza, and other writers of note, who are followed by Dr. Macleane, the learned translator of Mosheim’s His- tory, give different accounts of the origin of the Wal- denses; alleging, that it seems evident from the best re- cords, that Valdus derived his name from the true Val- denses of Piedmont, whose doctrine he adopted, and who were known by the names of Vaudois and Valdenses, before he or his immediate followers existed. If the Valdenses or Waldenses had derived their name from an eminent teacher, it would probably have been from Valdo, who was remarkable for the purity of his doctrine in the eleventh century, and was the contemporary, and chief counsellor of Berengarius. But the truth is, that they derive their name from their valleys in Piedmont, which in their language were called vaux, and hence Vaudois, their true name; hence also Peter, or, as others call him, John of Lyons, was called in Latin Valdus, be- cause he had adopted their doctrine, and hence the term I aldenses or Paldenses; used, by those who write in English or Latin, in the place of Waudois. The bloody inquisitor, Reinerus Sacco, who exerted such a furious zeal for the destruction of the Waldenses, lived but eighty years after Valdus of Lyons, and must, therefore, be supposed to know whether or not he was the real founder of the Valdenses or Leonists; and yet it is re- markable, that he speaks of the Leonists as a sect that had flourished above five hundred years; and mentions authors of note to make their antiquity ascend to the apostolic age. See the account given of Sacco's book by the Jesuit Gretser, in the Bibliotheca Patrum. See also Leger's Histoire Gen. des Eglisses Vaudoises, cap. 2. 25, 26, 27. But to return to the history of Peter Valdus. Soon after Peter had assumed the exercise of his ministry, the archbishop of Lyons, and the other rulers of the church in that province, vigorously opposed him. How- ever, their opposition was unsuccessful; for the purity and simplicity of that religion which these good men taught, the spotless innocence that shone forth in their lives and actions, and the noble contempt of riches and honours, which was conspicuous in the whole of their conduct and conversation, appeared so engaging to all such as had any sense of true piety, that the number of their followers daily increased. They accordingly formed religious assemblies in France, and afterwards in Lombar- dy, from whence they propagated their sect throughout the other provinces of Europe with incredible rapidity, and with such invincible fortitude, that neither fire, nor sword, nor the most cruel inventions of merciless perse- cution, could damp their zeal, or entirely ruin their CauSC. The attempts of Peter Waldus, and his followers, were neither employed nor designed to introduce new doctrines into the church, nor to propose new articles of faith to Christians. All they aimed at was, to reduce the form of ecclesiastical government, and the manners both of the clergy and people, to that amiable simplicity, and primitive sanctity, that characterized the apostolic ages, and which appear so strongly recommended in the precepts and injunctions of the divine Author of our holy religion. In consequence of this design, they complain- ed that the Roman church had degenerated, under Con- stantine the Great, from its primitive purity and sancti- ty. They denied the supremacy of the Roman pontiff; and maintained that the rulers and ministers of the church were obliged, by their vocation, to imitate the poverty of the apostles, and to procure for themselves a subsistence by the work of their hands. They considered every Chris- tian as, in a certain measure, qualified and authorized to instruct, exhort, and confirm the brethren in their Chris- tian course, and demanded the restoration of the ancient penitential discipline of the church, i. e. the expiation of transgressions by prayer, fasting, and alms, which the new-invented doctrine of indulgencies had almost totally abolished. They, at the same time, affirmed, that every pious Christian was qualified and entitled to prescribe to the penitent the kind or degree of satisfaction or expia- tion that their transgressions required; the confession made to priests was by no means necessary, since the humble offender might acknowledge his sins, and testify his repentance to any true believer, and might expect from such the counsel and admonition which his case demº *. • * - €C 3 v A U v A U ed. They maintained that the power of delivering sin- ners from the guilt and punishment of their offences be- longed to God alone, and that indulgences of conse- quence, were the criminal inventions of sordid avarice. They looked upon the prayers and other ceremonies that were instituted in behalf of the dead, as vain, useless, and absurd, and denied the existence of departed souls in an intermediate state of purification; affirming, that they were immediately upon their separation from the body, received into heaven, or thrust down into hell. These, and other tenets of a like nature, composed the system of doctrine propagated by the Waldenses. It is also said that several of the Waldenses denied the obliga- tion of infant-baptism, and that others rejected water- baptism entirely; but Wall has laboured to prove, that infant-baptism was generally practised among them. Hist. of Infant-Baptism, p. 387, &c. Their rules of practice were extremely austere; for they adopted, as the model of their moral discipline, the sermon of Christ in the mount, which they interpreted and explained in the most rigorous and literal manner, and, consequently, prohibited and condemned in their so- ciety all wars, atid suits of law, and all Attempts towards the acquisition of wealth, the inflicting of capital punish- ments, self-defence against unjust violence, and oaths of all kinds. - . The government of the church was committed by the Waldenses to bishops, called also majorales or elders, presbyters, and deacons; for they acknowledged that these three ecclesiastical orders were instituted by Christ himself. But they thought it absolutely necessary that these orders should resemble the apostles of Christ, and be, like them, unlearned, poor, and furnished with some laborious trade or vocation, in order to gain by constant industry their daily subsistence; and indeed most of the Waldenses gained their livelihood by weaving; whence in some places the whole sect was called the sect of the weavers. The laity were divided into two classes, viz. the perfect and the imperfect Christians: the former di- vested themselves of all wordly possessions, manifested in the wretchedness of their apparel, their extreme po- verty, and emaciated their bodies by frequent fasting: the latter were less austere, and approached nearer to the method of living generally received, though they ab- stained from all appearance of pomp and luxury. The Waldenses were not without intestine divisions; for such of them as lived in Italy differed considerably in opinion from those who dwelt in France, and the other European nations. The former considered the church of Rome as the church of Christ, though much corrupt- ed; they acknowledged, moreover, the validity of its se- ven sacraments, and solemnly declared they would conti- nue aiways in communion with it, provided that they might be allowed to live as they thought proper, without molestation or restraint. The latter affirmed, on the con- trary, that the church of Rome had apostatized from Christ, was deprived of the Holy Spirit, and was in reality, that whore of Babylon mentioned in the Revela- lation of St. John. They were also divided in their sen- timents concerning the possession of wordly goods. In the fourteenth century, the Waldenses, though they were every where exposed to the fury of the inquisitors and monks, baffled all the attempts that were made to extirpate them. Many of them fled out of Italy, France, and Germany, into Bohemia, and other adjacent coun- tries, where they afterwards, associated with the Hus- Vol. XXXVIII. - sites, and other separatists from the church of Rome. In the fifteenth century they subsisted in several European provinces, more especially in Pomerania, Brandenburg, the district of Magdeburg, and Thuringia, where they had a considerable number of friends and followers; though, it is said, that many adherents of this sect, in the countries now mentioned, were discovered by the inqui- sitors, and delivered over by them to the civil magis- trates, who committed them to the flames. After the Reformation, in the sixteenth century, the descendants of the Waldenses, who lived shut up in the valleys of Piedmont, were naturally led, by their situation in the neighbourhood of the French, and of the republic of Ge- neva, to embrace the doctrines and rites of the reformed church. So far down, however, as the year 1630, they retained a considerable part of their ancient discipline and tenets; but being much reduced by the plague in that year, and deprived of many of their clergy, they ap- plied to the French churches for spiritual succour; and the new teachers, sent from thence, introduced several changes into the discipline and doctrine of the Walden- ses, and rendered them conformable, in every respect, to those of the Protestant churches in France. In this century they suffered much from the persecution of Phi- libert Emanuel, duke of Savoy, who at the solicitation of the pope resolved to force his subjects to return to the communion of the church of Rome, and in 1561 sent a Dominican friar, as an inquisitor, with forces to effect his purpose. After ineffectual supplications, they took up arms, and so far prevailed, after enduring very severe distress, as to obtain some degree of liberty and peace. During the greatest part of the seventeenth century, those of them who lived in the valleys of Piedmont, and who had embraced the doctrine, discipline, and worship of the church of Geneva, were oppressed and persecut- ed, in the most barbarous and inhuman manner, by the ministers of Rome. This persecution was carried on with peculiar marks of rage and enormity in the years 1655, 1656, and 1696, and seemed to portend nothing less than the total extinction of that unhappy nation. The most horrid scenes of violence and bloodshed were exhibited in this theatre of papal tyranny; and the few Waldenses that survived, were indebted for their exis- tence and support to the intercession made for them by the English and Dutch governments, and also by the Swiss cantons, who solicited the clemency of the duke of Savoy in their behalf. Mosheim’s Eccl. Hist. vol. ii. iii. iv. Eng. ed. 8vo. Dupin's Eccl. Hist, of the Sixteenth Century, vol. ii. p. 414. VAUDREVANGE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Meurte, on the Sarre; formerly a considerable town, but ruined by the wars in Lorraine; 3 miles N. of Sar Louis. . . . . VAUDREUIL, a town of France, in the department of the Eure. In 1195, the king of France besieged it, and Richard I, king of England, advancing to its relief, a battle ensued, in which the latter had the victory. Vau- dreuil had formerly a royal palace; 4 miles N. of Lou- Vlers. • -- VAUGELAS, in Biografi.hy. See Claude FAvR.E. VAUGIRARD, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of Paris; 2 miles S.W. of Paris. VAUGNERAY, a town of France, in the department of the Rhône and Loire; 8 miles W.S.W. of Lyons. VAULT, FoRNix, in Architecture, an arched roof, so 2 Y - contrived, . V. A U L T. contrived, as that the several stones of which it consists, do, by their disposition, sustain each other. - Vaults are to be preferred, on many occasions, to sofits, or flat ceilings, as they give a greater rise and elevation; and, besides, are more firm and durable. he ancients, Salmasius observes, had only three kinds of vaults: the first, the fornic, made cradle-wise; the second, the testitudo, tortoise-wise, called by the French cul de four, or oven-wise; the third, the concha, made shell-wise. - •- - But the moderns subdivide these three sorts into a great many more, to which they give different names, according to their figures and use; some are circular, others ellifitical, &c. - - The sweeps of some, again, are larger, and others Jess portions of a sphere: all above hemispheres are called high, or surmounted vaults; all that are less than hemispheres, are low, or sturbased vaults, &c. In some, the height is greater than the diameter; in others, it is less: there are others, again, quite flat, only made with haunses; others oven-like, or in form of a cul de four, &c. and others growing wider, as they lengthen, like a trumpet. * * - Of vaults, some are single, others double, cross, dia- gonal, ascending, horizontal, descending, angular, oblique, fiendent, &c. There are likewise Gothic vaults, with fiendentives, &c. VAULTS, Master, are those which cover the principal parts of buildings; in contradistinction to the less, or su- bordinate vaults, which only cover some little part, as a passage, a gate, &c. VAULT, Double, is such an one as, being built over another, to make the exterior decoration range with the interior, leaves a space between the convexity of the one and the concavity of the other: as in the dome of St. Paul’s at London, and that of St. Peter’s at Rome. - - VAULTs with Comfiartiments, are such whose sweep, or inner face, is enriched with pannels of sculpture, se- paratcd by platbands: these compartiments, which are of different figures, according to the vaults, and are usu- ally gilt on a white ground, are made with stucco, on brick vaults; as in the church of St. Peter's at Rome; and with plaister, on timber vaults. '- VAULTS, Theory of. A semicircular arch, or vault, standing on two piedroits, or imposts, and all the stones that compose it being cut and placed in such manner, as that their joints, or beds, being prolonged, do all meet in the centre of the vault; it is evident, all the stones must be in form of wedges, i. e. they must be wider and bigger at top than at bottom; by virtue of which they sustain each other, and mutually oppose the effort of their weight, which determines them to fall. The stone in the middle of the vault, which is perpen- dicular to the horizon, and is called the key of the vault, is sustained on each side by the two contiguous stones, just as by two inclined planes; and of consequence, the effort it makes to fall, is not equal to its weight. But still that effort is greater, as the inclined planes are less inclined; so that if they were infinitely little in- clined, i. e. if they were perpendicular to the hori- zon, as well as the key, it would tend to fall with its whole weight, and would actually fall, but for the mortar. - The second stone, which is on the right or left of the y key-stone, is sustained by a third; which, by virtue of the figure of the vault, is necessarily more inclined to the second, than the second is to the first; and, of conse- quence, the second, in the effort it makes to fall, em- ploys a less part of its weight than the first. - . For the same reason, all the stones, reckoning from the key-stone, employ still a less and less part of their weight to the last; which resting on an horizontal plane, employs no part of its weight; or, which is the Samet hing, makes no effort to fall; as being entirely supported by the impost. - - Now, in vaults, a great point to be aimed at is, that all the several stones make an equal effort in order to fall: to effect this, it is visible, that as each (reckoning from the key to the impost) employs a still less and less part of its whole weight; the first, for instance, only em- ploying one-half; the second, one-third; the third, one- fourth, &c.; there is no other way to make those diffe- rent parts equal, but by a proportionable augmentation of the whole, i. e. the second stone must be heavier than the first; the third, than the second, &c. to the last; which should be vastly heavier. M. de la Hire demonstrates what that proportion is, in which the weights of the stones of a semicircular arch must be increased, to be in equilibrio, or to tend with equal forces to fall; which gives the firmest disposition a vault can have. .* Before him, architects had no certain rule to conduct themselves by; but did all at random. Reckoning the degrees of the quadrant of the circle from the key-stone to the impost; the extremity of each stone will take up so much the greater arch, as it is farther from the key. *. - - - M. de la Hire’s rule is, to augment the weight of each stone above that of the key-stone, as much as the tan- gent of the arch of the stone exceeds the tangent of the arch of half the key. Now, the tangent of the last stone, of necessity, becomes infinite, and of consequence, its weight should be so too; but as infinity has no place in practice, the rule amounts to this, that the last stones be loaded as much as possible, that they may the better re- sist the effort which the vault makes to separate them; which is called the shoot, or drift, of the vault. M. Parent has since determined the curve, or figure, which the extrados, or outside of a vault, whose intrados, or inside, is spherical, ought to have, that all the stones may be in equilibrio. See ARCH. . VAULT, Key of a. See KEY and Vousso IR. VAULT, Reins or Fillings-ufi of a, are the sides which sustain it. VAULT, Pendentive of a. VAULT, Impost of a, is the stone on which the first voussoir, or arch-stone of the vault, is laid. See IM- POSTS. VAULT, in the Manege. To vault a horse-shoe, is to forge it hollow, for horses that have high and round soles; to the end that the shoe, thus hollowed or vaulted, may not bear upon the sole that is higher than the hoof; but after all, this sort of shoe spoils the feet; for the sole, being tenderer than the shoe, assumes the form of the shoe, and becomes every day rounder and rounder. In Mr. Solleysel’s Complete Horseman, may be seen the true method of shoeing high and round soles. See Shoe and SHOEING. ** VAULT, or Volte. See VoI.T.E. - VAULT, Going to the, a term used by sportsmen for a - --- - - - hare’s See PENDENTIVE. V A U. U B A hare’s taking the ground like a coney, which she some- times does. VAULT, L e, in Geografi.hy, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne; 3 miles W. of Avallon. VAULX, a town of France, in the department of the Straits of Calais; 4 miles N.E. of Bapaum. VAULx Milieux, a town of France, in the department of the Isere; 12 miles N.E. of Vienna. VAUNIA, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Italy, belonging to the Bechuni. Ptolemy. VAUNING, in Mineralogy. See VAN, VANNING- Shovel, and T.I.N. VAUNT, or VANT. See VAN. VAUNT-Lay, among Hunters, a setting of hounds, or beagles, in a readiness where the chase is to pass; and casting them off before the rest of the kennel come in. VAUQUELIN, in Biografthy. See IvKTEAUx. VAUQUELINIA, in Botany, a genus dedicated by M. Correa de Serra, now the Portuguese minister to the United States of America, to the honour of the celebrat- ed French chemist M. Vauquelin, whose discoveries have been extended to the vegetable kingdom. Hum- boldt and Bonpland, Plantes equinoxiales, fasc. 6. De Theis 478. We regret that we are furnished with no further account of this genus, nor with any of its cha- ractet’S. VAUS, in Geography, a river of West Florida, which runs into the St. Mark, N. lat. 30° 10'. W. long. 84° 36'. VAUVEN ARGUIES, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Mouths of the Rhône; 6 miles E.N. E. of Aix. VAUVERT, town of France, in the department of the Gard; 9 miles S. of Nismes. VAUVILLE, a small seaport-town of France, in the department of the Channel, on a bay to which it gives name; 9 miles W. of Cherburg. N. lat. 49° 39'. W. long, 1° 37'. VAUVILLERS, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Upper Saône; 12 miles N.W. of Luxeuil. VAUV INCOURT, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Meuse; 5 miles N. of Bar-le-Duc. VAUX, LA, a district of Switzerland, in the Pays de Vaud, between Lausanne and Vevay, which contains thc two pleasant little towns of Lutry and Cully, with the villages of St. Saphorin and Corsier. This district is cntirely hilly, rising abruptly from the lake; above the vineyards are rich meadows and a continued forest. In the church of St. Saphorin is an ancient Roman mile- stone with an inscription, which contains two circum- stances often questioned; viz. than the banks of the lake of Geneva, which border this part of Switzerland, were comprised within a Roman province, even so early as the time of Ciaudius, and also that Aventicum was the chief town of this part of Helvetia; for the mile-stones always referred to the capital of the province in which they were placed, and the distance from St. Saphorin to Avenches is nearly 37,000 paces. The inscription is as follows: CLAUDIUS. O. RUSI, CAES. ALJ G. G ERM. pon T. MAX. TIRIB. POT. VII, IMP, XII. P. P. C. OS. III. F. A. XXXVII, TI, F. VAUXHALL GARDENs, a well-known place of pub- lic amusement in the parish at Lambeth and county of Surrey, which belonged, in 1615, to Jane, widow of John Vaux, between whose two daughters the estate was di- vided, and passed through various hands, till both moie- ties were purchased, about the middle of the last cen- tury, by Jonathan Tyers, esq. It does not appear at what time this place was first opened for public resort; but we are led to conclude from a paper in the Specta- tor. (No. 388.5) and another in the Connoisseur (No. 68.), that it must have been so appropriated in or be- fore the time of queen Anne. Mr. Tyers, who held the premises on lease many years before he bought the estate, opened the Spring Gardens, as they were then denominated, in 1730, and expended large sums in em- bellishing them. After his death they fell into the pos- session of several proprietors, of whom the principal is Mr. Barratt. The gardens were, till of late years, open- ed every evening during a great part of the sum- mcr; for the reception of company; but they are now admitted only three times a week. The entertainments consist of music, vocal and instrumental, illuminations, and fire-works, and other exhibitions. See LAMBETH and TYERs. VAUZ, in Geografhy, a town of Pennsylvania, on the Susquehanna; 12 miles N.N.W. of Harrisburg. VAY HINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg, on the Entz, with a castle. This town had formerly counts of its own; 11 miles N.W. of Stuttgard. N. lat. 48° 58'. E. long. 8° 59'. VAYLOOR, a town of Hindoostan, in Baramaul; 1 1 miles S.S.W. of Namacul. VAYPAR, a town of Hindoostan, in the province of Madura; 25 miles E. of Coilpetta. .# VAYRES, a town of France, in the department of the Gironde; 3 miles S.W. of Libourne. ...} VAYU, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name āf the re- gent of the winds, more commonly called Pavana; which see. Vayu is the Eolus of the East. One of the Puranas is named after him, being called Vayu Purana. (See PURAN.A.) Yah is another of his names. VAYVODE, or VAlvople. See WAY won E. VAZABU, in the Materia Medica, a name by which Some authors have called the acorus Asiaticus, or Asiatic sweet-flag. VAZCUSE, in Geografthy, a river of Louisiana, which runs into the Missouri, N. lat. 38° 31'. W. long. 94° 5'. VAZUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria, between the river Bagradas and the town of Thabraca, according to Ptolemy. UBALDI, GUIDo, in Beography, an eminent mathe- matician of noble extraction from a branch of the family of Bourbon, studied under Condamine, and made early as well as rapid proficiency. Mathematics and mechanics were his favourite objects; but in the latter science he published a work, entitled “ Mecanicorum Liber, in quo hapc continentur:—de Libra, Vecte, Trochlea, Axe in Peritrochio, Cuneo, Cochlea,” Ventiis, 1615, fol. In this work he reduces all machines to the lever, ap- plying the same principle with advantage to some of the other mechanical powers, and particularly to the pulley and its combinations. He also explained the structure , of the screw of Archimedes, and its application to the rise of water, in a treatise “De Cochlea, Libri qua- tuor,” Venet. 1615, fol. He illustrated the principles 2 y 2 and U B E. U B I and practice of perspective more fully and clearly than other preceding writers had done, but with needless pro- lixity, in his “ Perspectiva, Libri sex,” Pisauri, 1600, fol. His other works, mentioned by Küstner, are “ Guidi Ubaldi e Marchionibus Montes (of the Marquisses del Monte) in duos Archimedis A.Quiponderantium Libros Paraphrasis, scholiis illustrata,” Pisauri, 1588, fol.; “Problematum Astronomicorum Libri Septem,” Venet. 1508, fol. The time of his birth and also of his death is unknown. Montucia. UBAMBA, in Geography, a town of Brasil, near the coast of the Atlantic; 80 miles S.W. of Rio Janeiro. U BARCO, CAPE, a cape on the N.W. coast of the island of Iviga. N. lat. 39° 5'. E. long, 1°. 18'. UBATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, S. of Adrumetum. Ptolemy. U BATUBA, in Geography, river of Brasil, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 23° 20'. UBAYE, a river of France, which runs into the Durance, near Embrun. - UBEDA, a city of Spain, in the province of Jaen, containing 10 parishes, 8 convents, and about 2900 inhabitants. In 1233, Ubeda was taken from the Moors; 3 miles E. of Jaen. N. lat. 38° 3’. W. long. 3° 31'. U BENITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pra- chatitz; 7 miles E. of Prachatitz. - UBERAU, a town of Hesse Darmstadt; 6 miles S. E. of Darmstadt. - -- UBERE, a town of Sweden, in West Gothland; 15 miles S.W. of Skara. º - UBERKINGEN; a town of Bavaria, in the territory of Ulm; 13 miles S.W. of Ulm. w - U BERLINGEN, a town of Baden, situated on a rock, in a bay of the lake of Constance, which takes its name from it, and its moats are formed of so many stone- quarries. This town is divided into three parts; viz. the Lower Town, the Upper Town, and the Gallenberg; in the last of which are vineyards. It contains in it a collegiate church, a house of the order of St. John, a hospital, three convents, and two other churches. Near the town is a good mineral spring. Uberlingen was an imperial town so early as the time of the emperors of Swabia. Charles IV. and Wenceslaus engaged to main- tain it in its immediate independency on the empire; but in 1802, it was given to the Duke of Baden; 22 miles N. W. of Lindau. N. lat. 47° 43'. E. long, 8° 49'. UBERSKO, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chrudim; 10 miles E.N.E. of Chrudim. UBERTI, FAzio, (Bonifacio,) Degli, in Biografhy, an Italian poet, born at Florence, who flourished in the 14th century. His character is represented as amiable, al- lowing for his disposition to frequent the courts of tyrants and to pay adulation to the great; but his poverty in a state of exile, as one of the Ghibelline party, has been adduced as an apology for his conduct. He wrote vari- ous poems, and according to the account given of him by Villani, he was the first who employed with effect that species of poetical composition called by the vulgar “ frottole,” or ballads. His principal work, however, written in his advanced age, was a description of the world in verse, intitled “ Ditta Mondo.” This is divided into six books, but was beft in an unfinished state, though written at different periods from the year 1355 to 1364. It was first printed at Verona, and afterwards at Venice in 1501. He is reckoned superior to the Italian poets of his time in energy of style. Some of his Canzone have been published in collections. He died and was in- terred at Verona. T - - UBES, Sr., in Geography. (See SETuvA.) . This town would be more considerable if it were not so near to Lisbon, and the trade carried on through Lisbon houses; for here, it is said, there are only fifteen mer- captile firms. Its trade consists in wine, of which va- rious kinds are exported. Oranges are likewise ex- ported: but the best commercial article of St. Ubes is salt, which is taken principally by Danish and Swe- dish ships. The salt-pans lie in great numbers along the Sado or Sandao, and its branches, being called in Portuguese “marinhas.” They are dug square, about three feet deep, and salt water is introduced on one side from the sea, at flood, through canals which cztend in innumerable branches, and are shut when the pans are full. The water is often previously collected in large reservoirs called “ governos,” from which it is af. terwards distributed into the marinhas, where being evaporated, the salt is collected in the month of June, and kept either in wooden sheds, or in heaps, which are protected from the rain by rushes. This salt is large- grained, becomes but little moist by the air, and excels in purity the marine salt collected in other provinces of the south of Europe, or in other parts of Portugal. The fishery of St. Ubes was formerly celebrated, but has of late 1much declined. - Opposite to St. Ubes, on the narrow strip of land that forms the entrance of the harbour, are the remains of an ancient city, called Troya. Tradition reports that this place was buried in sand; and that the inhabitants re- moved and built St. Ubes on the opposite side. UBI, or UBY, an island in the East Indian occan, in the gulf of Siam, near the coast of Cambodia; about 21 miles in circumference, with plenty of wood and good water. N. lat. 8° 26'. E. long. 105° 56'. UBIGAU, a town of Saxony; 6 miles N.W. of Lei- benwerda. N. lat. 51° 34'. E. long. 12° 20'. . UB II, in Ancient Geograft hy, a people whose first abode was on the other side of the Rhine, being separa- ted from Gaul by the river. Being afterwards pressed by the Suevi, they had recourse to Caesar. Agrippa passed the Rhine, according to Dion Cassius, and trans- ported them to the hither bank of the river and estab- lished them, with a view to the security of the adjoining frontier of the empire. Under the reign of Claudius, an Agrippine colony was founded among them, and they voluntarily assumed the name of Agrippienses, as their attachment to the Romans excited the enmity of Civilis. Their territory extended along the Rhine, from the Treveri to the borders of the Gugerni, who had been a branch of the Menapii. The Ubians, on the right bank of the Rhine, were continually harrassed by the Sicam- bri, and in order to avoid the hostility of such neigh- bours, they were induced to cross the river. Agrippa caused them to build a town, which was called “Civitas Ubiorum,” in which he planted a Roman colony, deno- minated “Colonia Agrippina.” This town is the pre- . sent Cologne. The Ubii formed a part of the Germanic body, which they abandoned in order to enter into a league with the Celtic people. This separation of the Ubians is referred to about the thirty-seventh year before our era. They worshipped the god Mars. UBIQUISTS, UBIquitARIES, or UBIquitARIANs, formed from ubique, every where, in Ecclesiastical His- tory, a sect of Lutherans, which rose and spread itself in Germany; and whose distinguishing doctrine was, that U B I UC H that the body of Jesus Christ is every where, or in every place. - Brentius, one of the earliest reformers, is said to have first broached this error, in 1560. Luther himself, in his controversy with Zuinglius, had thrown out some un- guarded expressions, that seemed to imply a belief of the omnipresence of the body of Christ; but he became sensible afterwards, that this opinion was attended with great difficulties, and particularly that it ought not to be made use of as a proof of Christ’s corporal presence in the eucharist. (Luther, Oper, tom. viii. p. 375. ed. Jenens.) However, after the death of Luther, this ab- surd hypothesis was renewed, and dressed up, in a spa- cious and plausible form, by Brentius, Chemnitius, and Andraeas, who maintained the communication of the properties of Christ’s divinity to his human nature. Melancthon declared against it; maintaining that it introduced, with the Eutychians, a kind of confusion into the two natures of Jesus Christ; and protested, that he would oppose it as long as he lived. On the other hand, Andraeas, Flacius Illyrius, Schmi- delin, Osiander, &c. espoused Brentius’s party; and as- serted the body of Jesus Christ to be every where. The universities of Leipsic and Wirtemberg, and the generality of Protestants, set themselves against. this new heresy, but in vain: the Ubiquitarians grew stronger and stronger. Six of their leaders, Andraeas, Selneccer, Musculus, Chemnitius, Chytraus, and Cor- nerus, having a meeting in 1576, in the monastery of Berg, they there composed a kind of credo, or formula of faith, called the “Form of Concord;” wherein the ubiquity was established as an article. See Form of CoN coPD. Musculus, one of these leaders, and the most zealous advocate of the ubiquity, expressly maintains, that the ascension of Christ into heaven was nothing more than a ceasing to be visible, and that it is not performed by any physical motion, or change of place: and in 1575 he published a book to prove that it is by no means necessary, that the glorious body of Christ should physically fill up any space. And he declares in a sermon in 1564, that they who teach that Jesus Christ died only as to his hu- man nature, belong to the devil, both body and soul; and that the true doctrine is, that he died as to his human and divine nature. Hospin. Histor. Sacram. part ii. p. 492. ad ann. 1561. Idem ibid. p. 553. ad ann. 1564. Idem ibid. p. 600. Bayle, art. Musculus. All the Ubiquists, however, are not agreed: some of them, and among the rest the Swedes, hold that Jesus Christ, even during his mortal life, was every where: others maintain, that it is only since his ascension that his body is every where. G. Hornius only allows Brentius the honour of being the first propagator of ubiquitism; its first inventor, ac- cording to him, was John of Westphalia, or Westphalus, a minister of Hamburgh, in 1552. - But according to Hospinian, Westphalus opposed the opinion concerning the ubiquity advanced by Brentus and Schmidelin. Bayle, art. Westfihalus. UBIquist, in the University qf Paris, is a term ap- plied to such doctors in theology, as are not restrained to any particular house; either to that of Navarre, or Sor- bonne. - The Ubiquists are called, simply, doctors in theology; whereas the others add, of the house of Sorbonne, or JVa- varre, &c. See SoRBONNE. town of Gallia Transpadana. UBIQUITY, OMNIPRESENCE; an attribute of the God- head, whereby he is always intimately present to all things; gives the esse to all things; and knows, preserves, and does all in all things. - For since God cannot be said to exist in all places, as placed therein, (because, then, he would need something to his existence, viz. place; and would have extension, parts, &c.) he must be conceived to be every where, or in all things, as a first, universal, efficient cause, in all his effects. - - - He is present, therefore, to all his creatures, as a pure act, or an exercise of an active virtue, which knows, pre- serves, governs, &c. every thing. Nor are even finite minds present otherwise than by operation. See Gop, UBIQUITY of the King. See KING. UBIRRE, in Ichthyology, a name given by some to the anguilla marina, or small sea-eel. - UBIUM, in Botany, altered by Rumphius, Herb. Amboin, book 9. 346, from the Malay name Ubi, a sy- nonym of some species of DioscoPEA; see that article. Forster declares all the kinds of Ubium, mentioned by Rumphius, to belong to D. alata. These differ chiefly in the shape of the roots, and in the stems being furnish- ed or not with fleshy buds, or bulbs, of different forms. These roots constitute one of the most important arti- cles of food, in the remote islands of India and the South Seas. - - - , UBNI, in Geography, a town of Walachia; 10 miles N. of Viddin. r ,' UBOA, a town on, the west coast of the island of Luçon. N. lat. 16° 57'. E. long. 120° 48'. UBRAYE, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Alps; 9 miles N.E. of Castellane. UBRILEN, a town of the Arabian Irak; 5 miles S.E., of Bassora. UBRIX, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, on the coast of Libya. Ptolemy. UCA, a town of Asia, in the interior of Media. Pto- lemy. UCANNO, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 2 miles N. of Lamego. UCAYALE, UCA1AL, or YcAYALE, a river of South America, formed by the union of the Apurímac and Ene, in S. lat. 10° 50'. It pursues a northerly course to S. Hat. 4° 15', where it joins the Maranon, near St. Joa- chim de Omaguas, and then takes the name of the Ama- zons. See MARANON. UCENA, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Asia, in Galatia, belonging to the Trochmi. Ptolemy. UCENI, a people placed by the inscription on the trophy of the Alps, mentioned by Pliny, near the Me- dulli and the Caturiges, and supposed by Sanson to be the same with the Siconii or Iconii, mentioned by Strabo. . • UCETIA, a town of Gallia Narbonnensis.-Also, a Strabo. UCHALIGES, a people of Africa, in Libya Interior. Ptolemy. - UCHENDGE, in Geografthy, a town of the princi- pality of Georgia, and chief place of a district, situated to the east of Teflis. In 1395, this town was taken by Timur Bec, and the whole garrison put to the sword. UCHINCHIR, one of the small Kurile islands, in the North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 48° 30'. E. long, ł53° 44'. UCHKILISSA, U C L. U D A UCHKILISSA, a town of Persian Armenia; 18 miles N. VV. of Erivan. UCHT, a river of Brandenburg, which runs into the Aland, near Osterburg. UCHTLHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of Wurz- burg; 6 miles E. of Schweinfurt. UCIBI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Pro- pria, in Numidia Nova. Ptolemy. UCIMATH, a town of Africa, in Libya Interior, upon the northern bank of the river Gir. Ptolemy. UCKER, in Geography, a river of Pomerania, which empties itself into the Frische-Haff, 1 mile N. of Ucker- munde. UcKER Mark. See BRANDENBURG. UCKER See, a considerable lake of Brandenburg, in the Ucker Mark, situated to the south of Prenzlow. UCKERMUNDE, a town of Anterior Pomerania, situated on the river Ucker, near its entrance into the Frische-Haff. This town was surrounded with walls in 1190. In the 17th century it suffered greatly by sieges, and the vicissitudes of war; and in 17 13, was sacked by the Russians. It has good fisheries, pastures, and woods; 29 miles N.N.W. of Old Stettin. N. lat. 53° 48'. E. long. 13° 57'. UCKEWALLISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, a sect of rigid Anabaptists, so called after its founder Uke Walles, a native of Friesland. This sectary not only exhorted his followers to maintain the primitive and austere doctrine of Menno, but took it into his head to propagate, in connection with one John Leus, in 1637, a singular opinion concerning the salvation of Judas, and the rest of Christ’s murderers; alieging, that the period of time, which extended from the birth of Christ to the descent of the Holy Ghost, and was, as it were, the distinctive term that separated the Jewish from the Christian dispensation, was a time of profonnd ignorance, during which the Jews were des- titute both of light and divine succour; and that, con- sequently, the sins and enormities, that were commit- ted during this interval, were in a greatmeasure excusa- ble, and could not merit the severest displays of the di- vine justice. This idle fiction met with no indulgence either from the Mennonites, who excluded its inventor from their communion, or from the magistrates of Gro- ningen, who banished him from the city. In East Fries- land he drew after him a considerable number of disci- ples, whose descendants still subsistin the neighbourhood of Groningen, Friesland, and also in Lithuania and Prus- sia, and have their own religious assemblies, separate from those of the other Mennonites. They re-baptize all who leave other Christian churches to embrace their communion: they studiously avoid every appearance of elegance or ornament; suffering their beards to grow to an uncommon length, and their hair to lie unconibed over their shoulders: their countenances are marked with melancholy; and their houses only adapted to an- swer the demands of necessity. Their inspectors or bishops, whom they distinguish from the ministers whose office is to teach, are chosen by an assembly composed of all the congregations of the sect. The ceremony of washing the feet of strangers is considered by them as a rite of divine institution. They carefully avoid even the aspect of learning and science, and thus prevent all at- tempts to alter or modify their religious discipline. Mosheim’s Eccl. Hist. vol. v. 8vo. UCLES, in Geograñhy, a town of Spain, in New Cas- tile. In 1108, a battle was fought near this place be- tween the Christians and the Moors, in which the for- mer were defeated with great loss; 20 miles S.W. of Huete. - - - - - - UCO, a town of Chili; 9 miles E.S.E. of St. Yago. UCRIA, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Demona; 8 miles W.S.W. of Pati, - UCRIANA, in Botany, so called by Willdenow, in honour of Signor Bernardi di Ucria, a distinguished bo- tanist of Palermo.——Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 961. (Tocoye- na; Aubl. Guian. 131. Juss, 201. Lamarck Illustr. t. 163.)—Class and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubiacea, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth superior, of one leaf, short, cup-shaped, with five angles, and five small, erect, acute teeth, permanent. Cor. of one petal, tubular, tube ex- tremely long and slender, cylindrical, pervious; limb bell-shaped, with five rather short, ovate, acute, equal, slightly spreading, marginal segments. Stam. Fila. ments five, very short, inserted into the limb between the segments; anthers incumbent, oblong, pointed, of two celis. Pist. Germen inferior, elliptical; style the length of the tube of the corolla, thread-shaped; swelling and hairy at the top; stigma of two rounded lobes. Peric, Berry elliptical, fleshy, of two cells, crowned by the per- manent calyx. Seeds numerous, roundish, inserted into the middle of the partition at each side, and surrounded with viscid pulp. º Ess. Ch. Calyx superior, with five teeth, permanent. Corolla with a very long cylindrical tube, and five-cleft, bell-shaped limb. , Anthers nearly sessile. Style club. shaped, hairy. Stigma of two flat lobes. Berry of two cells, with many seeds. 1. U. ºfteciosa. , Willd. n. 1. (Tocoyena longiflora; Aubl. t. 50)-Native of woods in Guiana, bearing flowers as well as fruit in August. Stem shrubby, simple, about three feet high, obtusely quadrangular, leafy. Leaves opposite, stalked, fifteen inches long, lanceolate, acute, entire, smooth, contracted at the base, with one rib and many transverse veins. Stiftulas in pairs, intrafoliace- ous, ovate. A lowers about fourteen, crowded at the top of the stem, sessile, opposite, erect, very fragrant, white, with a yellowish tube, nine inches and a half long, the thickness of a goose-quill. Calyx very small. Berry yellow, an inch in length. This plant comes very near to Gardenia, or at least to Thunberg’s Rothmannia. (See GARDENIA.) We do not profess to have had sufficient opportunities of comparing them and their allies, to form an accurate judgment. Willdenow has changed the specific name without any authority or reason. UCUBIS, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Spain, in Boetica. UDA, in Geografthy, a river of Russia, which runs into the Velika, 12 miles N.W. of Onegka, in the go- vernment of Pskov—Also, a river of Russia, which joins the Tchiuna, N. lat. 55°50'. E. long. 99° 22'.—Also, a river of Russia, which runs into the Selenga, near Verch Udinsk. —Also, a river of Russia, which runs into the sea of Ochotz, N. lat. 55° 15'. E. long. 136° 44'. UDACENSES, in Ancient Geography, mountains of Asia, in Corduena, south of the lake Arsissa, lat. 37° 3O’. UDAL. See ODHAL. - UDASSA, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in Goondawana; 12 miles N.W. of Negpour. UDAW ANTANAGUR, U D D U D D UDAW ANTANAGUR, a town of Hindoostan, in Bahar; 5 miles S.S.W. of Arrah. UD DAL AKA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name sometimes given to a theologian, who is said to be the son of Aruna, the charioteer of the sun. He is not often read of Respecting his parent, who corresponds with the Aurora of western fable, notice will be found under our article SURYA, the common name of the Hindoo Phoebus. In the theogonies of the Puranas (see PURANA), when describing the process of churning the ocean, as men- tioned in our article KURMAvATARA, a goddess, named Jyeshta, was produced. She is deemed the goddess of poverty and misfortune, and having rose from the Sea earlier than Lakshmi, the goddess of riches and fortune, is called her elder sister. Vishnu, enamoured of the latter, wished to espouse her; but she objected, saying her elder sister, agreeably to the injunctions of the Veda, ought to be married first. And this we may remark, in passing, is a rule in force at this day, though not invaria- bly observed. Vishnu, after much difficulty, prevailed on Uddalaka the Rishi, who was unmarried, to take the undesirable damsel to wife; and Sagara, her father, sealed the nuptial ceremony by pouring water into the hands of the Rishi. (See SAGARA.) Jyeshta, like Lakshmi, is called the daughter of the ocean, and is ce- lebrated as being ever faithful to her consort. She is sometimes called Sreshta. - Under the article RusHI will be found an account of the holy men so designated. One of them taking the goddess of poverty to wife, means, we may suppose, the usual profession of poverty by pious persons. It was no small sacrifice of comfort to be linked to such a rib: for Jyeshta is described to have arisen in black garments, with yellow hair, red eyes, wanting many teeth, those re- maining of repelling appearance, her tongue lolling out of her mouth, pot-bellied, &c. &c.; so that gods and de- mons were amazed at the sight of such a figure. Such a one is described, from an image in the East India House, in our article KALI. Her younger sister, on the contrary, is described as superlatively fascinating, but fickle; being a personification of Fortune. UDDEN, in Geografhy, a town of Arabia, in the pro- vince of Yemen; 44 miles E.S.E. of Zebid. N. lat. 13° 58'. E. long. 43° 50'. UDDER, in Rural Economy, a term applied to the glandular organ which is destined for the preparation and secretion of the milk in cows, mares, ewes, sows, or any other kinds of domestic animals, and which is often much subject to disease. It is to be noticed, that the udders of young cows which are in a high condition, are sometimes very greatly swol- len and inflamed for several days before they calve; in which cases, it is mostly proper to milk them frequently in repetition, and alternately to anoint the distended parts, in some severe instances, with a saturnine cooling ointment, and brandy, or some other quickly evaporating spirit; as, by such means, these swellings are often speedily removed, without much danger or inconveni- ence. But, besides these sorts of swellings, the udders of cows are liable to injuries, which are often of a more Serious consequence, as from falls, blows, the wounds of sharp instruments, or such as are pointed, and the vio- lent sucking of calves, as well as from the injudicious or rough treatment of harsh and inexperienced milkers. In all such cases, while the inflammation in the glands remains in a hard and indolent state, the parts so affected should be repeatedly anointed in the course of the day with some gentle cooling substance, such as fresh lard, or with a solution consisting of one ounce of Castile soap, dissolved in a pint and a half of new milk, over a moderate fire, constantly stirring it until it be- comes thoroughly mixed and incorporated. An oint- ment, too, prepared from the juice of the leaves of the common thorn-apple, by mixing it with fresh hog's-lard, is said by some to be an excellent application in cases of this nature. Such tumours may likewise, in many in- stances, be anointed with a little of a composition, con- sisting of camphor dissolved in spirit and blue ointment, with great benefit; and about half a drachm of calomel may be given in a hornful of treacle and warm beer, three or four mornings together, if the swelling should continue to increase. Where, however, the udder and teats are considerably inflamed and swelled, other inter- nal remedies may be had recourse to; for which purpose, it has been recommended to mix four ounces of nitre with one pound of common salt, and to give two table spoonfuls of the powder in a gallon of thin water-gruel every three hours. But in case the affection, in such instances, should have made, from neglect, such pro- gress as to display large hardish tumours in the parts, formentations of the sort given below may often be ap- plied with advantage. Boil in a sufficient quantity of water one handful of the leaves of common hemlock, the same quantity of the dwarf or round-leaved mallow, and an equal proportion of common melilot, and diligently apply the liquid, by means of cloths wrung Qut of it, to the part or parts, as warm as the beast can béar it. As soon as the tumour or tumours, in this case, bursts or opens, the wound should be well and properly cleaned, and then covered with a pledget of lint, and a plaster of common cerate or basilicon laid over all. *: The remedy directed below, it is said, has been em- ployed with great success in very obstinate cases of ulce- rated cattle udders: one ounce of gum ammoniacum, the same quantities each of gum galbanum, Castile soap, and extract of hemlock; reduce the gums into powder, and form them with the soap and extract into eight small balls, one of which is to be given to the beast every night and morning. In cases where the teats only are sore, they may first be washed well with clean warm soap- suds, and then rubbed with an ointment, composed of finely powdered cerusse or white lead, which has pre- viously been saturated with brandy, and well mixed and united with a proper quantity of elder ointment or goose- grease. * - In the case of sheep too, these parts are often much affected, when the lambs are yeared in the ewes, the lac- tiferous ducts in the udders of which are liable to be- come attacked with various obstructions, which are the consequence of hard tumours or swellings being form- ed, which are accompanied with inflammation, and which, if not speedily relieved, will terminate in mortification, not unfrequently in the course of twenty-four hours. As soon as such swellings or tumours are discovered, the wool should be shorn off closely in a careful manner, and the part affected be frequently wetted and rubbed well with camphorated spirit of wine. If, however, sup- puration should ensue, the part should be laid open by a strong lancet or sharp knife, and the matter be dis- charged, when a pledget of lint should be laid over the party U D ID . U D D part, and secured by a plaster spread with some soft ointment, or the common cerate rubbed with a little oil. Ewes, when thus affected, should be kept-separate from the rest of the flock, and though one of the nipples may be lost, they may be allowed to suckle their lambs; but in cases where both are affected, there is, of course, no al- ternative but that of fattening them off for sale, and to bring up their lambs by hand in the best manner possible. The udders and nipples of ewes are likewise very apt to be heated, chafed, and fretted, by which the lambs are prevented from being let suck in a proper and ready manner; consequently, in all such cases, the parts so af- fected should be kept as cool as possible, and be well washed with a weak solution of white vitriol in rain-wa- ter, or be anointed with some mild softening ointment, such as that of elder, or common cerate softened with oil, once.or twice in the day; care being taken to have them well removed by the use of warm water and a little soft soap, before the lambs be again admitted to them for suckling. - The diseases of the udders, in the other sorts of do- mestic animals, are, for the most part, to be treated in a similar manner, according as the nature of them may be; always having the parts carefully cleaned, before the young are suckled. UDDER-Locking, a term used in the management of sheep, to signify the practice of clearing away the locks of wool from about the udders, and other parts, where the lambs suck, in eves. Some sheep-farmers have a very high opinion of the necessity and utility of this cus- tom, while others as strongly condemn it, and consider it to be quite unnecessary, as well as dangerous and hurt- ful both to the ewes and the lambs. It may, however, be useful in different cases and circumstances. The former, or those in favour of the practice, recommend that, immediately before the ewes begin to drop their lambs, they should be carefully driven into the yards, folds, or pens, and have a small part of the locky wool pulled off from about their udders, in order to give the lambs more easy and ready access to the teats or nipples, by which they come forward faster, and succeed better. But the latter, or those who object to the custom, think that they have seen instances where it occasioned not on- ly the death of nearly one-twentieth part of the ewes, but that many of those which survived it lambed dead lambs at the danger and hazard of their own lives. They suppose that there is naturally a sufficient space left bare about these parts, so as to enable the young lambs to find the dugs or nipples; and that the uncover- ling more, or a larger extent of parts, serves only to starve and expose the ewes in the most tender and deli- cate parts; as, although they have been engaged among sheep the whole of their lives, they have never seen a single lamb die from the want of its dam or mo- ther being udder-locked, even though she may have been ever so young, or ever so rough in such parts: nor have they ever met with any persons who could be certain that they had seen any. How far some breeds of sheep, as those of the Cheviot, may have their lambs more rea- dily or more easily killed or destroyed in this way, or whether it may not be owing to the shape of the udders in their dams, which being more full and exposed in such parts, is not by any means well known; but far less injury or exposure, in this or in any other way, will make that breed of sheep lamb dead lambs, it is said, that in the forest, or probably some other breeds. - e But though this practice may be often found prejudi- cial in the more northern parts of the kingdom, in the southern sheep districts it may not unfrequently be had recourse to with very considerable utility and advantage in different respects. - . . . . UDDEVALLA, in Geografhy, a sea-port town of Sweden, in the Province of Bahus, with a strong fort and convenient harbour. The inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in iron, planks, and herrings; their number is about 9000; 20.5 miles W.S.W. of Stock- holm. N. lat. 58° 21'. E. long. 11° 45'. - UDEBODE, a town of the island of Ceylon; 60 miles S. of Candi. - UDEGHERRY, a town of Hindoostan, in the Car- natic; 43 miles N.W. of Nellore. N. lat. 14° 43'. E. long. 79° 16'. * *. UDEM, a town of France, in the department of the Roer; 7 miles S.S.E. of Cleves. UDERIPCONDA, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; 20 miles N.W. of Anantpour. UDER WANGEN, a town of Prussia, in Natangen; 12 miles S.S.E. of Konigsberg. UDI, a town of Egypt; 10 miles N. of Atfieh. * UDJARMA, a town of the principality of Georgia, in the province of Kaket; 24 miles E. of Testis. UDICA denotes the projecting part of a barge’s stern, on which its name, &c. is printed. UDINA, or UDINE, in Geografhy, a town of Italy, and capital of Friuli; to which, on the decline of Acqui- leia, the patriarch removed his seat. It has several churches, convents, and hospitals, a college for the study of law, and a military academy: and it is said to contain between 17,000 and 18,000 inhabitants; 35 miles N.W. of Trieste. N. lat. 46° 10'. E. long, 13° 14'. º UDINE, Giov ANNI DA, in Biography, was the cog- nomen of an assistant of Raffaelle in the works of the Vatican, whose real name was Nanni. His family re- sided at Udine, (where he was born in 1494,) and had there followed the occupation of embroiderers with so much excellence, as at length almost to have lost their own name in that of Nicamatori, by which Vasari often calls him. His father, become rich, amused himself with hunting; and his son Giovanni found his sport, at a very early period of his life, in drawing the animals, birds, &c. brought him from the chase. This indication of taste for painting was encouraged, and the youth was placed under the tuition of Giorgione, at Venice, with whom he acquired a knowledge of colour and chiaro- scuro. About the time of the death of Giorgione he went to Rome, and being furnished by his protector, the patriarch Grimani, with letters to count Baldassare Cas- tiglione, he was introduced to Raffaelle, who admitted him in painting the grotesques and ornamental accesso- ries of his larger works. The imagination of his master Raffaelle, and of himself, was led to the introduction of this species of ornament, by the discovery of the painted chambers in the baths of Titus, then recently opened, when Giovanni was employed in making designs of the beautiful ornaments in stucco found there, and then de- nominated, grotesque. discovered the composition of the stucco upon or rather In pursuing these studies, he in which they were painted; and with the same mate- rials he, by order of Raffaelle, prepared the walls and ceil- ings of the Loggie, and painted upon it the beautiful , series of ornamental combinations of flowers, fruit, ani- mals, vases, &c. since then so much employed in adorn- ling U D O V E C ing the dwellings of the rich and great. This part of the work was entirely entrusted to Giovanni da Udine, under whose directions a number of ingenious young men were employed; and the taste and ability, the free- dom and truth, without minuteness, with which the whole is managed, has ever since been a constant subject of praise and admiration. After the death of Raffaelle, he was employed by Clement VII., in conjunction with Pierino del Vaga, to ornament that part of the Vatican called the Torre di Borgia. When he was compelled to leave Rome by the sacking of that city, he was em- ployed for a time at his native place, and afterwards was engaged at Florence in adorning the palace of the Me- dici; and returning to Rome in the pontificate of Pius IV., left in various places there mementos of his admi- rable ingenuity. He died there, at the age of seventy, in 1564, and had the honour to be buried in the church of La Rotonda, (the Pantheon,) near the tomb of his re- nowned master. UDINE, MARTINo DA, called Pelegrino di San Dani- ello, was born at the castle of San Daniello, near Udine, about the year 1480, and was a disciple of Giovanni Bel- lini. He pursued the style of that master in the many religious subjects he treated for altar-pieces at Udine and his native place, where his works are principally to be found; though it is said, in addition to his fame, that something of Giorgione’s breadth may be discovered in his latter productions. He died about 1545. UDINSK, N1zNEI, in Geografthy, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, situated on the river Uda; 260 miles N.W. of Irkutsk. N. lat. 54° 15'. E. long. 98° 50'. - UDINsk, Verchnei, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Irkutsk, on the Selenga; 88 miles E. of Irkutsk. N. lat. 51° 50'. E. long. 107° 20'. UDINSKA, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, at the conflux of the Uda and the Angara; 140 miles W.N.W. of Irkutsk. N. lat. 54° 12'. E. long. ł O3° 14'. UDINskA, JVov, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, on the Uda; 24 miles S.E. of Udinska. UDITTA, in Ancient Geografiſhy, a town of Africa Propria, between the Two Syrtes. Ptolemy. UDNON, in Botany, the name by which Theophras- tus and Dioscorides have called the truffle commonly used at table in their times; but we find that they were not acquainted with a better kind of truffle, which we cultivate at present. This smooth reddish-coated truffle is common in Italy at this time, and is esteemed of no value, and called the wild truffle: the sort that is eaten there, and in all other parts of Europe, is the blackish and rough-coated kind. In Africa they have a yet finer kind than our's: it has a white coat, and is of the most delicious flavour. The Greeks were also acquainted with this, and denominated it Cyrenean, as they did almost all the things they had from Africa: they also gave it the name misy. UDO, in the Materia Medica, a name given by the Portuguese to the lignum aloes. It seems only a corruption of the monosyllable ud, by which the Arabian physicians have called that drug; and even this ud possibly was only a contraction of the or- thography of the word heud; which seems to have been the original name of this drug among the Arabs. UDo, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the island of Niphon; 60 miles W.N.W. of Jedo.—Also, a town of VoI. XXXVIII, Japan, in the island of Ximo. 132° 30'. UDON, in Ancient Geografthy, a river of Asiatic Sar- matia; the mouth of which, according to Ptolemy, was º the Caspian sea, between that of Alontas and that of ha. UDRIGILL HEAD, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on the W. coast of the county of Ross. N. lat. 57° 54'. W. long. 5° 31'. UDSI, a town of Japan, in the island of Niphon; 15 miles S.W. of Meaco. UDSKOI, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, on the Uda; i 100 miles E.N.E. of Irkutsk. N. lat. 55° 16'. E. long. 135° 50'. UDSTEIN, a small island near the coast of Norway; 9 miles N.W. of Stavanger. UDUAR, a town of the island of Ceylon; 26 miles S.S.E. of Columbo. - UDVARHELY, a town of Transylvania; 22 miles N.E. of Schesburg. N. lat. 46° 30'. E. long. 24°54'. UDUMNAEVSKOI, a fort of Russia, in the govern- ment of Irkutsk; 88 miles S.W. of Nertchinsk. .UDURA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hispania Citerior, belonging to the Taccetani. Ptolemy. YEA, in Geography, a town of Persia, in the province of Segestan; 52 miles N. of Zareng. VEADAR, in Chronology, the thirteenth month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, answering commonly to our March; this month was intercalated, to prevent the beginning of Nisan from being removed to the end of February. - VEAGUES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Cher; 6 miles S.W. of Sancerre. VEAL Town, a town of New Jersey; 14 miles N.N.W. of New Brunswick. VEAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville, on the Odier; 8 miles N.N.E. of Gibraleon. VEASCIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, allied to the Romans: it was attacked by the Gauls on their departure from Rome, but they were surprised and routed by Camillus. Plutarch says, that the Gauls, on leaving Rome, encamped eight miles from this town in Latium, VEBRON, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Lozere; 6 miles S. of Florac. VECCHI, ORAzio, in Biography, born at Milan, and many years maestro di capella at Mantua, gained great reputation, not only as an able musician, but a poet. His numerous canzonets for three and four voices, published at Milan and Venice, from 1580 to 1613, were reprinted and sung all over Europe. Our countryman, Peacham, who had received instructions in music from this com- poser, during his residence in Italy, speaks of him in the following manner: “I bring you now mine own master, Horatio Vecchi, of Modena, who, beside good- ness of aire, was most pleasing of all other for his conceipt and variety, wherewith all his works are sin- gularly beautified, as well his madrigals of five and six. parts, as those his canzonets, printed at Norimberge.” (Complete Gentleman, p. 102.) He then instances and points out the beauties of several of his compositions, that were most in favour during that time. Besides secular music, Vecchi composed two books of sacred songs, in five, six, seven, and eight parts; masses of six and eight voices; and four part lamentations. Z * N. lat, 32° 30'. E. long. Vecchi V E. C V E D Vecchi has been erroneously supposed by many of his country men the inventor of the burletta or comic opera in Italy; and it was the opinion of the learned Mu- ratori (La Perfetta Poesia, lib. iii. cap. 4.), that a musi- 'cal drama or farce, called Anfiparnaso, written and set by the celebrated Orazio Vecchi, and acted and printed at Venice, 1597, was the origin of the OPERA Buffa; which see. . - - VECCHIA, PIETRO, born at Venice in 1605, was a painter, educated in the school of Paduanino, but more an imitator of Giorgione and Pordenone; and some of his pictures have been mistaken for works of those masters. Sandrardt relates a story of his having been deceived by a picture of Vecchia, which he mistook for one by Gior- gione. From this talent of imitating others, the doge and senate of Venice employed him to copy the ancient works in mosaic which are preserved in the church of St. Marc. And in that church are also two original and very able pictures by him, representing the Cruci- fixion, and Christ driving the money-changers from the temple. His colouring is rich and warm, and his exe- cution free and full, but sometimes apt to be incorrect. He died in 1678, aged seventy-three. VECELLI, Tizi ANo. See TITIAN. - VECELL1, ORAxio, Son of Titian, born at Venice in # 540, practised the art of painting under his father’s tu- ition, but became distinguished only as a painter of por- traits, some of which were esteemed as little inferior to those of his father. He died in the same year with his father, 1576. - VECELLI, MARco, called Marco da Tiziano, was the nephew and disciple of Titian, and born at Venice in 1545. He appears to have been regarded by his great instructor with peculiar favour, and certainly his talent gave him the fairest claim to such distinction; for he ap- proached the nearest to Titian, both in colour and com- position, of all his disciples, and has left several original works, very deservedly esteemed, in the Palazzo di San Marco. He also executed several considerable works “for the churches in Venice, Trevigi, and in the Friuli. He died in 1611, leaving a son, known by the name of Il Tizianello, who obtained much repute by his paintings, but they are in a loose and mannered style: his best pro- ductions are his portraits. - VECHT, in Geograft hy, a river which rises in the bishopric of Munster, about six miles N.E. of Coesfeld, crosses Bentheim and Overissel, and runs into the Zuy- der See at Gelmuyden.—Also, a river which passes by Utrecht, and runs into the Zuyder See at Muyden. VECHTA, a town and fortress of Germany, in the bishopric of Munster; 60 miles N.E. of Munster. N. lat. 52°43’. E. long. 8° 18'. VECS, a town of Transylvania; 16 miles E.S.E. of Bistriz. - & - VECTIS, in Ancient Geografthy, an island of the Bri- tish ocean, S. of the Portus. Magnus, or Great Haven, according to Ptolemy and Pliny. VECTIs, in Mechanics, one of the powers, more usu- ally called the lever; which see. V Eetis, Heterodromus. See HETERo promus. VECTOR, in Astronomy, a line supposed to be drawn from any planet moving round a centre, or the focus of an ellipsis, to that centre, or focus. - This, by some writers of the new astronomy, is called vector, or radius vector, because it is that line by which the planet seems to be carried round its centre; and with which it describes areas proportional to the times, VEDA, the name by which the Hindoos designate the collective body of their scripture. They enumerate eighteen parts of true knowledge, as follow: four Vedas, four Upavedas, six Angas, and four Upangas. The prefixture up infers a work deduced from its principal; like our sub, implying inferiority. The first four, according to a native writer, quoted by Sir W. Jones, are the immortal Vedas, evidently re- vealed by God, which are entitled, in one compound word, Pigyajushsamatharva; or, in separate words, Rig, Yajush, Saman, and Atharvan. The Rigveda consists of five sections; the Yajurveda, of eighty-six; the Sama- veda, of a thousand; and the Atharvaveda, of nine; with eleven hundred Sachas, or branches, in various divisions and subdivisions. The Vedas in truth are infinite; but were reduced by Vyasa to this number and order. The principal part of them is that which explains the duties of man in a methodical arrangement; and in the fourth is a system of divine ordinances. From these are deduced the four Upavedas; viz. Ayush, Gandharva, Danush, and Sthapatya. The first of which was delivered to mankind by Brahma, Indra, Dhanwantari, and five other deities; and comprises the theory of disorders and medicines, with the practical me- thods of curing diseases. The second, on music, was invented and explained by Bharata: it is Achiefly useful in raising the mind by devotion to the felicity of the di- vine nature. The third Upaveda was composed by Vis- wamitra, on the fabrication and use of arms, and imple- ments handled in war by the tribe of Kshetriya. Vis- wakarma revealed the fourth, in various treatises on sixty- four mechanical arts, for the improvement of such as exercise them. Of the personages named above, viz. Brahma, Indra, Viswakarma, Viswamitra, and Vyasa, see under those words respectively. Of Dhanwantari, some mention is made under our article KURMAvA- TAR A. . . The six Angas, or bodies of learning, are also, accord- ing to the same native authority, derived from the same source. We omit their names and contents: their sub- jects chiefly are, 1. Of the pronunciation of, vocal sounds. 2. Detail of religious acts and ceremonies. 3. Grammar. 4. Prosody. 5. Astronomy. 6. On the signification of difficult words and phrases in the Vedas. Lastly, continues the same author, there are four Upangas, called Purana, Nyaya, Mimansa, and Dher- masastra. (See PURANA, NYAYA, and MIMANSA.) Eigh- teen Puranas were composed by Vyasa, for the instruc- tion and entertainment of mankind in general. Nyaya is a collection of treatises in two parts, on metaphysics, logic, philosophy, &c. Mimansa is similarly divided into two parts; the katter, abounding in questions on the divine nature, and other sublime speculations, was com- posed by Vyasa in four chapters and sixteen sections. It may be considered as the spring of all the Angas; it exposes the heretical opinions of sophists; and, in a man- ner suited to the comprehension of adepts, it treats on the true nature of Ganesa, Bhaskara or the sun, Nilakan- tha, Lakshmi, and other forms of One Divine Being. Of Ganesa, the god of prudence and sagacity, see under Poll EAR. Bhaskara is a name of Surya. Nilakantha is a name of Siva, the same as Shitakoonta. Lakshmi is the consort of Vishnu. - The body of law, called Smriti, consists of eighteen books, &c. delivered for the instruction of the human species by Menu, and other sacred personages. As to ºthics, the Vedas contain all that relates to the duº, O V E D A. of kings, the Puranas, what belong to the relation of hus- band and wife; and the duties of friendship and society (which complete the triple division) are taught succinct- .iy in both. This double division of Angas and Upangas may be considered as denoting the double benefit arising from them in theory and practice. To the above native account of the Vedas, sir W. Jones adds an ingenious commentary. He says that the Vedas consist of three kandas, or general heads; viz. Karma, Jnyana, and Upasana; or works, faith, and wor- ship. To the first of which, tue author of the Vidyader- sa, or View of Learning, a rare Sanscrit book, wisely gives the preference; as Menu himself prefers universal benevolence to the ceremonies of religion. • After all, continues this instructive writer, the books on divine knowledge, called Veda, or what is known, and Sruti, or what has been heard from revelation, are still supposed to be very numerous; and the four here mentioned are thought to have been selected as contain- ing all the information necessary for man. It must not be omitted, that the commentaries on the Hindoo scrip- tures, among which that of Vasisht’ha (see VASISHT’HA) seems to be reputed the most excellent, are innumera- ble. From the Vedas, are immediately deduced the prac- tical arts of chirurgery and medicine, music and dancing; archery, which comprises the whole art of war; and ar- chitecture, under which the system of mechanical arts is introduced. - Next in order to these are the six Vedangas: three of which belong to grammar; one relates to religious ce- remonies; a fifth, to the whole compass of mathematics; and the sixth, to the explanation of obscure words or phrases in the Vedas. Subordinate to these Angas, though the reason of the arrangement is not obvious, are the series of sacred poems (see PURANA), the body of law, and the six philosophical sastras or shastahs. See PHILosophy of the Hindoos, and SHA STAH. In the commentary whence we quote parts of this ar- ticle, sir William Jones gives some of the reasons that induced him and Mr. Wilkins to believe, notwithstand- ing the mythological fable of Brahma's four mouths, each of which uttered a Veda, that the fourth, or Athar- va, was written or collected after the other three: but Mr. Colebrooke, in the eighth volume of the Asiatic Researches, after noticing some texts and arguments on which that belief might be reasonably grounded, gives his own reasons and proofs in support of a contrary opinion. He thinks it probable that some portion at least of the Atharvana, is as ancient as the compilation of the three others; and its name, like theirs, is anterior to Vyasa’s arrangement of them; but the same, he adds, must be admitted of the portion called Italiasa and Pu- rana, which constitute a fifth Veda, as the Atharvana does a fourth. The Hindoos believe that the original Veda was re- vealed by Brahma, and to have been preserved by tradi- tion until it was arranged in its present form by a sage, who thence obtained the name of Vyasa, or the com- piler; or Vedavyasa, that is, compiler of the Vedas. He distributed the Indian scripture into four parts, as alrea- dy enumerated; each bearing the common denomina- tion of Veda. With the Hindoos it is an article of their creed, that the Vedas were composed by no human author. It must be understood, therefore, that in affirming the primeval existence of their scripture, they deny these works to be Brahmanas; or prayers and precepts. the original composition of the editor (Vyasa), but be. lieve them to have been gradually revealed to inspired writers. - It appeared to Mr. Colebrooke from several other passages, and from the received opinion of the Hindoos themselves, that the Rich, Yajush, and Saman, are the three principal portions of the Veda; and the Atharvana is commonly admitted as a fourth; and that divers my- thological poems, entitled Itahasa and Purana, are reckoned a supplement to the scripture, and as such constitute a fifth Veda. The Vedas are a compilation of prayers, called Man- tra; with a collection of precepts and maxims, entitled Brahmana: from which last portion, that called Upa- nishad is extracted. The prayers are properly the Ve- da, and apparently preceded the Brahmana. Each Veda consists thus of two parts, the Mantras and the The complete collection of the hymns, prayers, and invocations belong- ing to one Veda, is called its Sanhita: every other por- tion of Indian scripture is included under the general head of divinity (Brahmana): this comprises firecents, which inculcate religious duties; maxims, which explain those precepts; and arguments, which relate to theolo- gy. But in the present arrangement of the Vedas, the portion which contains passages called Brahmana, in- cludes many which are strictly prayers, or Mantras. The theology of the Indian scripture, comprehending the argumentative portion entitled Vedanta, is contained in the tracts denominated Upanishad; some of which are portions of the Brahmana, properly so called: others are found only in a detached form; and one is a part of a Sanhita. | -- - Prayers, employed at solemn rites, called Yajnya, have been placed in the three first Vedas: those in prose are named Yajush; such as are in metre are denominated : Rich; and some which are intended to be chanted are called Saman; and those names, as distinguishing differ- ent portions of the Vedas, are anterior to their separa- tion in Vyasa’s compilation. But the Atharvana, not being used at the religious ceremonies above-mentioned, and containing prayers employed at lustrations, at rites conciliating the deities, and as imprečations on enemies, is essentially different from the other Vedas. This is adduced by Mr. Colebrooke as the true reason why the three first Vedas are often mentioned without any no- tice of the fourth; which must be sought, he says, not in their different origin and antiquity, but in the difference of their use and purport. The fourth, or Atharvana, is known to contain many forms of imprecation for the de- struction of enemies. These are called Mantra (see that article), but it must not be inferred that such is the chief subject of that Veda; for it contains also a great number of prayers for safety, and for the averting of ca- lamities; and, like the other Vedas, numerous hymns to the gods, with prayers to be used at solemn rites and 're- ligious ceremonies, excepting, as above-mentioned, such as are named Yajnya. f Mr. Colebrooke gives a passage from that part of the second, distinguished by the title of the White Yajurve- da, the other being called the Black, confirming his opinions as above indicated, and important, as containing an enumeration of the Vedas, and of the various sorts of passages which they comprise: “As smoke and various substances separately issue from fire lighted with moist wood, so from this Great Being were respired the Rig- veda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharva and 2 Z 2 kº, 4- Angiras; V E D A. Angiras; the Itahasa and Purana; the sciences and Upa- mishads; the verses and aphorisms; the expositions and illustrations: all these were breathed forth by Him.” The commentator’s remark, that four sorts of prayers (Mantra), and eight kinds of precepts (Brahmana), are here stated. The fourth description of prayers compre- hends such as were revealed to, or discovered by Athar- van and Angiras, meaning the Atharvana Veda. The Itahasa designate such passages, in the second part of the Vedas, as narrate a story. The Purana intends those which relate to the creation, and similar topics. “Sci- ences” are meant of religious worship; “verses” are me- morial lines; “ afthorisms” are short sentences in a con- cise style; “eachositions” interpret such sentences; and “ illustrations” elucidate the meaning of the prayers. The Puranas here meant are not the mythological poems bearing the same title; but, as already mentioned, certain passages interspersed throughout that part of the Vedas called Brahmana, or divine precepts. This dis- tinction is important. Under our article PURANA a pretty full account of those mythological romances will be found. The subjects and uses of the prayers contained in the Vedas, differ more than the deities which are invoked, or the titles by which they are addressed: every line is replete with allusions to mythology, and to the Indian notions of the divine nature and of celestial spirits. For the numerous ceremonies to be performed by a house- holder, and still more for those endless rites enjoined to hermits and ascetics, a choice of prayers is offered in every stage of the celebration. It may be here sufficient to observe, that Indra, or the firmament, fire, the sun, the moon, water, air, the spirits, the atmosphere, and the earth, are the objects most frequently addressed; and the various and repeated sacrifices with fire, and the drinking of the milky juice of the moon-plant, or acid asclepias (see SoMALATA), furnish abundant occasions for numerous prayers adapted to the many stages of those religious rites. - * In describing the Vedas so replete with mythological allusions, Mr. Colebrooke does not mean a mythology which avowedly exalts deified heroes, as in the Puranas; but one which personifies the elements and planets; and which peoples heaven, and the world below, with vari- ous orders of beings. He observed, however, in many places, the ground-work of legends which are familiar in mythological poems; such, for example, as the demon Vritra, slain by Indra, who is thence surnamed Vritra- han (which see,) but he did not remark any thing, ex- cept some detached portions, the genuineness of which appeared doubtful, that corresponds with the favourite legends of those sects which worship either the Linga or Sakti, or else Rama or Krishna. Such portions, he rea- sonably suspects to have been composed in more mo- dern times, when compared with the other parts of the Vedas. This suspicion is chiefly grounded on the opinion, that the sects which now worship Rama and Krishna as incarnations of Vishnu, are comparatively new: he did not find in any other part of the Vedas the least trace of such a worship. The real doctrine of the whole Indian scripture is the Unity of the Deity, in whom the universe is comprehended; and the seeming poly- theism which it exhibits, offer the elements, and stars, and Planets as gods. The three principal manifestations of the Divinity, with other personified attributes and en- ergies, and most of the other gods of Hindoo mythology, are indeed mentioned, or at least indicated, in the Ve- & - - das. But the worship of deified heroes is no part of that system; nor are the incarnations of deities suggested in any other portion of the text which he had seen, though such are hinted at by the commentators. On the point of unity in doctrine, inculcated with great sublimity and purity, we may refer to some translations from the Vedas by Sir W. Jones, in the last volume of his Works. º After giving strong reason for believing the Vedas to be genuine compositions, in opposition to some asser- tions of their being forgeries, or grossly interpolated, Mr. Colebrooke avows his opinion, that the greater part of the books received by the learned among the Hindoos will assuredly be found genuine; and has no doubt but the Vedas will appear to be of this description. In pro- nouncing them genuine, he means to say that they are the same compositions, which, under the same title of Veda, have been revered by Hindoos for hundreds, if not thousands of years. He thinks it probable they were compiled by Dwapayana, the person who is said to have collected them; and who is thence named Vyasa, or the compiler. See Vy ASA. - vº- The following is the concluding paragraph of Mr. Colebrooke's very instructive paper on the Vedas, in the eighth volume of the Asiatic Researches, to which we have already acknowledged our obligations for a portion of this article. “The preceding description may serve to convey some notion of the Vedas. They are too voluminous for a complete translation of the whole; and what they contain would hardly reward the labour of the reader; much less that of the translator. The ancient dialect in which they are composed, especially that of the three first Ve- das, is extremely difficult and obscure; and though cu- rious, as the parent of a more polished and refined dia- lect (the classical Sanscrit), its difficulties must long continue to prevent such an examination of the whole Vedas as would be requisite for extracting all that is remarkable and important in those voluminous works: but they deserve to be occasionally consulted by the Oriental scholar.” See SHANscrut. We shall now proceed to notice, as briefly as we can, the fabled and believed origin of the Vedas; the reve- rence in which they are held by Hindoos; their supposed antiquity; and some other points that may incidentally arise in the course of such considerations. In the Institutes of Menu, chap. i. v. 23, it is laid down, that “ from fire, from air, and from the sun, He (the Supreme Ruler) milked out, as it were, the three primordial Vedas, named Rich, Yajush, and Saman, for the due performance of the sacrifice.” - Chap. iv. 124. “The Rigveda is held sacred to the gods; the Yajurveda relates to mankind; the Samaveda concerns the manes of ancestors; and the sound of it, when chanted, raises therefore a notion of something impure.” A commentator on the first of these texts explains it by remarking, that the Rigveda opens with a hymn to fire, and the Yajurveda with one in which air is mention- ed. Aflother commentator has recourse to the popular notions respecting the renovations of the universe, at the end of the periods called Kalpa. “In one Kalpa the Vedas proceeded from fire, air, and the sun; in another, from Brahma at his allegorical immolation.” See KAL- PA and PARUSHA. The most general belief is, that the four Vedas issued from the four mouths of Brahma, as the like number of individuals did in whom originated the four grand civil Sects, * V E D A. sects, from appropriate parts of his body (see SEcts of Hindoos); the Brahman, or divine, from his mouth. Now Brahma is fabled to have once had five heads, and in this article we have noticed a fifth Veda. Siva, in one of his forms, is also five-headed; hence called Panchamuki; which see. (See also SIVA.) Some authorities attri- bute the Vedas generally to Pavaka, the god of fire. (See Pav AKA.) Others to Saraswati, the goddess of li- terature, &c. consort of Brahma. (See SARASWAT1.) No female, however, is permitted to read the holy vol- umes. Sir W. Jones tells us (As. Res. vol. iii.), that “the Veda is called also Agama; but this title refers more par- ticularly to a mysterious book, or set of books, so named from having come from the mouth of Siva, as the Vedas proceeded severally from the four mouths of Brahma. The same word means also the Veda.” The word Aga- ma, and similar words in other tongues, seem to imply something mysterious. See OGHAM and O’M. The idea of impurity arising from the chanting of the Samaveda, is not uniformly held. Mr. Colebrooke in- forms us, “ that a peculiar degree of holiness seems to be attached, according to Indian notions, to the Samaveda, if reliance may be placed on the inference suggested by the etymology of its name, which is expounded as denot- ing something which destroys sin.” And this inference, we may remark, is countenanced by the circumstance of Krishna, when enumerating, in the Bhagavat Gita, various orders of beings and things, to the chief of which he com- pares himself, declaring, that “among the Vedas, I am the Saman.” It may be said, however, that this Veda more especially relating to music, over which Krishna, the Hindoo Apollo, presides, he may advert only to its harmonious pré-eminence. iv. 125. “ Let the learned,” Menu commands, “ read the Veda on every lawful day, having first repeated in order the pure essence of the three Vedas, namely, the Pranava, the Vyahritis, and the Gayatri.” Of these see under O’M. - xi. 262. “A priest who should retain in his memo- ry the whole Rigveda, would be absolved from guilt, even if he had slain the inhabitants of the three worlds, and had eaten food from the foulest hands.” 263. “By thrice repeating the Mantras and Brahma- nas of the Rig, or those of the Yājush, or those of the Saman, with the Upanishads, he shall perfectly be cleansed from every possible sin.” 264. “As a clod of earth, cast into a great lake, sinks into it, thus is every sinful act submerged in the triple Veda.” 266. “The primary triliteral syllable, in which the three Vedas themselves are comprised, must be kept as secret as another triple Veda: he knows the Veda, who knows the mystic sense of that word.” Of which see under O’M. In the above texts from Menu, we see the propensity of the Hindoos to bring every thing into a termary ar- rangement. The three Vedas, and the trifile Veda, are ever recurring. In a hymn by sir W. Jones to the sun, or rather to its ruler, Surya, he says, « Nore’en the Vedas three to man explain Thy mystic orb triform, though Brahma tun’d the strains.” See Surya. See also TRIMURT1 for many instances of this disposition for triune classification. W The philosophical writers and their disciples, who profess to adhere closely to the doctrines of the Veda, are called Vedanta; which see. On the age of the Vedas, we have to observe, that sir W. Jones (As. Res, vol. i.) rejects their claim to the very high antiquity that some warin advocates were dis- posed to assign to them: he could never believe that they Were actually written before the flood; but ventures to assert, that they are far older than any other Sanscrit composition. And in vol. ii. he says, that he “firmly believes, from internal and external evidences, that three of the Vedas are more than three thousand years old.” And in vol. iii. that they appear to stand next in antiquity to the five books of Moses. In the preface to the Insti- tutes of Menu, the learned translator deems the three first Vedas to have been composed about three hundred years before the Institutes, and about six hundred before the Puranas, which he is fully persuaded were not the production of Vyasa. The Institutes he supposes to have received their present form about 880 years before Christ's birth. By one mode of reckoning, the highest age of the Yajurveda is carried to 1580 years before the birth of our Saviour, (which would make it older than the Pentateuch,) and the Institutes must then be assign- ed to about 1280 years before the same epoch; but sir W. Jones deemed the former date of 880 years B. C. for the Institutes the more probable. This would give the Yajurveda an age, in 1815, of about 2995 years. Mr. Colebrooke (As. Res. vol. vii.) infers, from seve- ral data there given, the probability that the Vedas were 1:ot arranged in their present form earlier than the 14th century before the Christian era; but cautiously marks the inference as vague and conjectural: about 3200 would hence be assumed as the maximum of elapsed years since the present arrangement of the Vedas. And de- ducing, by Sir William Jones’s method, the comparative age of the Puranas, they will be 2500 or 2600 years old at most; and the Institutes 2800. See PURANA and ME- Ił Ul. As to the relative age of the different Vedas, some dif- ferences of opinion will have been seen to exist. We shall only remark farther, that Mr. Wilkins, in the pre. face to the Gita, observes, that Krishna throughout the whole makes mention of three Vedas only; and those, the three first in their present order; the fourth, proving it- self a posterior work, mentions him. On this being no- ticed to some Pandits who assisted in the translation, they. expressed great astonishment at it, as it had escaped all the numerous commentators on the Gita. It may be re- marked, in passing, that Menu is often mentioned in the Veda, and the Veda by Menu; a proof of interpolation somewhere. w It is evident that the Vedas are anterior to the heresy or reformation of Budha; one of his leading innovations being the condemnation of the practice of killing and eat- ing animals, as enjoined in the Veda, and by Menu. See SECTs of Hindoos, and SRADHA. So holy are the Vedas esteemed by the Brahmans, that no individual of the fourth, or servile tribe of Sudra, is permitted to read them. In this interdiction are included several other divine works. Both the poems entitled “Mahabarat” and “Ramayana,” are likewise esteemed to contain passages and descriptions too awful for the eye of a Sudra: he may hear them read by a Brahman, who is likely to be careful as to what he communicates. Of this see under MAHABARAT, RAMAYANA, SEcts of Bindoos, SUDRA, and VAIDYA. The Yajurveda is declared by Menu, in a text quoted above, to “relate to mankind.” It is, as already noticed, ascribed to a celestial physician; it contains an entire -- *- Upanishad V E. D V E. D. Upanishad-on the internal parts of the human body; with an enumeration of nerves, veins, and arteries, a descrip- tion of the heart, spleen, and liver, and various disquisi- tions on the formation and growth of the foetus. From this, and from many texts of Menu, we may perceive that the ancient Hindoos were fond of reasoning, in their way, on the mysteries of animal generation; and on the comparative in- fluence of the sexes in the production of perfect off- spring. The physiological disputes on this latter point exacerbated, by mythological warmth, appear to have led to violent schisms in religion, and even to bloody wars. See SARAswa TI and Yoni. There can be little doubt but the learned world would thankfully receive a faithful uninterpolated trans- lation of such portions of the Vedas as tend to throw light on the state of knowledge among a people who so early engaged in such disquisitions as are contained in the Ya- jurveda, above indicated. These would, doubtless, be va- Huable, and are, indeed, necessary to complete the history of universal philosophy, and to supply the scholars of Europe with authentic materials for an account of the opinions anciently formed on this head by the philoso- phers of Asia. We will not say how far the Atharvana Veda may deserve the honour of translation. It contains a most complete system of incantations and magical de- vices; and would be so far curious, as to evince that, both in antiquity and ingenuity, the demagogues of Europe are vastly outstripped by their sapient brethren of the East. - We are not able to state the exact size or extent of the Hindoo scripture, or Veda. The following is as near an estimate as can be made. The first, or Rig-Veda, contains about 10,000 verses, or rather stanzas, of various measures. The Second, or Yajur-Veda, is divided into two; the white and the black: together, they include about 9000 verses. The third, or Sama-Veda, about 3000. The fourth, or Atharva-Veda, about 6000. Of glosses, or commentaries, it is not easy to form any but a vague estimate: but we are, we think, warranted in the opinion, that, supposing the whole could be collected and printed in the manner of our dictionary, they would form a work larger than this! In all Hindoo writings connected in the least with theology, and, indeed, in many others, extracts from, and allusions to, the Veda, frequently occur. Several articles in this work contain such, and are farther ex- planatory of the contents of those revered volumes. Those, therefore, desirous of more information hereon, are referred to the following; IDola TRY, KRISHNA, MAT- sy AvATARA, SARAswati, (in which is an extract of some length descriptive of the powers or energies of that god- dess,) SHASTAH, SUTTEE, SEcts of Hindoos, SITANTA, SRADHA, SUDRA, SURA, SURYA, TRIMURTI, UPANISHAD. Veda is the correct way of writing the title of the Hindoo scripture collectively. In different parts of In- dia it is variously pronounced; and it is variously spelt by European writers. Vedam and Bedam are occa- sionally seen: these are the modes of pronunciation in the Carnatic. Among the Mahrattas, Bede, or Bhade, is not uncommon: and its reputed compiler is called Beass, and Beass Muni. (See MUNI.) The Bengal al- phabet having no v, Bed or Beda is the usual pronuncia- tion in that quarter. * VEDAM, a name sometimes given to the Veda; which see. VEl)ANGA, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of the sun, more commonly called Surya; which see. The name of Vedanga seldom occurs, as of the sun; bºt it is applied to certain portions of books of divine know- ledge, as they call them, derived from the Vedas. Of this see under our article VEDA. - - VEDANTA, in Philosophy, a sect among the Hindoos, so named from their theory being professedly founded on the doctrines contained in the Veda, or scripture, in a degree exceeding that of any other of the philosophi- cal schools or systems. (See VEDA.) The fundamen- tal tenet of this school consists, not in denying the exis- tence of matter, but in correcting the pºpular notion of it; and in contending that it has no existence indepen- dent of mental perception; that existence and percep- tibility are convertible terms; that external appearances and sensations are illusory, and would vanish into nothing, if the divine energy, which alone sustains them, were suspended but for a moment. This opinion seems to have been adopted by Epicharmus and Plato, and was maintained in the last century by a writer of our own nation. The founder of this school is named Vyasa (which see), and his theory is comprised in a little trea- tise in four chapters. An attempt has been made to elu- cidate the obscurity of this writer by the judicious and learned Sankara, in his commentary on the Vedanta. (See some account of him under the article SANKARA- cHARYA.) His esteemed work is entitled “Bashca.” Sir W. Jones, after reading this commentary with great attention, affirms that it is not possible to speak in too high terms of so excellent a work; and that until an accurate trars.ation of it shall appear in some European language, the general history of philosophy must remain incom- plcie. See MIMANSA. - The elegant author whom we have already named, touching on the Indian metaphysics of natural bodies, according to the most celebrated of the Asiatic schools, from which the Pythagoreans are supposed to have bor- rowed many of their opinions, remarks, that as the old sages of Europe had, as we learn from Cicero, an idea of centripetal force, and a principle of universal gravitation, which indeed they never attempted to demonstrate; so he would venture to affirm, without meaning to pluck a leaf from the never-ſading laurels of our intmortal New- ton, that the whole of his theology, and part of his philo- sophy, may be found in the Vedas, and even in the works of the Sufis. (See SUF1.) That most subtile shirit, which he suspected to pervade natural bodies, and lying conceal- ed in them, to cause attraction and repulsion; the emis- sion, reflection, and refraction of light; electricity; cale- faction; sensation and muscular motion, is described by the Hindoos as a fifth element, and endued with those very powers. The Vedas abound with allusions to a force universally attractive, which they chiefly ascribe to the sun, thence called “Aditya,” or the Attractor. Sir W. Jones, in his instructive essay on the philoso- phy of the Asiatics, proceeds to observe, that from all the properties of men and of nature from all the various, branches of science, from all the deductions of human reason, the general corollary admitted by Hindoos, Arabs, and Tartars, by Persians and by Chinese, is the supremacy of an all-creating and all-preserving spirit, infinitely wise, good, and powerful, but infinitely remov- ed from the comprehension of his most exalted creatures. Nor are there in any language (the ancient Hebrew al- ways excepted) more pious and sublime addresses to the Being of beings, more splendid enumerations of his at- tributes, or more beautiful descriptions of his visible works, than in Arabic, Persian, and Sanscrit, especially in * the V E D A N T A. the four Vedas, and in many parts of the Puranas. But supplication and praise would not satisfy the boundless imagination of the Vedanti and Sufi theologists; who, blending uncertain metaphysics with undoubted princi- ples of religion, have presumed to reason confidently on the very nature and essence of the Divine Spirit, and as- serted in a very remote age, what multitudes of Hindoos and Mussulmans assert at this hour, that all spirit is ho- mogeneous; that the spirit of God is in kind the same with that of man, though differing from it infinitely in degree; and that, as material substance is mere illusion, there exists in this universe only one generic spiritual substance, the sole primary cause, efficient, substantial, and formal, of all secondary causes, and of all appear- ances whatever; but endued, in its highest degree, with a sublime providential wisdom, and proceeding by ways incomprehensible to the spirits which emanate from it. This doctrine, as it is grounded on the belief of an im- material Creator supremely wise, and a consant preser- versupremely benevolent, differs widely from the panthe- ism of Spinoza and Toland. Our limits will not allow our enlarging on the principles of the Vedanta philo- sophy. We have already noticed the admirable commentary by Sankaracharya on the Vedanta doctrines of Vyasa. In Bengal this work is highly esteemed; but on the western side of India, it is rivalled, in the estimation of . the learned, by a more concise gloss, entitled Panchada- shi, thought to be not inferior in clearness and accuracy to the Bashea of Sankara. From a statement of the fundamental doctrine maintain- ed by the disciples of Vedanta school, it has been infer- red that their philosophy is founded on the contemplation of one infinite Being, existing under two states or modi- fications. The first is that of a pure, simple, abstract Essence, immovable and quiescent; the second is that of a Being displaying motion or active qualities. Under the first modification he is called Brimh, or the Great Being, and Kutasth, or He who sitteth on high; under the second, he is named Eesh, the Lord, or Jiv, the Soul: or we may say, that Brimh is Being in its state of simple essence; Eesh is Being exerting energy, and causing the pheno- 1 mena of the material universe; Kutasth is Being existing in sensitive creatures in its pure simple state; and Jiv is Being in a sentient active state. It is rare to find in Vedanta works any attempt to esta- blish its doctines by any process of reasoning. The au- titors announce the principles of their sect in a dogmati- cal authoritative style, as indubitable truths; or establish their assertions, by the authority of the sacred text alone, and attribute disbelief to passion and ignorance. Some- times, indeed, we do perceive an appearance of reasoning and argument, in support of the denial of a material world. It will be perceived by those who investigate the Ve- danta philosophy, that it does not correspond closely either with the Berkeleian, or with any other system known in the western world. (See BERKELEY.) It does not teach that the Supreme Being is the soul of the uni- verse, as was taught by Virgil (see MAYA); that animate beings are separate detached portions of his essence, or that the visible extended material frame of things is God; but it affirms that the world is one living, unextended, indivisible Being, who puts forth his energy, and excites in himself the phenomena of sensible thing, as well as of sensation, passion, &c. In explaining this system, however, the writers frequently make use of such figures as may mislead one who reads only detached passages of Vedanta works, without examining closely the nature of their doctrines. Hence the Vedantas have been sup- posed to teach the doctrine of emanations; and it must be admitted that passages occur, even in the Vedas, appa- rently countenancing this supposition. (See MURTY.) In the fourth or Atharva Veda it is said, that “ as the sparks proceed from fire, so various kinds of animate and inanimate beings proceed from the incorruptible Being.” But the best commentators say, that these ex- pressions do not mean that these are separate individual beings, but only whatever is beheld or perceived is the Divine Essence. The Vedanta opinions cannot be re- presented by any figure: they must be deduced from plain and simple declarations. - The Vedanta philosophy will be found to correspond with the Berkeleian in this important particular: both deny a material world, referring sensible things to the energy of a living being. But the analogy appears to extend no farther. In another important particular they are strongly opposed: in maintaining and denying the existence of separate beings, upon whom this energy operates, exciting in their minds the ideas of external things. See more on this subject under our articles MYSTICAL Poetry, and SUF1. Having offered the sketch of this Vedanta theory, the practical maxims of this very extended sect will be easily understood. They teach that perfection consists in rest; that motion or action is the origin of the moral distinc- tions of good and evil, both of which must be renounced, as they involve and imply each other. To the attain- ment of this sublime state, it is required that the active faculties be annihilated, and the passions and affections subdued; that the individual be totally indifferent to ex- ternal things, animate and inanimate, to parents, wives, children, relations, goods, or to whatever causes pleasure, pain, &c. This fuínishes a reason why, in some Ve- danta works, language very disrespectful is held towards such relatives and friends; so different to the general rule and usage of the Hindoos. When by the practice of ri- gid austerity, retirement from the world, and contem- plation, this quiescent state is attained, the soul perceives that it is Being, and that Being is all things; and thus the soul becomes the one Infinite Essence. Some branches of this rigid austerity and contemplation are called TA- PAs and JAP. (See under those words for some account of these practices; and under SECTs of Hindoos, and Yo GI, of those who practise them.) Action, say the Vedantis, or religious performances, do not conduct the soul to the state of the Eternal but to Swerga (which see), where it continues, until the holiness it hath accu- mulated be nearly expended by the enjoyment of hap- piness; when it returns to earth, and takes a body cor- responding to its remnant of virtue. Agreeably to this notion, action is condemned, as it tends to retain the soul in the prison of passion and affection. Still, while a per- son continues to perform the common acts of life, it is incumbent on him to attend to religious duties and rites. It has been found expedient farther to modify the doc- trine, in such a manner as to reconcile it with the ordi- nary avocations of life, on which depend the existence of Society. Accordingly it is held, that the renunciation of the world does not require that a person cease or depart from those avocations; but only that he preserve his mind in a state of perfect indifference and tranquillity. “If 1t V E. E. V E E it be alleged that the Puranas declare, that Bharata and others did not perform the acts of life; we would ask,” says the Panchdashi, “why do you not listen to the Ve: das, which declare that wise men eat, act, and procreate?” It will be necessary to keep in mind that the Vedanta is a philosophical, not a religious system; and that a profession of its tenets is compatible with all the reli- gious sects who admit the authority of the Veda. This may be said likewise of the Sankya, Nyayai, and other philosophical systems. The religious distinctions of the Hindoos result from the peculiar or exclusive venera- tion paid to a particular deity; and the adoption, as a spi- ritual guide, of those books which celebrate that deity as the great Being. On this point the reader may consult our Siva, and others thence referred to, connected here with. VEDENSKAIA, in Geography, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, on the Irkut; 34 miles W. of Irkutsk. VED ENSKOI, a town of Russia, in the government of Vologda, on the Usia; 66 miles E.S.E. of Vielsk- Also, a town of Russia, in the government of Archangel, on the Vokscha; 200 miles E.S.E. of Archangel. N. lat. 58° 45'. E. long. 46° 44'.-Also, a town of Russia, in the government of Tobolsk; 36 miles S.E. of Tomsk. VEDETTE, in the AMilitary Art, a sentinel on horse- back, detached from the main body of the army, to dis- cover and give notice of the enemy’s designs. VEDIANTII, according to the orthography of Pliny, written Wesdiatii by Ptolomy, in Ancient Geography, the name of a people, whose capital was Caemekion (Pliny), or Cemenelium (Ptolemy), situated in the province of the Maritime Alps, according to the Notitia of the pro- vinces of Gaul. - VEDRA, a river of Britain, the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy on the south-east side, bounded by the German ocean. Horsley differs in opinion concern- ing this river from Camden and Baxter: he supposes it to be the river Tyne, and they conjecture it to be the Were. - VEDRA, Cafe, in Geografthy, a cape of Spain, on the coast of Galicia. N. lat. 42° 19'. W. long. 8° 5'1'. VEDRO, or WEDDRA, in Commerce, a liquid measure in Russia. The cask, sarokowoi, or pipe of wine, con- tains 40 vedros; the vedro, 8 osmuchki or krushkas; and the krushka, l l tscharkays or cups. The vedro in Pe- tersburg contains 621 French, or 7.52 English cubic in- ches; hence 1 vedro = 3% English wine gallons, and 3 krushkas = 1 English ale gallon. Kelly’s Un. Camb. VEENE, in Geography. See VEH.NE. VEER, in Sea Language, is variously used. Veering out the roſe, denotes the letting it go by hand, or letting it run out of itself: thus, they say, Veer more cable; that is, let more run out. VEER is also used in reference to the wind: for when it changes often, and suddenly, they say, the wind veers. —Or, the wind is said to veer and haul, when it alters its direction, and becomes more or less fair: thus it is said, to veer aft, and to haul forward. • VEER and haul, To, is to pull a rope tight, by draw- ing it in and slackening it alternately, till the body to which it is applied acquires an additional motion, like the increased vibration of a pendulum, so that the rope is straightened to a greater tension with more facility and dispatch. This method is particularly used in hauling the bow-lines. Falconer. VIZERAPATCH, in Geography, a town of Hindoos- tan; 18 miles W.N.W. of Dindigul. VEERE, or VERE, or Tervere, a sea-port town of Zealand, situated on the northern coast of the isle of Walcheren, communicating with Middleburg by means of a canal. The name given it signifies, in the language of the country, “Passage,” and was probably acquired by its being the place from whence they ordinarily pass over to North Beveland. Its ancient name was Kamp Vere. The place is regularly fortified towards the land with strong bastions, and a broad ditch; and towards the sea is a strong wall. The harbour is very good, but lies much exposed to inundations. The arsenal is one of the best in Zealand, and furnished with all manner of articles KRISHNA, SARASwAT1, SECTs of Hindoos, SANKYA, . stores for a considerable fleet. This is the third walled town in the island of Walcheren, and has the sixth place in the assembly of the states of Zealand. It has three gates towards the land, and one towards the sea, where vessels come from Dort, Ziriczee, and other places. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied in the herring- fishery, which is their harvest. There is little to be ob- served in the town but the stadthouse, began in 1704, and the great church, the steeple of which is low and unfinished; 4 miles N. of Middleburg. N. lat. 51° 37'. E. long. 3° 35'. VEERE Channel, a channel between the Dutch islands of Walcheren and Schouwen. - VEERING, in Sea Language, denotes the operation by which a ship, in changing her course from one board to the other, turns her stern to windward. Hence it is used in opposition to tacking (which see), wherein the head is turned to the wind, and the stern to leeward. A ship, having made the necessary dispositions to veer, bears away gradually before the wind, till it blows ob- liquely upon the opposite side, which was before to lee- ward; and as the stern necessarily yields to this impres- sion of the wind, assisted by the force of the helm, and the action of the waves upon the same quarter, the side which was before to the leeward soon becomes to wind- ward. Since, by this movement, a ship loses ground considerably more than by tacking, it is rarely practised except in cases of necessity or delay; as, when the vio- lence of the wind and sea renders tacking impracticable; or when her course is slackened to wait for a pilot, or some other ship in company, &c. - When it becomes necessary to veer the ship, the sails towards the stern are either furled or brailed up, and made to shiver in the wind; whilst those near the head are spread abroad, so as to collect the whole current of air which their surfaces can contain. Hence, while the whole force of the wind is exerted in the fore-part of the ship to turn her about, its effect is considerably di- minished, or altogether destroyed, on the surfaces of the after-sails. The fore-part, accordingly, yields to the . above impulse, and is put in motion; and this move- ment, conspiring with that of the wind, pushes the ship about as much as is necessary to produce the effect re- quired. When she is turned so that the wind will act upon that quarter, which was formerly to leeward, her circular motion will be accelerated by extending some of the sails near the stern, as the mizzen, and by placing those at the prow more obliquely, which will wheel the vessel round with her bow to the windward; in the same situation, with regard to the wind, as when close-hauled, or tacking. When the tempest is so violent as to pre- vent the use of sails, the effort of the wind operates al- most V E. E. V E G Fuost equally on the opposite ends of the ship, so that the masts and yards situated at the head and stern coun- terbalance each other. The effect of the helm is also considerably diminished, because the head-way, which gives vigour to its operations, is at this time feeble and ineffectual. Hence it is necessary to destroy this equili- brium which subsists between the masts and yards afore and abaft, and to throw the balance forward, in order for veering. This is accordingly performed by bracing the foremost yards across the direction of the wind, and arranging those on the main-mastand mizzen-mast direct- ly in the line of the wind. If this expedient proves un- successful, and it is absolutely necessary to veer, in or- der to save the ship from destruction, by oversetting or running ashore, the mizzen-mast must be instantly cut away, and even the main-mast, if she yet remains inca- pable of answering the helm by bearing away before the wind. Falconer. VEERING, in Husbandry, a term borrowed of the sail- ors, and used for the turning of two furrows toward each other, as they must do to begin a ridge; they therefore call the top of a ridge a veering; and they call the two furrows that are turned from each other at the bottom between two ridges, a henting, that is, an ending, be- cause it makes an end of plowing ridges. VEERSE, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the county of Verden; 10 miles E.N.E. of Rotenburg. VEGA, Lopez Dr. LA, or LoPE-FELIX DE VEGA- CARPlo, in Biography, a celebrated and voluminous Spanish poet, was born of a noble family at Madrid, in the year 1562. Having been educated in the universi- ty of Alcala, he occupied several honourable posts, and served on board the grand armada destined against Eng- land. After the death of his second wife, he took holy orders at Toledo, and obtained admission into the con- gregation of priests at Madrid; acting as president, and professing himself as one of the third order of Fran- ciscans. By favour of pope Urban VIII. he was hon- oured with the insignia of the knights of Malta, and with the title of doctor of theology. He died in 1635, at the age of 73. He was eminently distinguished as a poet, and regarded as the father of the Spanish drama, excelling, as some have asserted, all poets, ancient and modern, in this kind of composition. His “ Theatre” occupies twenty-five volumes, each of which contains twelve plays of various descriptions. One of his biogra- phers says of him, that “the inundation of Vega's fancy seems to have been no more than a deluge of very ordinary matter, in which there is little to be prais- ed but an easy eloquence of language, and a faculty of dramatising, after a manner, stories of every kind. Three hundred pieces could not possibly have been composed otherwise. Nor was this the principal portion of his literary labour; for he has himself affirmed, that upon a calculation it would appear, that he wrote five leaves of MS., for every day of his life.” The high degree of admiration he inspired in his own country appeared from the numerous eulogies of which he was the sub- ject after his death. Moreri. Gen. Biog. VEGA, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, near the Nº. Coast of Asturias; 34 miles N.W. of Oviedo. VEGA, La, a town of the island of Hispaniola; 24 miles S.E. of St. Jago de los Cavelleros.-Also, a town of the Island of Hispaniola; 62 miles N. of St. Domin- go-Also, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 40 Vol. XXXVIII. miles W.N.W. of Astorga.—Also, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; i8 miles N.N.E. of Leon. VEGAMAN, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 24 miles N.N.E of Leon. VEGENOE, a small island in the North sea, near the coast of Norway. N. lat. 65° 45'. VEGESELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Af. rica, in Numidia, upon the route from Theveste to Sitifis, between Mascula and Timphadis, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.—Also, a town of Africa, in the Bysacene territory, on the route from Thenae to Theveste, between Sufetula and Menegeses. Itin. An- ton. VEGETABLES, in Agriculture and Gardening, are all such plants as are found capable of affording useful products as food for man, and different sorts of live- stock. They are constituted and composed of soft and fleshy and solid parts, the latter of which are formed and arranged in such a manner as to afford proper firm- ness and support in their different growths; and from which proceed those which are often considered as, in Some measure, distinct and different in their nature and uses, as the roots, the stems, the leaves, the flowers, the fruits, the seeds, and some others. The first of these, which differ greatly in different sorts of vegetables, are the parts which connect them with the earth or soil, and the main source of their nourishment and support. They are, in all cases, more or less fibrous in some of their parts; and the more perfectly this takes place, the more capable they are of drawing nourishment from the ground on which they grow. It is, consequently, the fibrous radicles and the leaves that constitute the media through which the growth and increase of vegetables are effected. . The fixing of these parts in the earth, too, by the ramifica- tions which they send forth, prevents the vegetables from being overturned by winds and other causes. The form or shape and uses of these parts in different kinds of vegetables differ very materially, having in some cases a branching lateral growth, in others a knobby, and sometimes that which is directly downward, in some instances is fleshy and eatable, and in others woody, or sticky, and of no value. - - They are very similar in the nature of the different divisions of their parts to the stem or trunk and branches; and may, indeed, be said to be a sort of continuation of the former, terminating in minute ramifications and fila- ments, and not in leaves; as by burying the branches of certain trees, as the willow, in the earth or soil, as prac- tised by Woodward, and since repeated by many others, and elevating the roots in the atmosphere, there is, as it were, an inversion of the functions of them, the roots producing and becoming buds and leaves, and the branches shooting out into radical fibres and tubes, and forming roots. See Root. The second of these parts are those which stand next in importance in vegetables, when considered merely as such, and which include the branches as well as all the more solid parts of them, consisting principally of different coats, as bark, flesh or wood, according to the nature of the vegetable, and the pith, or the middle part. These coats or coverings are differently formed, modified, and constituted, so as to be of different uses in their econo- my. The part, or layer, which is placed next to the wood, is composed, in vegetables of the tree kind, of a soft white substance, not easily discernible in some sorts cº g- 3 A - O ş VEGETABLES. of trees, but harder and more apparent in others. It is, as it were, an imperfect wood, or in the state between bark and wood. The wood is the compact, fibrous, hard part or substance which is disposed in the middle of trees, which in annual and biennial vegetables is called the flesh, as has been seen already. Between the above coat and the wood, a new ring of a softer nature is form- ed every year, which gradually loses its softness as the cold season advances, and which towards the middle of winter is converted into a solid ring of wuod. These annual rings, which are visible in most trees when cut through transversely, serve as marks by which to de- termine their ages in some cases. They seem to de- crease in breadth as the trees advance in age; and as they are found to be very unequal throughout in their dimensions, their breadth probably varies as the season may be favourable or otherwise. The wood, however, does not only differ from the coats or bark in the de- gree of hardness, but likewise in its structure, which is essentially different; and the seeming conversion of bark into wood, is imagined by some to be entirely a de- ception. - Thus, if the branch, stem, or the root of a tree be cut in a transverse manner, it usually displays three distinct bodies or parts: the bark, the woed, and the pith; each of which is again susceptible of a new division. The bark, where perfectly formed, has a thin covering, that may easily be separated; is in laminae or scales, which, in old trees, are mostly in a loose and decaying state. It is not vascular, but merely defends the interior parts from injuries. It is supposed to be a part of little importance in forest-trees, and the larger shrubs, the bodies of which are firm and of strong texture; but in the reeds, the grasses, and the plants which have hollow stalks, it is of great use, is of very great strength, and appears con- stituted of a sort of glassy net-work, which is chiefly sili- ceous earth, as has been lately ascertained. This is the case in wheat, in the oat, and in different other plants; in some of which it exists in large quantities, and is general in this part of those of the hollow kind. It is serviceable as a support as well as protection from insects in such cases. The most interior part of the bark is composed of layers, the numbers of which vary with the age of the tree; so that on cutting this part of a tree of several years standing, the productions of different periods may be distinctly seen, though the layer of every particular year can rarely be exactly defined or ascertained. The functions of the different parts of the bark are of great importance to vegetables. In regard to the wood in trees, it is composed of an external or living part, called sap-wood, and of an inter- nal or dead part, termed heart-wood; the former of which is white, and full of moisture, and in young trees and annual shoots reaches even to the pith. It is the great vascular system of the vegetable through which the sap-juice rises, the vessels in it extending from the leaves to the most minute filaments in the roots. Its structure has different important uses in producing new arrangements, and forming new wood. In respect to the arrangement of the fibres of the wood, there are two distinct appearances in them: as the series of white shining laminae, which shoot from the centre towards the circumference, and which constitute what is termed the silver grain of the wood; and the numerous series of concentric layers, which are com- monly denominated the shurious grain, the number of which denotes the age of the tree, as already suggested. The former has many important functions, and is the most distinct in forest-trees; though annual shrubs have even a system of fibres similar to it. See TIMBER, Sap and ALBURNUM. - Vº } 3. The stem Parts of some vegetables are quite hollow; partly, it is supposed, from such vegetables requiring a more than ordinary supply of air in their Support, as they are generally those which are of a quick growth. The pith is the soft, white, innermost substance of vegetables of the tree and other kinds, that is situated in the centres of the stems. - - In the very infancy of the vegetable it occupies but a small space, but gradually dilates; and in shoots of the annual kind, and in young trees, offers a considerable diameter. Being acted on by the heart-wood, as press- ed by the new layers of the sap-wood, in the more ad- vanced age of the tree, it begins to diminish, and in very old forest-trees wholly disappears. As it has lately been wholly removed in different young trees, which continu- ed to live and increase; it is evidently only an organ of secondary importance. In early shoots, in vigorous growth, it is filled with moisture, and is a reservoir of fluid nourishment, perhaps, at the time when it is most wanted. As the heart-wood forms, it is more and more separated from the living part, the sap-wood; its func- tions become extinct, it diminishes, dies, and ultimately disappears. See STALK and TRUNk. The third, or the leaves, are parts which are essen- tial to the existence of vegetables; as when, either of the plant or tree kind, wholly divested, or only stript of a considerable part of them, they do not shoot in a vigo- rous manner. They are produced from the coats of the stalks or stems, and are of the soft fleshy thick kind, or the more thin, barky, or woody sort. They are ca- pable of affording nourishment, and of being of use to vegetables, by the nutrient fluid matters which they hold in reserve in their soft substances, and by the dew, air, and moisture, which they take in and throw off. In all cases the leaves are similar in their interior or- ganization, and perform the same functions as the above parts, only their structure is finer and more minute. The Sap-wood spreads and extends itself from the font- stalks into the very extremities of the leaves; it pre- serves a vascular system, and its living powers; some parts of the former of which may be distinctly seen in the leaf. A material use of the leaves is, the exposure of the sap to the influence of the air, heat, and light: for which their surface is extensive, the tubes and cells very delicate, and their texture porous and transparent. In the leaves, much of the water of the sap is evaporat- ed; it is combined with new principles, and fitted for its organizing functions, and probably passes, in its prepar- ed state, from the extreme tubes of the sap-wood into the ramifications of the cortical tubes, and then descends through the bark. On the upper surface of leaves, which is exposed to the sun, the external covering is thick but transparent, and is said to be composed of matter possessed of little organization, which is either principally earthy, or consists of some substance of the homogeneous chemical kind. That in the grasses it is partly siliceous, in the laurel resinous, and in the thorn and maple principally constituted by a substance analo- gous to Wax. By these arrangements, any evaporation, except from the appropriate tubes, is, it is thought, pre- vented. On the lower surface of them, the external coat is a thin transparent membrane full of cavities; and it is probably altogether by this surface, it is said, that moisture and the principles of the atmosphere ne: cessary to vetegation are absorbed or taken up. The * VEGETABLES. The leaves in the greater number of plants annually -- 4 - decay, and are reproduced; their decay takes place either at the close of the summer, as in very hot climates, when they are no longer supplied with sap, on account of the dryness of the soil, and the evaporating powers of heat; or in the autumn, as in the northern climates at the Com- mencement of the frosts. In common cases, the leaves preserve their functions no longer than there is a circu- lation of fluids through them. . The colour assumed in the decay of the leaf, seems, it is said, to depend upon the nature of the chemical change, and that as acids are generally developed, it is usually either reddish-brown or yellow; yet there are great varieties. Thus, in the oak it is a bright-brown; in the beech, orange; in the elm, yellow; in the vine, red; in the sycamore, dark- brown; in the cornel-tree, purple; and in the woodbine, blue. The cause of the preservation of the leaves of evergreens during the winter is not well known. It is found that the force of the sap is much less in vegeta- bles of this sort, and there is probably a certain degree of circulation throughout the winter season; their juices are less watery than those of other plants, and probably less liable to be congealed by cold, and they are de- fended by stronger coatings from the action of the ele- ments. The production of the other parts of the plant may be noticed to take place at the time the leaves are most vigorously performing their functions. If the leaves of a tree be stripped off from it in the spring, it uniformly dies; and when many of those of forest-trees are injured by blasts, the trees are said always to become stag-head- ed and unhealthy in their growth. The leaves, it is said, are necessary for the existence of the individual tree; the flowers, noticed below, for the continuance of the species. In the flowers there are several different organs or parts, the forms, vascular nature, texture, and organiza- tion of which serve different important uses and func- tions. That which contains the rudiments of the seed has it never formed as reproductive, without the aid of the influence of the pollen, or fecundating dust provided for the purpose. This mysterious impregnation is, of course, necessary to the continued succession of the different vegetable tribes. * It has been noticed, that all the parts of a vegetable seem to contribute to the formation of the flowers and fruits of plants; as, although the latter do not swell and ripen until after the former have fallen, their rudiments or first beginnings are in the flowers, of which they pro- perly make a part. These last are consequently tem- porary parts of vegetables, allotted to the purposes of generation, terminating, as it were, the old vegetables, and beginning the new ones. Fruits consist of nearly the same parts as the stems of vegetables, as a sort of skin or fine coat, which is a production or continuation of that of the bark of an outer soft pulpy substance, and is the same as that continued from the bark, only that its vesicles or cells are larger, and it is more suc- culent and juicy. There is commonly an inner pulp, which is next to the core; and the core itself is nothing more than a hard woody covering, that includes the seed. It is to be noticed, however, that the formation of the fruit is very various: in some cases, the seeds are dis- persed through the pulpy substance; in some, instead of a core, a strong woody material is met with, inclosing the seed or kernel, which, from its great hardness, is termed a stone; in some, there is a number of seeds; and in others, only a single seed, inclosed in a large mass of pulpy matter. See FRUIT. The seeds are the deciduous parts of vegetables, each seed including the rudiment of a new plant, imbued with the vital principle, which it is capable of retaining for a vast length of time. A seed consists of different parts, as that which is necessary to the production of the new plant or vegetable within the seed, termed the corcule; which is divided and distinguished into the scaly ascend- ing part, named the plumule, and the plain descending part, called the rostel; with different others of less im. portance, some of which are perishable. It has been commonly supposed, and not without probability, that the perfect plant, or the organization necessary to it, exists in the seed, surrounded by a quantity of farinace- ous matter, which serves to absorb moisture, and to fur- nish nourishment to the corcule, until its parts are suffi. ciently unfolded to draw support from the soil in which it is placed. This is finely illustrated in the dwarf kidney bean, which, when steeped some time in water, and it begins to swell, may be easily separated into its two lobes, between which is seen the nascent plant or vegetable. The stem, and its connection with the lobes, too, are clearly seen; and numberless vessels ramify through the lobes, which directly communicate with the embryo plant or vegetable. And on the external surface of the seed are absorbent vessels, that take up moisture, by which a sort of fermentation is produced, and a liquid material formed, elaborated and prepared by a particu- lar process, which is proper for the nourishment and support of the plant or vegetable, in its first tender growth. In this early growth, the lobes of the seed, which are provided with a mealy material, are likewise found necessary. And the first leaves, or those which are called seminal, are thought to appear not less ne- cessary than the lobes to the perfection of the plant or vegetable; as, if they happen to be broken off or destroy- ed, the plant or vegetable experiences a proportional loss of strength and vigour in its growth. There is, therefore, to be distinguished in every seed an organ of nourishment, a nascent plant, and a nascent root. The first of these, in wheat and many grasses, is a single part; in other instances, it consists of more than two parts; but in the greater number, it is simply divided into two. The seed, which is the last production of vigorous vegetation, is wonderfully diversified in form. That be- ing of the highest importance to the resources of nature, it is defended above all other parts of the plant, it is said, by soft pulpy substances, in the esculent fruits; by thick membranes, in the leguminous vegetables; and by hard shells, or thick external coverings, in the palms and grasses. Though the matter of the seed, in its com- mon state, may appear wholly inert and inactive; when acted upon by moisture, heat, and air, it soon distinctly developes itself, and becomes a complete plant in root and stem. The above observations have been chiefly taken from the works of Hooper and Davy, to which the reader may be referred. See SEED. - As vegetables are supplied with proper vessels, those of the absorbent kind on the surfaces of them take up the nutritious fluid or material, and convey it to the dif- ferent parts. The sul face of a plant has two sets of ab- sorbents, as already seen, which constitute the absorbent organ of vegetables; as the mouth of the vessels of the radicles of the roots, and those on the surfaces of the leaves. The root, as long as it remains soft and tender, imbibes and takes up the nutritious juices from the earth, by means of the absorbent mouths of its vessels; 3 A 2 * - but VEGETABLES. ** but as soon as it becomes ligneous, it emits radicles on c very side, which continue the absorption, and convey the matters first to the root, and then to the whole plant or vegetable. Thus, if a plant or tree be transplanted, it succeeds with greater certainty, the more absorbent radicles are preserved with the root. The leaves absorb matters from the surrounding atmosphere, in the same manner as the radicles do from the earth, and convey them to the other parts of the plant or vegetable. It is supposed that, by means of the absorbents, water is dis- tributed to every part of the plant or vegetable, and constitutes its principal aliment; as, deprived of this uni- versal fluid, it droops and dies; but, by its influence, is not only nourished, and the vascular parts of the whole fabric dilated, but it contributes greatly to excite the languishing fibres, and in this way to increase the vital power of the vessels. By means of this system of ves- sels, too, the atmospherical air, which is essential to the growth of vegetables, is absorbed or taken up; as plants in vacuo cannot be evolved from the seed, nor can they afterwards vegetate. This is most probably the reason why seeds, buried very deep in the earth, do not vege- tate, but die. See SAP aud VEGETATION. There are many matters or principles in different kinds of vegetables, which render them particularly use- ful in the way of food, or beneficial in the products which they afford. . The starchy and saccharine principles are particularly important, as possessing the qualities of fat- tening animals in a high degree. See STARch, SAC- CHARINE Matter, and VEGETo-ANIMAL Matter. The bitter principle prevails very extensively in vege- tables, and the natural sort of it is of great importance and utility in the art of brewing, as checking fermenta- tion, and preserving fermented liquors, &c. And there are many other principles in them, which contribute to different useful purposes in several ways. . See OIL, Vol.ATILE Oil, WAx, &c. The particular nature and properties of the several different principles or parts of vegetables may be seen explained in Davy’s Elements of Agricultural Chemistry. The quantities or proportions of nutritive or soluble matters, which are contained in different vegetables, or substances of that kind, are very different, as shown in the table given below from the above work, which com- prehends the quantities of this sort of matters which are afforded by a thousand parts of different vegetable sub- stances, when submitted to experiment, green, and in their natural states. - . TABLE. - Whole Quantity Mucilage Saccharine Gluten Extractor Matter Vegetables or Vegetable Substances. of nutritive or OT Matter or Or rendered insoluble soluble Matter. Starch. Sugar. Albumen. during Evaporation, Middlesex wheat, average crop - 955 765 O 190 O Spring wheat - - - - 940 7OO O 240 O Mildewed wheat of 1806 ſº tº- 22O 178 O 32 O Blighted wheat of 1804 sº m 650 - 52O O 130 -O Thick-skinned Sicilian wheat of 1810 955 725 O 23O O Thin-skinned Sicilian wheat of 18 lo 961 722 O 239 O Wheat from Poland q- º º 95O - 750 O 200 O North American wheat - tºº tº- 955 73O O 225 O Norfolk barley sº - - º 920 790 7O 60 O Oats from Scotland - sm sº -7 7.43 64 1 15 87 O Rye from Yorkshire - º - 79.2 645 38 1 O9 O Common bean º -> º º 57O 426 O ... 103 4 l Dry peas º tº º wº tºº tº 574 50 l 22 35 | 6 Potatoes t- gº - sº • 26O to 200 || 200 to 155 2O to 1 5 40 to 30 O Linseed-cake º - * * - 1 5 1 123 l 1 17 O Red beet -> º - º - 148 14 | 2 | 14 O White beet - º cº- - - 1 36 13 1 19 4. O Parsnip cº- gº tº- tºº º 99 9 9 O O O Carrots T = e- ſº e - 98 3 95 O O Common turnips - - tº - 42 7 34 I O Swedish turnips - - • = 64 9 5 1 2 2 Cabbage - tº- - tº º 73 41 24 8 O Broad and long-rooted clover º- 39 31.30 3.4 2.3 3.2 White clover tº - tºº º- 32 29 l 3 5 Sainfoin º gº -> º tº- 39 28 2 3 6 Lucern '- º - º - 23 18 l O 4 Meadow fox-tail grass - sº tº 33 24 3 O : 6 Perennial rye-grass - tº º º 39- 26 4 O 5 Fertile meadow-grass - tº * , 78 65 6 O 7 Rough meadow-grass - * - 39 29 5 O 6 Crested dog's-tail grass tº - 35 28 3 O 4. Spiked fescue grass - * > -> 19 15 2 o 2 Sweet-scented soft grass º tº 82 72 4. O 6 Sweet-scented vernal grass - - 50 43 4. O 3 Fiorin - º tº tº tº - 54 46 5 l 2 Fiorin cut in winter - sº - 76 64 8 l 3 These * VEGETABLES. These substances comprise some of the most important articles of food in different intentions, and it is sug- gested as probable, that the excellence of them in this view will be found, in a great measure, to be in pro- portion to the quantities of this sort of matters they yield or afford; though they cannot be regarded as ab- solutely denoting their value in this way. Some of the matters have the characters of animal substances, as the albuminous and glutinous; sugar is more nourishing, and extractive matter less so, than any other principles composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Certain combinations of these substances, too, may be more nu- tritive than others. It is stated likewise, on the author- ity of sir Joseph Banks, that the miners in Derbyshire, during winter, prefer oat-cakes to wheaten bread, as they find that this kind of nourishment enables them to support and keep up their strength, and perform their labour better at that season. But that in summer, they say that oat-cake heats them, and they then consume the finest wheaten bread they can procure. It is supposed, that even the skin of the kernel of oats has probably a nourishing power, and is rendered partly soluble in the stomach with the starch and gluton. It is noticed, that in most countries of Europe, except Britain, and in Arabia, horses are fed with barley mixed with chopped straw; and that the straw in this state seems to act the same part as the husk of the oat. Hard thin-skinned wheats are preferred in some parts to those of the soft thick- skinned kinds, as containing a larger quantity of gluten and nutritive matter. See W H FAT. In regard to vegetables of the grass kind, the only substances which have been detected in the soluble mat- ters procured from them, are mucilage, sugar, bitter extract, a substance analogous to albumen, and different saline matters; with feeble indications of the tanning principle in some products from after-math crops. The albumen, sugar, and mucilage, probably, it is thought, when cattle feed on grass or hay, are, for the most part, retained in the body of the animal; and the bitter principle, extract, saline matter, and tannin, when any exists, are probably in common voided in the dung, with the woody fibre. From the great similarity of the extractive matter procured from the fresh dung of cows, to that existing in the soluble products from grasses, and some other facts of the same nature, it appears proba- ble, it is said, that the bitter extract, though soluble in a large quantity of water, is very little nutritive; but prob- ably serves the purpose of preventing, to a certain extent, the fermentation of the other vegetable matters, or in modifying or assisting the function of digestion, and may thus be of considerable use in forming a constituent part of the food of cattle. A small quantity of bitter extract and saline matter is probably all that is needed, and be- yond this quantity, the soluble matters must be more nutritive in proportion as they contain more albumen, sugar, and mucilage, and less so in proportion as they contain other substances. In comparing the composition of the soluble products afforded by different crops from the same grass, it was constantly found, that the largest quantity of truly nu- tritive matter, was in the crop cut when the seed was ripe, and least bitter extract and Saline matter; most ex- tract and saline matter in the autumnal crop; and most saccharine, in proportion to the other constituent parts, in the crop cut at the time of flowering. It is suppo- sed that the greater proportion of leaves in the spring, and particularly in the late autumnal crop, accounts for the difference in quantity of extract; and the inferiority of the comparative quantity of sugar in the summer crop, probably depends upon the agency of light, which always tends in plants to convert saccharine matter into mucilage or starch. - No differences have been found in the nutritive pro- duce of the crops of different grasses cut at the same Season, which could render it possible to establish a scale of their nutritive powers, but probably the solu- ble matters of the after-math crop are always from one- sixth to one-third less nutritive than those from the flow- er or seed crop. In this crop, the extractive and saline matters are certainly usually in excess; but the after- math hay, mixed with summer hay, particularly that in which the fox-tail and soft grasses are abundant, would, it is thought, produce an excellent food or fodder. In the clovers, the soluble matter from the Dutch clover is said to contain most mucilage, and most matter analogous to albumen: all the clovers contain more bit- ter extract and saline matter than the common proper grasses. When pure clover is to be mixed as fodder, it should, it is said, be with summer hay, rather than after- math hay. t” Other observations on this interesting subject may be seen in the appendix to the above work. 2. Kn cultivation, much use and advantage may, in many cases, be derived from changing the natural habits of vegetables, by sowing the seeds of them or planting them at unusual seasons, by placing them in more dry and warm, Grmore cold and moist situations, and by al- tering the time of their flowering, or the length of their duration, by cutting parts of them, or in other ways; as by such Ineans some of them, though annuai in their nature, may be made to last and afford crops for two or for sev- eral years. Others may furnish two or three green crops the same season, and an early one in the succeeding; and so on in a variety of instances in the garden as well as in the field. - r VEGETABLEs, Injuries or Destruction of Parts of, the affections and mischiefs which are produced in them by different causes, as those of frost, lightning, insects, and some others. It it well known, that trees of the apple and some other kinds, in field fruit-grounds, orchards, and gardens, have their buds, blossoms, and other parts, often affected or destroyed by a sort of blight or canker induced by such causes; in consequence of which there are great failures in the crops of them. The mischievous effects of frost in this way may frequently be clearly traced, though they are seldom greatly injurious, when it is of the dry kind, unless it be very severe; but most certainly so, when it succeeds to large falls of rain. Sudden transitions from heat to cold are hurtful to vege- tables: by warmth, the vessels of them are expanded, and their juices flow freely: a sudden application of cold causes a sudden contraction of their parts, without a proportionate diminution of the fluids which they contain, which being thus unnaturally checked in their current become stagnant and diseased. Rain is congenial to the growth of vegetables; and while Nature disposes them to open all their pores, by which its influence can be re- ceived, when overtaken by frost in such a situation, the consequence must be injurious or fatal. It has been said by a philosophical writer, in speaking of the action of coid or frost, that besides its opposition to the ade- quate fluidity of the vegetable juices, it must be un- friendly to the animation of the solids, causing either local canker, or death of the whole vegetable. That when VEGETABLES, when the vegetable fluids are chilled, and converted into ice, their bulk is vastly enlarged, and this enlargement sometimes takes place with such extreme violence as to rend them in pieces. In this way, frost, it is thought, destroys those parts of vegetables which are most suc- culent, particularly in that form of it which it called hoar-frost, or rime, so common in the spring season. The moisture of fog too is said to be º mischiev- dus, as far as it extends. Thus, in a fruit district, in one night at this season, a most promising blossom has been cut off; the elm, oak, and ash, being injured at the same time: the line of devastation was precisely marked, proceeding in a horizontal manner through a certain vale tract, to the height of about thirty-five feet; the trees that grew on higher ground not being touched. The explanation of this circumstance seems, it is said, to be, that the fog, which rises more or less every eve- ning, especially after a warm day, was, during the night, in this instance, suddenly succeeded by a smart frost, which seized the moistened parts to the point of eleva- tion of the fog, and produced the mischief. Cold winds coming on after a day or two of sun-shine, may likewise prove destructive of the blossom in such cases of apple- trees in these fruit-grounds. On this account, in a nor- thern exposure, the fruit is not unfrequently preserved, while in others it is destroyed; for the sun, not having much influenced the trees in this situation, they are left to the prevailing temperature of the season, and thus enabled to bear the cold north-easterly blasts of the night without being hurt. Though the second of the above causcs is much be- lieved to be hurtful to the trees in fruit-grounds by those engaged in them, the opinion has been considered as un- founded by some. If, however, the partial manner in which some trees and hedges are affected be considered, it will be difficult, it is thought, to account for the effect in any other way. This cause, like that of frost, may affect vegetables by its expansive power, bursting their vessels as it passes through them. In some cases, a sin- gle limb of a tree, in one night, looses all its foliage, and ceases to vegetate: in others, one tree of many in a fruit- ground; or a row of trees in the same direction; and sometimes whole fruit-grounds are affected in the same manner, and are difficult of recovery. The mischief is mostly done in a night, and with great uncertainty, as neighbouring trees in the same directions often es- cape. - In respect to the last of these causes, it has been ob- served, that frosty nights, with a north east wind, in the spring, succeeding a warm day, are particularly inju- rious to the blossom of the apple; the warmth of the day hatches the ova or eggs of the insect which breeds in it, while the coldness of the night, by checking the progress of the sap, keeps the blossom in its half-expan- ded state, to form a nidus for them. . The opinion of ap- ple growers, too, is in support of this in most districts and situations. way, or by the diseased state of the trees, the most pro- mising mode of preventing the ravages and destruction which they commit on the leaves, buds, and blossoms of such trees, is that of smoaking them well by means of some proper substance, to which a little sulphur has been added. In this way they may mostly be got the better of without much trouble. The other causes of mischief have been noticed under their proper heads, * * - - - * But whether insects are caused in this Many other sorts of vegetables of the tree and other kinds are likewise liable to be affected, injured, or des- troyed in their parts by these causes, the prevention of which may be attempted by similar means. See Disea- ses of Plants in Smith’s Introduction to Botany. VEGETABLE Acid. See AcID, and VINEGAR. VEGETABLE Ashes, in Agriculture, the substances of this sort which are produced from vegetables of differ- ent kinds by incineration. They differ much in their na- ture and quantities as afforded by different vegetables. In general, those of the herb sort furnish four or five times, and those of the shrub kind two or three times as much ashes as those of trees. The leaves in com- mon produce more than the branches, and the branches more than the trunks. Those burnt in a green state afford more ashes than such as are consumed in a dry condition. The quantities of ashes that are afforded by some common vegetables are, in 10,000 parts of the thistle, 53 of ashes; in the same number of fern, 62; in that of the sow-thistle, 196; in wormwood, 730; in vetches, 275; in beans, 200; and in fumitory, 790: while in the same number of parts of the poplar-tree, 7 of ashes are only afforded; in the beech, 12; in the oak, 15; In the elm, 39; and in the vine, 55. Such vegetable ashes as contain alkalies, are capable of being applied to land with advantage in some cases. The oxyds of metals are sometimes found in the ashes of vegetables, but only in very minute quantities. In cases where the vegetable ashes are of a reddish-brown appearance, they are mostly impregnated with the oxyds of iron; but where they have a black or purple cast, with that of the oxyd of manganesium; and where these different co- lours are blended, they contain both such substances of the oyxd kind. The different saline compounds contained in vegeta- bles, or afforded by the incineration of them, are ex- tremely various, and have been considered under their several proper heads. See SULPHATE of Potassa, &c. PHosphaTE of Lime,. &c. The quantities of soluble saline matters, metallic oxyds, and other substances which are afforded by the ashes of different vegetables, may be seen in a table in- serted in the “Elements of Agricultural Chemistry.” These points may serve to direct and assist the far- mer in the preparation and application of vegetable ashes in the most economical and beneficial manner, where they can be had recourse to with propriety as a dressing on land or over crops of some kinds. See Ash Es and WooD-JAshes. VEGETABLE Earth, or Mould, that sort of fine re- duced earthy material, which is formed and produced by the destruction and decay of different vegetable pro- ductions and matters, either upon the surface, or in the more interior parts of the land. The term is, however, more generally applied to the peculiar earthy substance, or body, which constitutes the superficial layer of fine black or dark coloured mould, in which plants, for the most part, strike or take root, and grow in every sort of ground or soil, and which varies very greatly in dif- ferent situations and circumstances, in consequence of the variations that happen in respect to its depth, and the progress it has made towards the state of perfect decomposition and destruction, as well as from the nature of the vegetable substances and matters of which it is constituted and composed. It has been suggested too, as acquiring some diversity or differ- €Il Cº. - VEGETABLES. ence of quality on account of its being more inti- mately or more loosely mixed and incorporated with the other bodies and materials that are found to consti- tute land: and, likewise, that the earthy matter which is formed from the destruction of some particular sorts of vegetable materials, may be better suited for the pur- poses of vegetation than that which proceeds from others. It is an earthy material, which, besides being produced both by the dissolution and reduction of vegetable mat- ters, as above, may probably be partly too. acquired from the air, water, and light; by the process of vegetation, and partly from the properties of the lands in or on which it exists. In some cases it is of very considera- ble depth, while in others it forms merely a thin super- ficial coat or covering of the land; and there are still other cases, in which it is scarcely visible, or met with at all. • - It may be noticed, that vegetables, in consequence of their having in their composition a large proportion of mucilaginous matter in a state of mixture with their other materials or substances, especially in some sorts, are in some degree capable of being dissolved in water, though the external coats or coverings of living plants, principally on account of the resinous material that en- ters into their composition, are preserved from its ac- tion and effects. It is plain, that in consequence of the first of these circumstances, and that of earthy matters being contained in them, which had been taken up in the state of solution or diffusion with their fresh fluids or juices while growing, that considerable quantities of vegetable earth or mould must be continu- ally formed and deposited on lands by the natural disso- lution and decay of such bodies. But its formation and provision are much more abundantly effected by means of the putrefaction and destruction of such vegetable productions as are cut down, or otherwise destroyed, on the surface of the land, and the laying of different kinds of manures and compost materials upon it. In cases where these have been in great abundance for a long time, there is mostly, it is säid, a deep rich sur- face bed of this earth or mould; but that where few vegetable products, and those of the less luxuriant kind, have been left to undergo the above processes, or little assistance given by means of manures, the crust of sur- face earth or mould is commonly very thin and poor. Fn all cases, it is evident that the dissolution and decay of vegetable materials, must be greatly promoted and expedited by a proper degree of moisture, and suitable state of heat; the atmosphere being at the same time in a proper condition for the purpose. The close and stagnated state of different sorts of luxuriant tall grow- ing crops of the grass, herb, plant, or other kinds, have Hikewise much effect in the forming and elaborating of this mouldy material, by the decaying foliage thereby promoted, falling down and being so much deposited on the land. All these materials, during the state of decay, un- dergo different changes in their constituent principles or parts; the water which they contain being decom- pounded, pure air or oxygen is absorbed, heat disen- gaged, and new compositions of the aerial and saline kinds formed; by which means a number of matters are prepared and fitted for the use and support of vegetable ife, which could not have been supplied in any other yay, as well as rendered much more extensively ap- plicable in this intention than they could otherwise pos- * 7 º' have been. c. : H 1 ºr sal, a y It is advised, that in order to promote the formation and production of vegetable earth or mould, recourse should be had not only to such substances as accelerate the putrefactive process, but also to such as have a ten- dency to increase the solubility of the vegetable earth or mould of the land itself; and that the first of these pur- poses may be promoted and attained by the application of such substances and materials as have been found useful in changing vegetable matters into the state of mucilage, such as the carbonate of lime, or effete lime, marle, chalk, and calcareous matters in general, and likewise some earthy saline substances, as the refuse of salt manufactories, and others of that kind. That the latter of such intentions is to be attempted by the use of dif- ferent substances and matters that are of an alkaline na- ture; such as the ashes produced by the burning of va- rious green vegetable materials, the urine of animals, the liquor of dung-hills and pits, night-soil, and many other such animalized matters and substances. There are many other ways, too, in which vegetable earth or mould may be made and rendered more abundant in land; such as the frequent growth of those kinds of crops that cover the ground in a close full manner, so as to produce a confined state of the air, as already sug- gested; the consuming upon, or turning down into the ground, full, rich, and succulent green crops, by which much vegetable matter is brought into a state of decay; and by the causing of the destruction and evacuation of insects of various sorts, which are predominant in land, by the use and application of such substances and mat- ters as have the power of effecting these different purpo- ses and intentions. It must be noticed, however, that it has been remark- ed by the writer of the work on the “Connection of Ag- riculture with Chemistry,” that too large a proportion of vegetable matter in land, particularly where it is exposed to be much acted upon by the oxygene princi- ple of the atmosphere, is liable to render the ground too loose and open in its nature for the growth of most sorts of crops of the grain kind; winter corns being, especial- ly from the sudden alternations of frost and thaw, fre- quently thrown out of such lands, and almost wholly destroyed. In cases of this nature, great advantage may, it is said, be derived from the use of different matters of the saline kind, and lime in its saturated state, as by such means the vegetable parts of the land will be brought to their most proper and productive state, in so far as the growth of crops is concerned. It has been conceived too by the same writer, that the absorption of the oxygene principle from the sur- rounding atmosphere, or what is termed the process of exygenation, is the principal cause of the retention of vegetable matter on the surface of the earth, in deep peaty lands as well as others, but especially in such as have been long in a state of tillage, or under the plough. This process having the power, it is supposed, of ren- dering the vegetable matter less destructible, scarcely any of it being carried away in a state of dissolution by rains, or water in other ways, an accumulation takes place, which, under other circumstances, could not have happened. The indestructible state of vegetable mat- ters under these circumstances, and their constant accre- tion, may, it is thought, be referred to the insoluble com- pounds VEGETATION. pounds produced by the action of pure air on such in- flammable substances. The insolubility, to a certain de- gree, of this system adopted by nature, is undoubtedly, it is supposed, to be preferred to one more completely soluble; for it is evident, it is said, that if putrefaction or oxygenation had possessed the power of rendering all the vegetable matter, by a speedy process, soluble in water, two pernicious consequences must have followed: the rains would have washed down such extracts, and soluble matters, as fast as formed, into the rivers and springs, contaminating the waters, and rendering them unfit for the existence of fishes, or for the use of ter- restrial animals. The sea in process of time would thereby receive all the vegetable and animal produce of the dry land, and the earth would ultimately become barren, consisting alone of the simple earths, without any admixture of vegetable matter; consequently there could be no accumulation of this substance on the sur- face, as is the case to an immense degree at present. As such, there cannot, it is conceived, be a doubt, but that the present incomplete process of putrefaction, ox- ygenation, or solution of organic bodies, has been estab- lished by the great Creator of all things for wise and benevolent purposes; especially when it shall be under- stood, that the apparent imperfections of this, to a cer- tain degree, insoluble system, are, as they respect ag- riculture and vegetation, to be remedied, when necessary, by the ingenuity and industry of man. It is consequently supposed that the vegetable matters which exist in lands, from their admitting different degress of this process, and, of course, becoming more or less insoluble, have different powers in forwarding the growth and support of plants. Where the exposure to these causes has been long, they are generally more insoluble in their nature than where the contrary has been the case. See Oxy- GENATION. * Upon the whole, vegetable earth or mould should be accumulated in grass lands as much as possible; but where grain-crops are to be raised, a proper mixture of other earths is necessary, to give them stability, and prevent their being thrown out of the ground. VEGETABLE Fly, in JVatural History, an insect found in the island of Dominica, and (excepting that it has no wings) resembling the drone in size and colour. In the month of May this insect buries itself in the earth, and begins to vegetate. By the latter end of July the tree is arrived at its full growth, and resembles a coral branch; being about three inches high, and bearing several little pods, which dropping off become worms, and afterwards flies, like the English caterpillar. Dr. Hill, in his ac- count of this production, to whose examination it was submitted, observes, that the cicada is common in Mar- tinique, and in its nympha state, in which the old authors called it tettigometra; it buries itself under dead leaves to wait its change; but when the season is unfavourable, many perish: and that the seeds of the clavaria sobolifera, which is a fungus producing Soboles or shoots from its sides, and growing in putrid animal bodies, find a proper bed on this dead insect, and grow. This, he says, is the fact; though the untaught inhabitants suppose a fly to vegetate, although there exists a Spanish drawing of the plant’s growing into a trifoliate tree; and it has been figured with the creature flying with this tree upon its back. Phil. Trans. vol. liii. p. 270, &c. V EGETABLE Oil. See OIL." VEGETATION, in Vegetable Physiology. See GERMINATION, CIRCULATION of Safi, SPIRAL Wessels, LEAF, &c. - - -- VEGETATION, as it relates to Agriculture and Garden- ing, is of considerable importance, by explaining the na- ture and means by which plants and crops receive nourish- ment and support, and are the best promoted in their dif- ferent growth. In respect to grain, seeds, and sets, it seems evident, from the experimental inquiries of Mr. Gough and others, that during the act or process of their ger- mination or infant vegetation, they draw the oxygene principle from the surrounding atmosphere, part of which is retained, and the remainder thrown off, char- ged with a portion of carbon, and that, in this process or operation, the substances of the seed-lobes, or other parts that answer the same purpose, of course undergo a considerable change, an additional proportion of the same principle entering into their composition, while a portion of their carbon is dissipated and destroyed: that by this alteration in the proportion of their constituent principles and parts, the saccharine fermentation is in- duced to take place, and sugar is formed, as demon- strated in the operation of malting grain; and that the sugar and carbonic acid, from their being more soluble in water than in the oyzd of farinaceous matter, easily combine with the moisture in the capillary vessels of the seed or other substances, and find a ready passage to the germ; the vegetative principle being thus brought into action by a stimulus suited to the particular nature of it: and that by the decomposition of the seed-lobes, or other parts, a nutritious fluid being thus formed and dis- tributed through the infant plant, its organs are excited to exert their peculiar specific actions in decompound- ing the nourishment conveyed to them, and in forming new oxyds from the elementary principles of it, in order to the increase and evolution of the vessels and fibres. As it is in this manner that the first stage of germina- tion or vegetation is supposed to conim cnce, it would ap- pear that in such seeds and sets, in order to their under- going these different changes the most readily, and in the most perfect manner, on which, probably, healthy growth may materially depend, they should not only be properly deposited in the earth or soil, but, in the case of grain and seeds, be so well ripened and filled with fa- rinaceous or nealy matter, and possess such a degree of moisture, as may dispose them to undergo such chan- ges in a suitably speedy manner; while, at the same, time, a due supply of proper nutritious matter is affor- ded for the perfect germination and early growth of the infant vegetables or plants. They should not consequent- ly be put so deep in the ground as to be too much ex- cluded from the action of the air, or be sown or set when in too dry a condition from the state of the season or other causes, but be constantly suffered to have as much of the agency and influence of such forwarding powers as may be necessary for the perfect vegetation and growth of the plants or crops. Others conclude on the grounds, and for the reasons that are stated below, that two of the airs of which the atmosphere is compounded, are absolutely necessary to the nourishment and proper growth of vegetables; those of vital air or oxygen, and mephitic air or azote. It is found from different trials, that plants placed in vital or oxygene air grow larger, become more powerful, and are greener than those put in that of the atmospheric kind. That if the seeds of the kidney-bean and the pea be put into earth of the siliceous kind, and be - sprinkled * VEGETATION. sprinkled with water mixed with a small portion of the oxygenated muriatic acid, in which oyxgen the most abounds and the most loosely adheres, they germinate ‘much sooner than if sprinkled with pure water: but that if seeds be immersed in diluted muriatic acid, they become black and rugous, and never germinate. That in no kind of air deprived of oxygen do plants vegetate; for if they be placed in azotic or mephitic air, in carbonic or fixed air, they become flaccid and droop- ing, it is said, by the heat of the sun, and gradually die away. And that in nitrous air, plants become inactive in a few hours. It would appear from this, it is thought, that the portion of vital or oxygene air imparts a natural stimulus, which is highly necessary to excite the fibres and sustain the living power and strength of the vessels of plants; and that, lastly, this air, with the peculiar acidifiable bases, generates the various acids which are found in plants or vegetables. i As the gluten of the fibres of vegetables consists of tinually produced by watering, while with those of grain it has been found to be wholly impossible. It is found, however, that soft water, such as that of rivers, rain, or which has been exposed to the action of the sun for some time, is more favourable to vegetation, than such as is hard, as that of springs, or which is impregnated with metallic substances and other such matters. The author of Phytologia considers the first three things necessary to the infant vegetation and growth of plants to be heat, water, and air, as furnishing the general cause of fluidity, the menstruum in which nutriment is conveyed, and the principle of excitability so perpetually necessary to all organic life. - r - - However, besides these different matters, other agents are necessary, after the plants have been formed and evolved, to the perfect vegetation and growth of the crops, as those of earth or other such matters, which are not only useful and essential for the purpose of hold- ing and supporting the plants in a steady and erect carbon, chemically combined with azote, it follows, it isº, manner, but also for containing and conveying, at least, supposed, that the azotic air is absorbed or taken up by the plants; and that it is by this means that vegetables increase so rapidly in rich soils, cemeteries, and other places where animal and vegetable matters putrefy and decay in large quantities in or on the ground. * Carbonic air too dissolved in water is absolutely neces- sary to the vegetation of plants in order to provide their carbonic principle, which is a constituent part of the fibres, oil, mucilage, and other vegetable principles. It is suggested, that plants appear to derive their ca- loric or matter of heat from the surrounding atmosphe- ric air. Hence it is that the shades of trees are so cool; and that nothing is more healthy for almost all plants in their vegetation and growth, than mild tepid showers, by which they obtain water together with this principle. That, lastly, seeds do not vegetate in the cold, and many plants die in it. Heat too is evidently of much benefit in vegetation, as giving the natural colour to the foliage, flowers, and fruits of plants, causing or promoting the flow and circulation of the sap-juice, increasing the sac- charine matter, and promoting the flavour of most sorts of fruit. Light too contributes to the life and healthy growth of plants; for those which vegetate in atmospheric air de- prived of its light, as in the night and dark places, become pale and weak; but in the day-time, strong and coloured. The rays of light, likewise, appear to contribute to stimulate plants, with the various gases or vapours they absorb and take up from the air. Pure air has also been found by many to be essential to the production of perfect seeds, pulse, grain, and fruit, and that by its action upon or being taken up by the soil, it has very powerful and beneficial effects in promoting vegetation and the perfeet growth of plants and crops. *x Thus water, air, and these other matters, appear to have a very great share in the vegetation and nourish- ment of vegetables, but especially the two former. The first has been considered as indispensably necessary to the process, and as supplying the principal materials of vegetable juices. It is unquestionably the chief medium through which the various nutritious matter derived from the soil, is conveyed to the plants which grow upon it. But it has been supposed more favourable to the vegetation and growth of grass plants or crops than those of the grain kind; as crops of grasses may be con- Vo L. XXXVIII. some portion of the food on which they live; as derived from the atmosphere or other sources, and for the re gular ramification and extension of their fibrous roots, in order that it may be more certainly provided and supplied. They are beneficial too in receiving, retain- ing, and distributing moisture to them, as well as in re- ceiving, reflecting, and dispersing the heat of the sun, dews, and exhalations of different kinds, by which their growth and perfection are greatly promoted. For though some plants of the aquatic kind grow in water, most of them have their roots in earth. Even marine plants, although they grow upon bare rocks or stones, are well known to be fixed to them, and that they derive their food from the sea-water in or near which they ex- ist. It has been contended by some, that plants are ac- tually nourished by earth alone, but numerous experi- ments show the opinion to be erroneous, and that it is perhaps only the medium of their existence. It is well ascertained that they are capable of acquiring a great accession of weight, without almost any loss of weight of the earth in which they have been planted. The aid and assistance of dead organized materials are, likewise, requisite in the process of vegetation and the growth of crops, as it would seem to be a part of the beautiful and orderly arrangement of Nature, that nothing should have life in vain, and that the destruction of one plant or animal should furnish food for others: consequently, that however useful air, water, light, heat, and earth may be to the growth of plants and crops, it is, if not certain, at least questionable, it is thought, whether they could ever come to perfection without the help of matter that had been formerly in an orga- nized state. The richest soils, it is well known, are full of dead animal and vegetable matter, and there is no soil that will not produce plants or crops if a sufficient quantity of dead animal or vegetable substance be added to it. Under this denomination are comprehended all those manures which are found so useful in cultivation, more especially those to which some authors give the name of mucilaginous, enriching, or nutritious. These substances and materials are greatly beneficial, by cor- recting the tenacity of stiff soils or lands, and the over- porosity of light ones, by producing a fermentation in them, and by affolding nutritive matter to the roots of vegetables, as well as by retaining moisture in dry and expelling it in wet lands. Saline substances have been 3 B supposed VEGETATION. supposed too of much importance in vegetation by some, but they do not appear essential to the growth of any sort of plants except the marine; and there are many productive soils in which little or no saline matter can be discovered. Such matters may, however, be of use to vegetation, though not essential to it. That of com- mon salt may operate upon plants as it does upon the human body, by assisting to digest the food, without furnishing nutriment itself. It is of use, mixed with dung, as an assistant to putrefaction, and it may act in the same way in promoting vegetation. It is service- able too by attracting moisture, destroying vermin in the soil, and decaying and reducing the roots of any plants it may first meet with, thus furnishing nourish- ment to the succeeding ones. It is found likewise, that the culture of the earth is essentially necessary for the vegetation and growth of plants and crops to perfection, the health and vigour of both the roots and branches being thereby greatly in- to the action of the air, and the use of lime, chalk, or other dissolving matters, will, it is supposed, correct the injurious qualities of this substance, and promote the vegetation and growth of plants and crops in such states of land. The astringent principle or acidity in peat is often so great and so noxious to vegetation, that until any quality of that nature which may exist be sub- dued, though that sort of land be a perfect mass of vege- table matter, nothing but heath and other such miser- able plants are capable of growing in it. Vegetation is consequently in such cases only to be assisted by break- ing the parts of the land well down, and the application of earthy and other matters to it, so as to wholly destroy its astringent property, and in fact change its nature. See Soi L. - - It may be noticed too, that the vegetation or growth of plants and crops is frequently much injured and im- peded by the various sorts of vermin with which the earth as well as the air abounds. Those which inhabit creased. By dividing and reducing the particles of ...the earth, it has been supposed, may be destroyed and soils, the roots of the plants and crops put into them can more easily and readily penetrate and spread out in them, as well as suck in more expeditiously the nourishment which they contain. By proper and effectual culture too, such weeds or useless plants as are apt to rise, are extirpated and destroyed, whilst stirring the earth ad- mits air and moisture more fully to the soils, and to those plants and crops the seeds or sets of which have been sown or put in them. It is evident likewise, that young trees thrive and succeed much better, if the soils in which they are planted have been previously plough- ed in so deep a manner, as readily to admit their roots and suckers. Even after they are planted, it is supposed to be of great service to have potatoes and other such roots cultivated among the young trees in the planta- tions with a view to kill weeds, and loosen the soil for the free admission of air and water. And the practice seems to be generally well received, and to have much effect in promoting vegetation in most sorts of vege- tables. - • The management cf the farmer and gardener should, of course, aid and assist these views and intentions in every way as much as possible, in raising and producing plants and crops of different kinds; as by the suitable cultivation of the ground, the proper application of manure or other substances of that sort to it, the pre- servation of the moisture of it by different modes of crop- ping, and by every other practicable method in their power; as by such means the perfect vegetation and growth of them may be the best promoted and assisted. See FALLow ING Land, PULv ERIZATION, SEED, &c. It may be observed, that the substances or matters in land which have hitherto been found injurious to vege- tation, are chiefly those of the metaliic, sulphureous, aluminous, and astringent kinds. It has been noticed, that where mines of iron, lead, or copper, are near the 'surface, no plants will grow to perfection, as is well as- certained to be the case in different mining districts. Schistus too, in which there is generally a great deal of iron and alum, is found so unfavourable to vegetation, that any considerable quantity of it would destroy the fertility of the richest sorts of land. The noxious, cor- roding, and weakening effects of such substances on the tender roots of vegetables being such in some cases as to cause their decay, dissolution, and destruction. Fre- quent stirring, or the exposure of new surfaces of land got quit of by the use of saline matters, lime, and other different substances, operations, and arts, as are seen under their several proper heads. See GRUB, MoLE, SLUG, WoRM, VERMIN, &c. also TURNIP. But in regard to the myriads of those of the insect kind with which the air abounds, it is more difficult and uncertain to propose or point out any remedy or means of prevention that may be effectual. It is not ascer- tained that the smell of any plant, in its natural growing state, is destructive of insects; but there are several plants which are, when dried and reduced to powder, or when burnt near to certain insects, destructive of them, as those of tobacco, hemlock, henbane, rue, worm- wood, and others. Sometimes, however, vermin of this sort are occasioned by the weakness and unhealthy growth of the plants, and the poverty of the soil of the land where they grow; the best remedies in such cases are, of course, those of more perfect tillage and cultiva- tion, so as to render them strong and healthy in their vegetation. - - VEGETATION, Artificial. Many of the processes and operations in chemistry afford productions, whether of salts or metals, or whatever other substances, which very much resemble plants of one kind or other, whence they have been called metallic vegetation. But though many have been, hence induced to believe, that these productions were formed in the manner of vegetables, there is not the least ground for such an opinion from reason or experiment. - M. Homberg, who has treated very accurately of the several kinds of these chemical vegetations, divides them into three different classes. Those ºf the first class are such as consist of a pure massy metal, without the mixture of any foreign matter whatever. Those of the second class are composed of a dissolved metal, which, though it has concreted after- wards, yet retains a part of the menstruum in it; and the third class contains those which have no metal in them, but are merely composed of salts, oils, or earths, or of combinations of these. <--- *- All the productions of the first kind are made with- out the admixture of any liquor, and are merely owing to the force of fire. These are of a firm and solid tex- ture, and may be taken out of the vessels in which they were made, without danger of breaking them. On the other hand, the vegetations of the second kind are all formed V E. G. V E. G. formed in a fluid, and are all so brittle, that they are not -: Of the third kind, --- ~ l- --- *-i- ~~~ + • * ~ *- :- to be touched without bi eaking. some are formed, or will subsist at least, in the dry air; others are very tender, and are formed only in fluids, the very stirring about of which destroys them. See ARBOR. VEGETATION of Salts, a name given by M. Petit of the Academy of Paris, to the concretions which salts form, after solution in water, when set in the air to evaporate. - - These concretions always appear round the surface of the liquor, affixed to the sides of the vessel, or arising above its top, and are very different in the different salts, and in most of them very beautiful. - One of the most ready and most beautiful of all the saline vegetations, is that formed by a solution of the salts in the caput mortuum of aquafortis with common water. If a pint of water be put to half a pound of this caput mortuum, and the whole boiled together, that the salts may be dissolved, and the liquor afterwards fil- trated, and exposed in an earthen vessel, there will be formed, in about eight and forty hours, vegetations wholly like those from the mixture of spirit of nitre and oil of tar, except that those from the caput mortuum are more ramified and more beautiful. When the solu- tion is exposed in a glass vessel, they form themselves on the surface into very beautiful figures of trees, shrubs, and bushes; and this not only on the surface, but on both the inside and outside of the glass. These can be compared to no known concretion, except to the vege- tations of iron, described by M. Lemery; they differ in- deed in nothing from these, but that the vegetations of the metal are of a brownish colour, whereas those of the salt are white. -- This impregnation succeeds best in dry weather, for in a moist season the vegetations form themselves more slowly, and are much less beautiful. Glass vessels are also essential to the vegetations being formed in their greatest beauty; they are never nearly so beautiful in earthen ones; and even in the former, the vegetations succeed much better in some sort of glass than in others. The caput mortuum of aquafortis also is very different, from the different distillations; and all of it does not succeed alike in this vegetation of the salt. That which looks lightest, and of the reddest colour, seems the best for this purpose. An impregnation of this caput mor- tuum in red-wine produces no vegetations, but only forms a crust with small eminences on the sides of the vessel; and saltpetre, dissolved in the impregnation of this caput mortuum ia water, produces a much more beautiful vegetation than that of saltpetre alone; but at the same time much less beautiful than that of the im- pregnation alone. Salt-water, dissolved in the same impregnation, sometimes will produce beautiful vege- tations, but sometimes only a rough crust. Common rough saltpetre forms no vegetations, but only crusts over the vessel; as is the case with the solutions of many of the metals in different acid menstruums. And the same is the case in regard to many salts from which it might be natural to expect concretions of this kind. Memoirs Acad. Par. 1722. - VEGETIUS, FLAyrus RENATUS, in Biography, lived in the reign of the emperor Valentinian, to whom he de- dicated his treatise “De Re Militari.” Although he was probably a military man, his Latin style was pure, considering the age in which he lived. The best cditions of his work are the Variorum, Leyd. 1644, and Vesal. 1670. Turpin's Commentary was printed in French, Paris 1783, in two vols. 4to. A work on the veterinary art, by a writer of the same name, is printed with the “Scriptores Rei Rustica..” Moreri. Gen. Biog. VEGETO-ANIMAL MATTER, in Agriculture, a term formerly applied to one of the principal constitu- ent parts of the farina, meal, or flour of some vegetable seeds. It is found in the greatest proportion in grain, especially that of the wheat kind, existing in a state of mechanical union or mixture with mucilage or starch, On cautiously washing wheaten flour in the form of paste, in a kneading manner, under a small stream of water, until the whole of the starchy matter be removed, this substance or material is found in an elastic, ductile, tenacious state, but incapable of being dissolved in it. It has none or scarcely any taste, readily draws out and contracts, and is of a whitish-grey colour. When fully drawn out, it extends to the length of about twenty times its diameter before it breaks, and appears as if composed of fibres placed beside each other, according to the direction in which it has been drawn. If the force ceases, it recovers its original form by its elasticity; When dry, it is semi-transparent, and somewhat resem- bles glue in its colour and appearance. If it be drawn out thin when first obtained, it may be dried by exposure to the air, and in that state has a polished surface, some- what resembling that of animal membranes. If it be exposed to warmth and moisture while wet, it putrefies like an animal substance; it crackles, swells, and burns, exactly in the manner of a feather or piece of horn. By distillation it affords, like animal substances, alkaline water, concrete volatile alkali, and an empyreumatic oil. Its coal is very difficultly incinerated, and does not afford fixed alkali. From these facts, it is said to be obvious, that it is a substance totally different from all the others known to exist in vegetables, ex- cept albumen, which has lately been discovered in Some of them, and in many of its characters resem- bles the fibrous part of the blood. It does not appear to exist in any considerable quantity in other farinaceous substances, such as rye, barley, buck-wheat, rice, and others of the same kind. M. Berthollet, however, thinks that it contains phosphoric salt like animal mat- ters, and that this is the reason of the difficulty with which it is incinerated; and the younger Rouille found a glutinous substance in the fecula of plants analogous to that of wheat. It is now commonly called gluten, and said to become of a brown colour by exposure to the air, to be very slightly soluble in water, and to differ from albumen in being infinitely less soluble in that fluid. When burnt, it affords similar products to that sub- stance, and probably differs very little from it in compo- sition. It is found in a great number of plants. Proust is said to have discovered it in acorns, chesnuts, hose- chesnuts, apples, quinces, barley, rye, peas, and beans; likewise in the leaves of rue, cabbages, cresses, hem- lock, borage, saffron, in the berries of the elder, and in the grape. It appears, it is said, to be one of the most nutritive of the vegetable substances; and that wheat seems to owe its superiority to other grain, from the circumstance of its containing it in larger quantities. In the work on the “Connection of Agriculture with Chemistry,” it is said that different kinds of grain contain mucilage or starch, and this substance in different pro- portions, and that the same sort of grain contains them 3 B 2 lf? V E G V E I in different quantities, according to the climate, season, and soil. But that good wheat generally contains two- fifths of animalized matter and three-fifths of starch. And that good and well-raised bread depends on flour containing a due admixture of these two substances. Hence, it is thought, by mixing the flour of different sorts of wheat, better bread may at times be produced than from one sort only. Extensive benefits, too, may arise to the processes of brewing, distilling, and making of vinegar, by a mixture of the different sorts of grain; and to that of distilling, a further advantage would be derived by a mixture of different roots with the grain, such as potatoes, parsnips, carrots, and many others, if prepared in a proper manner. * VEGETO-MINERAL WATER of Goulard, in Me- dicine. See Water of LEAD. - VEGGIANI, in Geography, a town of the island of Corsica; 12 miles W. of Bonifacio. VEGI, or UG1, the names given by the Arabian phy- sicians to the acorus. These writers seem not to have heen acquainted with the plant itself in its growing state, but only to have known that part of it which was used in medicine in their time; but the Greeks described the plant in some sort. VEGIA, in Geography, a town of Africa; 45 miles W. of Tunis. - VEGIANO, a town of Naples, in Basilicata; 12 miles S. of Potenza. - VEGIO, MAFFEo, in Biography, was born at Lodi in 1406, and studied at Milan and Pavia, manifesting in the former place an attachment to poetry, and in the latter directing his attention to civil jurisprudence. He ob- tained some honorary and lucrative appointments under the popes. Martin V., Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V. Highly respected and esteemed for his genius and learn- ing, as well as for the sanctity of his life, he died in 1458. As a Latin poet, he composed with facility, but without being distinguished for elegance or purity. He began, in his early age, with profane poetry, composing, among other works, an additional book to Virgil’s AEneid; but after he entered into the priesthood, he con- fined himself to sacred subjects. The best of his works in this class, highly commended by Dupin, was his trea- tise “De Educatione Liberorum et eorum claris mori- bus.” His prose style is accounted elegant and polished for his time. Moreri. Gen. Boig. VEGLENSKOI, in Geografthy, a town of Russia, in the province of Ustiug, on the Vim; 72 miles N.N.E. of Yarensk. . . VEGLIA, an island in the gulf of Venice, near the coast of Dalmatia, about 30 miles in length, from 6 to 14 broad, and 90 in circumference, anciently called Cu- ricta and Fulfinio. In the decline of the Greek empire, it obtained the name of Becla, of which the present is a corruption. It is situated in the innermost part of the lf of Quarnera, and separated from the continent by a small canal only. There are many harbours, but unfit for the reception of large vessels, on account of the storms by which they are agitated. Its soil is mountain- ous and rocky, towards the north sterile, but very fertile to the south, and the vallies are extremely fruitful. The greater part is covered with woods, which occasion a considerable trade in fire-wood. Agriculture is not so much attended to here as the culture of the vine, which produces excellent wine. The culture of silk is insignificant: the breeding of horses is more important. The breeding of sheep and goats is likewise considera- ble. The quarries produce a red spotted marble, not unlike that of Verona, which is much known by the name of Mandolato of Venice. This isle, is inhabited by 17,000 souls. N. lat. 45° 16'. E. long. 14° 42'. VEGLIA, a sea-port town, situated on the S.W. coast of the island so called, surrounded with walls and defended by a castle, in which the governor resides. It is the see . of a bishop, suffragan of Zara, and contains about 3600 inhabitants, N. lat. 45° 1 l'. E. long. 14° 38'.—Also, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto; 15 miles S. of Brindisi. VEGLIANA, a town of France, in the department of the Po, near the Little Doria, where the French ob- tained a victory over the Piedmontese and Spaniards, in the year 1630; 11 miles N. of Turin. - - VEGLIONELLA, a town of Naples, in Basilicata; 20 miles S.S.W. of Tursi. - VEGRE, a river of France, which runs into the Eure, near Yvry. & VEHAILEK, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed; 70 miles S.W. of Jamama. VEHICLE, VEHICULUM, in its literal sense, signi- fies somewhat that carries, or bears a thing along. See CARRIAGE, WAGGON, WHEEL, &c. - Thus, in Anatomy, the serum is said to be the vehicle that conveys the globules of the blood. In Pharmacy, any liquid serving to dilute another with, or to administer it in, more agreeable to a patient, is called a vehicle. In Painting, vehicles denote certain fluids, which are added to colours, in order to give them an unctuous consistence while used, that they may be laid-on and spread properly, adhere to the grounds on which they are laid, acquire a proper degree of tenacity when dry, and defend them from being injured by accidents. The principal vehicles hitherto use are oils, water, spirit of wine, and turpentine. But as water and spirit of wine want the unctuous consistence necessary for spreading the colours, and dry away totally without leaving any glutinous substance to bind and fix such of the pigments as are of an earthy or incohering texture; gums, size, sugar, and other such viscid substances have been super- added to supply their defects, and render them of a due consistence and body. V EHNE, or V EENE, in Geografthy, a river whic rises in the bishopric of Munster, and joins the Solte, near Stickhausen. - VEIA. See VEGILA. VEICAMA, a town of Spain, in the province of Gui- puscoa; 12 miles from Tolosa. VEIENTANA GEMMA, in JVatural History, the name of a gem described by Pliny, and said to be found in Italy; he says it was black, but surrounded with a circle of white: it was probably a stone of the camea kind. - VEJER, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Seville, near the Straits of Gibraltar; 9 miles S. of Medina Sidonia. - VEII, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Italy in Etruria, S. of the Falerii, but nearer the Tiber and Rome. This was a very ancient town, and very considerable on account of the wealth and the valour of its inhabitants. Its original name was Veja, which was also, among the Osci, the name of one of those carriages in which they resided before they had houses. Its vicinity to Rome was one principal cause of its misfortunes; for the jea- lousy and envy of that city were excited by its opulence and V E I V E I and prosperity. From the time of Romulus, the inha: bitants of these rival towns contended. At length Veii was taken by Camillus, after a siege of ten years, in the Rome 356 or 357. The booty was very consi- derable; and part of it was lodged in the temple of the Pythian Apollo. It is a sufficient evidence of the eligible situation of Veii, that after the capture of Rome by the Gauls, it was a subject of deliberation. whether this town should not be made the capital of the republic. VEIL, or VELUM, a piece of stuff, serving to hide o prevent the sight of any thing. - In this sense, we read of a large veil, or curtain, in the temple of Jerusalem, miraculously rent at the passion of our Saviour. In the Roman churches, in the time of Lent, they have veils, or curtains, over the altar, cruci- fix, images of the saints, &c. VEIL is also used for a large piece of crape, worn on the head by nuns, as the badge of their profession. Whence, to take the veil, signifies to commence reli- gious. - The novices wear white veils; and those who have made the vows, black ones. The prelate before whom the vows are made, blesses the veil, and gives it to the religious. VEIL, in Botany, see CALYPTRA. These terms are now exclusively appropriated to the membranous co- vering of the germen in MuscI and HEPATICAE, through the summit of which impregnation takes place, and which therefore must be considered as a peculiar organ, partly perhaps, but not exactly, analogous to a corolla. It is elevated with the ripening capsule in Musci, but splits irregularly, to let the fruit pass, in Heflatica. The reader is requested to correct two important errors of the press in the 8th column of the article MUSCI: line 18th, for sinks, read shrinks; line 60th, for sexual, read escacual. VEIL, CHARLEs MARIE DE, in Biografhy, the son of a Jew at Metz, and a proselyte to the Roman Catholic religion by Bossuet, became a monk of the Augustine order, and entered among the canons-regular of St. Genevieve. Pursuing his theological studies at Angers, he took the degree of doctor in theology, and taught in the public schools. In 1679 he visited England, and ab- juring Popery, conformed to the English church. He had previously distinguished himself by his scriptural researches, and published Latin commentaries on the gospels of St. Matthew and St. Mark, on Joel, and the Canticles. During his stay in England he addressed a letter to Mr. Boyle, the design of which was to prove, against Father Simon, that the Scripture is the only rule of faith. In London he reprinted his cominentary on the Canticles, giving a literal explanation of that book; and he also published commentaries on the twelve minor prophets, and on the Acts of the Apostles. At this time he styled himself a presbyter of the English church, but in consequence of marrying the daughter of a Bap- tist, he became connected with persons of that persua- sion, and preached among them in the year 1685. His death is supposed to have happened about the close of the century. - - The brother of the preceding, Louis DE CoMPEIGNE DE VEIL, was also a converted Jew, and distinguished for his knowledge of Hebrew literature. He was inter- preter of Oriental languages to the king of France, when he accompanied his brother to England, and join- ed in communion with the English church. The prin- year of cipal works he published were “ The Jewish Catechism of Abraham Jagel;” a Latin translation, with notes, of “ Maimonides de Sacrificiis,” and also of Abarbanei’s “Exordium in Leviticum.” Moreri. Gen. Biog. VEILLANE, in Geography. See VEGLIANA. VEILLY, or VESLEY, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Aisne, on the Aisne; 9 miles E. of Sois- SOI)S. VEIN, in Anatomy, the name of those vessels which convey back to the heart the blood carried out from it by the arteries. All the details relating to the structure of these tubes, to their arrangement in the body, and to their office in the circulating system, are considered in the articles HEART and CIRCULATION. e The veins are naturally arranged in three divisions; viz. 1st, the general venous system, commencing from the capillaries all over the body, and pouring the black blood into the heart by three large trunks: 2dly, the pulmonary veins, which are concerned only in the mi- nor circulation: and 3dly, the system of the vena porta- rum, in which the blood that has circulated through the organs of digestion is conveyed to the liver, and distri- buted through the substance of that organ. The umbi- lical venous system of the foetus, with its ramifications in the placenta, its trunk in the umbilical chord, and its subsequent course and distribution in the liver, is not in- cluded under either of these divisions. It belongs to the fetal state of existence, and is described under EMBRYo. - On the subject of the pulmonary veins, we have no- thing to add here to what is stated in the articles LUNG, CIRCULATION, and HEART: the vena portarum is de- scribed under LiveF; and the peculiarities of arrange- ment, belonging to the veins of any organs, are noticed in the account of those organs: so that the present arti- cle will include simply a description of the situation and course of the veins of the general system. These we shall trace, according to the course of the blood in them, from the branches to the trunks; as, on the same principle, the arteries have been traced from the trunks to the branches. The veins of the general system may be arranged in . three divisions, according to the great trunks which ter- minate in the right auricle; viz. the cardiac veins, those belonging to the superior, and those to the inferior vena Cà Va., I. The veins of the heart do not all end in one trunk: besides one large vein, there are some smaller. The great coronary vein of the heart (grande veine cardiaque posterieure) runs in the groove between the left auricle and ventricle; and opens on the left of, and below the fossa ovalis and valvula Eustachii, in the right auricle. A middle coronary vein runs on the inferior flat surface of the heart, between the two ventricles, to open by a common orifice with the former, or close to it. At this opening into the auricle, a valve is placed, differing con- siderably in size and appearance; sometimes semilunar and broad, covering the whole aperture, at other times smaller and hardly distinguishable; sometimes perforated . or reticulated. See HEART. - - Some smaller veins open by one or more trunks in the anterior part of the right auricle. See the plates of Senac, sur la Structure du Coeur, &c. on these veins. II. The sufferior vena cava receives the veins of the head, neck, thorax, and upper extremities, *, The v E IN. The superficial veins of the head and face and for the 1most part in two trunks, an anterior and a posterior. The anterior fascial vein (frontal or angular) com: mences on the forehead, runs along the inner angle of the eye, and then pursues its course obliquely along the face from the corner of the eye to the basis of the jaw- bone, which it passes at the same point with the external maxillary artery. It joins, behind the angle of the jaw, the trunk of the posterior vein. This anterior facial vein, which is a large and very constant trunk, receives a vast number of venous ramifications from all parts of the forehead and face, which are covered by one univer- sal venous net-work or plexus. (See two excellent plates by Walter, Observat. Anat. 1775.) The follow- ing are enumerated as the vessels which open into it: }, venae frontales; 2, v. Supra orbitalis; 3, 4, v. dorsalis maşi, superior and inferior; 5, palpebralis inferior interna; 6, 7, alaris nasi, superior and inferior; 8, palpebralis in- ferior externa; 9, 10, labiales superiores; 1 1, 12, two from the zygomatici and levator labii superioris; 13, ra- mus profundus venae facialis internae, formed by the junction of, a. vena ophthalmica facialis, which, com- municating by its opposite end with the cavernous sinus, receives branches from some parts in the orbit; b. nasa- lis posterior interna; c. alveolaris superior; d. veins of the buccinator, &c.; 14, labialis media; 15, 16, vena labii inferioris, superior and inferior; 17, 18, buccalis, supe- rior and inferior; 19, 20, two, three, or four venae mas- seterica; 21, submentalis; 22, glandulosa. The posterior facial vein is much larger than the an- terior; it arises on the side of the head by branches ac- companying the ramifications of the temporal artery, descends in front of the ear, through the parotid gland, behind the angle of the jaw, and unites with the former. It receives several deep temporal veins; the maxillaris inferior; several pterygoid veins: these join its deep- seated trunk. The superficial trunk is joined by three superficial temporal branches; articularis anterior and posterior; auriculares anteriores and profunda; transver- salis faciei; auricularis posterior; several parotid veins. The common trunk, formed by the union of the an- terior and posterior fascial veins, behind the angle of the jaw, terminates in the internal jugular near the point, at which the common carotid divides into the external and internal branches. It also anastomoses with the external jugular: this trunk receives the superior thyroid vein. Weins of the Brain.—They possess no valves: their coats are much thinner than those of other veins; their capacity very much exceeds that of the arteries. Their greatest and most distinguishing peculiarity consists in the circumstance, that they do not accompany the arte- ries, either in their great or smaller branches. Their trunks are collected in the pia mater, and run either in the interval of the convolutions, or over the convexities of the latter. They pour their blood into receptacles formed in the dura mater, and called sinuses; and in this respect again they differ from all other veins. The si- nuses are composed, externally, of the dura mater, which holds the place of the external coat of other veins; inter- rally, of a smooth thin membrane, corresponding to the internal membrane of the veins, and continuous with it. The cerebral veins open in large numbers into these si- nuses, of various sizes, from that of a crow’s-quill to a writing quill; and they enter, for the most part, very ob- liquely, and with an obliquity contrary to the direction of the blood in the sinus. These receptacles, being formed in the dura mater, which is attached to the bone, are fixed in their situa- tions. They are generally of a triangular figure: the interior is lined by a smooth membrane, but, in many in- stances, it presents small transverse fibrous bridles going from side to side. They receive not only all the cere- bral veins, but also those of the dura mater and the ophthalmic. There are four large sinuses, of which the others ap- pear to be subordinate dependencies; they are the su- perior longitudinal, the two lateral, and the fourth si- nus. . The superior longitudinal sinus (falciformis superior) begins near the crista galli, where it is small; it runs from before backwards to the internal occipital tubero- sity, along the middle line of the cranium, occupying the superior or convex edge of the falx, and increasing to the size of the little finger. A vertical section of it, from side to side, is exactly triangular; the base of the triangle being upwards, and corresponding to the exca- vation in the bone, the sides of the triangle being lateral, or turned towards the hemispheres, inclined towards each other, and united below so as to form the apex, which is downwards. Several fibrous bridles cross its cavity, which contains a greater or smaller number of the granular bodies called glandulae Pacchioni. Nu- merous small veins enter the sinus from the cranium, and others from the dura mater; through the parietal foramina it receives veins from the integuments: blood may be expressed from these, when they have been la- cerated by detaching the skull-cap. But the principal veins it receives come from the superior or convex sur- face of the hemispheres. These are spread irregularly over the convexities, advance from the sides towards the middle, uniting into larger and larger trunks, and open in considerable numbers on each side of the sinus: they receive the veins from the opposed flat surfaces of the hemispheres. The anterior branches are the smallest; the middle and posterior much larger. They are di- rected at their termination obliquely from behind for- wards, and sometimes pass for half an inch, in the sub- stance of the coats, before they open. The two lateral sinuses, right and left (sinus trans- versi), are produced by the division of the superior lon- gitudinal at the internal occipital protuberance. They are usually of equal size, but sometimes differ in this re- spect, the right being often larger. They proceed along the internal transverse ridge of the occiput, at the pos- terior attachment of the tentorium, as far as the com- mencement of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, when they descend along the internal surface of the mas- toid portion of that bone to the foramen lacerum in basi . cranii, through which they quit the skull, taking the name of the internal jugular veins. These sinuses are as large as the termination of the superior longitudinal; and are generally uniform on the internal surface. The cavity is triangular, where it occupies the posterior at- tachment of the tentorium: the base of the triangle being turned backwards, and corresponding to the skull, and the two sides being inclined towards each other, and join- ing at an acute angle in the tentorium. Where it lies in the mastoid portion, it consists of a layer of membrane lining the bony channel, and another passing directly OWe!' It. The lateral sinus receives veins from the back of the cerebrum and cerebellum, and some meningeal veinſs; large branches from the integuments of the skull through V E IN. through the mastoid foramina, and from the muscles of the neck through the posterior condyloid holes; veins from the cavity of the tympanum, according to Soem- merring; the superior and inferior petrous sinuses; and the occipital sinuses. r At the under or concave edge of the falx, there is found the inferior longitudinal sinus (falciformis infe- rior). This is very small, just admitting a probe, and it opens behind into the following: it may rather be regard- ed as a vein than a sinus. The fourth sinus (perpendiculalis, torcular Herophili, sinus droit) is placed at the junction of the falx and ten- terium, has a triangular figure, the basis being formed by the tentorium, and the sides by two oblique layers of the falx, and exhibits internally several prominent fibrous fasciculi. In size it is about equal to a goose-quill. It receives in front the small vein called the inferior longi- tudinal sinus, and a large vein, called magna Galeni, which brings back the blood from the choroid plexuses and in- terior of the ventricles: it also receives, at its under sur- face, the superior veins of the cerebellum. It opens be- hind into the bifurcation of the superior longitudinal si- nus; sometimes having a double termination. The superior petrous sinus runs along the sharp ridge of the petrous portion, at the attachment of the tento- rium, and opens into the lateral, just where that begins to descend from the tentorium. Besides some small me- lingeal veins, it has some from the anterior lobe of the cerebrum, and from the cerebellum. The inferior petrous sinus is larger than the preceding, nd runs in the junction of the basilary process of the oc- cipital bone and the petrous portion of the temporal. Its anterior end joins the cavernous sinus, while the pos- terior opens into the lateral sinus, just before it enters the foramen lacerum. The right and left are united by one or more transverse communications on the basilary process. This transverse communication unites the two inferior petrous sinuses just where they communicate with the cavernous: it is placed at the anterior end of the basilary process, is broad, and is described by Bichat to contain the same kind of cellular substance as the ca- vernous sinus. The cavernous is the most complicated in its struc- ture, and altogether the most remarkable of the cere- bral sinuses. It occupies the side of the sphenoid bone, reaching behind to the fissure which separates the end of the petrous portion from the sphenoid, and in front to the foramen lacerum: above, to the summits of the cli- noid processes, and below, to the openings through which the nerves of the fifth pair pass. The dura ma- ter, in this situation, is divided into two layers, one of which adheres to the bone, as in other situations, and forms the internal side of the sinus; the other, which is much thicker, forms its external side, and is part of the internal surface of the cranial cavity. In this latter layer the nerves of the third, fourth and fifth pairs are placed, contained in sheaths of the membrane. The interval of the two layers is occupied by a soft kind of filamentous cellular substance, through which the nerve of the sixth pair and the internal carotid artery pass. The ophthal- mic vein, returning the blood from the orbit, opens into this sinus, which receives also meningeal veins, and com- municates with the veins on the side of the basis cranii. It opens behind into the inferior petrous sinus. The right and left cavernous sinuses are said to communicate sometimes with each other under the pituitary gland. The circular sinus is a small one occupying the su- perior aperture of the sella Turcica, and describing a circular course round the edge of the pituitary gland. It communicates on each side with the cavernous; and it receives veins from the dura mater and the pituitary gland. The anterior or posterior semicircle, or even the whole sinus, is sometimes wanting. Occipital Sinuses.—These are very small; they begin at the sides of the foramen magnum, run backwards and upwards, and open into the lateral sinuses close to their origin. Anterior occipital sinuses are described, communicating with the inferior petrosal and the cavern- ous, and opening into the lateral near its exit from the head: they are not constant. For representations of the veins and sinuses of the brain, see Haller, Icon. Anat. fascic. 1; Vicq d'Azyr, Traité d’Anat. et Physiol. avec des pl. color. pl. 33. 35. 36. S. htorini, Tab. Posthum. 3. - The meningeal veins, or veins of the dura mater, re- ceiving innumerable ramifications from the substance of the cranium, form trunks, which accompany the arte- ries, and often on each side, being lodged with them in bony channels of the skull: these veins open into the si- nuses, particularly towards the basis of the skull, and they are said to communicate with the pterygoid veins. Weins of the Eye.—(See Walter, Epistola Anatomica de Venis Oculi.)—The vena ophthalmica cerebralis be- gins about the internal canthus, communicating with the ophthalmica facialis, goes outwards and downwards be- hind the globe, and ends in the cavernous sinus. The following veins enter it; viz. vena nasalis, ethmoidalis an- terior, infraorbitalis, ciliaris interna, ciliaris superior, lacrymalis, ciliaris postcrior, ciliares longae, ethmoidea posterior, centralis retinae. The arrangement and dis- tribution of these vessels in the eye are described under EYE. There are free communications bctween the external and internal veins of the head, in various situations, which have been already noticed; viz. at the parietal, the mas- toid, and the posterior condyloid foramina. The veins of the orbit also constitute a communication between these two sets of veins, as they are connected on one side with the facial vessels, and on the other with the cavernous sinus. It appears from the preceding description, that all the sinuses end, either mediately or immediately, in the right and left lateral, and consequently that all the blood conveyed to the brain is returned by these vessels. Hav- ing passed the foramen lacerum, the tube is called the internal jugular vein; it swells out into a dilatation re- ceived into the fossa jugularis of the temporal bone, de- scends perpendicularly along the neck, in company with, and on the outside of the internal carotid first, and after- wards of the common carotid artery, and of the par vagum, with which parts it is enclosed in a common cel- lular sheath. Just behind the anterior extremity of the first rib it ends, by joining at a right angle the subclavian vein. The internal jugular is a very large vein; when distended in the living subject, or by injection after death, it is nearly as large as the thumb. It receives the following veins; viz. the pharyngeal, the lingual, the common trunk formed by the union of the anterior and posterior facial, the superior and middle thyroid. The external or superficial jugular vein is formed by two or three principal trunks, and by smaller branches, which form a kind of venous plexus on the side of the neck, V E I N. neck, covered by the skin and by the latissimus colli. These trunks are the occipitalis superficialis, which commences, in company with the occipital artery, from the integuments of the back of the head, and receives branches from the muscles of the neck; transversa colli, which accompanies the artery of the same name: deep- Seated veins of the cervical muscles; subcutaneous veins towards the front of the neck; and smaller twigs from the sterno-mastoideus and lymphatic glands. The trunk terminates at the angle of union of the internal jugular and subclavian, or in the subclavian itself. For the veins of the neck, see Walter's plates in the Observat. Anat. already quoted. Weins of the Uſifier Eactremities.—The arteries are every where accompanied by corresponding veins, which lie close to them, and are generally double, one on each side. These it is not necessary to describe. In addition to these, which may be called the deep-seated, there is a cutaneous set of veins in the fingers, fore-arm, and arm, forming large trunks placed merely under the skin, not accompanied by any arteries. Both the deep-seated and cutaneous veins end in a single large trunk, the axillary, which accompanies the artery of the same name. The superficial veins of the fore-arm lie between the skin and the fascia, and form a venous net-work, com- posed of larger and smaller branches, over the whole limb. There is great variety in the size and arrange- ment of the trunks, which, however, are regular and constant in the arm. The digital veins run into trunks at the backs of the fingers, completely covering them after successful injection; they form a plexus (dorsalis manus) on the back of the hand, from which a large trunk (cubitalis interna, or ulnaris superficialis) or two, with smaller ramifications, run in the course of the ulna to the elbow. It passes over the tendon of the biceps, and assumes the name of basilic vein; ascends along the arm, on the inner edge of that muscle, in company with the brachial vessels, and enters the axilla, where it ends in the axillary vein. A large vein on the back of the hand, arising from the little finger, was called by the ancients salvatelſa. A venous plexus arises from the thumb, of which the largest branch is sometimes called cephalica pollicis: this plexus, containing one or two larger trunks, (radialis externa, or cephalica minor,) is continued along the ra- dial side of the fore-arm to the bend of the elbow, where it divides into two branches; the largest, under the name of median vein, passes obliquely in front of the joint to join the basilic vein; the other is called the cephalic, (cephalica major,) ascends on the outer edge of the biceps, runs in the cellular interval between the pecto- ralis major and deltoid to the edge of the clavicle, then dips under the bone, and ends in the axillary vein. There is considerable variety in the median vein, which is sometimes merely an oblique communication between the basilic and cephalic: in other instances, a large branch comes from the middle of the fore-arm, (mediana communis,) and divides at the elbow into two trunks, which separate like the branches of the letter V, and join, one the basilic, and one the cephalic. These branches are then called vena mediana basilica, and mediana cephalica. There is always a large communi- cation at the elbow, between this median vein and the radial and ulnar veins. - The axillary trunk, in which all the veins of the up- per extremity end, is placed in front of its correspond- ing artery, on the side and anterior part of the chest; Passes in front of the anterior scalenus muscle, then tak. ing the name of subclavian, and ends at the sternal ex- tremity of the first rib, by joining the internal jugular at a right angle. In this angle the thoracic duct ends behind, on the left side; and the minor trunk in front, on the right side. - For representations of the veins of the upper extre- mity, see Camper, Demonstrationes Anatomico-Patho- logica?, lib. i. Klint de Nervis Brachii. - The axillary trunk receives the superior and inferior thoracic veins, the external and internal scapular, the dorsalis Scapulaº, the vertebral, and the Superior inter- costal vein. The trunk of the latter accompanies its correspond- ing artery in the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae, commencing about the foramen magnum, and receiving numerous branches, of which the most re- markable are from a large plexus of veins lying close on the vertebrae before and behind, and connected with the transversa colli, the occipital, and the internal jugu- lar veins, from the sinuses of the medulla spinalis in the neck, (circuli venosi cervicales medullae spinalis), and communicating with the cerebral veins, at the foramen magnum. The vertebral and superior intercostal veins end in that part of the trunk called subclavian. The right superior intercostal is sometimes deficient; that is, the veins of the two or three superior intercostal intervals, instead of uniting into a separate trunk, join the vena azygos. The left is always a considerable vein, formed by the veins belonging to the five or six supe. rior intervals, which join into a trunk ascending on the Ieft side of the vertebral column, receiving the left bronchial vein, and some other small branches. The subclavian vein, having received the internal jugular, descends on the right side almost perpendicu- larly, and on the right of the arteria innominata, receives the internal mammary vein, and very soon receives the left subclavian at a right angle. It now takes the name of superior or descending vena cava, continues its course in the same direction, receives the vena azygos from be- hind, and after a farther perpendicular descent of about an inch, having penetrated the pericardium, terminates in the right auricle. 4 The left subclavian vein crosses the chest, immedi- ately behind the upper edge of the first bone of the sternum, and in front of the trachea and primary branches of the aortic arch, proceeding transversely from left to right, and joining the righ subclavian above the pericar- dium, as already described. It receives in this course the left internal mammary, the mediastinal, thymic, superior pericardiac, and inferior thyriod veins. The internal mammary vein accompanies the artery. The thymic veins are connected with the mediastinal, pericardiac, &c. They end either in the subclavian, internal mammary, bronchial, superior intercostal, or thyroid. The superior and posterior pericardiac veins gene- rally end in the subclavian; but they may terminate in the bronchial or internal mammary. The vein accom- panying the left phrenic nerve ends in the bronchial; on the right side, in the internal mammary. - The vena azygos returns the blood from the parietes of the chest, except in so far as the superior intercostal veins are concerned, which, as we have already de- scribed, join the subclavian. This vein connects the Superior V E IN. superior and inferior veins of the body: for its inferior ramifications anastomose with the lumbar or other ab- dominal veins. Hence, where the inferior cava has been obstructed, the blood has found its way through the vena azygos into the superior. The minute origins of the vena azygos on the right side of the body are connected with the vena cava, the lumbar, or the renal veins. The trunk, at this part small, enters the chest, either with the aorta, or through an interval in the right crus of the diaphragm. It as- cends on the right side of the vertebral column, in front of the right intercostal arteries, covered by the pleura, with the trunk of the aorta on its left, and the thoracic duct in the cellular substance between it and that artery, receiving the intercostal veins, and increasing in size. About the third dorsal vertebra it quits the spine, pass- ing forwards over the right bronchus and pulmonary artery, receiving the right bronchial and some Oesopha- geal veins, and of a considerable size, and opens into the back of the superior vena cava. The intercostal veins, which it receives in its course, accompany the arteries of the same name, and return the blood from the intercostal muscles, and those of the back, from the medulla spinalis, from the vertebrae, pleura, integuments, &c. About the seventh or eighth rib, the vena azygos re- ceives a large branch from the left side, called hemi- azyga. This begins by roots, which communicate with the abdominal veins, from a trunk entering the chest through the diaphragm, ascending on the left side of the chest, receiving four, five, or more left inferior inter- costal veins, and then crossing to the right side, to join the trunk. Sometimes the hemiazyga joins the com- mon trunk by two or three branches; sometimes it is not formed, and the left intercostals proceed straight to the right side. See Wrisberg, Observat. Anat. de Vena azyga duplici, aliisque hujus venae varietatibus. Goett- ing. 1778. * III. The inferior Vena Cava.—The veins of the lower extremities, of the pelvis, and the abdomen, ter- 1minate in this trunk. # The veins of the lower, like those of the upper extre- mity, consist of a deep-seated set accompanying the ar- teries, and therefore not requiring a separate descrip- tion; and a superficial order, covered only by the skin, and intervening between it and the fascia. The femoral vein is the common channel for the blood of both these systems of veins. The superficial veins of the leg compose two princi- pal trunks, called saphenae: there is indeed, as in the upper limb, a plexus covering nearly the whole of the , foot and leg, of which the different branches every where communicate. The saphena externa or minor arises from the venous plexus of the sole and back of the foot towards the outer edge; it runs below and behind the outer ankle, then rises over the calf, and having frequently communicated with the deep-seated veins, terminates in the trunk of the popliteal. * & The saphena externa or major is made up by the veins coming from the backs of the toes, and from the inner side of the sole, which form a considerable trunk, as- cending in front of the internal malleolus, on the inside of the leg, knee, and thigh, communicating frequently with the deep-seated veins, and ending in the trunk of the femoraſ, about an inch below the crural arch. Just before its termination, it receives some veins from the Vol. XXXVIII. * I c. * ~ +e ree º inauvè3 u." external organs of generation (pudicae externae); and a considerable trunk, which descends from ments of the abdomen. The femoral vein passes under the crural arch, on the outside of the corresponding artery, and continues.in company with the artery, under the name of the exter- nal iliac, along the side of the psoas magnus, until it meets with and joins the iliac or hypogastric vein from the pelvis, at the sacro-iliac symphysis, or the point where the common iliac artery bifurcates into its exter- nal and internal branches. Immediately above the crural arch, the external iliac receives the epigastric and cir- cumflex iliac veins. r The internal iliac or hypogastric vein is made up by the union of venous trunks, corresponding to the vari- ºs arteries which are given off from the internal iliac *... These veins accompany their respective arte- ries; but they are remarkable for forming thick and in- tricate plexuses, which surround the prostate, vesiculae seminales, neck, and fundus of the bladder, urethra and vagina, and rectum. A large vein runs along the back of the penis, in its middle, between the two arteriae dorsales, and returns the blood from the glands, corpus spongiosum, bulb, and corpora cavernosa. It passes under the arch of the pubes, and divides into a right and left branch, which run into the plexus. about the prostate and vesiculae seminales. w - . The superficial veins of the penis and scrotum find their way under the arch of the pubes, communicating with the internal pudic vessels, and end in the plexuses about the neck of the bladder. - They are united on the outside with the branches of the spermatic vein, and of the femoral. The prostate and vesiculae seminales, the lateral and inferior parts of the bladder, are covered by numerous ramifications of a dense plexus, from which the trunks of the vesical veins * A A \º convey the blood to the hypogastric. The veins in the labia are numerous, and communi- cate frequently: these and the veins of the clitoris pass under the arch of the pubes; the front of the vagina and urethra are covered by a thick plexus, which is the common termination of the external and internal pudic vessels. These plexuses envelope the sides of the vagi- na, the anterior, lateral, and inferior parts of the bladder, and end in the vesical veins. - The external hemorrhoidal veins end in the pudendal; the middle occupying a space of three or four inches, and united with the plexuses already mentioned, join the hypogastric. These latter then are interposed be- tween the internal hemorrhoidal, which joins the vena pertarum, and the external, from which the hemorrhoidal flux proceeds. 3. Large veins proceed from the vagina and uterus to the internal iliac: there are also the lateral sacral veins, corresponding in number to the sacral foramina, out of which they proceed, and united with the middle Sacral vein. The other vessels contributing to the hypogas- tric vein are, the obturatrix, ischiatic, pudenda commu- nis, glutea, ileo lumbaris. * The primary or common iliacs, formed by the junc- tion, at nearly right angels, of the external and internal, are very considerable venous trunks, differing slightly on the right and left sides of the body. The right is much the shortest, and proceeds obliquely behind, and rather above its corresponding artery. The left, placed behind and below the left common iliac artery, proceeds 3 C obliquely V E IN. obliquely upwards and towards the right, across the front and the upper part of the sacrum; then goes between the fifth lumbar vertebra and the right common iliac artery, to join its corresponding vein, at an acute but open an- gle, on the right side of the vertebral column, at the in- terval between the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae; forming by this union the great trunk of the inferior or ascending vena cava. . . . One or two lumbar veins sometimes join the common iliac. The sacra media, a small vein, terminates, either at the angle of union, or in the left common iliac. The inferior vena cava lies at its origin, close to the aorta, on its right, and on the right side of the vertebral column: it ascends in the same relative position, first connected to the spine, then to the right crus of the dia- phragm; but more and more distant from the aorta, * rises higher in the body. It leaves the vertebral colu towards the upper part of the abdomen, and enters a deep fissure in the posterior or thick edge of the liver, which covers two-thirds, and sometimes the whole vein. From the loins upwards the size of the trunk is conside- rably increased: it will easily admit a large thumb. Quit- ting the liver, it penetrates the tendon of the diaphragm (see D1APHRAGM), and immediately opens into the right auricle of the heart. (See HEART.) In its passage it re- ceives the following veins. - 1. The Sacra media has been already mentioned. 2. The lumbar veins correspond to the arteries of the same name, and return the blood from the parts sup- plied by those vessels. They form about four trunks on each side, which end in the lateral and posterior part of the inferior cava. - 3. The spermatic veins. They come from the testi- cles in the male subject, from the uterus and ovaria in the female; receive various branches from the ureter (uretericae), fat of the kidney (adiposae), &c. and com- municate with the veins in the mesentery and mesocolon; form first a considerable plexus, with several trunks. communicating together, and afterwards a single vein, which ends in the front of the vena cava on the right side, and in the renal vein on the left. 4. Renal or emulgent veins. Of these large trunks, the right is much shorter than the left, on account of the relative position of the vena cava and the kidneys. The latter crosses the vertebral column in front of the aorta. There are rarely more than one on each side. 5. Capsular veins. These often end in the renal, par- ticularly on the left side, otherwise they terminate in the cava. --- ** 6. Hepatic veins. They are numerous, and of differ- ent sizes. Usually there are from three to five large ones, and several smaller. They return the blood of the vena portarum and that of the hepatic artery. 7. Inferior diaphragmatic veins; accompanying the arteries, and ending either in the cava, or in an hepatic vein. Soemmerring states that some diaphragmatic veins join the vena portarum. Besides the works to which we have referred in the course of this, article for plates illustrating particular veins, we may refer in general to the Fasciculi of Hal- ler, to the plates of the veins in Loder’s collection, and to Mayer's Anatomische Beschreibung der Blutgefässe des menschlichen Körpers; mit kupfern, 1788, 8vo. See also Walter Angiologisches Handbuch, 1779. Soemmerring, De Corporis Humani Fabrica, t, 5. Bichat’s Anatomie Descriptive, t. 4. VEINS, Diseases of the. Veins (says Mr. Hodgson) are liable to all those morbid changes which are common to soft Parts in general; but the membranous lining of these vessels is peculiarly susceptible of inflammation. When a vein is wounded, the inflammation, which is the effect of the injury, sometimes extends along the lining of the vessel into the principal venous trunks, and, in some instances, even to the membrane which lines the cavities of the heart. This inflammation sometimes produces an effusion of coagulating, lymph, by which the opposite sides of the vein are united so as to obliterate the tube. In this manner, a great extent of the vessel is occasion- ally converted into a solid cord. In some instances, the secretion of pus into the cavity of the vessel is the con- sequence of inflammation of the membranous lining of veins: under these circumstances, the matter is either mixed with the circulating blood, or the inflammation, having produced adhesion of the sides of the vessel at certain intervals, boundaries are formed to the collec- tions of pus, which in this manner form a chain of ab- scesses in the course of the vessel. - - When the inflammation of veins is not very extensive, its symptoms are the same as those of local inflammation in general; but when the inflammation extends into the principal venous trunks, and pus is secreted into the vessel, it is accompanied with a high degree of consti- tutional irritation, and with symptoms which bear, a striking resemblance to those of the typhus fever. See Hodgson’s Treatise on the Diseases of Arteries and Veins, p. 51 1, 5 12. - g In the first volume of the Transactions of a Society for the improvement of Medical and Chirurgical Know- ledge, Mr. Hunter has published an extremely interes- ting paper on the subject of inflammation of veins, and he has particularly adverted to that common case, an inflamed arm after bleeding. By some, he observes, this complaint has been imputed to the wounding of a ten- don; by some, to the injury of a nerve; and by others it has been ascribed to a bad constitution. Mr. Hunter expresses his doubts of the accuracy of these opinions, and he remarks, that the manner in which these sore arms come on, plainly proves that they arise from the wound not healing by the first intention; for, in most cases, the external wound first festers or in- flames, and then suppurates or ulcerates, the cavity cf the vein becoming subsequently imprevious. In some instances, this suppuration is only superficial, the vein and parts below having united. In other examples, the skin appears to be united, but not close to the vein, so that a small abscess forms between the vessel and the integuments. This bursts and discharges a thin watery fluid, and no further mischief happens. When, however, this imperfection of union is continued on to the cavity of the vein, this vessel inflames both upwards and down- wards, frequently to a considerable extent, and the sur- rounding parts join in the inflammation. º We find, says Mr. Hunter, all these variations in dif- ferent cases. Sometimes the disease goes no further than an inflammation near the orifice of the vein, and the case often ends in resolution. At other times, the inflam- mation is carried farther, but suppuration is prevented by the adhesive inflammation taking place in the affected portion of the vein, and, in such cases, the veins may be plainly felt, like hard cords, after the surrounding tume- faction has subsided. But this salutury effect is not al- ways produced, and suppuration in the vein is the con- - Sequence, V E I N. sequence, but often in so limited a degree, that only a small abscess forms in the cavity of the vein, near the puncture. The confinement of the matter in this part of the vein, arises from adhesions in the vessel, a little above and below the orifice. But, in many cases, adhe- sions do not occur, and then the inflammation and suppu- ration are not confined to the vicinity of the wound. On the contrary, an abscess is frequently produced, oc- cupying a considerable length of the vein in both direc- tions; and, says Mr. Hunter, we often have more than one abscess; nay, sometimes there is a series of them, gene- rally in the direction towards the heart; but not always in this course; for, occasionally, these abscesses are ob- Served between the orifice in the vein and the extreme part of the limb. -- - In consequence of a wound in the foot, Mr. Hunter saw the vena saphena inflamed all up the leg and thigh, nearly as high as the groin; and he was obliged to open a chain of abscesses, which reached nearly the whole course of the vessel. In cases in which the inflammation had been violent, and in which the opportunity of examination was affor- ded, Mr. Hunter found the inflammation at some dis- tance from this violence in the adhesive state; in some places, the sides of the vein were adhering; and, in others, the inner surface of the veins was covered with coagula- ble lymph. When different abscesses had formed, he always found, that the spaces of the vein between them had united by the adhesive inflammation, and it is this union which circumscribes such abscesses. In examining the arm of a man who died at St. George’s hospital, Mr. Hunter found the veins, both above and below the orifice, united in many places by the adhesive inflammation. He also found in many parts of the veins the commencement of suppuration, without ulceration having actually begun; while, in several other places, ulceration had occurred, and destroyed the sur- face of the vessel next the skin, a circumscribed abscess being produced. The vein near the axilla was in a state of suppuration, and as no adhesions were formed be: yond the part affected, Mr. Hunter conceived that the matter had passed freely into the circulation, and most probably been the occasion of the man’s disease. When larger abscesses nad come on than those arising from the ulceration ºf the wound of the lancet, Mr. Hun ter always found that the vein was afterwards obliterated, having united and healed up as any other cavity does, so that the patient could never be bled in the same vein again. Inflammation of a vein is a common effect after bleed- ing horses, which is to be ascribed to the careless and rough manner of closing the puncture with a pin. Mr. Hunter had seen the jugular veins of horses inflamed through their whole course, the swelling extended to all the side of the head, and the inflammation reaching even to the chest. In these cases there is always an abscess formed at the wound, and often several along the vein, as in the human subject; and whenever the complaint is carried as far as this stage, the vein is rendered for ever afterwards impervious. Many horses die of this disease; but what is the particular circumstance which occasions their death, Mr. Hunter was not able to deter- mine. It may (says he) either be that the inflammation extends itself to the heart, or that the matter secreted from the inside of the vein passes along that tube in con- siderable quantity to the heart, and mixes with the blood. Although the operation of venesection, which is the most frequent cause of this complaint, is to appearance trifling, yet, as it is often of very serious consequence, both to the life of the patient and the character of the surgeon, the operator should use the utmost care to pre- vent an evil of such magnitude. He should be particu- larly attentive to the mode of closing the wound and binding up the arm. This is to be done by bringing the two sides of the wound together, in order that they may unite by the first intention. To accomplish this, let the surgeon, with the thumb of that hand which holds the arm, push the skin towards the orifice, while he draws it on the other side to the same point with the compress, which is then to be immediately applied. The compress should be broad, so as to keep the skin better together; and thick, in order that the compression may be more certain. Mr. Hunter preferred a compress of linen, or lint, to sticking-plaster. He very properly thought, that the blood which dried over the orifice was a more natu- ral and effectual bond of union than any other applica- tion. This conclusion, he observes, is drawn from prac- tice; and he had seen more sore arms, in consequence of bleeding, where the puncture had been dressed with plasters, than under other circumstances. When inflammation takes place beyond the orifice, the surgeon should endeavour to promote adhesion of the inflamed sides of the vessel by means of compres- sion. If it be suspected that suppuration has happened, the pressure should be applied just above the suppura- tion, with a view of producing an obliteration of the ves- sel in that situation. (See Trans, of a Society for the Improvement of Med. and Chir. Knowledge, vol. i. p. 18, &c.) As Mr. Hodgson observes, the treatment of the inflammation, when only the punctured vein is affect- ed, should be the same as that of local inflammation in general; namely, the application of leeches, the use of evaporating washes, purgatives, and low diet. Although the constitutional irritation, which takes place in exten- sive inflammation of veins, is attended with more debili- ty than usually accompanies acute inflammation, yet the case can hardly be relieved without recourse to copious bleedings, and the usual antiphlogistic remedies. For additional information on the foregoing subject, we refer to Mr. Hodgson’s excellent Treatise on the Diseases of Arteries and Veins, a publication which re- flects the highest credit on its intelligent author. Some other affections of the veins are noticed in distinct arti- cles of this Cyclopaedia. See CIRSoc ELE, HEMO R- RHoIDs, VARI cocº LE, VARIcose Weins, VARAX, &c. VEINs, Method of oftening, for the purpose of taking away blood. See BLEED ING. - VEIN, in Botany and Vegetable Physiology, vena, is a term used for all those assemblages of tubes, through which the sap of a plant is transmitted along the leaves, and by some of which also the secreted fluids must be returned into the bark and wood, for the increase of both. Hence Hedwig, for the sake of precision, has invented the term ductorum fasciculus, a cluster of ducts, for the ribs of the foliage in Mosses; but we see no improvement in this phraseology. The larger, pri- mary, or more direct, assemblages of vessels have ob- tained the name of ribs, cost ae, or nerves, nervi; but the limits between these and veins are not always very cer- tain. Large transverse veins, as well as the great longi- tudinal ones, are often called ribs or nerves, especially if they send off finer and more complex ramificatiºns, 3 C 2 interbranching v E IN. interbranching with each other like het-work, to which the name of veins is evidently more suitable. We could wish to apply the term costa to the great central rib, and nervi to the lateral ones, whether longitudinal or trans- verse, but this has not been adopted with any regularity. See Costa and LEAF. - Veins are also found copiously in the fetals of flowers, and are exactly analogous to the veins, ribs, or nerves of leaves, except being generally more pellucid and homo- geneous. When the petals undergo any changes of co- lour, in their progressive stages of growth, the veins par- take remarkably of such changes, and mostly in the first instance. Ribs, rather than veins, are most apparent in the calyx of many plants. .* VEINs, Metallic and Mineral, in Geology, are fissures intersecting rocks or strata, filled more or less complete- ly with mineral or metallic matter, different from the substance of the rock. When veins are seen on the sur- face intersecting or traversing a mountain, they have been supposed to resemble the veins of animals; but the resemblance is only superficial, for veins are not tubular, except in a few instances; but their thickness is small, compared with their length and depth. Metallic veins are the principal repositories of most of the metals, except iron and manganese, which occur Imore frequently and abundantly in beds than in veins. The thickness of metallic veins varies from a few inches to several feet or yards: the same vein varies also in thickness in different parts of its course, sometimes con- tracting to a narrow string of ore, and then expanding again to the width of several yards. The depth to which they descend is unknown, for we believe no instance has occurred of a considerable vein being worked out in defith, though it may sink too deep to render the opera- tion of the miner profitable; or it may branch off in a number of strings, which are too much intermixed with the rock to be worked to advantage. In cases where the metallic ores have disappeared at considerable depths, the veins are still continued, though they are filled ex- clusively with the mineral matter or vein-stone which accompanied the ore in the upper part of the rock. Some veins appear to grow wider, and others to contract as they descend. The direction of veins downwards in- clines more or less from the perpendicular; but they sometimes run for a certain distance parallel with the dip of the beds or strata in a mountain, and then strike down through the lower beds. r - The length of metallic veins has rarely, if ever, been accurately determined; they have frequently been traced several miles, but their further progress has been con- cealed by the intervention of valleys, rivers, or accumu- lations of sand and alluvial deposits. Some of the me- tallic veins in South America have been traced to the distance of eighty miles. Large veins generally take a nearly direct line through a country, except where they are turned aside by cross veins, or what are called in Cornwall cross courses: it is also remarkable, that the metalliferous veins in England generally run nearly east and west, and the cross courses north and south. To What cause this is owing we are perfectly ignorant. Large metalliferous veins frequently send off smaller veins, or strings of ore, from their sides, which penetrate the rock to a considerable distance on each side of the large vein. Veins are seldom entirely filled with ore, but sometimes it extends in a compact mass from one side to the other. More frequently, the ore is inter- mixed with mineral matter called vein-stone, matriz or gangue: this, according to the rock which it intersects, will be either calcareous spar, fluor spar, barytes or quartz. The vein-stone and the ore are frequently ar- ranged over each other, lining the sides of the vein with alternate layers of metallic and mineral matter, and fill- ing up the whole vein. In the mines of Cornwall, the ores of copper and tin commonly occur in detached masses, which are called bunches of ore; and the other parts of the vein, being unproductive, are called deads. The vein is generally separated from the rock which it intersects by a thin layer of mineral matter distinct from the vein, and from the rock itself, and also by a thin lining of clay. Sometimes there are large cavities in veins called druses, which are generally, lined with crystals. . In other instances the vein divides, inclosing a piece of rock, which is called the rider; but it is ob. served, that the inclosed mass, or rider, differs in its quality from that of the rock through which the vein passes. The superficial part of a vein generally contains the ore in a decomposing state; and it frequently happens that the ores in the upper and lower part of the vein are different; thus in Cornwall, blende, or the sulphuret of zinc, often occupies the uppermost part of the vein, to which succeeds tin-stone, and at a greater depth, copper pyrites. See ZINC, TIN-Stone, and CoPPER. When Mr. Pryce wrote his “Mineralogia Cornubi- ensis,” the mines of Cornwall had not been worked to a great depth, for he says the richest state of a mine for copper was from eighty to one hundred yards deep, and for tin, from forty to one hundred and twenty yards. This account by no means corresponds with the present state of the Cornish mines. The Dolcooth copper-mine, near Redruth, is worked to the depth of four hundred and fifty-six yards, and is very productive at that depth. Veins generally decline from the perpendicular, and descend into the earth obliquely. The sides, or, as they are called, the walls or cheeks of the vein, are differently denominated, the upper side being called the hanging- side, the uſi-cheek or hanger; and the under side, the hading-side, the down-cheek, or the ledger. The veins we have been describing are called rake veins in some parts of England, and in Cornwall, they are denominated lodes; which see. These metalliferous veins have com- monly the same direction, or nearly so, in the same dis- trict, and the veins which cross them are generally un- productive, or contain metallic ores of a different kind... They are called cross courses, or north and south veins. Metalliferous rake-veins intersect most of the moun- tains called primary, such as granite, gneiss, and mica slate. (See GRANITE, &c.) But they are more abun- dant in slate-rocks than in rocks of granite or porphyry. (See GRANITE, SLATE, and Porphy Ry.) They also in- tersect the rocks of transition and mountain lime-stone, which rest upon slate, or alternate with it; but they rare- ly rise into the secondary strata which contains coal. This fact seems to prove that veins were formed prior to the deposition of the upper secondary strata. ... When a metallic vein in its descent passes through different kinds of rock, it is frequently observed that the products of the vein vary in each bed; and when it passes through regularly stratified beds of the same rock, there are par- ticular strata in which the veins are always found most productive, and these in the north of England are called bearing measures. If the nature of the rock seems to - have v E IN. have produced a change in the quality of the ore, it Hess is also frequen changed or decomposed in the immediate vicinity of a vein. This change is more apparent in some rocks than in others, particularly in granite, sienite, gneiss, mica-slate, argillaceous schistus or slate, and porphyry. In such instances, according to Werner, it is only one of the component parts of the rock that is decomposed, either the felspar, the hornblende, or the mica, but never the quartz. This change sometimes extends to a con- siderable distance on each side of the vein, even to a fathom or more; it extends farther in some places than in others, and is most general in those parts where the vein contains sulphur. Sometimes this change in the rock may be perceived so far, that it serves as a guide to the miner; and in following a sterile vein, when he comes to a place where the rock is decomposed, he concludes that the metallic ore will soon be found. In Cornwall, the felspar is frequently changed in the vicinity of a vein, and tin-stone is sometimes disseminated through the rock to some distance on each side of it. The cross courses or veins which intersect the metal- liferous veins, frequently occasion a considerable de- rangement in the position of metalliferous veins, and, what is still more remarkable, occasion a change in the quantity or quality of their contents. When a veinis cut through by another, either in its line of bearing along a country, or crosses it by declining in a different direc- tion, the vein which is cut through is supposed to be of more ancient formation than the vein which crosses and cuts through it; but it may be doubted, from various circumstances, whether many of these veins were not formed at the same time with the rock itself, or were fis- sures passing through the rock in different directions, into which the various metallic substances were secret- ed, during its consolidation. To form a more distinct idea of the structure of a vein and its intersection by cross courses, we refer to Plate IV. Geology. Fig. 4. a a re- present a rake-vein descending obliquely; 6 b, the rock; c, c, the walls or cheeks of the vein; d, an interposing piece of rock, called the rider; e, e, e, the division of the vein into numerous small veins or strings of ore. If the space at d, which is supposed to be filled with rock, where empty, or filled with water, it would constitute what is called a druse; and it is in these cavities or druses that all the most beautiful and regular crystallizations of the mine occur. Fig. 5. represents the section of a rock containing a metallic vein cut through, and displaced by cross courses or veins of another metal; a a a is a vein which appears to have been once continuous, and contains tin; b, b, b, represent different veins of copper, which cut through the for- mer, and have upheaved the lower part, and brought them nearer the surface. In Plate II. Geology, fig. 10. represents the ground plan or horizontal section of a plot of ground traversed by a vein and a cross course; E.W. represent the east and west sides of the ground. It is in this direction the vein a a passes, but it is cut through by the cross vein 6 b, which has carried the western side of the vein and the ground along with it considerably to the north of its original position. Such a fracture and removal of the vein can only be conceived to have taken place by a lateral or horizontal motion of a portion of the ground. Such a motion has been frequently ob- served during violent earthquakes. For though the ground is heaved upwards, the greater resistance which certain parts offer to this motion must occasion a late- is no * 4 lºw way * * * + e! l, ** - ~1ſ remarkable that the rock itself ral pressure on other parts of the earth's surface, and to such a pressure we must also refer the remarkable con- tortions of the coal strata near Valenciennes. See Plate II, fig. 9. Metallic veins frequently occasion a displacement of the strata when they pass through regularly stratified rocks; and it is observed, that when this displacement is considerable, so as to bring a bed of lime-stone on the same level with a bed of sand-stone or shale, the vein is never so productive as when the opposite sides or walls of the vein are in the same kind of rock. See Plate II. Geology, fig. 8. where the different strata a, b, c, d, e,f, g, represent different strata on each side of a vein or fault. If d, d, are supposed to represent parts of a bed of lime-stone broken by the vein, and g g a bed of sand-stone below the lime-stone, but brought on the same level with it by the upheaving of the strata,-in that part of the vein where the lime-stone, d, and the sand-stone, g, form the walls opposite to each other, the vein will be unproductive, though in other parts of the district, when the vein passes through the same bed of lime-stone, on each side of it, at the same level, it will be remarkably productive. These facts may be com- monly observed in the mining districts of the western parts of Northumberland and Durham, where the stra- ta consist of different beds of mountain lime-stone, sand- stone, and shale. See STRATA, under which article the succession of the different beds is enumerated. As cross veins generally displace and injure the qua- lity of veins, on the contrary, when east and west veins in a district meet, by a slight variation in their direction or dip, the part where they join is frequently very rich in ore; and where a number of metallic veins cross each other at the same place, they frequently produce a large irregular conical mass of ore of vast extent, from which the different veins diverge, like radii from a common centre. The main shaft of such a vein, which Mr. Wil- liams, in his Mineral Kingdom, calls an accumulated vein, “resembles,” he says, “the inside of a glass-house; and the vast capacity of this vein is frequently stored with a rich body of metallic ore, often imbedded in soft mineral soils; but the veins and branches which join and diverge resemble rake-veins, or perpendicular mineral fissures. When the ore is worked out of an accumulated vein, it exhibits a frightful gulf, sometimes fifty or sixty feet wide below, and is often worked down to a great depth from the surface.” A number of these accumulated veins have been worked at Pike-Law, in the county of Dur- ham. Cross courses sometimes contain ore to a small distance from their junction with metallic veins, and in other situations they become so rich as to be worked with advantage. The Botallock mine, on the sea-coast near St. Just, in Cornwall, offers a striking illustration of this, though we believe its structure has not been ge- nerally known or understood. The vein which is worked is a north and south vein, varying in width from nine to twelve feet, and extending under the sea. The vein- stone is quartz, with a small, quantity of fluor spar. It is found to contain ore of copper and tin only in those parts where the east and west veins enter it, and for thirty or forty fathoms on each side of the junction. This mine produces the richest ore of copper in Cornwall, the gray sulphuret yielding twenty fier cent. of this metal. It is deserving notice, that the metalliferous veins which enter this lode on the east side and render it pro- ductive, have never been found on the west side, so that they V E I N. they appear to terminate in it. The rock near the great north and south vein is a soft kill as or slate, but beyond this it is a very indurated flinty slate. This vein may properly be considered as a cross course, rendered lich in ore in various parts by a number of small veins which fall into it, like brooks into a large river where they are lost. The situation of this mine is truly remarkable, at the foot of a precipitous cliff that overhangs the Atlantic ocean. If ever a spot seemed to bid defiance to the efforts of the miner, it was this. At the very commence- ment of his labours, he was required to lower an im- mense steam engine down a precipice of more than two hundred feet, with a view of extending his operation under the bed of the sea, where the workings are at pre sent continued for seventy fathoms in length and sixty- five fathoms in depth. In these caverms of darkness, many human beings for a small pittance, and that even of an uncertain amount, are constantly digging for ore, regardless of the horrors which surround them, and of the roar of the Atlantic ocean, whose boisterous waves are incessantly rolling over their heads. In some places the sea actually penetrates through; and it is worthy of observation, that the water is deprived of a great por- tion of its salts; but whether this arises from filtration, or whether some portion of the fresh water from the land percolated through subterranean fissures in the rocks, we could not ascertain when we visited this singular mine. If the filtration be more abundant after heavy rains, it would prove the intermixture of rain-water. The thin cross courses filled with clay called flucan, heave the east and west veins, and also hold up the wa- ter. The vein which is rich in ore on one side of the flucan, will be poor on the other side. This fact, which we believe has not been sufficiently noticed, is well de- serving attention, and would indicate that the presence of water affected the contents of veins. - - Some veins contain little diversity in the nature of their contents, being filled principally with one kind of ore or vein-stone. Other veins contain a great variety of minerals, without any apparent regularity of arrange- ment: there are also numerous veins which have a regular structure, the different minerals being arranged in paral- lel layers, coating each other: the same succession of different minerals occur on each side and meet in the middle, filling up the vein, or sometimes leaving an empty space between. Thus calcareous spar, fluor spar, barytic spar, lead-ore, blende, and grey copper-ore, form different layers over each other in the same succession on each side of the vein. In the Botallock mine, before described, copper-ore is frequently found lining each side of the vein, and this is covered by tin; but in other parts of the mine the tin covers the walls, and is suc- ceeded by copper. - - Irregular Weins.—Besides rake-veins, which may be considered as regular, there are other veins which pre- sent a great variety of structure, and are called bellies, fifles, &c. according to their form. If a rake-vein be regarded as a tubular mass of mineral matter intersect- ing mountains; if this vein, become irregular, and have its sides closed, or, as the miners call, twitched in, it forms what they denominate a pipe-vein, or mass of ore, and vein-stone sometimes of a tubular shape, descending to a considerable distance like a pipe. In other instances, the sides are closed in both above and below, as well as on the sides, inclosing what the miners call a belly, or mass of ore of considerable magnitude. Sometimes a small rib of ore is continued through that part of the rock where the sides of the vein are twitched in, until the vein expands again and produces another mass of ore. In some instances there is no ore between, a rib of vein-stone or rider of clay being carried through the narrow part or twitch of the vein, but many of these twitches contain nei- ther ore, clay, nor rider. In such cases, it becomes ex- ceedingly difficult to follow the vein through the rock, to where it opens out again. The veins in general do not close suddenly, but the sides gradually approach each other, and the ore termi- nates in the form of a wedge at the twitch. These contractions or twitches are of various lengths, and no miner can tell, when the vein is so squeezed in, how many fathoms he must pass through before it opens again, unless the same twitch has before been cut through above or below the part where he is working. The in- tervening space between two masses of ore is called a bar, and sometimes extends ten, twenty, or even a hun- dred fathons or more; and when it is cut through, the ore makes its appearance, and begins gradually to widen and form another mass or belly. When one of these bellies of ore proves pure and solid, it generally happens that all the contiguous bellies prove so in the same vein. Ac- cording to Mr. Forster, instances have been known of eight hundred bings of ore being raised by six miners from one of these bellies in the space of nine weeks. When the matrix in these large-bellies of ore is soft, the ore is generally found in a globular form, more or less irregularly imbedded in the soft materials, and these globular masses of ore are of various dimensions. It is no uncommon thing to find the soft openings in this kind of vein swell to an enormous width, so as to make it dif- ficult to find the real sides of the vein. Working these veins is the most difficult part of mining, as there is no proceeding a foot without advancing timbers as far as they go, in the form of a passage in a house, composed of two side-posts, a lintel and a sole. The miners stand within this square frame, where they work and erect more tim- ber as they proceed. It frequently happens that the ore is so plentiful and rich in this kind of metallic repository, as abundantly to compensate for all the labour and expense. Fiat Weins and Beds.—When a vein runs parallel with the strata, it is called a flat vein. If the strata are soft, and the metallic matter is widely distributed, such veins do not differ from beds, being regular beds or strata in- pregnated with metallic matter. When flat veins run between hard strata, they are also liable to contractions, or twitches, and again expand, forming ſtifies or tubular masses of ore, which extend in an inclined position, having the same dip as the strata. Flat veins may be distinguished from beds by this character; proper flat veins appear to be openings between the strata which have been filled with metallic matter from a rake-vein, or are at least connected with it, as they seldom are pro- ductive of ore, except in the vicinity of the vein; whereas beds are regular strata, having the same elevations and depressions as the other strata in a mountain, but contain- ing metallic matter more or less abundantly scattered through them. Iron ores and ore of manganese frequent- ly occur in beds, forming regular parts or layers of the mountain. Other metallic ores, which occur less fre- quently and abundantly in beds, are, we believe, for the most part veins which have taken the course of the sof- ter beds and distributed their contents through them. It V E I N. - It is well known, that when a vein descends through strata of different kinds of rock, it grows wider in ihe soft strata, and contracts in the harder beds of rock. The metalliferous beds in Cumberland appear, in ma- ny instances, to be soft beds, rendered productive of ore by a number of small veins running through them. There are few metallic beds in England, except in that county. Manganese occurs in beds in red sand-stone in the vicinity of Exeter, but the metallic matter decrea- ses as the beds dip from the surface. Metallic beds, in primary countries, occur most frequently among the schistose mountains, composed of gneiss, mica slate, and slate. (See Rock.) It is observed, that the ores and mine- rals which occur in beds are seldom crystallized, as these beds contain few druses or cavities to admit the forma- tion of crystals. The minerals in beds are accompanied with garnet, actinolite, and horn-blende, which never oc- cur in rake-veins. See GARNET, &c. Stock-worke.—When a rock is crossed and penetrated by a great number of small veins in every direction, the whole mass is worked as an ore, and is called by the Germans a stock-worke, or werke, the rock being after- wards separated from the ore by pounding and washing, in the same manner as the vein-stone is cleared from the ore in other mines. When the ore is disseminated in par- ticles through the rock, such rocks are also worked for the ore when it exists in sufficient quantity. In some in- stances, masses of ore of great magnitude are found im- bedded in rocks, without any apparent connection with veins, which masses must have been formed at the same time with the rock itself. Rocks and strata are sometimes penetrated by metal- lic salts or oxyds, diffused through the mass in the same manner as we frequently observe strata of sand-stone abounding with the red oxyd of iron. Where the metals are valuable, such impregnated rocks or strata are some- times worked as ores. At Alderley Edge, a hill near Macclesfield, in Cheshire, the sand-stone, which is in some parts a kind of breccia, is impregnated with the black oxyd of cobalt, with the carbonate and oxyd of cop- per, and with particles of sulphuret and carbonate of lead, and has formerly been worked for the lead and cop- per, and more recently for the cobalt. Mr. Williams, in his “ Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom,” des- cribes a singular stratum of stone near Lossy mouth, in the shire of Moray, of about eight feet thick, which is composed of several species of hard and fine stones of various beautiful colours. “This stratum is a kind of pudding-stone, in the composition of which there is blen- ded about an eighth part of good blue lead-ore or galena. “This curious bed of stone is nearly horizontal, but dips away with an easy slope towards the north of the Moray Frith. The lead is found in larger and smaller grains and flowers, blended through the whole body and composition of the stone, in the same manner as the smali masses of agates and coloured crystals, and other species of stone, are found blended through the whole body of the stratum.”. ** Where metallic ore is thus intermixed with fragments of rock forming a conglomerate or breccia, it may probably be referred to the same kind of metallic reposi- tory as stream-works, (see STREAM- Works,) in which particles and masses of ore are intermixed with loose peb- bles and sand, forming beds at the bottom of valleys, or on the sea-shore, the metallic matter, as well as the peb- bles, being derived from the disintegration of rocks con- taining metallic veins; but in the instance cited by Mr. Wiiiiams, the parts have become united, forming a solid stratum. - The manner in which metallic veins were filled with ore has greatly divided the opinions of geologists. George Agricola, a Saxon, who died in 1555, appears to have been the first writer who had any distinct knowledge of the structure of metallic veins, which he published in a work entitled “De Ré Metallica,” and another work entitled “ Bermannus.” His theory of veins is in some . respects similar to that of Werner, which has lately ex- cited much attention. According to Agricola, the rents or fissures which are filled with metallic matter were part- ly formed at the same time with the rocks themselves, and partly afterwards, by the waters penetrating the softer parts; so that where there has been a larger quantity of water, or where the substance of the rock has been much softened, there the largest fissures occur. With respect to the earths and stones found in veins, he conceives the former to have been detached from the rocks and carried into the veins by water; the latter he considers as arising from the earthy matter, hardened partly by change of temperature and partly by a lapidific juice. Minerals and metals he regards as being deposited from a so- lution in water, containing the earthy parts intimately mixed and combined with it in certain proportions. The solution of these mineral substances he conceives to have been greatly promoted by heat, on the abstraction of which they assumed their present solid form; the pre- cious metals being the result of a more pure and perfect solution. - Becher, in his “ Physica-Subterranea,” published in 1669, ascribes the formation of metals and minerals to certain subterranean vapours which arise from the bowels of the earth, and penetrating the substance of veins, produce a peculiar change in the earthy or stony matter they meet with. He regards the earth as a hol- low body, filled with clay, water, sulphureous and bitu- minous substances, from which arise certain exhalations that form the metals. The celebrated German, physi- cian Stahl, considers veins, as well as the substances they contain, to have been formed at the same time with the earth itself, and of course as being contemporaneous with the rocks they intersect; but he is disposed to attri- bute some effect to the action of air and other causes. Henkel, in his “Pyritologia,” has given an ingenious theory of the formation of metallic veins, which has been. adopted, with certain modifications, by some later geolo- gists: he attributes the formation of ores to a peculiar. exhalation produced and engendered by fermentation, supposed by him to take place in the interior of rocks. The basis of each ore and mineral he supposes. to exist in the substance of the rock, and by a peculiar process of nature it is matured and converted into the metal. He does not venture to ascertain the nature of . these bases, but in one passage he treats of subtle earths, in another of mecurial, arsenical, and sulphureous parts. These three last he probably considered as constituent parts, and the metals as compounds. Air, water, and fire, are substances, according to this mineralogist, of which nature avails herself in the formation of metals. He also supposes certain kinds of earths and stones to exist, which serve as the matrix for others, and which are indispensably necessary in the formation of minerals. Zimmerman, the pupil of Henkel, is the first mine- ralogist who considers veins to have been formed by a transformation V E IN. transformation of the substance of the rock. Minerals, he says, are undoubtedly formed in the rock; but daily experience shows that the rock is not of itself capable of forming a metal, for were the mineralizing principle ca- pable of converting it into a metal, we should find whole mountains which had undergone this change. But this change is only met with in certain directions, where the part of a rock, being thus transformed, constitutes veins. These veins, when they have not suffered an entire change, or when they do not contain perfect metals, are still of a different nature from the rest of the rock. An attentive examination will show that they are of a decom- posed and friable nature, appearing to have a tendency to return to this natural earthy state, from which we may conclude that these veins were originally the same as the rock, but that their texture had been altered and decom- posed by some particular saline substance, which pene- trated the rents and fissures, and had rendered them fit to be transformed into minerals. Before noticing the theory of Von Oppel, which has since been adopted by Werner, we shall state the opi- nions of those geologists who, with Henkel and Zimmer- man, suppose that veins have been filled by local causes which may still continue to operate; whereas Von Oppel and Werner conceive that they where formed by a gene- ral cause, the operation of which ceased before the pre- sent state of the globe. Lehman, in his treatise on the matrices of metals, published in 1753, says, “ the veins which we find in mines appear to be only the branches and sloots of an immense trunk, which is placed at a prodigious depth in the bowels of the earth, but in conse- guence of its great depth we have not been able to reach the trunk. The large veins are its principal branches, and the inferior ones the twigs. What I have said,” he adds, “will not appear incredible, when we consider that the bowels of the earth are, according to every ob- servation, the workehouse where Nature carries on the manufacture of the metals; that, from the beginning of the world, she has been working at, and elaborating their primitive particles; that these particles issue forth, in the form of vapours and exhalations, to the surface of the globe through rents, in the same manner as the sap rises and circulates through vegetables by means of the vessels and fibres of which they are composed.” The latter part of the theory of Lehman, which sup- poses that changes are now taking place in the interior of the globe, by which metallic ores are still forming, has been supported by many geologists, who have had opportunities of extensive observation. Mr. Von Trebra, sub-director of mines in Saxony, in his work entitled “Observations on the Interior of Mountains,” advances a theory nearly similar to that of Zimmerman, and agreeing in part with Lehman. From the third letter of that work we make the following extract. “In explaining the phenomena which are observable in the interior of mountains (it must however be re- membered, that I do not include such as are evidently of volcanic origin), I do not avail myself of those great causes which, by their magnitude, the suddenness of their action, and by their effects, produce sudden changes which take place under our eyes, such as sub- terranean fires, earthquakes, and the like. I refer these phenomena to natural causes, which, though less evident and slower in their operation, are no less certain of pro- ducing a radical transformation. Of this kind are putre- facton and fermentation. It is of little consequence by what name we distinguish this peculiar action exerted by Nature in the mineral kingdom; it consists in an in- testine motion in the central parts of the globe, and ap- pears to be produced by water combined with heat in different degrees of intensity.' I observe such changes still going on, and can conceive them to continue so long as the same series of operations exist in nature. I am persuaded that there is constantly going on in our mountains a variety of transformations, compositions and decompositions, which not only take place at pre- sent, but will continue to the end of time. i “Fermentation, if I may be allowed to call by that name this quality which acts by insensible degrees, produces the most perfect transformations in the bowels of the earth; fermentation I say may, according to my theory, alter the entire mass of a mountain; it may con- vert granite into gneiss, as this last only differs from the former in its structure, which is slaty or schistose; gneiss indeed has no other distinctive character than its struc- ture, namely, the regularity and parallelism of its beds, and in some places a decomposed felspar approaching to clay. This fermentation may also convert graywacke into an argillaceous schist, which last may again by in- duration become jasper, when this process is either di- minished or stopt. By it, also, quartz may be converted into clay, calcareous substances into quartz, and the whole mass of a mountain into inflammable or saline matter, or even into ores, metals, or semimetals. To it I ascribe the power of producing, preserving, and con- tinuing to form the different beds and mineral reposi- tories, which are found both in primitive and floetz moun- tains: finally, the effects which the waters produce in filtering from above to below, and which in their passage through the different rocks may undergo some peculiar modification, appear to me the principal cause why this fermentation may act with more force in one part of the same mountain than in another.” Nº. Patrian, a celebrated French mineralogist, considers the changes taking place in the mineral kingdom, as ef- fected by a process somewhat similar to secretion in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and ascribes a kind of mineral life to the earth itself, differing perhaps as much from vegetable life as the latter differs from that of ani- mals. According to this theory, each kind of mineral substance is capable of converting masses of mineral matter into its own peculiar nature, as animals convert their aliment into flesh and blood. Whatever may be thought of this theory, we believe that those who are most practically conversant with the various phenomena and transmutations that occur in mines, will readily ad- mit that many changes are taking place, which cannot be explained on any known chemical or mechanical principles, and which bear a strong resemblance in their effects to the process of secretion. Nor can it, even in the present state of chemical science, appear improba- ble that the different earths and metals may be convert- ed into each other by natural processes. The different beds of rock intersected by metallic veins, are them- selves metallic substances combined with oxygen; or, in other words, all the rocks and strata which form the earthy parts of the globe, consist of oxygen combined with metallic bases; and as these metallic bases may perhaps be compounded of the same elementary parts united in different proportions, the transmutation of one earth or metal into another, may be effected by a simple change in the arrangement of the elementary molecules. . The V E I N. The thcory of veins proposed by Von Oppel, and in part supported and extended by Werner, supposes veins to have been fissures originally formed by the desicca- tion of mountains, and the shrinking in of the mass. These fissures, being open at the top, were afterwards filled with their contents by metallic solutions poured in from above. Mountains, according to Werner, have been formed by a successive accumulation of different beds and layers, placed or heaped over one another. “ The substance of these beds was at first wet, and possessed little solidity; so that when the accumulation of matter had attained a certain height, the mass of the mountain yielded to its weight, and must consequently have sunk and cracked. As the waters which assisted in supporting the mass began to retire, and lower their former level, these masses then lost their support, and yielded to the action of their weight, opening, and fall- ing to the side where the least resistance was opposed. The shrinking of the mass of a mountain produced by desiccation, and still more the fractures by earthquakes, and other similar causes, may also have contributed to the formation of fissures. “The same precipitation, which in the humid way formed the strata and beds of rock, furnished and pro- duced the substance of veins. This took place when the solution, from which the precipitation was formed, covered the existing rents, which were as yet wholly or partially empty, and open in the upper part. Veins, whether considered as rents, or as the substance consti- tuting the vein, have been produced at very different times; and the antiquity or relative age of each can be easily determined.” Such, in Werner's own words, are the great outlines of his theory, a theory which we conceive to be decided- ly opposed by all the most striking appearances exist- ing in the mineral kingdom, and equally opposed to the simplest known and acknowledged laws of nature. If metallic veins were once open fissures, filled by preci- pitations from a solution that covered the whole globe, with the highest mountains in which metallic veins are found; it is obvious that these metallic precipitations would be most considerable in the lower parts of the surface, in valleys and plains, where the fluid must have been much deeper than on the summits and sides of mountains. We ought, therefore, to find thick beds of metallic matter covering and incrusting the low and level parts of the globe; but nothing is more rare than to find beds of metallic matter in low plains. Where beds of metallic matter exist, it is always in compara- tively high countries, abounding in veins; and it is much more probable that the beds and veins were form- ed by local causes, and not from a solvent covering the whole globe. The metallic parts of this metalliferous ocean must have possessed the greatest specific gravity, and instead of floating on the top of the fluid, to be de- posited in the fissures of lofty mountains, it would have descended by the laws of gravity, forming crusts of different degrees of thickness from the bottom to the top, increasing downward. The reverse of this is the fact. It is principally in alpine districts, and at enormous heights, that metallic matter is accumulated in the greatest abundance. It is in the heights of the Cordilleras of Peru that the productive mines of Po- tosi are situated: it is in the same chain of mountains, more than 14,000 feet above the level of the sea, that the prodigious mass of mercurial ores is found at Gu- ança Velica, where, in the space of two centuries, Vol. XXXVIII, more than 15,000 quintals of this metal have been pro. Clifeti. Bút the facts most opposed to the theory of Werner are those which we have stated, namely, that when a metallic vein passes through different strata, the mi- neral substances it contains generally vary in each stra- tum, either in kind or quality. Sometimes an entire change takes place, as from tin to copper or lead ; in other instances, the vein will contain the same kind of ore in the different strata, but it will be invariably rich- er or poorer in some of the strata than in others, and there will be certain strata in which scarcely any ore occurs. Very frequently where the same kind of me- tallic matter is contained in the vein, it will be mineral- ized or combined with different substances, as the vein passes through different beds ; thus we find a metallic sulphuret more prevalent in one part, and a metallic salt or oxyd in another part of the vein. In Derbyshire, where the veins of lead pass through different beds of mountain lime stone, which alternates with beds of basaltic amygdaloid, provincially called toad-stone, it is found that the vein Scarcely ever con- tains lead as it passes through the toad-stone, where it is always much narrower, and in some places appears to be entirely cut off by it ; but on sinking into the un- der beds of lime-stone, the vein is found again, and is as productive as in the upper beds. Where the vein can be traced through the toad-stone, it contains calca- reous spar, and sometimes a few particles of lead-ore. If veins have been filled from above by metallic solu- tions, it is impossible to conceive that the nature of the rock could change the quality of the ore; much less could the ore disappear in one stratum, and appear again in a stratum below it. Professor Jameson, in a paper published in the Memoirs of the Wernerian Sociéty, has attempted to explain the difficulty presented by the interruption of the veins in Derbyshire, on the suppo- sition that the different beds of lime-stone and toad- stone, together with the metallic veins, were contem- poraneous, and that the toad-stone cut through the veins at the period of their formation. On this hypothesis, Mr. Bakewell, in his Introduction to Geology remarks: “The existence of different organic remains in the upper and lower beds of the mountain lime-stone in Derbyshire, precludes the possibility of these beds hav- ing been all formed at the same time. The zoophytes in the lower beds of rock could not be living and co- existent with the shell-fish in the upper, nor with the vegetables, the remains of which are occasionally found in the sand-stone that covers the whole, and into which the veins sometimes shoot. Cuvier has well observed, that the existence of different organic remains in the upper and lower strata offers incontestible proofs that they were formed in succession over each other.” In point of fact also, the veins are not always cut off by the toad-stone; but they are never productive of ore, where they pass through it, except in very small par. ticles. These facts are not less opposed to the ingenious theory of metallic veins than to that of Werner. If metallic veins had been filled with their contents by the operation of subterranean fire, which cracked the surface, and injected the metallic matter in a state of fusion, it is impossible to conceive that the nature of the rock, through which the veins pass, could have produced any material change in the quality of the ore. Metallic ores may, in some instances, have been formed 3 D slowly V E I N. slowly by exhalations from subterranean fires; as spe- cular iron-ore, and even gold, has been found in the craters of volcanoes; and the phenomena, presented by the iava which destroyed Torre del Grecco in 1794, in- dicate the manner in which such ores are formed. The lava had buried entire houses for more than twelve months, at the latter end of which time it had consid- erably cooled; and when the houses were opened, pieces of iron were found converted into a state of black, red, and magnetic oxyds, having the hollow parts and inter- stices filled with a brownish-red transparent oxyd of iron, and with specular iron-ore. In the articles made of iſ on, which had undergone this change, the external form was scarcely altered, which evinces that the crys- tals had been produced by sublimation. Copper arti- cles were changed into crystallized red oxyd of copper, and red oxyd with green and blue carbonate. From the absence of metallic sulphurets, it is inferred that the lava contained little, if any, sulphur. These changes show that metallic matter may be sublimed and con- verted into the state of ore by subterranean heat, at a much lower degree of temperature than has been sup- posed. There is a circumstance on which those who contend for the aqueous formation of metallic veins have laid much stress. In some instances, rounded pieces of stone, apparently resembling water-worn pebbles, have been found in mines at a considerable depth ; but as many veins contain hollow spaces, through which water is continually running, the formation of pebbles might admit of a satisfactory explanation, without supposing that these pebbles had fallen in from above. The peb- bles which we have seen of this kind, from the mines in Cornwall, are all of a chlorite schistus, and the form oblate, presenting the appearance which may frequently be observed in rocks of the same kind. It is in all pro- bability an original formation, and not a breccia from pre-existing rocks. There is another circumstance which appears to have escaped the attention of geologists. The water in the mines of Cornwall, particularly in the vicinity of copper veins, has a temperature considerably above that 'of the natural temperature of the earth : it is said to be at 70° Fahrenheit; and the working miners, from its sensible warmth, can predict with certainty the vicinity of a copper vein. The increase of temperature, if any, in the vicinity of tin veins is less sensible. From hence, as well as from various appearances in mines, we are led to infer that there are certain chemi. cal changes now going on in the interior of the earth ; and it is from a more enlarged acquaintance with these phenomena, that we can alone expect to obtain a satis- factory theory of the formation of metallic veins. The following is a summary account of the rocks and situations in which metallic ores are generally found. Platina, and the recently discovered metals, palladi- unn, rhodium, osmium, and iridium, have not been hith- erto found in veins, but in the sands of rivers. The four latter metals are found as alloys in the grains of platina. See PLATINA, PALLADIUM., &c. Gold and silver are found in veins, and disseminated in primary and transition rocks, in porphyry, sienite, and the iower sand-stone. Gold has been occasionally discovered in coal, and is very abundantly disseminated in the sands of some rivers. See GoLD and Silver. Mercury is found in slate and lime-stone, and in se- condary strata. See MERet Ry. Copper occurs in veins and beds in primary and tran- sition rocks, in porphyry and sienite, and occasionally in sand-stone. Masses of native copper, of large size, are found on the surface of the ground, in the interior of North America. See CoPPER. Lead and zinc occur in veins, and disseminated in pri- mary and transition rocks, except trap and serpentine, in the lower secondary strata, and in porphyry and sie- nite. See LEAD and ZINc. Antimony occurs in veins in primary and transition mountains, except trap and set pentine. Bismuth, cobalt, and mckel, occur in primary and transition mountains, except lime-stone, trap, and ser- pentine. Cobalt and nickel also occur in transition mountains, and in sand-stone. Sce BISMUTH, &c. Arsenic occurs in veins, either as a sulphuret or mi- neralizer of other metals, in primary and transition mountains, and in porphyry. See ARSEN1c. Tellurium occurs in veins in porphyry, combined with gold. See TELLURIUM Mines. Manganese occurs in beds and veins in primary and transition mountains, and in beds, and disseminated in red sand-stone. See MANGANESE. Molybdena, tungsten, and titanium, occur in granite, gneiss, mica-slate, and argillaceous schistus. These me- tals, with cromium and cerium, are very rare, and can only be reduced to the metallic state with great diffi- culty. See Molybd ENA, &c. Mineral veins differ from metallic veins, being des- titute of ores, and filled with the same substances which compose entire rocks, or with earthy minerals. Quartz veins (see QUARTz) resemble in their struc- ture and position many metallic veins; and it not unfre- quently happens that a vein, which contains metallic ore in one pait, intermixed with quartz’and other vein-stones, will, in another part, be entirely filled with quartz. Quartz veins intersect almost all primary and transition rocks, but are particularly abundant in rocks of argilla- ceous schistus and greywacke. (See Rock.) The quartz in veins is most frequently white, and nearly opaque ; and being much harder than the rocks which it intersects, it remains on the summits of mountains, after the surface of the rock is decomposed, until it is carried down by diluvial currents into the beds of rivers, where it becomes rounded by attrition, and is transported to distant districts. Most of the white quartz pebbles in England have probably been formed from the quartz veins of decomposed rocks, as no quartz of a similar kind exists as a rock in any part of England or Wales; but the same mineral abounds in veins. Granite, argillaceous schist or slate, porphyry, green- stone, pitch-stone, basalt, and various other rocks fre- quently form veins in mountains of the same kind with themselves, or in different rocks. Where a vein of one kind of rock intersects a rock of a similar kind, the substance of the vein generally differs from that of the rock in texture, colour, and other characters. The gra- nite in veins, which passes through granitic rocks, will generally be coarser or finer grained than the rock which it passes through, and have the constituent parts differently mixed. The followers of Werner assert, that veins which contain rock substances have been filled from above by matter poured into the fissures, and that the granite in veins is of a secondary formation. They further maintain, that the lower rocks, which they consider as the older, never rise into the upper rocks in the form of veins. In opposition to this opinion, it has been W E IN. been discovered that veins of granite, in Cornwall, may be distinctiy seen rising into the schist or killas which covers the graniie rocks in many parts of that county, particularly at St. Michael’s mount, east of Penzance, and at Mousehole, two miles West of that town. Where the junction of the granite and schist is exposed by the action of the sea, veins of the iormer rock may be traced, at low water, running in a zigzag form for many yards into schist, gradually growing narrower, and terminating in small Dranches and strings. One circumstance we obscrved in these granite veins at Mousehole, which may deserve notice : the same vein which penetrated the schist, when it entered time granite, was different in texture iron the granite rock, though it had the same constituent paris ; it might be distinctly traced for a cousiderable distance into the granite. i he granite also, in the vicinity of the schist, was smaller grained than the general body of the rock; and the schist, where in junction with the granite rock or granite veins, was changed to a kind of very fine-grained gneiss, facts seem to indicate that both the granite and the schist, to a considerable distance from their junction, had been in a softened state at the same time, and that their consolidation was contemporaneous. Similar ap- pearances, with an intermixture of veins of schist in granite, are presented at Glentilt, and other parts of Scotland. Veins of granite, porphyry, or schist, never penetrate the upper secondary strata ; but veins of ba- salt and trap (see TRAP) have been found in every kind of rock, even penetrating chalk. These veins are sometimes of vast extent and width, and frequently oc- casion great dislocations and derangements in the stra- tified rocks, particularly in the coal strata, where they have been most observed : hence they are called faults. (See FAULT and STRATA.) . The dislocation of the stra- ta by a vein of this kind is represented in Plate II. Geology, fig. 8, where the different strata, c, d, e, f, g, on the left-hand side, are separated from the corres- ponding strata on the right, and considerably elevated. As the veins of trap or basalt are nearly vertical, and often several yards in width, and the substance with which they are filled being frequently harder than the strata which they intersect, these veins remain when the surface is decomposed to a considerable depth, rising like a wall or fence, which, in the language of North Britain, is synonymous with dyke; hence such veins have been called dykes, or whin-dykes, the term whin- stone being used to denote basaltic rocks. (See WHIN- stone.) Basaltic veins, or whin-dykes, vary in width from a few inches to several yards, and are sometimes more than one hundred yards wide. They often ex- tend many miles in length; in other instances they terminate at shorter distances, forming irregular wedge- shaped masses. When basaltic dykes are of consider- able width, the basalt is intersected by fissures; and sometimes the central parts and sometimes the sides are harder or softer than the other ; and in some parts the basalt graduates into a dark ferruginous clay. Masses of basalt from the dyke are frequently found wedged in between the strata, extending to some dis- tance ; and where basaltic dykes intersect coal strata, the coal in the immediate vicinity of the dyke has fre- quently the appearance of being charred. . At Cock- field-fell, in the county of Durham, the coal strata are cut through by a basaltic vein or whin-dyke, which is about seventeen yards wide. Where it comes in contact with the coal, the latter substance, for several feet, in These converted into a pulver ulcut state, like soot. At a greater distance from the basalt, the coal is reduced to a coke or cinder, which burns without smoke, and with a clear durable heat. At the distance of fifty feet from the basalt, the coal is found in the state of common mi- neral coal. The roof over the coal is lined with bright crystals of sulphur, probably sublimed by heat from the pyrites common to coal. In these appearances we re- cognize every circumstance which might be expected from the agency of heat, but which would be extremely difficult to reconcile with the aqueous formation of ba- salt. We have seen similar appearances near basaltic dykes in Northumberland. The vein, or dyke, of ba- salt at Cockfield-fell, is part of the longest dyke which has been traced in England, or perhaps in any other country. According to the description of it in Mr. Bakewell’s Introduction to Geology, “it extends from the western side of Durham in an eastward direction, to Berwick in Yorkshire, crossing the river Tees at this place, and proceeding in the same direction through the Cleveland hills, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, to the sea-coast between Scarborough and Whitby. It rises to the surface, and is quarried, in many parts of its course, for stone to repair the roads. It crosses the turnpike near the seven mile-stone from Whitby to Pukering, where there is a quarry sunk in it. The vein, or dyke, is here about ten yards wide; the stone is a dark grayish-brown basalt, and is the principal mate- rial for mending the roads in the district called Cleve- land. The extent of this dyke has been traced in a di- rect line about seventy miles. In its course it inter- sects the metalliferous lime-stone of Durham, the coal district, and the aluminous schistus. The circumstan- ces attending this and other extensive dykes, which have not hitherto been regarded by geologists, com- pletely invalidate,” says Mr. Bakewell, “the theory, that these dykes were originally open fissures, formed by the drying or shrinking in of the rocks. As the dif- ferent rock formations through which it passes contain different organic remains, they must have been formed in succession at different periods, and the metallife- rous lime, with the lower strata, must have been con- solidated long before the upper strata were deposited ; and the causes which might dispose the upper strata to shrink and open, cannot be supposed to act on the lower rocks. It is also remarkable, that the width of this vein is more than twenty yards in the lower rocks on the west; but in the upper rocks it is not more than ten yards. The dyke must have been filled with its contents at the time of its formation, otherwise it would contain fragments of the rocks which it intersects. As it passes through the lime-stone, it has rendered it more crystalline in its vicinity, and the effects in charring the coal, before described, point to subterranean fire as the original cause of its formation, and as the source whence the basalt that fills it was supplied. The close resem- blance between the basalt and compact lava, add proba- bility to the opinion that this great dyke was originally formed by an expansive force operating from below, which opened a chasm in the surface of the earth, and ejected the contents in a state of fusion. A volcanic dyke was formed on the western side of Vesuvius, June 12, 1794, two thousand three hundred and seventy-five feet in length, and two hundred and thirty-seven feet in breadth, through which lava rose to the surface. This lava, when cooled, formed a wall ºf stone intersecting the former beds of lava, and constituting a real dyke. 3 D 2 The V E I V E I The stone has a dark-gray colour, and is in some parts so compact as to resemble horn-stone.” See Volcano. The effects of basaltic veins on the contiguous parts of the strata of sand-stone which they intersect, are no less remarkable. In some instances, the sand-stone appears very considerably indurated, and converted into a substance resembling horn-stone. It is observed by Mr. Allan, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. vii. that the sand-stone which is thus indurated, contains calcareous earth, which appears to have promoted its semi-vitrification ; but where the sand-stone remains unchanged in the vi- cinity of a dyke, the calcareous earth is wanting. Sir G. Mackenzie observed basaltic dykes in Iceland, the walls or sides of which were lined with a glassy substance resembling obsidian. These effects offer further illus- tration of the igneous origin of basaltic veins. A very interesting account of the effect produced by basaltic veins on the different beds of rock at the Giants’ Cause- way, and on other parts of the same range on the north coast of Antrim, is given in the third volume of the Transactions of the Geological Society. Various beds of columnar basalt, argillaceous lime- stone, and chalk, are intersected by perpendicular dykes or veins of basalt. The chalk in the vicinity often un- dergoes a remarkable change, extending eight or ten feet from the wall on each side, and thence gradually decreases. The part nearest the basalt is converted into a dark-brown crystalline lime-stone, like coarse-grained primitive lime-stone. The next state is that of finer- grained primitive lime-stone, or saccharine lime-stone; then fine-grained arenaceous lime-stone. A compact variety, having a porcelain aspect, and a blueish-gray colour, next succeeds; this, towards the outer edge, be- comes gradually white, and insensibly graduates into unaltered chalk. The flints in the altered chalk assume a grayish-yellow colour. The altered chalk is highly phosphorescent when subjected to heat. In other parts of the range, the argillaceous beds of lias appear con- verted into horn-stone by contact with the basalt, and contain in that state the imbedded fossils peculiar to the lias stratum. (See STRATA.) The basalt in some of the veins is columnar ; but the columns lie horizontally. It has been conjectured, with some probability, that this has been caused by its passing from a state of igne- ous fluidity, and the refrigeration commencing from the sides. From the same cause, in the beds of colum- nar basalt in that range, (see GIANTs’ Causeway,) the columns are perpendicular, the cooling commencing from the top and the bottom of each bed. The marine or- ganic remains in the strata over the basalt, prove that the whole were formed under the sea. In some instances, basaltic veins appear to have been opened, and the inter- vening space filled with debris from the upper strata; and there are basaltic dykes in Northumberland, in which the basalt being divided into irregular masses, the interstices are filled with iron-clay, and contain impres- sions of ferns, like those in the coal strata which these dykes or veins intersect. On the whole, no country in the world which has yet been examined presents so many interesting appearances of basaltic veins as the northern parts of Great Britain and Ireland, nor are they any where exposed to the eye of the observer with so much distinctness as on many parts of the sea-coast, where the ocean has bared the surface, and exposed the most magnificent and instructive sections of entire mountains, penetrated by these veins to the height of many hundred feet. The veins may often be seen ex- tending from the mountains into the sea, rising up like enormous walls, which serve as monuments of the ra- vages of the ocean upon the coast. The great hardness of the substance which fills the veins has prevented their destruction by the waves that have broken down and re- moved the mountain masses in which these veins were once imbedded. - , Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, the American travellers, describe extensive walls of dark columnar stone rang- ing through the interior of North America: these walls were undoubtedly dykes or veins of columnar basalt, remaining where the surface of the ground had been washed away. There are also instances where the sub- stance of basaltic veins has been softer than the sur- rounding rock, and is washed out wherever the rock is exposed, forming deep fissures, with perpendicular walls of rocks on each side. Such appearances are not uncommon on the sea-coast in various parts of Scotland. For an account of basaltic rocks, see TRAP. VEIN is also applied to the streaks, or waves, of di- vers colours appearing on several sorts of woods, stones, &c. as if they were really painted ; and which the paint- ers frequently imitate in painting wainscots, &c. Marble is generally full of such veins. Lapis lazuli has veins like gold. Ovid, speaking of the metamorphosis of men into stones, says—“ Quae modo vena fuit, sub eodem nomine mansit.” Veins, in stones, are often a defect, proceeding usually from an inequality in their consistence, as to hard and soft : which makes the stone crack, and shiver in those arts. VEJOURS, or ViewERs, Visores, in Law, are per- sons sent, by the court, to take a view of any place in question, for the better decision of the right. It is also used for those sent to view such as essoin themselves de malo lecti, whether, in truth, they be such as that they cannot appear, or whether they counterfeit. VEIRAS, in Geografhy, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; 15 miles N.N.E. of Estremos. - VEIRY, a town of France, in the department of the lake of Leman; 9 miles E. of Seissel. VEISENBERG, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Revel, on the coast of the gulf of Finland; 56 miles E. of Revel. N. lat. 59° 22'. E. long. 26° 14'. VEISENSHTEIN, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Revel; 32 miles S.E. of Revel. - VEIT, ST., a town of Germany, in the circle of Ba- varia, and archbishopric of Salzburg, near the Salza; 28 miles S. of Salzburg.—Also, a sea-port town of Is- tria, called also Fiume, situated near the gulf of Venice, on a narrow plain, which yields good grapes, figs, and other fruits. The harbour is formed by the Fiuma- ra. For the convenience of exportation and import- ation, the emperor Charles VI. caused a high-way to be made from this place to Carlstadt, in Croatia. A sugar-house has also been founded here. St. Veit is exempt from taxes and contributions; 3 miles S.E. of Trieste. N. lat. 45° 46'. E. long. 14°42'-Also, a town of Germany, sometimes called St. Weit, in the duchy of Stiria; 3 miles S.E. of Pettau.-Also, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Carinthia, situated on the river Glan ; 8 miles N. of Clagenfurt.—Also, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Austria; 5 miles W. of Vienna.-Also, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Austria; 11 miles W.S.W. of Freustadt. - * * -- VEITAs. V E L V E L VEITA, a small island in the Mediterranean, near the east coast of Tunis. N. lat. 35° 1'. E. long. 11° 12'. VEITH, St. See St. Veith. - VEITSBERG, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Neustadt; 3 miles N.E. of Weyda. VEITSHOCHHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on the Mayne ; 20 miles S.W. of Schwein- furt. VEL, in Ancient Geograft hy, a town in the interior of Africa, and one of those which were subjugated by Cor- nelius Balbus. Pliny. VELA, in Geografhy, a rocky shoal in the Spanish Main. N. lat. 15° 16'. W. long. 75°. VELA, Cafe de la, a cape on the N. coast of South America. N. lat. 11° 50'. W. long. 71° 46'. VELABORI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people who inhabited the territory on the western coast of Hibernia, S. of the Gangani. Ptolemy. * VELACH, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Ca- rinthia, at the union of the Campach and Moll; 11 miles N.N.W. of Saxenburg. VELAGA, in Botany, Gaertn. v. 1. 245. t. 133, a name of Adanson’s adopted by Gaertner, and belonging to the genus now called PTERosPERMUM ; see that article, under which it should be cited as a synonym. VELAINE, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Meurte; 6 miles E.N.E. of Nancy, VELAM, a town of Hindoostan, in the country of the Nayrs; 34 miles E. of Calicut. VELAMEN, is used by some Surgeons, for the bag, skin, or bladder, of an imposthume, or swelling. VELAMENTUM BOMBY CINUM, a name which some anatomists give to the velvet membrane, or inner skin of the intestines. VELANGOODY, in Geography, a town of Hin- doostan, in Marawar; 7 miles W. of Trumian. VELANI, in Botany and the Arts, sometimes called Valonia, a name given by the modern Greeks to the acorns of a species of oak, (see QUERO US 42&iloſis, and QUER cus Infectoria,) denominated the “Velapida.” The tree grows on the western coast of Natolia, in the islands of the Archipelago, in those of Corfu and Ce- phalonia, and throughout all Greece. . For an account of the galls of this oak, we refer to the article GALLs. The Orientals take care to gather the galls at the pre- cise time which experience has proved to be most fa- vourable, or in which the excrescence has acquired its full size and weight. For this purpose, they visit the hills and mountains that are covered with oaks. The first galls that are picked up are laid apart; these are known in the East under the name of “Yerli,” and dis- tinguished in trade by the terms of “black galls” and “ green galls.” Those which have escaped the first searches, and which are gathered a little later, called “white galls,” are of a very inferior quality. The galls of the environs of Mosul and Tocat, and in general those which come from the eastern part of Turkey, are less esteemed than those of the environs of Aleppo, Smyrna, Magnesia, Karahissar, Diarbekir, and the whole interior of Natolia. The former are sold at Smyrna and at Aleppo two or three piastres less fier quintal than the others. The inhabitants neglect to gather the acorns, which serve as food for the wild boars and goats; the lat- ter contribute very much to render the oak small and stunted, by devouring, with its fruit, a part of its foliage and young boughs. The diplopepis which produces these galls has a body of a fawn-colour, with the antennae dark, and the upper part of the abdomen of a shining brown. It is sometimes found, under its latter form, in the inside of the galls which are not yet pierced. On the same oak are found other galls in great numbers, which the inhabitants ne- glect to gather, because they are not fit for dyeing. The velani, or valonia, is gathered in the autumn, and dried under sheds, which protect it from rain, and is in a proper state for shipping about the beginning of March: that which is gathered on the mguntains is preferred to that of the valleys. There is also a difference with respect to its age or size; the small and young is taken from the trees before it has attained its full growth, and is reckoned better than the large, or that which remains till it is full grown. Those of the best quality are usually sent to England, and the inferior to Ancona and Trieste. This gall is used for dyeing and tanning, and in Turkey a considerable quantity is consumed for the latter purpose. The quantity shipped annually from the different Turkish ports may be calculated at from 4000 to 5000 tons. It is sent to several places in Europe; particu- larly London, Liverpool, Leghorn, Trieste, Ancona, and Genoa. The nut, or kernel, of the valonia, is not reckoned of any value, and is sometimes picked out to save freight and charges. The loss in weight thus oc- casioned, together with garbling, (that is, freeing it from dirt, stones, &c.) is from 10 to 25 fier cent., according to the quality of the article, and the expense is from 30s. to 40s. fier ton. The cup which contains the nut or ker- nel constitutes the value of the valonia. It has been used in this country many years by the dyers, and has lately been introduced into the tanneries as a substitute for oak-bark, and the quantity used in this way has been very considerable. The quantity imported into London and Liverpool for the years 18 l 1, 1812, 1813, amounted to above 1200 tons fier annum on an average. This was at a time when oak-bark was scarce and dear ; but When the price of bark is low, the consumption of vela- ni is less extensive ; for the leather manufactured with oak-bark is preferred to that prepared with velani, chief- ly on account of its colour, as the quality of the leather is reckoned to be equal, if not superior, to that which is tanned with bark. We may here observe, that the great distance from which valonia, or velani, is brought, and the heavy duty it pays, compared with oak-bark, dis- courage its use ; but if the duty should be taken off, it is probable that the consumption would be greatly increased. VELANIDA, in Botany. See QUERous, n. 68. VELARIUS, in Antiquity, an officer in the court of the Roman emperors, being a kind of usher, whose post was behind the curtain, vela, in the prince’s apartment ; as that of the chancellors, cancelli, was at the entry of the balustrade, and that of the ostiarii at the door. The velarii had a superior, of the same denomination, who commanded them ; as we find in two inscriptions, quoted by Salmasius in his notes on Vopiscus, and by a third in Gruter. VELASCO, Don ANTonio PALOMINo, in Biography, was a Spanish painter and historian of the artists of his country. He was a native of Valencia, where he flou- rished about 1700. He was painter to Philip V., and painted many pictures for the churches and convents of Valencia, Salamanca, and Grenada, but is much better known to us as an author. He published an elaborate trea- tise on the art of painting, in two folio volumes, in which he V E L V E L he notices 250 painters and sculptors who had flourished in Spain previous to the conclusion of the reign of Philip IV. Of this work, there was an abridgment published in London in 1742, entitled “Las Vidas de los Pintores y Statuarios eminentes Espanoles,” of which there is an English translation. VELAsco, in Geography, a town of North America, in the province of Mexico. VELASQUEZ DE SILv A. Dox DIEGO, in Biogra- fihy, the most distinguished painter of the Spanish school, was born at Seville in 1594. His parentage was noble, being of a family originally of Portugal, which had established itself, in Andalusia. Though confined in fortune, they gave him a liberal education, and, as he had evinced much inclination for drawing, placed him with Francesco de Herrera, the elder ; but he after- wards became the disciple of F. Pacheco, an artist of very considerable ability, and a scholar, then residing at Seville. With him Velasquez studied attentively, and his talents displayed themselves in a variety of imita- tions of natural objects, particularly of peasantry in their peculiar habits and occupations. Of these we have now a specimen in England, which had at all times been esteemed as a master exhibition of his early acquire- ments, and celebrated under the appellation of the * Water Carrier.” It was stationed in the new palace at Madrid, but was removed from thence by Joseph Bo- naparte, and was found, with a great number of other pictures, in the imperial carriage taken at the battle of Vittoria. It is now in the possession of the duke of Wellington, among the numerous other trophies of that great man’s fame. Still, however, it is considered by his grace as the property of the Spanish crown. Velas- quez continued attached to this particular application of his art, conscious of his superiority, and declining to extend his views to a more elevated class of subjects, till at length the sight of some pictures by Guido and Caravaggio, which Pacheco had received from Italy, ex- cited his emulation, and ne then turned his thoughts to history and portraiture. After he had been five years with Pacheco, that master bestowed upon him the hand of his daughter in marriage, and he continued still to Practise his art under the guidance of that able in- structor. In 1622, Velasquez left Seville, to visit the metropolis of Spain and the Escurial, and there his ta- lents recommended him to the notice of the count De Olivarez, the favourite minister of Philip IV., who patronized and befriended him; taking him into his own palace to dwell. Soon after he introduced him to the king, who immediately ordered him to paint his portrait. From the completion of this picture, which was upon a grand scale in armour, and on horseback, the reputa- tion of Velasquez was established above all his con- temporaries, and his patron was ordered to inform him, that from that time the royal person would be entrusted to no other painter but himself. He received the royal permission to make a public exhibition of it, when it was loudly applauded by all about the court, and held up to public estimation by laudatory verses in its honour from the poets. After this successful commencement of his public career, he was employed to paint the portraits of the infants Don Carlos and Don Fernando; and that of the minister, his patron, mounted, like his royal master, on a noble Andalusian charger, richly caparisoned. He now, therefore, began to enjoy the blessings of fortune, as well as those of fame. He was appointed principal painter to the king, with a liberal salary, besides re- ceiving munificent remuneration for his pictures, and being busily occupied in portraits. He now also, in emulation of other Spanish painters, determined to undertake a work upon a more extended scale than he had before done, and took for his subject the expulsion of the Moors from Spain by Philip Iſ I. But, if we may judge by the description given of t.e picture, it does not appear to have possessed much in- teresting matter of a high historic quality; however, he gained great reputation from the skill with which he executed it. The composition represented the ki g armed, and in the act of commanding a party of soldiers, who are escorting a group of Moors of different sex, s and ages to the sea-shore for embarkation. On the other side is personified the kingdom of Spain, as a naj stic matron, with a stately edifice. T his picture, as appet rs by an inscription upon it, was painted in 1627, as it was no sooner completed than he again expel ienced the mu- nificence of his sovereign, who made him one oi i.is chamberlains, and allowed him an additional stipend. It was at this time that Rubens visited Madrid. He formed an intimacy with Velasquez, and first inspired him with a desire to visit Italy; and he obtained from his royal patron every advantageous means of going there, with recommendatory letters to ri nder his resi- dence in Rome and Venice as useful and agreeable to him as possible. - - He embarked at Barcelona in 1629, and first landed at Venice, where he was received and entertained by the Spanish ambassador. In this delightful birth-place of colouring, the works of its great master Titian, in the palace of St. Marc, excited his warmest admiration, a.d. he made several copies of them : .and no one ever more thoroughly imbibed the principles upon which they are constructed. But perhaps it is of Tintoretto that Ve- lasquez is more the imitator, than of Titian. His free- dom of pencil appears to have been more congeniaſ with the taste of the Spaniard, than the sober and more cor- rect hand of the former. After remaining at Venice a few months, he went to Rome, where he was most graciously received by the cardinal Barberina, nephew to Urban VIII., who procured for him apartments in the Vatican, and access at all times to the works of Raffaelle and M. Angelo. During his residence at Rome, . he painted his celebrated history of Joseph’s coat brought to Jacob ; and also another very able work, of Apollo informing Vulcan of the infidelity of Venus; in which he had an opportunity of displaying his power of hand- ling, and his admirable skill in colouring. Vulcan is at his forge, the light and shadow proceeding from which are most skilfully conducted : the strong and muscular forms of the Cyclops gracefully contrasted with the pure form of the Apollo; and the whole com- position arranged with infinite judgment. Both these pictures were sent to Spain, and honoured by having distinguished places assigned to them in the palace of the king. On his return home he went to Naples, and there painted the portrait of Donna Maria of Austria, queen of Ferdinand III. After about the lapse of a year and a half, he arrived at Madrid, and found his favour with his royal master undiminished. He was again lodged in the royal palace, and the king kept a key of his paint- ing-room, that he might have free access to him with- out ceremony; and this he frequently indulged himself with, as his great predecessor, Charles V., had done with V E L E. L. V with Titian. And so strong were the resemblances in his pictures, that it is said the king, going into his room one day, expressed some surprise, that a nobleman, to whom he had given a commission which required his absence from Madrid, had not departed, imagining that he saw him in the room, when it was in reality only his portrait. In 1638, Velasquez painted his most celebrated pic- ture of our Saviour on the Cross, for the convent of St. Placido, at Madrid; and about the same time, that of the general Pescara receiving the keys of a Flemish citadel from the governor of the place. The manage- ment of all the different characters, the officers, &c. and the effect of the fortification, &c. of the town and land- scape in the back-ground, is altogether eulogized by Mengs as the chef-d'oeuvre of Velasquez. - Though his patron d’Olivarez fell into disgrace in 1643, yetVelasquez maintained his interest at the court; and in 1648, was commissioned by the king on a partic- ular embassy to pope Innocent X., and at the same time was empowered to purchase for his majesty the finest works of art, both of sculpture and painting, which he could procure in Italy. On this occasion he embarked at Malaga, and having landed at Genoa, passed through Milan and Padua to Venice, where he was well pleased to renew acquaintance with the great masters of art, whom he had before beheld with so inuch admiration. He afterwards visited Bologna; and on his arrival. at Rome, was received with great favour and distinction by the pope; and in the unengaged moments of his more serious business, he painted a very fine portrait of his holiness, of which there is a capital exemplar at Luton, the seat of the marquis of Bute, which has every character of originality. For this painting, the pope gave him a gold medal and chain; and the academicians of St. Luke elected him of their body. After a lapse of nearly three years, Velasquez took his departure from Genoa, in a vessel freighted with a magnificent collection of pictures, statues, busts, &c. which he had collected, and on his arrival was most graciously received by the king, and honoured with fur- ther marks of his royal favour and bounty; among which the order of Santiago was not the least, as being con- fined to persons of the highest rank, or the most emi- ment abilities. He thus lived, in honour and riches, till 1660, when the ruthless hand of death put an end to his labours and enjoyments. He was buried with great fu- neral pomp in the church of San Juan. tº t VELATO DURUM, or VELATUDURUM, in Ancient Geography, a place on the route from Besançon to Epa- mandodurum or Mandura. VELAUNI, a people of the Maritime Alps near the sea, E. of the Nerusii. e VELAUR, in Geography, a river of Hindoostan, which rises near Attore, in the Mysore country, and runs into the bay of Bengal, near Portonova. VELAY, before the revolution, a country of France, in Languedoc, situated to the W. of the Vivarais, and the E. of Auvergne. . It is mountainous, but fertile : Le Puyen Velay was the capital. It now constitutes the department of the Upper Loire. & VELAZGHERD, a town of Persia, in the province of Kerman; 54 miles N.E. of Gomron. N. lat. 28° 10'. E. long. 56° 34'. VELBERG, a town of Germany, in the territory of the imperial town of Hall; 7 miles E. of Hall. ~ £ * . VELBERT a 4 r. ºr ra == i = - = y “ --> * * * * N.N.E. of Medman. VELBURG, a town of Bavaria, in the principality of Neuburg ; 12 miles N. of Dietfurt. N. lat. 49° 10'. E. long. I 19 28'. VELCERA, in Ancient Geography, a town on the coast of Illyria, between the mouth of the river CEneus and the town of Senia. Ptolemy. VELDEN, in Geografhy, a town of Bavaria; 6 miles S.S.W. of Landshut.—Also, a town of Germany, in the territory of Nuremberg, on the Pregnitz; 21 miles N.E. of Nuremberg. N. lat. 49° 37'. E. long. liº 81'. VELDENTZ, a town of France, in the department of the Sarre, formerly capital of a county, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, united with the palatinate; the envi- rons are celebrated for an excellent Moselle wine; 17 miles E.N.E. of Treves. N. lat. 49° 55'. E. long. 6° 58'. VELEGIA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Africa, in Libya Interior, situated on the banks of the river Niger, N. of it. Ptolemy. VELEIA, a town of Hispania Citeror-Also, a town of Italy, S. of Placentia, in Gallia Cispadana: now in I’ll 1nS. VELEN, in Geografhy, a town of Germany, in the bishopric of Munster; 22 miles W. of Munster, YELETRI, a town of the Popedom, in the Campagna di Roma. This was a very ancient town, and considera- ble in the time of the first Roman kings. It was taken by Ancus Martius, fourth king of the Romans, and re- taken by the Volscians, under the command of Coriola- nus. The Romans took it again some time after, and removing the inhabitants, filled it with a Roman colony. It is the see of a bishop, united with Ostia, who is called the bishop of Ostia, but his residence is at Veleuri; 28 miles N.N.W. of Terracina. N. lat. 41°42'. E. long. 12° 50'. - VELEZ, a town of South America, in New Grenada; 100 miles from Santa Fé de Bogota. N. lat. 5° 50'. W. long. 73° 16'. VELEz de Gomera. See GomeRA. VELEZ Malaga, a sea-port town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Grenada, near the coast of the Mediterranean. The chief article of trade is raisins. In 1487, this town was taken from the Moors by Ferdinand, king of Castile and Arragon ; 13 miles E. of Malaga. N. lat. 36° 47'. W. long. 4° 18'. VELEz el Rubio, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada, near the Guadalentin. This town was, in the time of the Moors, a strong place, and furnished with a garrison; 14 miles S. of Huesca. VELEZAR, a river of Spain, formed by the union of the little rivers Burcia and Sil, on the confines of Leon, which, after receiving several other small streams, unites with the Minho, a little above Orense. VELEZIA, in Botany, was so named by Linnaeus, at the recommendation of his pupil Loefling, in honour of Dr. Christoval Velez, examiner, first physician, and de- monstrator of botany, at Madrid, who showed Loefling his manuscript Flora of the environs of that capital, which we do not find to have ever been published.— Linn. Gen. 176. Schreb. 174. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1329. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Prodr. FI. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 283. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 109. Juss. 302. Lamarck Illustr. t. 186. Gaertn. t. 129.-Class and order, Decandria Digynia. (Pentandria, or Hexandria, Digynia, Linn.) Nat. Ord. Caryofibylleat. l- 4- -? - - - - U il duchy C of Berg; 5 miles Gen. Ch. V E L V E I, Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, long and slender, with five angles, five intermediate fur- rows, and five pointed, erect, small teeth, Permanent, without any appendages at the base. Cor. Petals five; claws linear, erect, very narrow, the length of the calyx; limbs spreading, oblong-wedgeshaped, cloven or toºthed, hairy at the base, much shorter than the claws, Stani. Filaments ten, capillary, about the length of the calyx, inserted into the receptacle; anthers roundish, incum- bent. Pist. Germen superior, cylindrical, short ; styles two, thread-shaped, hardly so long as the stamens ; Stig- mas simple. Peric. Capsule cylindrical, slender, of one valve and one cell, opening with four teeth at the sum: mit. Seeds numerous, oblong, alternate, imbricated downwards, concave in front, convex at the back; insert- ed in a simple row, by the dorsal scar, into a thread- shaped, unconnected receptacle. Ess. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, nearly cylindrical, fur- rowed, naked. Petals five, with very long claws; limb bearded at the base, Capsule superior, cylindrical, of one cell. Seeds imbricated. A small genus of slender campion-like plants, with numerous little pink flowers, nearly related to SAPO- NARIA, (see that article,) and certainly to be placed next to it in the artificial, as well as natural, system. Linnaeus knew but one species. We have a new one found by Dr. Sibthorp in Asia Minor. w 1. V. rigida. Rigid Velezia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 474. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Sm. Fl. G1 acc. Sibth. t. 390. unpubl. (Knawel majus, foliis caryophylleis; Buxb. Cent. 2, 41. t. 47. Lychnis minima rigida Cheleri; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 352. L. corniculata minor; Bocc. Mus. 50, t. 43. Barrel. Ic. t. 1018, and probably t. 1017.) —Calyx thread-shaped, downy. Petals cloven.—Native of the south of France, Italy, Crete and Cyprus, flower- ing in summer. A hardy inconspicuous annual, some- times introduced, for the sake of curiosity, into our bo- tanic gardens. Root long and thread-shaped, tough. Stems several, diffuse, hairy, zigzag, about a span long, leafy, many-flowered. Leaves linear, awl-shaped, ses- sile, opposite at each joint of the stem, a little downy or hairy, hardly an inch long. Flowers axillary, solitary, sessile. Calyz extremely slender, and of uniform thickness, near an inch long, striated. Limb of the co- rolla spreading scarcely a quarter of an inch, pink, with a deep crimson angular mark on each fetal, forming a central star. Five of the stamens longer than the rest. Cafisule slender, smooth, semipellucid. Seeds black. 2. V. guadridentata. Four-toothed Velezia. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. n. 954. Fl. Graec. t. 391, un- publ.—Calyx club-shaped, smooth. Petals with four teeth.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in Asia Minor, and, if we are not mistaken, in the isle of Patmos. This has the precise habit of the foregoing, but is rather larger, and quite smooth. The flowers are stalked. Calyz angular, swelling upwards. Limb of the corolla mark- ed like V. rigida, with a central star; but each fetal has four strong teeth, or acute lobes, instead of being only simply cloven. Each claw is crowned, in both species, with a transverse row of white hairs. Stamens in the present all of equal length. Capsule rather stouter, shorter, and less accurately cylindrical, than the former. We have no doubt of this genus being equally dis- tinct from SAPONARIA and Gypsoph ILA, (see those ar- ticles,) though the first species betrays most affinity to the former, the second to the latter. An ovate, even calyz, and oblong cafistule, are proper to Safionaria; a bell shaped angular calyx, and almost globular cafesule, to Gyfisoſhila. Velezia is perhaps more naturally akin to DIANTHUS, but wants the scales at the bottom of the calyac. VELHAS, in Geografhy, a river of Brasil, which runs into the Parana. VELIA, or HELIA, in Ancient Geograft hy, a town of Italy, in Lucania, westward, on a small gulf of the same name, formed by the small stream Heles, from the Greek Helia, signifying a marsh.-Also, a town of His- pania Citerior, belonging to the Caristi. Ptolemy. VELICALA, in Geograft hy, a town of California, . near the coast of the Pacific ocean. N. lat. 20° 35'. W. long. 115° 50'. * - VELIDIA, a town of Morocco, on the coast of the Atlantic; 25 miles S.W. of Mazagan. VELIKA, a town of Morlachia; 25 miles S.E. of Segna.—Also, a river of Croatia, which runs into the Save, near Craliova Velika.-Also, a river of Russia, which runs into the Viatka, 10 miles N.E. of Orlov, in the government of Viatka.—Also, a river of Russia, which runs into the Tchudskoi lake, near Pskov. VELIKIE LUKI, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Pskov, on the Lovat; 124 miles S.E. of Pskov. N. lat. 56° 28′. E. long. So? 14'. VICLIKOI, a small island of Russia, in the White sea. N. lat. 66° 45'. E. long. 32° 20'. VELILLA, a town of Spain, in the province of Ara- gon. The author of the “ Continuation of Mariana’s History of Spain,” speaks of a bell in this town of great celebrity, which rung sometimes without the help of man; and that a particular description of its wonders was printed at Madrid in 1657. - VELINO, a mountain of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; 12 miles S. of Aquila. This is one of the Apennines, and probably the highest of them. Its summit, 8397 feet above the Mediterranean, is covered with snow in June : about 46 geographical miles N.W. of Rome.— Also, a river of the Popedom, which runs into the Nera, about four miles from Terni, in the duchy of Spoleto. VELINUS, (VELINo,) in Ancient Geography, a small river in the country of the Sabines, in the northern part : its sources were about twenty miles from Reate, towards the E., in mountains abounding with water. It passed southward, by a place called Vacunis, afterwards by Interocrea, where it turned towards the W., to the plain on which was situated Cutiliae. Changing its di- rection towards the N.W., it entered an immense plain, in which were high mountains, and formed a large lake. These stagnant sulphureous waters were found very inconvenient. M. Curius pierced a mountain and made a canal to the Velinus, so that its waters had a free passage to the sea, by a valley, which Cicero compared to the valley of Tempé. The inhabitants of Reate found here abundance of roses, whence they called it Rosea. The Velinus discharged itself into the Nar near Interamna.-Also, one of the seven mountains of Rome. VELIOCASSES, Velocasses of Caesar, Vellocasses of Pliny, and Veneliocassii of Ptolemy, were a people joined by Caesar to the Caleti, and others among the Belgae, separated by the Seine from the Celtae. But in the division of Gaul by Augustus, the Veliocasses, as well as the Caleti, are placed in the Lyonnese, and they al'C V E L V E L 3. are referred to in that province by Ptolemy and Pliny. Their capital, Rotomagus, became the metropolis of the second Lyonnese, when the Lyonnese of Augustus was divided into two provinces. VELISCUM, a place of Africa, in Mauritania Caesa- riensis, upon the route from Rusucurrum to Celama, be- tween Sufasar and Taranamusa Castra. Anton. Itin. VELITES, in the Roman Army, one of the four kinds of foot soldiers that composed a legion, who were armed lightly with swords, bows and arrows, slings, and javelins. For defensive armour they had only a small target, and a helmet or head-piece. These were commonly young men of mean condition, and took their name a volando, or à velocitate, from their swiftness and expedition: and they were designed for skirmishing with the enemy before a battle, and pur- tº a v, r, Pt -, - ,-l £:} {e}}} after 3 defeat. They seem not to have been divided into any distinct bodies or companies, but to have hovered in loose or- der before the army. The other classes of the Roman infantry were the has- tati, firincifles, and triarii. In the day of battle, the has- tati were placed in the first line, the principes in the se- cond, and the triarii in the third. The Velites formed small flying parties both in front and rear. See BAT- TI. F. - VELITIS, in the Matural History of the Ancients, the name of a peculiar sort of sand used in the manufac- ture of glass; for which purpose they always chose such as was found washed clean on the banks of rivers; and this they therefore called glass-sand, or velitis, or hya- Mitis. VELITRAE, or VELLETR1, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Italy, in Latium, in the country of the Volscians. It was at some distance from the Appian way, S.E. of Alba, and became considerable under the Romans. It had an amphitheatre, of which no trace now remains. Two roads led to Velitrae; one to the W. detached itself from the Appian way, the other to the E. Communicated with the Latin way. See VELETR1. VELIZ, in Geography, a town of Russia, in the government of Polotsk; 88 miles E. of Polotsk. N. lat. 55° 20'. E. long. 31° 4'. VELL, in Rural Economy, a term applied in some districts to the bag or stomach of the calf, which is used in making running or runnet; or to the prepared sto- machs of the animals or rennet for curdling the milk in cheesemaking, which are often called wells. In some dairies, instead of making the rennet ready some time previous to its being used, a smail piece, proportioned to the quantity of milk to be coagulated, is cut from the vell the over-night, and put into half a pint of water, or whey, to infuse until the morning. In this case, the wells are to be supposed to be equal in goodness; and it is probable, that the virtue may not be so fully extract- ed as by a longer infusion. It is suggested too as not improbable, but that the strength of the rennet might be ascertained by means of experiment, by the application of alkaline salt, and by such means be rendered more certain in its use. See DAIRYING. VELLA, in Botany, an old Latin name, used by Ga- len, and supposed to belong to , the Water-cress. De Theis traces it from Velar, Veler, or Beler, Celtic appel- lations of some plant or plants of the cress kind; and the first of which Pliny gives as synonimous with Erysimum. Vol. XXXVIII. * f \ i \ry twº- ~ * * * * * Linnaeus, finding the word unoccupied in rmodern botany, adopted it for a genus of the same family and qualities as the ancient Welfa.— Linn. Hort. Cliff. 329. Gen. 33 1. Schreb. 435. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 422. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 79. Sm. Fl. Brit. 675. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 4. Juss. 241. Lamarck Illustr. t. 555. Gaertn. t. 141.—Class and order, Tetradynamia Sili- culosa. Nat. Ord, Siliquosa, Linn. Cruciferae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, cylindrical, erect, of four linear, obtuse, closely converging, deciduous leaves. Cor, cruciform, of four obovate spreading pe- tals; whose claws are the length of the calyx. Stam. Filaments six, as long as the calyx, the two opposite ones rather shorter; anthers simple. Pist. Germen su- perior, ovate; style greatly dilated, bordered, leafy, ovate; stigma obtuse. P. ric. Pouch orbicular, tumid, entire, of two cells, crowned with the permanent, ovate, erect, rigid style, which is a continuation of the membranous partition. Seeds several, roundish; “ their cotyledons folded;” Brown. Obs. V. Pseudo-cytisus has the four larger fila- ments destitute of anthers, and combined together in pairs. Linnaeus. Ess. Ch. Pouch tumid, crowned with the leafy ovate style. Cotyledons folded. Calyx closed. 1. V. annua. Annual Cress-rocket. Ilinn. Sp. Pl. 895. Willd. n. 1, Fl. Brit n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1442. (Nasturtium sylvestre valentinum; Clus. Hist. v. 2. 130. Bauh. Hist. v. 2.920. Eruca masturtio cognata tenuifo- lia; Ger. Em. 247, good.)—Leaves pinnatifid. Pouch- espendulous.—Native of sandy fields in England, Spain and Greece. With us it is a very rare plant, scarcely ever observed but on Salisbury Plain, about Stonehenge, where it was first gathered by Mr. Isaac Lawson, in Ray’s time, and has occasionally been seen since, flow- ering in June. The root is fibrous, small and annual. Seed-leaves permanent for some time, inversely heart- shaped, smooth. Herb variable as to luxuriance, erect; its stem about twelve or fifteen inches high, alternately branched, bushy, leafy, rough with deflexed bristles. Leaves alternate, doubly pinnatifid, roughish, with nar- row blunt segments. Shikes terminal, many-flowered. 'a/yar purplish. Petals entire, sulphur-coloured, with purple veins. Pouch turned downwards as it ripens, about the size of a hemp-seed, rough, crowned with the smooth, spatulate, enlarged style, twice its own length. Seeds roundish, three or four in each cell. 2. V. Pseudo-cytisus. Shrubby Cress-rocket. Linn. Sp. Pi. 895. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Cavan. Ic. v. 1. 32. t. 42. (Cytisi facie Alysson fruticans quorundam; Lob. I c. v. 2. 49. Cytisus adulterinus, sive Alysson fruticans; Ger. Em. 1306.)—Leaves undivided, obo- vate, fringed. Pouches erect.—Native of the neigh- bourhood of Aranjuez in Spain, flowering in May. Sometimes kept for curiosity as a hardy greenhouse plant, but not remarkable for beauty. The stem is shrubby, branched, roughish, two feet high. Leaves alternate, rather fleshy, entire, rough, scarcely an inch long, tapering down into a short foot stalk, and generally accompanied by two smaller leaves. Flowers in long spikes, yellow, with pale veins. Permanent style broad, nearly orbicular, scarcely longer than the flouch. Cava- nillus says he found all the anthers perfect, though Lin- naeus is correct in his description of the combined ſila- 777 677 t S. VELLA, or Verra, in Geography, a river of the Ligu- 3 E rian V E L V E L rian republic, which runs into the Magra, three miles above Sarzana. VELLACHERY, a town of Hindoostan, in the Car- natic; 10 miles S.E. of Madura. VELLADY, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; 14 miles S. of Damicotta. VELLAS, a town of the island of Ceylon; 44 miles W.N.W. of Candi. N. lat. 7° 45'. E. long. 81° 16'. VELLATOOR, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; 5 miles E. of Coimbetore. - VELLECHY PALEAM, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; 13 miles N. of Coimbetore. VELLEIA, in Botany, received its name from the author of the present article, in honour of his highly va- lued friend Col. Thomas Velley, F.L.S., author of a des- criptive work on the Submarine Plants of Britain, with coloured plates, in folio, consisting of only one fasciculus. This amiable and accomplished botanist was unfortunate- ly killed by accident, a few years since, in the town of Reading, as he was travelling between Bath and London. —Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 4, 217. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 580. Labillard. Nov. Holl. v. 1.54. (Euthales; Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. l. 579. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 363.)—Class and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Camfianacea, Linn. Campanulacedº, Juss. Goo- demović, Brown. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, unequal, either of three or five roundish leaves, or of one leaf in five seg- ments, the upper division largest, permanent. Cor. of one petal, irregular; tube rather longer than the calyx, split longitudinally at the back, almost to the base, more or less tumid, or spurred, underneath; limb in five ra- ther unequal, spreading, bordered, broad-keeled seg- ments, almost two-lipped. Stam. Filaments five, thread- shaped, shorter than the tube, inserted into its membra- nous base, alternate with the segments of the limb; an- thers erect, oblong, unconnected, of two cells, bursting lengthwise. Pist. Germen superior, turbinate; style angular, rather longer than the stamens; stigma thick, obtuse, encompassed with a membranous, cup-shaped, abrupt integument. Peric. Capsule of one cell and four rigid valves. Seeds several, orbicular, compressed, roughish, imbricated on both sides of a central recepta- cle, shorter than the valves. Ess. Ch. Calyx inferior, three or five-cleft, unequal. Corolla tubular, five-cleft, two-lipped; tube cloven at the back. Capsule of four waives and one cell. Seeds in- bricated, orbicular, compressed. Obs. Mr. Brown's Euthales is so strictly united in habit and character, except the ca/yar, witi, our Welleia, that we cannot but consider it as of the same natural ge- nus. Our learned friend, from whom we always scru- ple to differ, has discovered some acknowledged Welleia with five leaves to the calyx, instead of three, originally attributed to it. Here then is an approach toward the five-cleft, though single-leaved, calyx of Euthales. Lin- natus has declared, Phil. Bot. Sect. 1 70, “ Raro observa- tºur genus in quo flars aligua /ruct ification is non aber- rat.” The calyx appears to be the part in Welleia which runs wild, if we may so translate it, and strikingly con- firms the above maxim. We may extend this observa- tion to the whole older of Mr. Brown’s Goodenović, in which even the situation of the calyx, whether superior or inferior, is not uniform; which circumstance must lead us to mistrust other differences in the same part when not supported by other characters. Without at- tention to such principles as these, we may almost, as Linnaeus says, make as many genera as species of plants. Sect. 1. Calyx of one leaf, in five segments. EUTHA- LEs. Brown. - 1. V. trinervis. Three-ribbed Velleia. Labill. Nov. Holl. v. ). 54. t. 77. (Euthales trinervis; Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. l. 580. Goodenia tenella; Andr. Repos. t. 466. Curt. Mag. t. 1 137.)—Calyx tubular, of one leaf, in five acute segments. Leaves downy.—Native of the south coast of New Holland. Sent to Kew garden in 1803, by Mr. Peter Good. A perennial greenhouse herb, flowering most part of the year. The root is fibrous. Stem none. Leaves all radical, numerous, downy, more or less acute, tapering at the base; some- times entire; sometimes toothed, or partly runcinate. Flower-stalks numerous, a span high, nearly erect, fork- ed, with a pair of opposite lanceolate bracteas at each division. Flowers stalked, erect, yellow; keel of each segment green underneath; two upper ones marked in front with a dark brown spot; all emarginate; tube white, enclosing the stamens and style. The flowers seem va- riable in size. We should hardly, without Mr. Brown’s authority, have supposed all the above synonyms to be- long to the same species. Sect. 2. Calyx offive leaves. Corolla with a shur at the base, which is fiermanent. MENOcERAS (a section of Velleia). Brown. 2. V. faradoaca. Blunt-toothed Spurred Velleia." Br. n. 1.-4: Downy. Leaves bluntly toothed.”—Native of New South Wales, Van Diemen’s island, and the south coast of New Holland. Brown. 3. V. Arguta. Sharp-toothed Spurred Velleia. Br. n. 2–4° Smooth. Leaves sharply toothed.”—Gathered by Mr. Brown, on the south coast of New Holland. Sect. 3. Calyx of three leaves. botts, on one side, at the base. 4. V. lyrata. Lyrate Velleia. Br. n. 3.-Smooth. Bracteas distinct. Leaves lyrate, or sharply toothed at the base. Calyx-leaves roundish-ovate.—Native of Port Jackson, New South Wales. This is our original spe- cies of the genus. The leaves, all radical, much resem- ble those of Creflis tectorum. Stalks a span high, rigid, once or twice forked; one branch at each fork being sometimes wanting. Bracteas ovato-lanceolate, acute, entire, separate at the base, with a small internal tuft of hairs. Flowers yellow, on short partial stalks. Calyx- leaves quite distinct, acute, nearly entire, a quarter of an inch long, downy within; the upper one rather broad- est, and almost orbicular. 5. V. shatulata. Spatulate Velleia. Br. h. 4.— “Smooth Bracteas distinct. Leaves spatulate, almost without teeth; quite entire at the base; with axillary tufts of hairs.”—Observed by Mr. Brown near Port Jackson, as well as in the tropical part of New Hol- land. . 6. V. f. ubescens. Downy Velleia. Br. n. 5.—“ Dow- ny. Bracteas distinct. Ileaves toothed. Calyx-leaves oblong-ovate, acute.”—Native of the tropical part of New Holland. Brown. 7. V. fierfoliata. Perfoliate Velleia. Br. n. 6.- “Smooth. Bracteas very large, combined, roundish, toothed.”—Found by Mr. Alexander Gordon, in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson, but seen by Mr. Brown in a dried state only. The whole genus is stemless, and we believe the flowers are all yellow.—None but the first species has hitherto Corolla a little gib- True VELLEIAE. Brown. V E L V E L hitherto made its appearance in the European gardens, though some of them might possibly prove hardy annu- als, if not perennial with us. VELLEIACIUM, in Ancient Geografiſhy, a town of Italy, in the midst of the hills of Gallia Cispadana, accor- ding to Pliny. VELLEITY, VELLEITAs, in the School Philosophy, is usually defined a languid, cold, and remiss will. Others say, it implies an impotency of obtaining what we require. Others will have it, a slight desire for some- thing, which a person does not esteem much, or is too indolent to seek; as Catus amat fiscem, sed non vult tangere lympham. VELLERUS, in Biograft hy. See PATERCULUs. VELLEKAT, in Geography, rocks in the East In- dian sea, about 15 miles E, from the island of Mysol. S. lat. 2° 1'. E. long. 131° 2'. - VELLEPEKONDA, a town of Hindoostan, in Gol- conda; 15 miles S. of Warangole. VELLIA, in Ornithology, a name used by some au- thors for the lanius minor, or lanius tertius of Aldrovand, called in England the flusher. VELLIAM, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in Coimbetore; 16 miles S.E. of Erroad. - VELLICA, in Ancient Geograft hy, a town of His- pania, in the territory of the Tarragonese. Ptolemy. VELLICATION, among Physicians, the act of twitching or stimulating. The word is more particularly applied to a sort of sudden convulsions that happen to the fibres of the muscles. VELLICULA. See For FICULA. VELLIN, in Geograf hy, a town of Pomerania; 4 miles N. N.E. of Polnow. - VELLING, in Agriculture, a term applied to the ope- ration or process of ploughing or cutting up and taking off the turf or upper surface of sward land, in order to its being burnt, or for other purposes. It is usually per- formed nearly in the same manner as baulking or wrest- bauiking, except that instead of being turned over, the furrow-slice is, in some cases, cut with its turf upwards; and the work in this process is in effect the same thing; but as the outer point of the wing of the share in the plough is turned upwards, there is less necessity for holding it an oblique position. The plough too in execu. ting this operation, is always turned to the right upon the head land, which is contrary to that which is practi- sed in skirting, the slice or furrow being turned towards the piou ºhc d instead of the unpiough cq land. In vel- ling, the plough is thrown so far into the land from the line of draught, as to enable the plough man to carry with ease about twice as much land as is displaced by the p}9:1ghed slice, which is pared vely thin and even, and on the land side not cut so deep as in the opt ration of skirting, but gradually liſted and turns d featly on its greei, side upon the baulk, left on the right-hand or fur- row side of the plough. his manner of ploughing, in cofit radistinction to splitting, is called, in some districts, gathering of the land; and the day-work five or six roods. See SPLITTING. - In cases where the ſurrow-slice is not turned, it is in Some places drawn out with small hooks, by the labour of women and boys, or harrowed, and then raked together in heaps, and burned. This is a mode of velling which is commonly adopted in cases where there is not time to permit the turf or sod to rot, as is the case in other me- thods of practice. See PARING and Burning, and TUR- NING to Rot, - VELLO, in Geºgraf hy, a town of Italy, in the Vero- nese; 10 miles N. of Verona. VELLON, in Commerce, a kind of money, in which accounts are kept in many parts of Spain. The real vel- lon is the most general money of account: it consists of 8; quartos, 17 ochavos, or 34 maravedis vellon. Madrid, and all Castile, with most of the adjacent provinces, and also Bilboa, Malaga, and Gallicia, keep accounts in reals and maravedis wellon. See MARAv FIDI and REAL. VELLOUL, in Geograft hy, a town of Hindoostan, in Guzerat, on the coast; 9 miles W.N.W. of Puttan Sumnaut. VELLUM, See VELoM. VELLUM, in Geograft/y, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic; 5 miles S.W. of Tanjore. N. lat. 10° 43'. E. long, 79° 7'. - VELLY, PAUL-FRANC1s, in Biograf hy, was born near Fisnes, in Champagne, in 1711. Quitting the society of Jesuits after having belonged to it for about eleven years, he devoted himself to historical researches. His chief work was his “Histoire de France,” in 8 vols., written in an easy and correct style, and possessing the character of candour and truth. He is charged, however, with too often attacking the privileges of the clergy, and with having borrowed freely from Voltaire’s Essay on General History, and with having been misled in some instances by adopting his sentiments. This history, which he terminated with Charles le Bel, was continued to the 16th volume by Villaret. He also published a translation of Swift’s “History of John Bull.” He was virtuous and amiable, and of a very cheerful disposition. His death happened in 1759. - VIELMES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Dordogne; 15 miles S.W. of Mucidan. VELOCE, Ital., in Musie, swift; Velocissimo, superl. very swift. - VELOCITY, in Mechanics, swiftness; that affection of motion, by which a moveable is disposed to run over a certain space in a certain time. It is also called celerity, and is always proportional to the space moved. Huygens, Leibnitz, Bernouilli, Wolfius, and the fo- reign mathematicians hold, that the momenta, or forces, of failing bodies, at the end of their falls, are as the squares of their velocities into the quantity of matter: the English mathematicians, on the contrary, maintain them to be as the velocities themselves into the quantity of matter. See Niorto N. Velocity is conceived either as absolute or relative: the velocity we have hiti, el to considcred is sim/ile or a 5 so- (uže, with respect to a certain space moved in a certain time. Reſºlve or res/lective velocity, is that with which two distant bodies approach each other, and come to theet in a longer or less time; whether only one of ti, clim in CV cº tow aids the other at rest, or whether they both nove; which may happen two ways, either by tº G bodies hatt; rally approaching cach other in the same right line, or by two bodies moving the same way in the Sºme liac, only the foreſnost slower than the other: for, by this means, this will overtake that; and as they come to meet in a greater or less time, the relative velocity will be greater or less. Thus, if two bodies come nearer each other by two feet in one second of time, their respective velocity is double that of two others, which only approach one foot in the same time. Velocity is also uniform or equal, when a moving body passes through cqual spaces in equal times; or unequal, 3 E 2 When V E L O C I T Y. when in equal times it passes through unequal spaces; in which case it is either accelerated or retarded; and this acceleration, or retardation, may also be equal or un- equal. See AcceleRAtion and Motion. In the doctrine of fluxions, it is usual to consider the velocity with which magnitudes flow, or are generated. Thus the velocity with which a line flows, is the same as that of the point which is supposed to describe or gene- rate the line. The velocity with which a surface flows, is the same as the velocity of a given right line, that, by moving parallel to itself, is supposed to gene- rate a rectangle, always equal to the surface. The velocity with which a solid flows may be measured by the velocity of a given plane surface, that, by moving paral- lel to itself, is supposed to generate an erect prism, or cylinder, always equal to the solid. The velocity with which an angle flows, is measured by the velocity of a point, supposed to describe the arc of a given circle, which subtends the angle, and measures it. See Macl. Fluxions, book i. chap. 1. All these velocities are measured at any term of the time of the motion, by the spaces which would be de- scribed in a given point of time, by these points, lines, or surfaces, with their motions continued uniformly from that term. - - The velocity with which a quantity flows at any term of the time, while it is supposed to be generated, is call- ed its fluxion. See FLuxion. VELocities of Bodies moving in Curves. According to Galileo’s system of the fall of heavy bodies, which is now admitted by all philosophers, the velocities of a body falling vertically are, each moment of its fall, as the roots of the heights from whence it has fallen; reckoning from the beginning of the fall. Hence that author inferred, that if a body fall along an inclined plane, the velocities it has, at the different times, will be in the same ratio; for since its velocity is altogether owing to its fall, (and it only falls as much as there is perpendicular height in the in- clined plane,) the velocity should be measured by that height as if it were vertical. See Inclined PLANE. The same principle, likewise, led him to con- clude, that if a body fall through two contiguous incli- ned planes, making an angle between them, much like a stick when broken, the velocity would be regulated after the same manner, by the vertical height of the two planes taken together; for it is only this height that it falls; and from its fall it has all its velocity. This conclusion was universally admited till the year 1693, when M. Varignon demonstrated it to be false. From his demonstration it should seem to follow, that the velocities of a body falling along the cavity of a curve, for instance, of a cycloid, ought not to be as the roots of the heights, since a curve is only a series of an infinity of infinitely little contiguous planes, inclined towards one another; so that Galileo’s proposition would seem to fail in this case too; and yet it holds good, only with some restriction. - All this mixture of truth and error, so near akin to each other, showed that they had not got hold of the first principle; M. Varignon, therefore, undertook to clear what related to the velocities of falling bodies and to set the whole matter in a new light. He still suppo- ses Galileo’s first system, that the velocities, at the dif- ferent times of a vertical fall, are as the roots of the cor- responding heights. The great principle he makes use of to attain his end, is that of compound motion. J’ ſ If a body fall along two contiguous inclined planes, making an obtuse angle, or a kind of concavity between them; M. Varignon shows, from the composition of those motions, that the body, as it meets the second plane, loses somewhat of its velocity, and, of consequence, that it is not the same at the end of the fall, as it would be, had it fallen through the first plane prolonged; so that the pro- portion of the roots of the heights asserted by Galileo does not here obtain. The reason of this loss of velocity is, that the motion, which was parallel to the first plane, becomes oblique to the second, since they make an angle: this motion, which is oblique to the second plane, being conceived as com- pounded, that part perpendicular to the plane is iost, by the opposition thereof, and part of the velocity along with it; consequently, the less of the perpendicular there is in the oblique motion, or, which is the same thing, the less the two planes are from being one, i. e. the more obtuse the angle is, the less velocity does the body lose. Now all the infinitely little, contiguous, inclined planes of which a curve consists, making infinitely obtuse an- gles among themselves; a body falling along the con- cavity of a curve, the loss of velocity it undergoes each instant is infinitely little; but a finite portion of any curve, how littie soever, consisting of an infinity of in- finitely little planes, a body moving through it loses an infinite number of infinitely little parts of its velocity; and an infinity of infinitely little parts makes an in- finity of a higher order, i. e. an infinity of infinitely l t le parts makes a finite magnitude, if they be of the first order or kind; and an infinitely little quantity of the first crqer, if they be of the second, and so in infinitum. Therefore, if the losses of velocity of a body, falling along a curve, be of the first order, they will amount to a finite quantity in any finite part of the curve, &c. The nature of every curve is abundantly determined by the ratio of the ordinates to the correspondent portions of the axis; and the essence of curves in general may be conceived as cons sting in this ratio, which is variable in a thousand ways. Now this same ratio will be, likewise, that of two simple velocities, by whose concurrence a body will describe any curve; and, of consequence, the essence of all curves, in the general, is the same thing as the concourse or combination of all the forces, which, taken two by two, may move the same body. Thus we have a most simple and general equation of all possible curves, and of all possibie velocities. *- By means of this equation, as soon as the two simple velocities of a body are known, the curve resulting from them is immediately determined. It is observable that, according to this equation, an uniform velocity, and a ve- locity that always varies according to the roots of the heights, produce a parabola, independent of the angle made by the two projectile forces that give the veloci- ties; and, consequently, a cannon-ball, shot either hori- zontally or obliquely to the horizon, must always describe a parabola. The best mathematicians, hitherto, had la- boured much to prove, that oblique projections formed paraboias as well as horizontal ones. To have some measure of velocity, the space is to be divided into as many equal parts as the time is conceived to be divided into; for the quantity of space corresponding to that division of time, is the measure of the velocity. For an instance: suppose the moveable A passes through a space of 80 feet in 40 seconds of time: dividing 80 by 40, the quotient 2 shows the velocity of the moveable to be V E L O C IT Y. be such, as that it passes over an interval of two feet in by §§; that is, by 2. Suppose, again, another moveable B, which in 30 seconds of time travels 90 feet; the index of the celerity will be 3. Wherefore, since in each case the measure of the space is a foot, which is supposed every where of the same length, and the measure of time a second, which is conceived every where of the same duration; the indices of the velocities 2 and 3 are homo- geneal, and therefore the velocity of A is to the velocity of B, as 2 to 3. Hence, if the space be = s, and the time = t, the ve- * S ſº tº locity may be expressed by 7 : the space being in a ra- tio of the time and velocity. See MoTION. V E Locity, Circular. See CIRCULAR. VELocITY, Initial, in Gunnery, denotes the velocity with which military projectiles issue from the piece by which they are discharged. This is now known to be much more considerable than was formerly apprehend- ed. For the method of estimating it, and the result of a variety of experiments by Mr. Robins, Dr. Hutton, &c. see GUN, GUNNERY, PROJECTILE, and RESISTANCE. We shall here add, that Mr. Thompson (count Rum- ford) has lately published the result of a variety of ex- periments upon gunpowder, and also an account of a new method of determining the velocities of all kinds of military projectiles. From the equality of action and re-action, it appears, says Mr. Thompson, that the mo- mentum of a gun must be precisely equal to the mo- mentum of its charge; or that that the weight of the gun, multiplied into the velocity of its recoil, is just equal to the weight of the bullet and of the powder (or the elastic fluid that is generated from it) multiplied in- to their respective velocities: for every particle of mat- ter, whether solid or fluid, that issues out of the mouth of a piece, must be impelled by the action of some pow- er, which power must re-act with equal force against the bottom of the bore. It is easy to determine the velocity of the recoil in any given case, by suspending the gun in a horizontal position by two pendulous rods, and measuring the arc of its ascent by means of a ribbon, according to the me- thod which Mr. Thompson has described, and this will give the momentum of the gun, its weight being known, and consequently the momentum of its charge. But in order to determine the velocity of the bul- let from the recoil, it will be necessary to find how much the weight and velocity of the elastic fluid con- tribute to it. the expansion of this fluid is always very nearly the same, whether the powder is fired alone, or whether the charge is made to impel one or more bullets, as Mr. Thompson has determined by various experiments. If, therefore, a gun, suspended according to the me- thod proposed, is fired with any given charge of pow- der, but without any bullet or wad, and the recoil is observ- ed; and if the same piece is afterwards fired with the same quantity of powder, and a bullet of a known weight; the excess of the velocity in the latter case above that in the former, will be proportional to the velocity of the bul- let; for the difference of these velocities, multiplied into the weight of the gun, will be equal to the weight of the bullet multiplied into its velocity. Accordingly, if W is put for the weight of the gun; That part of the recoil which arises from U, for the velocity of its recoil, when it is fired with any given charge of powder, without any bullet; V, for the velocity of the recoil when the same charge is made. to impel a bullet; B, for the weight of the bullet, and tºmº ſº V * w for its velocity; we shall have v = º × W Let B = 580 grains, W = 336,000 grains, and, there- fore, B : W = 580 : 336,000; i. e. :: 1: 579.31 nearly, and V — U is found by experiment to be equal to 1.8522; and, consequently, v = 1.8522 × 579.3 l = 1073 feet in a second; which is very near 1083 feet in a second, the mean of the velocities determined by the pendulum after the manner of Mr. Robins, But the theorem will be rendered more simple by put- ting c for the chord of the recoil in English inches, when the piece is fired with powder only, and C for the chord when a bullet is discharged by the same charge; and then C —– c will be as V — U; and consequently, as V — U × W B let, the ratio of W to B remaining the same. Supposing, therefore, C – c = 1 inch, and the ve- locity of the bullet to be computed from that chord; the velocity in any other case, in which C – c is greater or less than one inch, will be found by multiplying the difference of the chords C and c by a velocity that an- swers to a difference of one inch. Or the velocity of the bullet, expressed in feet fier second, may in all cases be found by multiplying the difference of the chords C and c by 1 18.35; the weight of the barrel, the length of the suspending rods, and the weight of the bullet, re- maining the same, whatever be the charge of powder or its strength. According to this rule, Mr. Thompson has compu- ted by several experiments the velocities of bullets from the recoil, and compared them with the velocities obtained by the pendulum. The result, making the ne- cessary allowances for the difference in the conclusions arising from these two methods, leads Mr. Thompson to infer, that there is the greatest probability that the velo- cities of bullets may in all cases be deterinined by the recoil with great accuracy; and if this method succeeds with musquet-bullets, it may also be applied as well to cannon-balls and bomb-shells of the largest dimensions: he apprehends also, that it will be much preferable to any other method hitherto known, not only as it may be applied indifferently to all kinds of military projectiles, with little trouble or expence, but also because by this method the velocities with which bullets are actually projected are determined; whereas, by the pendulum, their velocities can only be ascertained at some distance from the gun, after they have lost a part of their initial velocities by the resistance of the air through which they are obliged to pass to arrive at the pendulum. Those who advert to what has been de livered under the article GUNNERY, will find that, according to Mr. Robins's theory, farther confirmed by Dr. Hutton’s ex- periments, when bullets of the same diameter, but dif- ferent weights, are discharged from the same piece by the same quantity of powder, their velocities should be in the subduplicate ratio of their weights. - But this theory, says Mr. Thompson, is founded upon a supposition, that the action of the elastic fluid, gener- ated from the gunpowder, is always the same in every given , which measures the velocity of the bul- V E L V E L given part of the bore when the charge is the same, whatever may be the weight of the bullet; and as no al- lowance is made for the expenditure of force required to put the fluid itself in motion, or for the loss of it by the vent, he concludes that the theory is defective. And from a variety of experiments, made with a view of as- certaining this point, he infers, that the ratio of the ve- locities of bullets to their weights is different from that which Mr. Robins’s theory supposes; and from other experiments he finds, that the velocities computed, ac- cording to the reciprocal sub-triplicate ratio of the weights, agree much better with the conclusions dedu- ced from those experiments, than those computed upon Mr. Robins's principles; though, in this mode of com- putation, the difference between the actual and compu- ted velocities was in some of the experiments inconsider- able. But as the powder itself is heavy, it may be con- sidered as a weight put in motion along with the bullet; and if the density of the generated fluid be supposed al- ways uniform from the bullet to the breech, the velocity of the centre of gravity of the powder, or of the elastic fluid, and the gross matter generated from it, will be just half as great as the velocity of the bullet; putting, there- fore, P to denote the weight of the powder, B the weight of the bullet, and v its initial velocity; then Bw -- 3 Pv = B -- 4P × v will express the momentum of the charge at the instant when the bullet quits the bore. In- stead, therefore, of ascertaining the relation of the velo- cities to the weights of the bullets, he proposes to add half the weight of the powder to the weight of the bul- let, and to compute the velocities from the reciprocal sub-triplicate ratio of the quantity B + , P: and the re- sult of several experiments shows an agreement between the actual and computed velocities that is very remark- able. We shall only add, that Mr. Thompson disputes the justness of Mr. Robins's conclusion with respect to the force of gunpowder, which makes it 1000 times greater than the mean pressure of the atmosphere; whereas, from the result of one of his experiments, its force ap- pears to be at least 1308 times greater than the mean pressure of the atmosphere. Phil. Trans, vol. lxxi. par ii. p. 229–32 I. VELocITY, Measure of See MEASURE. VE Locity of Light, Sottiid, Will d, &c. Sou No. WIND, &c. V ELOM, or VELLUM, is a kind of fiarch ºnent (which see), that is finct, Cvener, and more Wiite than the com- mon parch ment. The word is formed from the Frchch v. lin, of the La- tin vitulinus, belonging to a calf. See A B C RT IV F. For regulations relating to makers of V clun), and duty on the same, see LEATHER. See LIGHT, VELORE, in Geograf hy, a town of l Ijt, doostan, in the Carnatic; 14 miles W. of Arcot. N. lat. 12° 54. E. long. 79° 15'. VELOSA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 14 miles S. of St. Joao da Pesqueira. VELPE, a river of Brabant, which joins the Demer, at Halen. - VELPI, in Ancient Geograft hy, mountains of the Cy- renaica, on the confines of Africa Propria. These mountains were inhabited by the Macatutaº, according to Ptolemy. - VELSER, or WELSER, MARK, in Biografthy, was born at Augsburg, of an ancient and opulent family, in 1558, and educated at Rome under the celebrated Mu- ret. Upon his return to his native city he practised at the bar, and became a senator in 1592, and having at- tained the highest rank in the government of the city, he was regarded as its chief ornament; nor was he less distinguished as the promoter of literature and science. He died in 1614, at the age of 56. The principal of his works, which were numerous, are, “Rerum Augustana- rum Vindelicarum Lib. VIII.” Venet. 1594, and « Re- rum Boicarum Libri V.” Aug. Vin. 1602. He was a principal contributor to Gruter's Collection of Inscrip- tions, and he aided many others in their publications. A collection of his writings was published in a folio volume at Nuremberg, in 1682. Bayle. Gen. Biog. VELT, or VELTE, in Commerce, a measure for bran- dy in several parts of France. At Bordeaux, brandy is contained in casks of 50 velts, more or less; but it is sold by the barrique of 32 velts, or about 60 English gallons: 5 yelts proof of Bordeaux make 4 velts proof by which it is sold in London. At Cognac, it is sold by the 27 yelts; and 11 velts proof of Cognac make 10 velts proof by which it sold in London. At Rochelle, brandy from this place, Cognac, Isle de Rhé, and the river Charente, is in casks of 3 barriques, containing in all 75 or 90 velts, and is sold by the 27 velts: 16 velts = about 3 l English gallons. At Bordeaux, 1.64 barrique = 100 English gallons, and each barrique measures 14.033 cubic inches: 52.74 velts = 100 English gallons, and each velt = 438 cubic inches. At Cognac, 51.68 velts = 100 English gallons, and each velt measures 447 cubic inches. At Nantes, 67.34 velts = 100 English gal- lons, and each velt measures 343 cubic inches. At Ro- chelle, 2.17 wine barriques = 100 English gallons, and each barrique measures 10,636 cubic inches; and 51.79 brandy velts = 100 English gallons, and each velt mea- Sures 446 cubic inches. VELTAE, in Ancient Geografhy, a people of Europe- an Sarmatia, in a part of the Venedic gulf. VELTHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of Germa- ny, in the county of Benthcim; 2 miles N.N.E. of Nien- hu us. VELTHEIMIA, in Botany, received its name from professor Gleditsch, in the Berlin Transactions for 1769, in compliment to a Germain nobieman, Augustus Ferdi- nand von Veltheim, author of several mineralogical works, and reported to Lave been also a lover and pat- ron of botany. Wild. Sp. Pi. v. 2. 18 l. Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 2, 289. Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8. 448.-Class and order, Hºrandria Aſonogynia. Nat. Ord. Coronara, Liºn. .45ſ/9deli, Juss. G. D. Ch. Cal. nonc. Cor. of one petal, tubular, nearly cylindrical; lin, b regular, in six very short, broad, aimost equal, segmel,ts. Stam. Filaments six, thread- shaped, inserted into the tube and not projecting beyond it; anthers ovate, cloven at the base. Pist. Germen su- perior, roundish; style thread-shaped, declining; stigma simple, acute. Peric. Capsule membranous, somewhat . pellucid, three-lobed, three-celled, each lobe extended into a compressed rounded wing. Seeds mostly solita- ry, obovate, rather compressed. Ess. Ch. Corolla tubular, with six teeth. Stamens inserted into the tube. Capsule membranous, with three wings, and three cells, with solitary seeds. Obs. This genus, confounded by Linnaeus with his ALETRIs, is well separated therefrom, as well as from TRITOMA (see those articles,) both on account of their habits V E L V E N The genuine Aletris has a fun- will oce tº y gº tº * tº wº habits and characters. nel-shaped corrugated corolla, into the base of segments the stamens are inserted; and many seeds in each cell of the caſhsule. Tritoma is distinguished by its long stamens, inserted into the recefitacle, and pro- jecting far out of the flower. 1. V. viridifolia, Waved-leaved Veltheimia. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1. 41. t. 78. (V. capensis; Redout. Liliac. t. 193. Aletris capensis; Linn. Sp. PI. 456. Curt. Mag. t. 501.)—Leaves lanceolate, obtuse, with wavy plaits. Teeth of the corolla rounded, erect.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence its bulbs are said to have been first imported into this country in 1768, by the late Mr. Malcolm. The plant is now frequent in most good greenhouses, flowering copiously in the winter and spring, yet it is not easily increased, either by root or by seed. The bulb is ovate, larger than a hen’s egg. Leaves numerous, all radical, spreading, smooth, a span long, entire, broadly undula- ted; of a deep grass-green above; pale and glaucous be- neath. Stalk solitary, erect, straight, naked, eighteen or twenty inches high, elegantly spotted and streaked with blood-red or purple, bearing a long, dense, ovate cluster, of pendulous inodorous flowers, each accompan- ied by an awlshaped pink bractea, much longer than its stalk. The corolla is of a waxy pink, or glaucous rose- colour, pale-yellow, or greenish, about the extremity; its length about an inch and a half. Cañsules nearly the same length, of a tender bladdery texture, pale and pel- lucid, so as to show the black seeds within. 2. V. glauca. Glaucous-leaved Veltheimia. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Curt. Mag. t. 1091. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1. 40. t. 77. (Aletris glauca; Ait. ed. l. v. 1.463.)—Leaves lanceolate, glaucous, tipped with a small point; somewhat crispid at the margin. Teeth of the corolla spreading.—Native likewise of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence it was brought to Kew garden by George Wynch, esq. in 1781, being among the many new species of plants, chiefly from that country or from America, for the knowledge of which the botanical world is indebted to the late Mr. Aiton, and his learned coadjutors, in the first edition of the Hortus Kewensis. The number of such is greatly increased in the second edition, principally from New Holland and the East In- dies. No work of the kind has furnished so many. The plant before us differs from the preceding in having a more oblong pointed bulb, much straighter and more erect leaves, glaucous on both sides, whose marginal un- dulations are slight and very small. The flowers are smaller, paier, and iess showy; their marginal segments more expanded. This is much more rare than V. viri- difolia, being more difficult of culture and less handsome. It flowers from January to April. For the two other species referred to this genus by Willdenow, Uvaria and fumila, see TRITOMA. VEL'ſ ZEN, or ULz EN, in Geografhy, a town of Westphalia, in the principality of Luneburg; 20 miles E. of Lucko. VELVALEG, a town of Grand Bucharia; 5 miles S. of Arhenk. VELUCA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hispa- nia Citerior, belonging to the Arevaci. Ptolemy. VELVET, a rich kind of stuff, all silk, covered on the outside with a close, short, fine, soft shag, the other side being very strong and close. The word is formed of the French velours, which sig- nifies the same, and which comes from velu, a thing co- e e * { }, !, wered with hair. The knap or shag, called also the velveting, of this stuff, is formed of part of the threads of the warp, which the workman puts on a long narrow channelled ruler, or needle, or wire; and which he afterwards cuts, by draw- ing a sharp steel tool along the channel of the needle to the ends of the warp. The principal and best manufactories of velvet are in France and Italy, particularly at Venice, Milan, Flo- rence, Genoa, and Lucca; there are others in Holland, set up by the French refugees, of which that at Haerlem is the most considerable. Velvets are now made to great perfection at Manches- ter and other parts of England. There are some brought from China, but they are the worst of all. There are velvets of various kinds, as filain, that is, uniform and smooth, without either figure or stripes:— figured, that is, adorned and worked with divers figures though the ground be the same with the figures; that is, the whole surface velveted:—ramage, or branched, rep- resenting long stalks, branches, &c. on a Sattin ground, which is sometimes of the same colour with the velvet, but more usually of a different one. Sometimes, instead of sattin, they make the ground of gold and silver, whence the denominations of velvets with gold grounds, &c.:—uncut, that in which the threads that make the velveting, have been ranged over the channelled ruler, or wire, but not cut there:—strified, that in which there are stripes of divers colours running along the warp; whether those stripes be partly velvet and partly sattin, or all velveted:—cut, that in which the ground is a kind of taffety, or gros de Tours, and the figures velvet. Velvets are likewise distinguished, with regard to their different degrees of strength and goodness, into velvet of four threads, three threads, two threads, and a thread and a half: the first are those where there are eight threads of shag, or velveting to each tooth of the reed; the second have only six, and the rest four. In general, all velvets, both worked and cut, shorn and flowered, are to have their warp and shag of organzine, spun and twisted, or thrown in the mill, and their woof of silk well boiled, &c. They are all of the same breadth. VELUM, in Ecclesiastical Writers, the same with what is otherwise called brandettºn. VELUM Quadragesimale, a veil or piece of hangings, anciently drawn before the altar in Lent, as a token of mourning and sorrow. VELUM, in Anatomy, a part in the brain. See BRAIN. VELuxſ Palati, or Pendulum, the soft paiate. See DEGLUTITION. V EMANIA, called Piana by Ptolemy, in Ancient Geograf hy, a place of Rhaetia, upon the route from Pan- nonia in the Gauls, in passing by Sopianae, between Campodunum and Brigantia. Itin. Anton. VEMMETSTOSTE, or WEMMELSTosTE, in Geog- raft hy, a town of Denmark, on the E. coast of the island of Zealand; 6 miles S.W. of Heding. VEMPSUM, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Italy, in Latium. Ptolemy. VENA, in Geografthy, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 9 miles N.W. of Squillace. VENA, in Mythology. See VINA. VENA, Vein, in Anatomy. See VEIN. VENABULUM, V E N V E N VENABULUM, in Antiquity, a long kind of spear, used in hunting wild beasts. VENAE LACTEAE, in JAnatomy, the absorbing vessels, so called because they were supposed to be veins. See LACTEA Vasa. VEN E Lymfi.haticae. See LYMPHATICs. VEN AFRO, in Geograf hy, a town of Naples, in La- vora, the see of a bishop, suffragan of Capua; 14 miles N. of Sezza. N. lat. 41° 30'. E. long. 13° 58'. VENAFRUM, (VENAF Ro,) in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Campania, northwards, towards the Samnium, which became a Roman colony. It was fa- mous for its olives and oils. VEN A ISSIN, Comtat de, County of Venaissin, in Geografthy, a country of France, bounded on the N. by the department of the Drôme, on the E. by the depart- ment of the Lower Alps, on the S. by the department of the Mouths of the Rhone, and on the W. by the Rhone, which separates it from the department of the Gard, about 12 leagues in length, and 7 in breadth. It takes its name from Venasque, the Vendansca or Vendasca of the ancients, and was possessed, after the l l thcentury, by the counts of Toulouse, but reassumed again in the 13th century, and held by count Raymond the elder. The popes laid claim to the sovereignty of this country from the time of count Raymond de St. Gilles, although it is certain that the emperors, as kings of Arles, had exer- cised that power. In the year 1234, the emperor Frederick II. transferred the imperial rights of the coun- ty of Venaissin to Raymond the younger. And the pope found himself compelled to relinquish them to him. *From the descendants of Raymond, it came to Philip the Bold, king of France, who in the year 1273, resto- red it to pope Gregory X. as a fief of the see of Rome, and it has been governed under the popes, by officers cal- led rectores. The soil is fertile, the climate mild, and the air pure; the productions are corn, olives, silk, Saffron, and excellent wine. Carpentras was the capital. This country now belongs to France, and forms part of the department of the Vaucluse, being formally ceded by the pope on the 19th of February 1797. VEN AL, or VENOUs, among Anatomists, something that bears relation to a vein. - The extremities of the . cava and pulmonary veins, where they enter the auricles of the heart, aſ e called ve- nous sinuscs. See VEIN. VEN AL, formed from venalis, to be sold, is also used for something bought with money, or procured by bribes. Thus we say, versal bards; courtezans and flatterers are venal; even justice, in Turkey, is venal, and must be bought of the bashaws. In England, there are several offices in the revenue, policy, &c. venal; but this venality of offices is no where so considerable as they were in France, where all offices of judicature were bought of the king, and only munici- pai officers are elected. Offices in England are venal only by a kind of connivance: in France it was a thing solemn and authorized. The venality was first introduc- ed by Louis XII, who, to clear those immense debts contracted by his predecessor Charles VIII. without burdening his people with new taxes, bethought himself to sell the offices of finance; and, in reality, he made a vast sum by it; but he forbad, by an edict in 1508, the sale of offices of judicature. Francis I. made an advan- tage of the same expedient to get money, and sold his posts, not excepting the offices of judicature, openly: under this king, it was only accounted a kind of loan; but that loan was no more than a name to disguise a real sale. However, it is said, that the sale of offices of judicature was established by edicts of Charles IX. and h military offices were sold under the reign of Henry The parliament, not being able to relish the venality of offices, always made the buyer take an oath that he did not buy his post, either directly or indirectly; but there was a tacit exception made, of monies lent the king for being put into them. At length the parliament, finding its oppositions were in vain, and that the traffick of offices was publicly authorized, abolished the oath in 1597. VEN AM ALI, in Mythology. See VANAMAL1. VEN ANA, in Botany, an unexplained name.— Lamarck illustr. “ v. 2. 59.” t. 131. Dict. (by Poiret), v. 8, 450.-Class and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. undeternlined. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cup- shaped, short, with five rounded marginal lobes. Cor. Petals five, regular, obovate, rounded, spreading, thrice the length of the calyx. Stam. Fiiaments five, awl- shaped, dilated at the base, the length of the petals; an- thers oval, versatile, incumbent. Pist. Germen supe- rior, ovate; style short and thick; stigma obtuse, nearly triangular. Recefit. beset with numerous bristles, about half as long as the stamens, surrounding the pistii. Peric. and seeds unknown. Ess. Ch. Petals five, rounded. Calyx inferior, with five notches. Stigma obtuse, slightly triangular. Re- ceptacle bristly. - 1. V. madagascariensis.—Native of Madagascar, as its uncouth specific name denotes, where it was found by Commerson. The stem is arboreous, with alternate, cylindrical, smooth branches. Leaves simple, alternate, stalked, obovate, obtuse, entire, smooth, an inch or two long, with one rib and many fine transverse veins. Clus- ters terminal, their partial stalks alternate, an inch or two in length, compressed, gradually, though slightly, dilated upwards, smooth, each bearing a little terminal head, of eight or ten small sessile fowers. VENANGO, in Geogra/hy. See ForT Franklin. VENANGo, a county of Pennsylvania, containing eight townships, with 3060 inhabitants. Fort Franklin is the chief place.—Also, a township of Pennsylvania, in Craw- ford county, containing 434 inhabitants: the county con- tains 6 178.-Also, a township of Pennsylvania, in Butler county, containing 377 inhabitants. - . V ENANT, ST. See ST. P. 71 a 17t. VENANTIUS HONORIUS FORTUNATUS, in Biografthy, a Christian poet of the sixth century, was born near Trivigi, in Italy, studied at Ravenna, and be- came cninently skilful in grammar, rhetoric, and poe- try. Superstitiously conceiving that he had obtained relief in a disorder of his eyes at the intercession of St. Martin, he wrote the history of that saint in veſse. At Poitiers he was ordained priest about the year 1565, and afterwards elected bishop of that church. He is supposed to have died about the beginning of the seventh century, and an annual festival is kept at Poitiers in ho- nour of his memory. His works are mostly written in verse. His prose- writings are chiefly the lives of Saints. Father Brower, a Jesuit, published his works in one vol. 4to, 1616, and - - they V E N & V E N they were also published by M. A. Luchi, at Rome, in 2 vols. 4to. 1786-87. His poems have found a place in the Corpus Poetarum of Mattaire. Nouv. Dict. Hist. Gen. Biog. VENASCA, or VENASQUE, or Benasca, in Geogra- fiſhy, a town of Spain, in Aragon, on the river Essora, in a valley to which it gives name, on the frontiers of France; 45 miles N. of Balbastro. VEN ASII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Asia, in Cappadocia. Strabo. VENASQUE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Vaucluse, formerly the capital of the Venaissin, on the Nasque; 14 miles E.N.E. of Avignon. VENCATIGHERRY, a town of Hindoostan, in My- sore; taken in 1791 by the British, under captain Read; 5.1 miles E. of Bangalore. N. lat. 12° 57*. E. long. 78° 38'.—Also, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic; 23 miles S.W. of Nellore. N. lat. 14°. E. long. 79° 6'. VENCATRAM, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; 25 miles E. of Rydroog. VENCE, a town of France, in the department of the Var. Before the revolution, the see of a bishop, Suffra- gan of Embrun; 6 miles N.E. of Grasse. VENCU, in Botany, the Chinese name for an excel- lent fruit found in that country, which the Portuguese call jamboa, and the Dutch flomfiehinoes. It grows on prickly trees, like the limon-tree, only larger. Its flow- ers are white, exactly the same in shape with those of the limon, and have an exceeding Sweet Smell: a very fragrant water is distilled from them. The fruit itself far exceeds the citron in bulk, being in size equal to, and sometimes exceeding a man’s head; the rind is like that of the golden rennet; the pulp is of a reddish colour, and its taste partakes of sweet and acid, resembling that of grapes not fully ripe. A liquor is pressed from it, as in Europe from apples, pears, &c. It will keep for a whole year. VENDEE, in Law, the person to whom any thing is sold, in contradistinction to vendor, or the seller. VENDE'E, in Geografthy, a river of France, which rises about eight miles N.N.E. from Fontenai-le-Comte, and runs into the Sevre Niortoise, about a mile E. of Ma- I’āI].S., - VENDE'E, one of the nine departments of the western region of France, formerly Lower Poitou, lying between Charente and Lower Loire, in N. lat. 46° 30'; bounded on the N. by the departments of the Lower Loire and Mayne and Loire, on the E. by the department of the Two Sevres, on the S. by that of the Lower Charente, and on the S.W. and W. by the sea. Its territorial ex- tent is 7242} kiliometres, or 373 square leagues, and the number of its inhabitants is 270,271. It is divided into 3 circles or districts, 29 cantons, and 324 com- munes. The three circles are, Sables d'Olonne, inclu- ding 87,653 inhabitants; Montaign, 65,943; and Fonte- nai-le-Peuple, l l 6,675. According to Hassenfratz, its extent in French leagues is 24 in length, and 21 in breadth; its circles are 6, its cantons 58, and its popula- tion 305,610. Its capital is Fontenay. Its contributions, in the eleventh year of the French era, were 2,438,463 fr.; and its expenses for administration, judiciary, and for public instruction, were 20.1,615 fr. 33 cents. This department, watered by many copious streams, is one of the most fertile in France. It is divided by nature into Vol. XXXVIII, the thicket, the marsh, and the plain. ed on account of the great quantity The first, so call- of wood that covers it, includes nearly five-ninths of the whole territory. Its soil is of various qualities, yeilding grain, wine, and ex- cellent pastures. The second, lying on the W. and S. coasts, formerly covered by the sea, is impregnated with saline substances. Nevertheless, it is fertile, producing plentiful crops of grain, flax, hemp, and pastures. The third is a fertile and well-cultivated strip of land, in- closed between the thicket and the S. border of the de- partment. Bouin, an island containing about three square leagues, participates in all the qualities of the marsh. It was separated, not many years ago, from the main land by a narrow channel, which has now al- most disappeared. Woirmontier (which see) is a fer- tile island containing about three square leagues, op- posite to the N. extremity of the department. It has a port capable of receiving vessels of fifty or sixty tons. But downs of fine sand, near its N.W. coast, are frequent- ly raised by the wind, and driven into the interior part of the island. Isle Dieu is a very small island, covered with a thin bed of vegetable soil, mixed with sand, and not productive. - VENDELIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of His- pania Citerior, belonging to the Autrigones. Ptolemy. VEND ELOS, in Geography, a town of the island of Ceylon; 64 miles N.E. of Candi. VENDEN, a mountain of the Tyrolese; 14 miles N.N.E. of Brixen. VENDEN, a town of Russia, in the government of Riga, on the Aa. In the year 1577, Magnus, duke of Holstein, was brought to this town by Ivan Vassilievitch II. czar of Russia, to be made king of Livonia; but the new mo- narch was prevailed upon by his subjects, ever averse to the Russian yoke, to form a secret alliance with the king of Poland, and to counteract the czar’s progress in Livonia. Ivan, soon apprized of this negociation, laid immediate siege to Venden, with so numerous an army, that the inhabitants, finding all opposition ineffectual, proposed to capitulate. Magnus himself carried the terms of capitulation, and advancing to supplicate the incensed monarch, threw himself at his feet, and inter- ceded for the town. The czar, spurning at him with his foot, and striking him in the face, loaded him with reproaches for his ingratitude, and ordered him to prison; then entering the town, his troops com- mitted every species of horror and devastation. Many of the principal inhabitants, retiring into the citadel, determined to defend it to the last extremity; but Soon perceiving all resistance to be fruitless, and expecting no quarter, they calmly assembled, received the sacrament, and then destroyed themselves, by blow- ing up the citadel; 36 miles N.E. of Riga. N. lat. 57° 12'. E. long. 25° 14'. - VEND ENIS, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Up- per Moesia, at a distance from the Danube. Ptole- my. VENDEVIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aisne; 8 miles S. of St. Quintin. VENDITIONI Exponas, in Law, is a judical writ, directed to the sheriff, commanding him to sell goods, which he has formerly, by commandment, taken into his hands, for the satisfying of a judgment given in the king's court. , - 3 F VENDITOR V E N * V E N VENDITOR REGIs, the king's saleman, or person who exposed to sale goods or chattels seized or distrain- ed to answer any debt to the king. This office was granted by king Edward I. to Philip de Lardimer, in the county of York, “Ita quod ipse, vel certus suus at- tornatus, ibit ad mandatum vicecomitis de loco in locum infra com. praed. sumptibus suis, ad venditiones faciendas, & capiat de unaquaque venditione pro feodo Suo xxxii. den.;” but the office was seized into the king's hands for the abuse thereof, anno 2 Ed. II. VENDOEUVRES, in Geografhy, a town of France, in the department of the Aube; I 1 miles W. of Bar-sur- Aube. VEND OME, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Loir and Cher, on the Loir. Before the revolution, it gave name to a county in Beauce, called Vendomois; 7% posts N.E. of Tours. N. lat. 470 48'. E. long. 1% 8'. VEND RE le Port, a small sea-port town of France, in the de partmen of the Eastern Pyrenees; 12 miles S.S.E. of Perpignan. * VEND RELL, a town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia; 25 miles W.S.W. of Barcelona. VENDRESSE, a town of France, in the department of the Ardennes; 9 miles S. of Charleville. VENDUE, denotes an auction or public sale. VENDUM, in Ancient Geography, the name of one of the four towns possessed by the Japodes, in the coun- try that extended itself from the Pannonians to the Adri- atic sea. Strabo. VENECA, a town of Asia, in the interior of Media. Ptolemy. - VEN EDI, a people originally of Sarmatia, who occu- pied the whole coast of the Venedic guif, and who passed from thence into Germania with the Slavi, where they inhabited the territory abandoned by the Germans. Pto- lemy. Jornandes says that these people, before this mi- gration, had been vanquished and subjugated by Her- manricus, king of the Goths. V EN EDICI MonTEs, mountains of European Sar- matia. Ptolemy. - VENEDICUS SINUs, a port of the Baltic sea, in which were found the mouths of the Turuntua, Chesi- nus, Rubo, and Chronus. Ptolemy. VENEDITOVA, in Geography, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, on the Amur; 8 miles E.N.E. of Nertohinsk. VENEERING, VANEERING, or Fineering, a kind of marquetry, or inlayling, by which several thin slices, or leaves of fine wood, of different kinds, are applied and fastened on a ground of some common wood. There are two kinds of inlaying; the one, which is the more ordinary, goes no farther than the making of coma- partiments of different woods; the other requires much more art, and represents flowers, birds, and the like figures. The first kind is what we properly call veneering; the latter we have already described under MARQUE- TRY. The wood intended for veneering is first sawed out into slices, or leaves, about a line thick: in order to saw them, the blocks or planks are placed upright, in a kind of sawing-press: the description of which may be seen under the article PREss. These slices are afterwards cut into slips, and fashion- ed divers ways, according to the design proposed; then the joints being carefully adjusted, and the pieces brought down to their proper thickness, with several planes for the purpose, they are glued down on a ground, or block of dry wood, with good strong English glue. . The pieces thus joined and glued, the work, if small, is put in a press; if large, is laid on the bench, covered with a board, and pressed down with poles, or pieces of wood; one end of which reaches to the ceiling of the room, and the other bears on the boards. r When the glue is quite dry, they take it out of the press and finish it, first with little planes, then with di- vers scrapers, some of which resemble rasps, which take off dents, &c. left by the planes. When sufficiently scraped, the work is polished with the skin of a sea-dog, wax, and a brush and polisher of shave-grass: which is the last operation. V EN ELI, or VENELL1, in Ancient Geography, a peo- ple who inhabited the maritine part of Lyonnese Gaul, and whose capital was the town of Crociatonum. Ptolemy. VEN ELLIS. See VICIs &’ venellis mundandis. VENENUM Cocci, a term used by many of the an- cients for the purple tinge, which the kermes berry, as it is usually called (see KERMEs), gave to linen, or other things. The word venenum being generally understood to ex- press poison, it has been supposed by many, that the kermes was esteemed poisonous, or that there were two sorts of this drug; the one a harmless medicine, the other poisonous. But there is no warrant for this in any of the old writers, and the whole seems indeed but a mistake about the sense of the word venenum, which we find by many passages of the best authors, signified a stain, as well as a poison. The ancients called the vestments dyed scarlet with the kermes indifferently, by the names of flamma aº or vene- natae. Servius tells us, that in certain sacred ceremonies, it was necessary that the priest should be clothed in a Scarlet robe; and he uses the word venenato to express it in some places, and flammeo in others. VENER, one of the many names by which the che- mists call mercury. VENERE, CAPE, or Caño di Venere, in Geograft hy, a cape on the coast of Genoa. N. lat. 44° 4'. E. long. 9° 40'. VENEREA Conc HA, in JWatural History, the name of a very large and elegant genus of shells, more usually called forcellanae. See Porc ELAIN Shell. VENEREAL, something belonging to Venus. A venereal person is one addicted to venery, or vene- real pleasures. Venereal medicines are called afthrodi- siacs, firovocatives, &c. VENEREAL Virus, in Surgery. Of all the maladies which afflict human nature, none has excited greater controversy than that to which we now refer. Fortu- nately, however, it is likely in the end to prove a means of inducing an accuracy in description, a closeness of reasoning, and legitimacy of induction, for which we have in vain looked in the healing art. A diseased taint, as it was called, was supposed to be every where present, to remain for ever with a person once infected, and to de- scend to his posterity. Even Astruc, who detected wn; the VENEREAL VIRUS. *A the laws of this poison, assimilates it to a Pandora’s box, and describes the supposed changes it has undergone at different periods of the world, as similar to the revolutions of empires; thus eluding the most important question in his whole dissertation by a poetical image, and by an illustration of the immutable laws of nature, taken from the vicissitudes of human institutions. Yet even Astruc was rational comp : red with some of his successors. He at least described the primary symptoms with accuracy: in the others, he seems puzzled by an attempt to recon- cile contradictory opinions, and, we ought to add, by a want of confidence in his own observation: this however can only be said of primary symptoms. On secondary symptoms, he was as much at a loss as every honest man before and since his time; and his only error was in attempting to account for these difficulties, instead J. ac- knowledging his incapacity to do so. Boerhaave did not scruple to consider himself a Tyro in this disease, after all Europe had pronounced him qualified to be a teacher in the whole science of medicine. Sydenham, with every other writer of any celebrity, will be found either admitting his ignorance, evading the question, or solving it in an unsatisfactory manner. After all we have already said, (see MoRBID Poison, and LUEs Venerea,) it might seem unnecessary to return to the subject, were it not, that even in so short a time since the publication of those articles, new facts have oc- curred; and we shall show in this, as in most inquiries into nature, every new discovery proves not only a con- firmation, but in some measure an illustration of what Mr. Hunter taught us. We might add, as a farther apology, that his manner of conducting this single inqui- ry by the facts he produced, now universally admitted, by the caution with which he drew his inferences, and the legitimate inductions which necessarily followed, affords, if not the first, the most perfect model of this mode of reasoning to be met with in the whole science of pathology. - The first consideration was to establish the true cha- racter of the venereal ulcer, or chancre. For want of this, every ulcer found in suspicious parts was coi:sidered the effect of that morbid poison; and from this unhappy error, the firmest constitutions were often destroyed by repeated salivations to cure diseases, which, if not the effect of, were exasperated by mercury. During his life-time, Mr. Hunter had the happiness to see some 'little remis- sion of this cruel practice. But unfortunately, when he could be no longer consulted in person, another error arose, namely, that all such ulcers as yielded to this reme- dy were venereal. Hence arose a practice the most truly cm pirical, that of prescribing for a disease by its supposed name, and judging of its reality by the effect of our remedy. In vain was it argued from his writings, that the cure by the same remedy was no proof of the identity of diseases, and that even this proof, if suffi- cient, was rarely present; for that those ulcers which had not the true venereal character, yielded to mercu- ry with a readiness very different from that constitutional effect which was necessary for the cure of the true Venereal chancre. Dr. Adams has since shown, (see his Morbid Poisons) that all these ulcers, excepting the venereal, were well known to Celsus, who pescribes with much accuracy in his chapter de obscenarum fiartium vitiis all those ulcers on the genitals which are mentioned by writers since the appearance of syphilis as varieties of or anomalies in the venereal character. Yet it is hardly credible, that almost to this day there are writers who will conceive that local diseases, different in character in all their stages, in their mode of spreading and healing, and requiring different modes of treatment, must still be the same; who, while they admit that the venereal disease is of comparatively recent origin, will still confound it with appearances most accurately described more than twelve centuries past. Mr. Hunter, with that accuracy which distinguishes all his remarks, began by fixing the character of the disease, and even showing, that from the laws of the economy, as ascertained in all other local diseases, such must be the character of an ulcer arising from some ex- ternal cause, and for the cure of which animal economy had made no provision. First: In every local irritation, he showed that a secre- tion of some fluid would take place, by which the irrita- ting subject might be removed. The venereal matter, therefore, irritating a solid part, induces ulceration, that the part may rid itself of this irritating cause. But from the nature of a morbid poison, the effect of that irrita- tion is to produce a local action, by which a substance is secreted similar to that which induced the irritation. In some cases, as in small-pox, as soon as this effect is pro- duced it ceases, and the parts heal as readily as after any other loss of substance; but such is not the case with an ulcer from venereal poison. When this is once set up, its action continues until some substance induces a more powerful irritation, and thus supersedes the venereal. Secondly: When the curative process of a sore from any cause is interrupted, it must spread, or a new action must be set up. This new action, in common ul- cers, is the formation of thick, or, as they are usually called, callous edges, after which the ulcer remains sta- tionary. This was well remarked by Celsus, who gives this process the name vetustas, describing the thickened lips, and remarking, that whilst they continue, no appli- cations to the ulcer are of any use. Thirdly: The peculiarity which distinguishes the ve- nereal ulcer from all others is, that the incapacity in the part to alter the diseased action, produces the same ef- fect as in parts where there is any other impedimcnt to healing; namely, the thickened edge and base. But though the attempt at healing is given up, still the ir- ritation continues from the constant presence of the vi- rusaand consequently the ulceration also, in order to rid the part of the cause of such irritation. Hence we have what is not to be met with in any other ulcer, namely, a continued ulceration, attended with or accompanied by a hard edge and base. This is the only true primary venereal ulcer, and the only ulcer or vitium not descri- bed by Celsus in the chapter before alluded to. The next question was, in what manner a disease in- curable of itself was always relieved by mercury. For this a thousand whimsical causes were assigned, the most common of which was, that mercury was its antidote. This no one could doubt, but did Sugh an expression do more than assign a word where we were looking for an action? At length, Mr. Hunter showed, that this also was perfectly consistent with what had been before ob- 3 F 2 served; VENEREAL VIRUS. served; namely, if the venereal ulcer is the effect of an action arising from the irritation of a specific substance, the cure must be effected by the use of another sub- stance, the effect of whose irritation would be greater than the irritation excited by venereal matter; and the manner in which the disease always yields to the remedy, confirms the doctrine. For no quantity of this antidote, as it is called, will produce any effect on a venereal ul- cer, unless an excitement is induced greater than the ve- nereal: that is, if the chancre is recent, a very slight mer- curial irritation will be sufficient to alter its action; if more inveterate, the mercurial irritation must be excited proportionally higher, and be longer continued. It may at first seem that we have gained little, inas- much as we have now a more severe disease than be- fore. But it will readily occur, that the parts them- selves are capable of forming venereal matter, which is the cause of the first irritation, and which will continue till the action excited by that irritation is superseded. But the parts are not capable of forming mercury, by which the second irritation is induced; we might there- fore expect, as actually happens, that when the use of mercury is discontinued, the action excited by it would gradually cease also, and the parts be restored to their original or healthy action. But other difficulties remained. After the ulceration of the genitals was perfectly healed, it sometimes hap- pened, at uncertain periods, that the throat, the skin, or the bones, or all of them, would show diseased ac- tions, which, though very different from those on the ge- nitals, were equally incurable without the remedy; and which, from their uniformity in so many subjects, whe- ther during the primary symptoms, or after they were healed, evidently arose from the same cause. The ig- norance of former practitioners induced them to suspect that these symptoms of confirmed pox, as they were call- red, arose from an insufficient use of the remedy when the chancre was healed. Yet it was impossible they should be ignorant, that in many instances in which but comparatively little mercury had been used, none of these symptoms on distant parts of the body had occur- ed; and in others in which the mercury had been used to a very great excess, the patient had been a second or a third time affected, though always in different parts, and with local complaints, different from primary ulcers, yet arising from a similar cause. Besides, if the disease oc- curred from the want of a sufficient use of mercury, how did it happen that the parts first affected should remain sound, and parts not previously showing any diseased action, should now become in a state of open ulcera- tion? To account for this, Mr. Hunter showed, that though it is now well ascertained, that mercury will with cer- tainty cure every form of the venereal disease which we can detect; it does not follow that it will cure it before such an action has commenced, as evinces itself by some alteration in the texture of the part; in other words, that it will supersede the venereal action by its higher irri- tation; but in order to do this, the venereal action must have commenced. But it is urged, that doubtless, the venereal action has commenced before we can trace it by our senses, and that therefore mercury ought in this state to supersede it, and to prevent its arriving at open ulceration. In answer to that, Mr. Hunter produces his facts, and shows that when the action has appeared, it invariably yields to mercury, and never appears again from the same source of infection in the same order of parts. He taught us also what is now universally ad- mitted, that in the skin and throat it is always curable by a much slighter course of mercury, than was neces- sary for curing the primary chancre. Consequently, if mercury could prevent the venereal action in these se- condary parts, the first course would prove sufficient for that purpose. But the concurrent testimony of all the best writers goes to prove, that none of them knew when to expect nor how to prevent the appearance of the dis- ease in more distant parts of the body, after it had been cured in the parts first affected; yet all knew how to cure it when it appeared in those distant parts. Boerhaave fancied he had discovered the cause of these difficulties, by comparing the solid texture of the bones with the more yielding condition of the softer parts. Both he and Dr. Swan were sensible how easy it was to cure the disease when it occurred in the skin and throat; but, as honest men, they were forced to confess their incapa- city to prevent it, or even after they had cured it in those parts, to prevent its re-appearance in the bones, though in them also they could cure it with equal certainty after the diseased action had commenced. An accurate attention to all these events induced Mr. Hunter to construct a series of experiments, by which he might ascertain the laws which govern the actions excited by this poison, and thus meet all the difficulties of former writers. His first object was to fix the precise character of the chancre, or primary venereal ulcer. Having done this, he watched, by every possible means, those cases in which secondary symptoms occurred, and was convinced that it did not depend on any causes which could with certainty be controlled. This he urged was not different from any other morbid poisons. In inocu- lating for small-pox, no one can ascertain whether the patient will have pustules beyond the spot inoculated. Had he lived to witness the effect of cow-pox, he would have found a still more striking analogy. It is well known that secondary vesicles from cow-pox, that is,a cutaneous eruption usually fourteen days after inoculation, and some few days after the inoculated part has scabbed, will sometimes appear at distant parts of the body; but we have no means of ascertaining under what circumstances these secondary eruptions occur, nor of preventing them, nor of producing them. The conclusions drawn by Mr. Hunter were, first, that from every local action arising from a morbid poi. son, absorption takes place; secondly, that the absorbed virus circulates with the blood, and is ejected at some of the emunctories, probably the skin; thirdly, that for the most part it passes without contaminating any part in its passage; but that sometimes the throat, or the skin, or the bone, or all three are contaminated. In these cases the parts thus contaminated take on the diseased action at certain periods, according to the nature of their structure, and the property of the morbid poison; for it is well known that few, if any, morbid poisons produce their effect, till a certain period after their application. The small-pox effluvia are received usually from ten to fourteen days, before the disease shows itself; and the effect then commences on the face several days before the lower extremities exhibit any pustules. Under in- oculation V E N V E N oculation, the pustules on distant parts of the body ap- pear at periods later than on the inoculated parts. But though every morbid poison requires a certain period between its application and the effect produced, and though this period is different in different morbid poisons, yet there is a medium in each; and Mr. Hunter ascer- tained, that the medium for the appearance of the Se- condary symptoms of syphilis is usually on the skin or throat, six weeks after the cessation of the irritation excited by the mercurial course which cured the primary disease or chancre: that the appearance on the bones is usually three months after the same event; and that if the patient remains well longer than those periods after the healing of the chancre, he may for the most part consider himself free from any further danger from that source of infection. It must be admit- ted, that these periods are not always precise; but the same may be said of the small-pox, cow-pox, and other morbid poisons; and when we consider that the medium in one instance is from ten to fourteen days, and in the other from six weeks to three months, it must follow that the variations in each are not greater than their com- parative medium would lead us to expect. From these facts Mr. Hunter improved the practice in this disease so much, that we are often led to believe the disease itself to be milder than heretofore. But the truth is, that we now have some method in directing our treatment, which till his time could hardly be said to be the case. It was known, indeed, that mercury would prove a cure; but neither was the character of the dis- ease accurately ascertained, nor the laws by which it yielded to the remedy, nor to which the secondary symp- toms were imputable. Hence mercury was indiscrimi- nately applied to all uicers on those parts, and many were greatly exasperated by it: and as in the true dis- ease secondary symptoms sometimes occurred, the pa- tient was overwhelmed with a disgusting and deleterious remedy, to prevent what could not be prevented, though it rarely occurred; and when it did occur, was readily cured. But the mode of treatment was far from being the only advantage of Mr. Hunter’s discovery. By as- certaining the laws of the disease, he relieved the prac- titioner from every embarrassment, when secondary symptoms occurred; and the patient from the perpetual dread of an evil, from which it was supposed neither he nor his offspring were ever secure. t is not to be wondered if the obscurity of Mr. Hun- ter’s mode of writing on a subject familiar to himself, but new to every reader, for a long time precluded the world from the benefit they have since derived from his discoveries. For this benefit we are indebted to Dr. Adams, and perhaps to those writers who attempted to controvert the doctrine itself. The latter were very nu- merous, and, as often happens, few were acquainted with the subject they opposed. Dr. Adams explained the difficulties principally by showing the errors of his mas- ter’s antagonists, and at this time we believe the doctrine is universally admitted by all those who take the trouble to study it. That is, that the antidotal property of mer- cury consists in the high irritation it excites; that no ul- cer on the genitals is syphilitic, unless it continues to spread with a hard edge and base; that it is useless to give mercury in order to prevent the secondary symp- toms of the disease, either in the skin or bones, though * that remedy will always cure them, if they should appear; and that if these secondary symptoms do not appear before a certain period after the primary ones, there is no reason to apprehend their appearing at all, unless the patient exposes himself again to the same cause. Such is the general doctrine of Mr. Hunter, divested of cer- tain expressions, by which action is with more technical precision distinguished from disfiosition. As this lan- guage is not necessary we have not introduced it, but refer such of our readers as wish to be acquainted with the precise terms of the discoverer, to the article LUES Venerea. Dr. Adams has carried one of Mr. Hunter’s opinions somewhat further than the inventor. Mr. Huntcr had observed that after the venereal action of the primary ulcer was superseded by the mercurial irritation, new flesh would sometimes arise, but that it rarely happened that such new flesh would regularly cicatrize or heal. His commentator showed that this was not peculiar to this disease, but extends to all morbid poisons; that in the small-pox and cow-pox it produces the pitting from. the first, and indentation from the second; and that in all other morbid poisons where there is a loss of substance, that loss is never restored by the common means of in- carnation, called granulations. That if such an attempt is ever made it produces a fungus, called by Mr. Hun- ter new flesh, which will not heal, and which requires the application of caustic before any attempt at skinning will commence. After this application, Mr. H. remarks the readiness with which the whole will skin over. In this language, the surgical reader will observe the cau- tion with which Mr. Hunter avoids the common terms of granulation and cicatrization, by substituting for the first new flesh, which will not heal, and for the second, skinning, which rafiidly takes place over the whole sore, whereas it is well known that cicatrization is the most tedious part of the healing process in all other ulcers. In this manner the writer of this article conceives we are to reconcile ourselves to that remark on the granula- ting property of chancres mentioned under the article LUES Venerea; which see. See also MoRBID. Poi- SO 71 S. VENERIA, or APHR opisi UM, Faradeese, in Ancient Geograf hy, a town of Africa, situated on the sea-coast, N.N.W. of Adrumetum. Ptolemy. VENERIE, LA, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Po, which took its name from a royal palace built by Emanuel II. duke of Savoy, for a hunting seat; in this town are carried on manufactures of wool and silk. The palace was magnificent, and the adjacent country abouilds with game; 3 miles N.N. W. of Turin. VENER IS AEmadis Temſilum, in Ancient Geogra- filly, the name of a temple built by the Trojans in honour of Venus, when they landed on the coast of Epirus, and took possession of the peninsula called Leucas. Dion. Halic. This temple was on the promontory of Actium. VENERIs Arsinoes Fanum, a temple of Egypt, on the promontory Zephyrium, between Canopus and Alexan- dria. Strabo. VENER 1s Aurea, Camfus, a territory of Egypt, in that of Memphis. Diod. Sic. VENERIs Insula, an island of the Arabic gulf, on the coast of Egypt. Pliny. V ENER is V E N V E N VENER1s Lacus, a lake situated, according to Pliny, at Hierapolis in Syria. It was a marsh, near a temple of Juno, according to Ilucian. VENERIs Mons, a mountain of Spain. S. of the Tagus, and near the country of the Carpetani, according to Ap- Plan. VENERIs Portus, a port of Gallia Narbonnensis, on the Mediterranean sea, between the promontories of the Py- renees, and N. of Cervaria. This port was famous for a temple of Venus.—Also, a port of Italy, in Liguria, on the confines of Etruria, between Segesta and Portus Delphini. Anton. Itin.—Also, a port of Fgypt, upon the Arabic gulf. It was anciently named “Myos Hormus,” or “Muris Statio;” also called “Magnus Portus,” and afterwards “Veneris Portus,” according to Ptolemy, who says that it was near the promontory Drepanum. VENER 1s AEstrum, the stimulus or in centive of vene- ry, is an appellation given, by some anatomists, to the cli- tol’ls. VENERIs AEstrum is also used, by others, for the trans- port of love, or the utmost ecstacy of desire or enjoy- ment in coition. Some are of opinion, that infectious women are the most apt to communicate the poison when they are thus excited with desire; whereas, with indifference, they may admit the same intercourse, without giving the in- fection. VENERIs Ens. See ENs. VENERQUE, in Geografhy, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne; 10 miles S. of Toulouse. VENERY is used for the act of copulation, or coi- tion, of the two sexes. It takes its name from Venus, the supposed deity of the passion of love. VENERY also denotes the art or exercise of hunting wild beasts; which are also called beasts of venery, and beasts of the forest. Such are the hare, hart, hind, boar, and wolf. See BEAST, GAME, and HUNTING. VENESECTION, in Surgery, the operation of open- ing a vein, for the purpose of taking away blood for the relief of diseases. See BLEEDING. VENESS, in Geograft hy, a cape on the S.E. coast of the island of Eday. N. lat. 59° 1'. W. long. 2° 38'. VENETA BoLus, a fine red earth used in painting, and called in the colour-shops Venetian red. See RED. It is improperly denominated a bole, being a genuine species of red ochre. It is of a fine bright, and not very deep red, approaching, in some degree, to the colour of minium, or red-lead, and is moderately heavy, and of an even and smooth texture, yet very friable, and of a dusty surface: it adheres firmly to the tongue, is very smooth, and soft to the touch, easily crumbles to pieces between the fingers, and very much stains the skin in handling. It has a slight astringent taste, effervesces considerably with aquafortis, and in water immediately breaks into a fine powder. It is dug in Carinthia, and sent from Venice into all parts of the world, being an excellent colour, and very eheap; our colourmen, however, find too many ways of adulterating it. Hill and Da-Costa. VENETI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, in Venetia, of Celtic origin. According to some historians they were the descendants of a colony of Trojans, who came to establish themselves here on the ruin of their own country; but Herodotus says that they were an Illy- ric nation.—Also, a people of Gallia Ceitica, in Armori- ca, who inhabited the peninsula above the Namneti, ac- cording Caesar (De Bel, Gall. lib. iii. c. 8.) who ascribes to them the glory of being the most powerful of all the people who inhabited this coast, and who availed them- selves of their shipping, and of the science and practice of navigation. Ptolemy calls their capital Dariorigum. Caesar denominates their territory Venetia, although the Veneti, who inhabited that promontory of Gaul which is now called Britanny, excelled, as Caesar says, all the na- tions on the continent in their knowledge of maritime affairs, and in the number and strength of their ships; yet, when they were preparing to fight a decisive battle against the Romans by sea, they asked and obtained aux- iliaries from Britain; which they certainly would not have done, if the Britons could have assisted them only with a few wicker-boats, covered with skins. It is therefore probable, that the people of Britain had ships much of the same form and construction with those of their friends and allies the Veneti, with which they joined their fleet on that occasion. These ships of the Veneti are described by Caesar as very large, lofty, and strong, built entirely of thick planks of oak, and so solid, that the beaks of the Roman ships could make no impression up- on them. The combined fleets of the Veneti and Bri- tons, in the famous sea-fight off the coast of Armorica, now Britanny, against the Romans, consisted of two hun- dred and twenty of these large and strong ships, which were almost all destroyed in that unfortunate engage- ment; by which the naval power both of Gaul and Bri- tain was entirely ruined. This great disaster is believ- ed, by some of the best of our antiquaries and historians, to have been the reason that the Britons never attempted to make any oppositon to Caesar by sea, when the very year after it he invaded their country. VENETIA, a country of Italy, which commenced E. of Gaul, near the lake Benacus, and the river Mincius, which flowed from it. Its boundaries to the N.E. were not very distinctly ascertained. Its principal rivers, be- sides the Po, were the Athesis, the Medoacus Major, and the Plavis. It was very fertile in pasture, and furnished excellent horses. Tie people were denominated Veneti or Heneti. Their principal towns were Hadria, Ateste, Patavium, Verona, Vicentia, Altinum, Tarvisium, &c. See VENI CE. - VENETICAE INsule, or Venetorum Insulae, compre- hended, under this denomination, a great number of is]- ands situated on the vestern coast of Gallia Celtica or Lyonnensis. This general appellation included Bellisle, Houat, Hedic, Groa or Grouais, now Quiberon. These islands occupied that part of the sea which was opposite to the continent inhabited by the Veneti; which see. VENETICO, in Geography, a small island in the Mediterranean, near the coast of the Morea. N. lat. 26° 4 l'. E. long. 25° 53'.—Also, a small island in the Gre- cian Archipelago, near the S. coast of the island of Scio. - VENETORI, a town of Walachia; 24 miles W. of Bucharest. VENETU’s V E N V E N VENETUS LACUs, in Ancient Geografthy, the name of one'of those two lakes, which the Rhine formed near its source in the Alps. The lake now called Bodcn-see, or more commonly the lake of Constance, is called “ Brigantinus” by Pliny, and “ Brigantia” by Ammia- nus Marcellinus. Strabo assigns to it 300 stadia of length, and 200 of breadth. Its name Boden-see is de- rived from a place called Bodman, situated at the ex- tremity of the lake opposite to which is Bregentz, whence the appellations Brigantia and Brigantinus. VENEV, in Geography, a town of Russia, in the go- vernment of Tula, on the Oser; 40 miles N.E.N. of Tu- la. N. lat. 54° 20'. E. long. 38° 14'. ' VEN E.W. See VENUE. VENEZIANO, ANTONIo, in Biography. Of this early painter the birth-place is not exactly known, as he is by one author supposed to have been a Venetian, and by another a Florentine. His principal works are at Pisa and Florence, and in the Ducal palace at Venice. He certainly improved upon the style of those painters who preceded him, if we except Giotto; his manner was less formal, and he is said to have painted well in fresco, and to have carried the management of it to a considerable degree of perfection. He died in 1384, at the age of 74. VENEzıANo, Do MENico, was born at Venice in 1420, and was a disciple of Antonio da Messina, after he had, as Vasari relates, learned the secret of oil painting from J. V. Eyck; and to him Messina communicated his secret. He painted several pictures at Loretto and Perugia, and afterwards settled at Florence; where the novelty of his manner, and the ability with which he executed it, ac- quired for him considerable renown. Unfortunately for him, he formed an intimacy with Andrea Castagno, an eminent Tuscan painter, and taught him the manage- ment of oil colours; when his treacherous friend conceiv- ed the horrible design of assassinating him, that he might remain sole possessor of the secret, and effected his detestable purpose in 1476, when Domenico had at- tained his 56th year. VENEZIANU, ANTONI, a Sicilian poet, was born in 1543, at Monreale, and acquired great celebrity in sci- ence and polite literature, so that it was fashionable to cultivate acquaintance with him; and amongst those Who sought this honour was Tasso. In 1578 he was ta- ken, on a voyage to Rome, by an Algerine corsair, but redeemed; on his return to his native country, he was imprisoned under a suspicion of being the author of some writing against the viceroy of Sicily, and being confined at Palermo, he was destroyed in the castle by the ex- Plosion of a powder-magazine in August 1593. His Writings consist chiefly of sonnets and lyric poems in the Sicilian dialect; and some of his compositions in pure Italian were printed at Palermo in 1572. A large Collection of his Sicilian poems exists in MS. Gén. Biog. VENEZUELA, in Geografhy, a province of the east- ern part of Terra Firma, or of Spanish America, inclu- ded within the jurisdiction of the captain-generalship of Caraccas, which is not only the capital of this province, but the metropolis of the captain-generalship, the seat of the royal audience and of the intendancy, whose authori- °) extends over the provinces of Venezuela, Maracaibo, Varinas, Cumana, Guiana, and the island of Margaretta; extending from N. lat. 12° to the equator, and from 62° to 75° long. W. from the meridian of Paris. The name of Venezuela, which is in Spanish a diminutive of Venice, was given to this province on account of some Indian vii- lages, which the first conquerors found on the lakes of Maracaibo. Others have erroneously ascribed the ori- gin of this name to the following circumstance; viz. that Alphonso Ojeda, having landed here in 1499, caused Some huts to be constructed upon poles, in order to ele- vate them above the stagnant water which covered the plain; but though it is true that Ojeda, in 1499, visited the eastern shore of Terra Firma, he never thought of erecting any huts over its stagnant waters. The chief place of the province of Venezuela has never been near- ly on a level with the water. Caraccas is at least sixty toises above the level of the sea, and has no other water besides that of three brooks wbich pass rapidly through it, and of a small river which bounds it on the south. The first settlement of the Spaniards on the borders of the lake of Maracaibo took place in 1527. The popula- tion of Venezuela, including Varinas, consisted, in 1801, of 500,000 persons; that of the government of Maracai- bo, of 100,000; of Cumana, 80,000; of Spanish Guiana, 34,000; and of the isle of Margaretta, 14,000: making a to- tal, according to the statement of Depons, of 728,000. The population of Caraccas, in 1802, is stated at from 41,000 to 42,000, consisting of whites, slaves, freed persons, and very few Indians; the first class forming nearly a fourth of the whole, the slaves a third, the Indians a twentieth, and the freed persons the rest. All the whites are either planters, merchants, military men, priests, monks, or persons employed in the administration of justice or ſi- nance. In this population, the whites are computed at two-tenths, the slaves at three, the descendants of freed-men at four, and the Indians compose the remain- der. A late writer, professing himself a “South Ameri- can,” in his “Outline of the Revolution in Spanish Ame- rica,” (1817,) says, that in the town of Caraccas alone there were 45,000 inhabitants; and the whole population of Venezuela, including the several provinces above enume- rated, amounted in 18 l l to more than 800,000. The soil of Venezuela is fertile, and yields, with prodigal liberality (says Depons), all the productions which are to be met with in the West India islands, besides many others which they do not possess. If a man labour, he must grow rich; and if he vegetate merely in indolence and sloth, he has only to stoop, in order to gather from the soil more than sufficient to satisfy the wants of nature. The cacao of this province is abundant and excellent. It like- wise furnishes Indian corn, indigo, tobacco, cotton, sugar and coffee. Its vaniiia, produced from a creeping piant, which, like the wild vine and ivy, entwines round the trees, is obtained in great plenty. Wild cochineal is also the product of this country, and with due cultivation, it might be made to furnish a variety of woods, barks, and plants for the dyer; and also gums, resins of balsam and medicinal oils: its sarsaparilla is said to exceed the con- sumption of the whole of Europe; Sassafras and liquorice abound; squills are plentiful; so are likewise storax, ca- sia, aloes, &c. The horned cattle, affording the article of exportation (hides), the horses, mules, sheep, and deer are here very numerous. It abounds in all kinds of game, and its rivers and lakes supply plenty of fish. In W E N E Z U E L A. In order to give a brief account of the revolution that has lately taken place in this province, and in other parts of Spanish America, we shall trace the origin and pro- gress of the Spanish establishments in this part of the world. Terra Firma was discovered by Christopher Co- lumbus in 1498, in his third voyage from Spain to Ame- rica. After having discovered the gulf of Paria, he coasted along Terra Firina as far west as the Testigo- islands, from which point he sailed with a fair wind to St. Domingo. Ojeda obtained permission from the Spanish government to pursue the discovery; and having arrived at the territory of Maracapna, in the year 1499, he followed the coast as far as Cape de la Vela, entering Several ports in order to collect more minute informa. tion. From Cape de la Vela he sailed for St. Domingo, ac- cording to Oviedo and Robertson; but according to Char- levoix, he returned before that to Maracapna, a village upon the coast of Cumana, and there had a brig built. Not long after, the account which Columbus had given to the Spanish government attracted to Terra Firma another vessel from Spain, whose real object was com- merce, but which concealed its design under a permis- sion from the king to prosecute the discovery of the country. This vessel, commanded by Christopher Guerra, touched on the coast of Paria, at Margaretta, Cubagua and Cumanagola, now called Barcelona. In these places, in exchange for trinkets, he obtained a great quantity of pearls, gold, Brazil wood, &c. of which he formed a very rich cargo. Guerra pursued his course along the coast to the westward, and landed only at Coro, where he found, to his great astonishment, some Indians, as much disposed to take away from him whatever he had got, as those on the eastern coast had been to give them to him. He had too much to lose to run the risk of a war, by which neither glory nor emolu- ment was to be acquired. He, therefore, wisely took the resolution of returning to Spain, in order to place his riches out of the reach of danger. The report of his arrival and fortune spread over the whole kingdom, and immediately from every part expe- ditions were fitted out for Terra Firma. At the same time, Charles V. gave permission to make slaves of the Indians who should impede or embarrass the conquest; a .grant so much the more deplorable to humanity, as it strongly excited the avarice of those in whose breasts money usurped the place of every other consideration. It is easy to imagine, that upon those coasts, where pil- lage had nothing to fear either from the vigilance of the magistrate, or the sword of justice, there must have been established a nefarious commerce which had no other object than insatiable avarice, no other result but Papacity, tyranny, and ferocity. The crimes committed by that swarm of robbers, who contended with one ano- ther for superiority in feats of plunder, were so great and so numerous, that the cries of the victims reached the audience of St. Domingo, who are entitled to our ap- plause for having immediately taken measures to make it appear to the inhabitants of a new world, whom they wished to lead rather than to drive into obedience, that the enormities of that scum of the Spanish nation were not properly chargeable on the nation itself. The audi- ence sent thither, in quality of commissary and governor, a man of very great merit, named John Ampues, who arrived on the Coriana coast in 1527, with sixty men. His mildness, affability, and knowledge soon gained the confidence of the cacique of the Coriana nation; and a solemn treaty confirmed the union and alliance which they formed, and the cacique took the oath of allegiance and vassalage to the Spanism monarch. On the 26th of Ju- ly 1527. Ampues laid the foundation of Coro. Thus the province of Venezuela had the pleasing prospect of ar- riving, without commotion, to a degree of prosperity which would crown the happiness of its inhabitants. However, the commercial house of the Welsers, estab- lished at Augsburg, being cosiderably in advance to Charles V., the emperor submitted to the demand which they made of granting to them, under the title of an he- reditary fief of the crown, the province of Venezuela from Cape de la Vela as far as Maracapna, with the right of extending indefinitely towards the south. But the province having suffered much ſrom the monopoly and tyranny of the agents of the Welsers, the treaty with them was rescinded, and the emperor appointed as go- vernor the licentiate John Peres de Tolosa, who, ac- cording to Oviedo, had likewise the title of captain-gen- eral. This new reform produced a favourable change in the system and mode of conquest; and it was an estaş- lished point, that instead of committing devastation, the conquerors should form settlements; and instead of plun. dering, respect property. Laws, which had been enact- ed in 1526, 1540, 1542, 1550, and 1552, were put into execution. These laws declare the Indians to be free, not even excepting those who should be taken prisoners in the act of bearing arms. As soon as an Indian nation was subjected to the Spaniards, a convenient scite was chosen on which to build a town, for the better security of the conquest. One hundred Spaniards formed the po- pulation of the new city, to which a cabildo was attached. They afterwards divided the city in portions among the new inhabitants, according to their rank and merit; and after having made an enumeration of the Indians, they shared them among the Spaniards, who thus acquired over them a right, not of property, but of superinten- dance. This is what is called “repartimientos de Indios,” the dividing of the Indians. This measure was followed by more fixed regulations, under the name of “ encomi. endas;” the effect of which was to place under the im- mediate superintendance and authority of a Spaniard, ex- emplary for his morals, the Indians who lived within a limited extent of ground, corresponding to that of the communes in France. In return for these attentions, the Indians were to pay the commissioned superinten- dants of the encomiendas, who were called encomende- ros, a yearly tribute in labour, fruits, or money. When this tribute was once paid, the Indians were exempted from every other personal service. It appears that, accor- ding to the solemn and special contract entered into be- tween the kings of Spain and the discoverers, conquer- ors and settlers in Spanish America, politically divided by the Spanish goverment, and comprehending the viceroy- alties of New Spain or Mexico, Santa Fé de Bogota or New Grenada, Peru, Buenos Ayres, or the provinces of Rio de la Plata, and the captain-generalships of Guatima- la, Venezuela, and Chili; these last were to remain lords of the country, on the basis of feudal vassalage, under the names of “encomenderos.” Such, however, was the inhu- man conduct of the first of these towards the natives, that Charles V, and his successors were under the necessity of V E N E Z U E L A. of gradually abolishing many of their privileges, and the “ encomiendas’’ fell at length, in most of the provin- ces, to the crown; and certain inferior privileges were then granted to the settlers, in lieu of those originally possessed, with the titles of marquis, count, &c. Spanish America was from that time considered as a kingdom, independent in itself, yet united to Spain, as being both under the government of one king. The incorporation of this country to the crown of Castile was decreed by Charles V. in Barcelona, September 14, 1519, and confirmed by Donna Juana, Philip II. and Charles II. Accordingly, in the opening of the royal decree published in the year 1524, for the nomina- tion of a Supreme council for the Indies, the term king- dom is expressly used, and its use admits, that the inha- bitants had a natural right to hold the appointments of profit and honour in the country. The energetic re- monstrances of Montesino, Cordova, Las Casas, and others, to the court of Spain, against the arbitrary mea- sures of the conquerors and settlers, gave rise to the es- tablishment of the Council of the Indies. (See Coun- cIL of the Indies.) Whilst the legislative power of the kingdom of the Indies rested in this council and the king, the executive power belonged to the viceroys and cap- tain-general. The viceroys were also invested with royal flower, that is, they were authorized by a special Commission to act with plenitude of power in extraor- dinary and delicate emergencies. From the most exact calculations, it is concluded that the continental part of Spanish America contains seven- teen millions of inhabitants; part of which population is employed in agriculture, particularly in Venezuela, Gautimala, Guayaquil, Chili, Carthagena, and New Gre- nada; and many in the care of cattle, especially in the provinces of Rio de la Plata, Chili, and Venezuela; while the inhabitants of several provinces of Mexico, and Peru, are almost wholiy employed in working the mines. The Indians and Negroes have retained, in a great measure, their primitive customs; the Creoles have received theirs from the Spaniards. The Catholic religion being that of Spanish America, the Church government and ec- clesiastical dignities are the same as in the mother- country. The inquisition was also established in the new continent: all access to the Spanish settlements was not merely closed against foreigners, but even the inhabitants of the different provinces were prohibited from intercourse with one another. Commerce was ex- clusively carried on with Spain, and was almost entirely in the hands of Spaniards; about the end of the last cen- tury, however, Some special licences were obtained from thc viccroys aid captains-gēileiai iu trade with iiie All- tilles, when communication with the mother-country was very difficult; and in 1797 the court of Madrid was obliged to allow some of the ports of Terra Firma to be opened for the advantage of commerce. Urged by si- milar motives, Cisneros, the viceroy of the provinces of Rio de la Plata in 1809, opened the ports of Buenos Ayres, that a free trade might be carried on with the nations in alliance with Spain. The court of Madrid long maintained its power in the new continent, by a small number of Spanish troops, as the Creoles were cordially attached to the mother- country, and the Indians unable to free themselves; but about the middle of the last century, a plan of conspira- cy was formed in Caraccas, with a view of destroying Vol. XXXVIII. the company of Guipuscoa, to which the privilege had been granted of exclusively trading with Venezuela. The design was discovered, and the head of the conspi- racy condemned to death. (See CARAccAs and GUIPUs- CoA.) The oppressions of the repartimientos, and other grievances, gave rise also to the insurrection which took place in Peru in 1780. By the system of the reparti- mientos, the Indians were obliged to receive their neces- sary supplies of goods, hardware, and mules from the corregidores (officers named by the king), at the prices they fixed, and on the credit they thought proper to give. In 1781, some reforms and additional taxes were intro- duced in New Grenada, in the province of Socorro, one of the most populous of the viceroyalty; but the province openly declared against these changes, and having assembled near 17,000 men, marched against Santa Fé de Bogota, exclaiming, “Long live the king, but death to our bad governors.” Some few Creoles and Spaniards, well acquainted with the principles laid down by the French politicians in the early period of the French revolution, and with those of the writers who preceded that period, formed a plan for revolution in Caraccas in 1797. They treated the Spanish government with contempt, and trusted to the protection of the English, in consequence of Mr. Piut's well-known plan of giving independence to Terra Fir- ma. The conspiracy was discovered, and the ostensi- ble leaders made their escape; but one of them was afterwards apprehended and hanged. Sir Thomas Pic- ton, governor of Trinidad, issued at this time a pro- clamation, in which he says, towards encouraging the in- habitants (of the continent near to Trinidad) to resist the oppressive authority of their government; “I have little more to say, than that they may be certain, that when- ever they are in that disposition, they may receive all the succours to be expected from his Britannic Majes- ty, be it with forces, or with arms and ammunition to any extent; with the assurance, that the views of His Britannic Majesty go no further than to secure to them their independence, without pretending to any sove- reignty over their country, nor even to interfere in the privileges of the people, nor in their political, civil, or religious rights.” To assist the revolutionary party in Spanish America, the English cabinet is said to have paid the expedition of Miranda to Venezuela in 1806, and to have sent that of Whitelocke to Buenos Ayres in 1807, both of which failed. It is certain that the in- habitants of Spanish America have been long discon- tented, and that they have complained of various grie- vances to the court of Madrid. This court, however, knew how to answer petitions without redressing grie- vances. But Napoleon Bonaparte, when he became in fact master of the Peninsula, and possessor of the wealth of America by the influence he had in this court, hav- ing invaded the kingdom and seized the royal family of Spain, loosed those bonds which united the new to the old world, and gave rise to a revolution which, from the wide extent of the country in which it is seated, its cha- racter, and its consequences, is unparalleled in the annals of history. When Bonaparte had not only invaded the kingdom, but seized king Ferdinand, and assemblies under the denomination of “juntas” were established in various provinces of Spain, each assuming in its respec- tive district the supreme authority, the Spanish Ameri- cans were perplexed and dubious as to the conduct which they ought to pursue. The moment for freedom seemed 3 G at V E N E Z U E L A. at length to present itself, after they had been wearied and exhausted by a series of sufferings for three centu- ries. However, Spanish America was still attached to the mother-country : and when it was announced at Ca- raccas, in July 1808, that Joseph Bonaparte had taken possession of the Spanish throne, the city was immedi- ately in arms: 10,000 of its inhabitants surrounded the residence of the captain-general, and demanded the pro- clamation of Ferdinand VII. as their king: which he promised to do next day. But such was their ardour, that they proclaimed that evening by heralds in form, through- out the city, and placed his portrait, illuminated, in the gallery of the town-house. Some months after this won- derful display of attachment to the mother-country and its sovereign, many respectable families of Caraccas con- curred in presenting a petition to the captain-general, Casas, for permission to elect a junta similar to those in Spain. The petitioners indeed were arrested; but after a confinement of very few days they were released. About the end of July, 1808, Liniers, viceroy of Buenos Ayres, received intelligence of the events that had oc- curred in the Peninsula; and in a proclamation address- ed to the people, he exhorted them, in the name of Bo- naparte, to remain quiet. Xavier Elio, the governor of Monte-Video, accused him of disloyalty, and thus sepa- rated the country under his command from its allegiance to him, by forming a junta resembling those of Spain. The news of the general insurrection in Spain reach- ed Mexico on the 29th of July, 1808; and a junta was immediately established. La Paz, which was the capi- tal of one of the districts under the dominion of the au- diencia of Charcas, considering Spain too feeble to free herself from the power of the French, wished to provide for its own security; and, in the beginning of the year 1809, formed a government for itself, composed of many respectable persons, which was styled “junta intuitica.” The viceroy of Buenos Ayres sent an army to oppose this motion; and Goyeneche marched, by order of the viceroy of Peru, against La Paz, who succeeding, ordered num- bers of the patriots to be ignominiously and cruelly exe- cuted. Quito, nevertheless, capital of the audience bear- ing its name, established a separate government, August 10th, 1809. But the viceroy of Santa Fé de Bogota has- tened to destroy the junta of Quito by force of arms; and Abascal, the viceroy of Peru, did the same. The defend- ers of the junta were obliged to yield to superiority of force, receiving a promise from the Spanish president of Quito, that past events should be forgotten. But regard- less of this promise, many patriots, amounting to more than 300, were murdered in cold blood. In 1810, the junta of Caraccas commemorated the fate of these vic- tims with funeral honours equally magnificent and so- Hemn. Upon the dispersion of the central junta in Spain, and an illegal election of a regency, the inhabi- tants of Caraccas resolved to try to obtain by force what reasonable representation had failed to gain for them. The municipal body, in conjunction with many persons named by the voice of the people, assumed the reins of government, and the appellation of “ junta Suprema.” The acts of the junta were published in the name of king Ferdinand VII. The establishment of the junta of Bue- nos Ayres was effected with more tranquillity than that of Caraccas. A junta was formed at Chili in Septem- ber; and disaffection, occasioned in Mexico by violent measures, produced an insurrection, September 16th, 1810, in the town of Doloras, near Guanaxuato; which insurrection soon extended through the whole country. When the council of regency received intelligence of the proceedings at Caraccas, by which the inhabitants declared themselves independent of the mother country, and determined upon forming a governing junta to exercise this supposed independent authority, it resolved to adopt vigorous measures for preventing the progress of this evil; and, for this purpose, consulted the council of Spain and the Indies. Accordingly the regency de- clared the province of Caraccas in a state of vigorous blockade. The measures now adopted evinced the pre- valent spirit that actuated the Spanish Americans, though the different provinces were not acting in con- cert with each other. War seemed to be the wish of the merchants of Cadiz, and of the cortes that had been assembled by the regency; and various methods were used to excite and encourage it. Its long continuance, and the savage manner in which it is prosecuted, evince the irreconcileable animosity of the contending parties. “The Spaniards fight for reconquering their once pos- sessed territories, and the Spanish Americans to obtain independence: the first are cruel in the hour of triumph, and with adversity their enmity increases; the latter are courageous in attacks, and, when defeated, ready to place confidence in their leaders and to rally under their banners. The first possess great military skill; the lat- ter, superiority of number. Both have uniformly shown a firmness and decision in action suited to the high ob- jects they have in view, and to the great obstacles they have to overcome. In these contests, the blood of thou- sands has already inundated an extent of country of more than 1600 leagues, which comprise the Spanish set- tlements in the new continent; and as if the mortali- ty in the field of battle were not sufficient, numbers are daily murdered in cold blood.”—“The Spanish chiefs and rulers, it is said, gave the first example of violating capitulations, of shooting prisoners, and of re- fusing all means of accommodation, in the cruel war carried on in the new continent, by the authority of the cortes of Spain, and by Ferdinand VII. The old Spani- ards of either world must be altogether unable to find an excuse, or even a palliation, for their want of humanity, and breaches of faith, since the beginning of the revolu- tion. The cruelty of the Spanish chiefs, and tokens of approbation on the part of the regency and cortes, have exasperated the newly-formed governments in Spanish America, and given strength to their decisions. At first the revolutionary spirit was confined to very few persons, but it soon spread through the whole continent. This sufficiently appears in the spirit and language of the act of independence published by the congress of Venezuela, July the 5th, 1811. Similar declarations to those of the congress of Venezuela were made in Mexi- co, and in Carthagena, Socorro, Tunja, Pamplona, An- tioquia, and the other provinces, which composed the confederation of New Grenada, and more lately by the congress of Buenos Ayres.” When king Ferdinand, in his decree of the 4th of June, 1814, announced to the South Americans his re- turn to his country, he ordered that they should lay down their arms; and this order was enforced by an ar- my of 10,000 men, equipped at Cadiz, and placed under the command of Morillo. This army appeared on the coast of Venezuela in April, 1815. All hopes of recon- ciliation V E N E Z U E L A. ciliation were now abandon.cd, and a revolt in Spanish America against Ferdinand VII, may be dated from this period. From Campano general Morillo proceeded to Margaretta, and from thence to Caraccas; and in the following August he besieged Carthagena. Although dissentions had occurred between Bolivar and Castello, both commanders of the South American forces, and lessened the means of defence which Carthagena pos- sessed, the inhabitants, nevertheless, supported by nearly 2000 regular troops, prepared for a vigorous resistance. But provisions failed, and more than 3000 persons died of famine. On the 5th of December, 1815, the gover- nor and garrison of Carthagena evacuated the place, and on the following morning the king’s troops entered. General Morillo, thus possessed of Carthagena, was en- abied to conquer New Grenada. He entered Santa Fé de Bogota in June, 1816, and remained there till Novem- ber. More than 600 persons of those who composed the congress and provincial governments, as well as the chiefs of the independent army, were shot, hanged, or exiled; and the prisons were full of others waiting their fate. The first decree of the junta suprema of Caraccas, formed April 19th, 1810, contained orders to arrest the captain-general, and the members of the audiencia, who were sent to the United States of America: it was de- creed that the alacabala, or duty on selling any commo- dity, should be abolished, the tribute paid by the Indians, and the slave-trade; that frecdom of commerce, agricul- ture, &c. should be established; and that these political changes should be made public, and communicated to the English government. Juntas were formed for simi- lar purposes in different provinces. The regency of Spain was incensed, and it declared all the ports attach- ed to the new government to be in a state of blockade; and orders were given for reducing Venezuela to its for- mer subjection. When these orders proved ineffectual, spies and emissaries of every description were sent to all parts of Venezuela, for the purpose of effecting a coun- ter-revolution. General Miranda reached the shores of Caraccas in the end of 1810, notwithstanding the instruc- tions given by the junta Suprema for opposing the return of the general to his native country, with a view of evincing the moderate plan of conduct which the junta had adopted towards Spain. A general congress met, and the plan of a confederation, as the best sort of go- vernment for Venezuela, was formed and adopted. Mi- randa, however, opposed it, and his conduct gave of fence. In April, 1811, the congress nominated three persons, who were to constitute the executive power, which was very limited. Although several persons were secretly desirous of reunion with the ſmother country, they durst not avow it, so earnest were the inhabitants of Caraccas for independence. The anniversary of the revolution, on the 19th of April, was kept with great re- joicings. A most alarming conspiracy was just ready to break out in June, 8 l 1, but it was discovered and defeated. In the midst of the prosperity of Venezuela, it was visited, March 26th, 1812, by a most tremendous earthquake, which destroyed nearly 20,000 persons. The towns of Caraccas, La Guayra, Mayguetia, Media, and Sanfelipe, were totally demolished; and Barquisi- mento, Valencia, La Victoria, and others, suffered very considerably. At this crisis, general Miranda had the command of the army, and general Monteverde com- manded the royalists. Caraccas at length fell under the power of the royalists; the republican army was disband- Guayra, intending there to embark for Carthagena. But Miranda was betrayed, and he, with nearly 1000 patriots, were thrown into dungeons at La Guayra and Puerto Cabello. In consequence of this disaster, Cumana and Barcelona acknowledged the authority of Monteverde;’ and other similar events occurling, the Spanish govern- ment resumed its authority in Venezuela. Vengeance filled the mind of Monteverde. The Spaniards thought, by destroying the inhabitants of Venezuela, the first pro- vince which had shaken off their yoke, to punish in them the insurrection of the whole southern continent. Eve- ry royalist became a public accuser; every prison was filled with patriots; and almost the whole population were under confinement. This conduct of the royalists, instead of conciliating, excited the hatred of the inhabi- tants; and the courage of those who were attached to the cause of independence revived. The province of Cu- mana first opposed the oppression of Monteverde; and here he was twice defeated. Don Simon Bolivar, one of the most distinguished natives of Caraccas, obtained from the congress of New Granada near 600 men; and with these he felt confident that he should be able to conquer the enemies of his country. Bolivar, after a variety of prosperous adventures, was rapidly advancing towards Caraccas, where the inhabitants waited for him, as their deliverer. A junta was assembled, and it was proposed to make proposals of capitulation to Bolivar. The general accepted the offered treaty, and granted leave to any person, who was desirous of it, to emigrate from Venezuela, and to withdraw his property. The articles of the treaty, though they were extremely libe- ral, were disapproved by the captain-general Monte- verde, because it was derogatory to the dignity of the Spanish nation to treat with insurgents. Bolivar made his triumphant entry into the city of Caraccas, amidst the congratulations of the inhabitants, on the 4th of Au- gust, 1813. The dungeons of La Guayra were thrown open, and those who had survived a year’s confinement were restored to their country and friends; while the people, shouting with joy, blessed their deliverer, at the sight of every individual who rushed from the prisons. In the midst of this popular ferment, none of the Spani- ards were insulted. The provinces which formed the republic of Venezuela were again in the power of the patriots; but Monteverde obstinately persisted in refus- ing to treat with Bolivar. In the mean while, Monte- verde received from Spain a reinforcement of about 1200 Spanish troops; and thinking himself warranted to act offensively, he attacked the republicans, but was coin pieieiy defeated. Almost all the Spaniards were killed or taken prisoners, and Monteverde himself was severely wounded. After this defeat, Bolivar lid siege to Puerto Cabello both by sea and land. But the royal- ists retiring into the fortress, determined not to surren- der. Bolivar, in invading Venezuela under the protec- tion of the congress of New Grenada, had received or- ders to reinstate the republican congress; but this he did not think it adviseable to do. Bolivar, however, having given an account of his intentions and operations, in the invasion of Venezuela, to an assembly that had been con- vened of persons of all ranks, resigned the supreme au- thority which he held. But the governor of Caraccas proposed, and his proposal was agreed to, that Bolivar, denominated the “Libertador de Venezuela,” should be invested with dictatorial authority, till the reunion of 3 G 2 the V E N E Z U E L A. the provinces of Venezuela to those of New Grenada, under the same representative form of government. The Spaniards, not being able to subdue Venezuela, de- termined to destroy it. Accordingly the slaves were to be raised in rebellion against their masters. The num- 'ber of slaves in Venezuela amounted to 70,000; and one of the most formidable emissaries for this purpose was Boves, over whom Bolivar obtained a signal victory at La Vittoria. After gaining several other considerable advantages over the royalists, Bolivar considered him: self as secure in the possession of Venezuela; and turned his attention to Coro and Los Llanos, whither the enemy had fled. But as the three divisions of the republican army were separated many leagues from each other, Bolivar was attacked by Boves on a plain called La Pu- erta, nearly 50 leagues from Caraccas, and, after many hours fighting, compelled to abandon the field to Boves. Other disasters also occurred, and from this time confu- sion reigned among the patriots, and there was no longer any army for the protection of Caraccas. Success no longer attended Bolivar; his former good fortune had forsaken him; and even the commander of his flotilla, which protected the coast, refused to obey his orders. Despairing of the independence of his country, he and a few of his chosen officers, who were willing to partake his ill fortune, embarked for Carthagena. From Cartha- gena he proceeded to the town of Tunja, where the con- gress of New Grenada was sitting; and he was commis: sioned by the congress to compel by force the city of Santa Fé de Bogota to acknowledge its authority. In this he succeeded; after which he was sent with 3000 men to reduce to allegiance the province of Santa Mar- ta. Carthagena was to contribute troops and guns; but it was prevailed upon to refuse the demanded supply, under pretence of Bolivar's ambitious views, and his sanguinary career in Venezuela. Bolivar marched against Carthagena; but intelligence having been re- ceived of the expedition from Spain having reached this city, Bolivar give up his plan, quitted the army, and his troops united to those of Carthagena to defend that city. The royalists entered Carthagena about four months af- ter the siege had begun; but in the mean while, Bolivar, who had gone to Jamaica, proposed to assist Carthagena by landing an expedition on her shores. The capture of Carthagena prevented the execution of his plan, and he again turned his attention to Venezuela, Stimulated by the hopes of once flattering prospects, Bolivar plan- ned an expedition for assisting the efforts of the patriots of Margaretta; and joining Brion, an affluent native of Curaçoa, assembled the emigrants from Venezuela, and part of the garrison which had evacuated Carthagena. iłrion was appointed commander of the maritime forces, which were to be employed on this occasion. Sailing from Aux Cayes at the end of March, 1816, they landed in the beginning of May at La Margarita. Bolivar sailed for Carupano, about five leagues west of the town of Cumana, of which he dispossessed the roy- alists; and having armed many of the corps of guerillas, who had advanced to join him, they sailed for Ocumara. When he landed at Ocumara, he issued a proclamation, giving liberty to the slaves. This proclamation, dated july 6th, 1816, does honour to his judgment and feel- ings. “Your tyrants,” says he, “shall be destroyed or expelled, and you shall be restored to your rights, your country, and peace.”—“No Spaniard shall be put to death, unless in battle. No American shall suffer the least injury for having joined the king's party, or for having committed acts of hostility against his fellow- citizens.”—“That unhappy portion of our brethren, which has groaned under the miseries of slavery, is now set free. Nature, justice, and policy, demanded the emancipation of the slaves: henceforward there shall be only one class of people in Venezuela—all shall be citi- zens.” Bolivar, who after the defeat at Ocumara had returned to Aux Cayes, brought new reinforcements to Marga- rita, where he landed in December, 1816. There he published a proclamation, convoking the representatives of Venezuela to a general congress; and went afterwards to Barcelona, where he organized a provisional govern- ment. In this place he repulsed the royalists under Real and Morales, in February or March, with great loss. Although the patriots lost the town of Barcelona on the 7th of April this year (1817), and the royalist forces in Venezuela received an addition of 1600 men from Spain in May last, it is now (August) reported, that Bolivar has succeeded in completely establishing the republic of Venezuela.-Travels in South America, by Depons, in 2 vols. 1807. Outline of the Revolution in Spanish America, by a South American, 1817. [The Island of Margarita had been attacked without success in the autumn of 1816 by Morillo; and the re- publican generals were making arrangements to cut off all supplies from the royal army. On the 6th June 1817, Bolivar adopted a measure calculated to distract the royal commander, and to conceal his own plans, by pro- claiming the coast of Porto Cabello, La Guayra, Cumano, and Guyana, in a state of blockade; meanwhile he had issued orders to the different generals to assemble at el Chiparra at the opening to the great plains (Los Llanos.) General Piar was ordered to move upon Angustura in Guayana, and leaving general Cedeno there to unite his disposable force with the main army. General Marina was ordered to push the siege of Cumana, and with the force of N. Grenada under general Urdaneta and gene- ral Zaraza, to keep open the communication with the west of Venezuela. General Monegas was ordered to post himself at Aragua, one days march from Chiparra, and to concentrate the light corps of cavalry; while Zaraza collected the cavalry of his quarter at Cabrulica. Seve- ral enterprises of extraordinary hazard, wherein great in- trepidity was displayed, occurred at a position called Cla- rines on the river Venare, where general M*Gregor, an European, distinguished himself; the republicans were, however, obliged to retire from this place. On the 4th Feb. the royal army was attacked in its out posts at Cumana, by a detachment of Bolivar's army, which being repulsed, fell back upon Barcelona; where commodore Brion had been directed to assenble his squadron to receive the army in the event of any disas- ter. On the 10th Feb. Bolivar had made his arrange- ments to destroy the royal army; for this purpose he oc- cupied a convent two miles from Barcelona with 1800 men, and directed Arismendi to be prepared to march for Barcelona on the shortest notice. The royal army en- tered Barcelona about 3 o'clock in the afternoon, and commenced their usual ferocity and voilence, sparing neither age nor sex, and indulging in every species of debauchery. At ten o’clock at night Bolivar, with 1000 select troops, entered the city, and having caused the gates to be shut, put every man of the royal army to the sword. Arismendi was directed to occupy the * O V E N V E N of their retreat, and after leaving 1000 men dead in the streets and houses of Barcelona, those who had escaped over the walls were surrounded and cut to pieces by Aris- mendi; about 800 men and officers escaped out of 3000. The disasters of the royal army increased the follow- ing month to so great an extent that the royal general, in a letter from Ocana dated 27th March, after describing the disasters in which he says the royal army has lost 20,000 men and immense treasure, he describes the peo- ple of Venezuela thus: “ in N. Grenada they write and the doctors of laws settle every thing on paper, but in Ca- raccas they settle questions with the sword. In their own countries they are fierce as wild beasts, and if they should happen io be well commanded will give us work enough for a long time.” Meanwhile Bolivar, having determined upon the seizure of Guayana, to cut off the resources which that fertile province had hitherto afforded to the royal army; while Morillo was compelled to retire upon Caraccas; some small expeditions on either side were put in motion with various success; and the capital of Old Guayana sur- rendered to general Cedeno on the 17th July, 1817, and Angustura to general Bolivar the 3d of August follow- ing. On the 3d September, Bolivar proclaimed the in- dependent authority in Guayana, and an act of oblivion for all who should return and take possession of their pro- perty, whatever might be their opinions; and the greater part of the population returned, receiving their proper- ty unmolested, a policy which found its compensation in the declaration of adherence to independence by many of the most distinguished inhabitants who had theretofore adhered to the royal authority. The quiet which the army enjoyed here, as is usual in all armies under similar circumstances, ended in an un- fortunate breach between general Bolivar and general Piar, the latter an accomplished and able officer, of un- doubted fidelity and talents. The dispute appears to have arisen from some siight shown to the commander in chief, whose talents were underrated, and this being brought before a military court, the gallant Piar was sacrificed to the severity of military discipline, and shot on the 3d of October. In November, generals Zaraza and Paez, on the upper waters of the Oronoco, had made several successful en- terprizes, and the latter took the city of St. Fernando de Apure, on the right bank of the Apure river. Preparations having been made in December for ope- rations in the upper country, on the 7th of January, gun-boats, proceeded to St. Fernando de Apurc, hav- ing ordered the generals Paez, Zaraza, Monegas, and Cedeno to unite their divisions in that quarter. At this period from Cape Vela to the Oronoco, and from the Sources of the Apure to the Carribean sea, an average of 100 leagues, the royal authority held not a single field of territory in cultivation, nor any means of procuring sup- plies for a few posts on the margin of the sea, which de- rived their subsistence from the United States.] VENEzuel A. See CoRo. VENGAMBOOR, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; 17 miles S.E. of Erroad. VENGAPALEAM, a town of Hindoostan, in My- sore; 1 1 miles N.N.W. of Daraporum. VENGOLINA, in Ornithology, an African bird, which seems not to have been described by any of the ornithologists. According to the Hon. Daines Barring- ton’s account, it is of the finch tribe, and about the same size with our aberdavine, or fiskin; the colours are grey and white, and the cock hath º bright yellow spot upon the rump; it is a very familiar bird, and sings better than any of those which are not European, except the Ame- rican mocking-bird. Phil. Trans. vol. lxiii. part ii. p. 254. VENHUYSEN, in Geografthy, a town of Holland; 4. miles S.W. of Enckhuysen. VENIA, among our Ancient Writers, denotes a kneel- ing, or low prostration, to the ground; used by penitents. See GENUFLEx10N. * Walsingham, p. 196. “ Rege interim prostrato in longa venia. Per venias, centum verrunt barbis pavi- mentum.” VENIAL, a term in the Romish Theology, applied to slight sins, and such as easily obtaii, pardo In confessing to the priest, people arc not obliged to accuse themselves of all their venial sins. The thing that gives the greatest embarrass to the Romish casuists is, to distinguish between venial and mortal sins. See Pop ERY. The reformed reject this distinction of venial and mortal sins; and maintain, that all sins, how grievous soe- ver, are venial; and all sins, how slight soever, may be mortal: and the reason they urge is, that all sins, though of their own nature mortal, yet become venial, or pardon- able, by virtue of our Saviour’s passion, to all such as fulfil the conditions on which it is offered in the Gospel. To which the Romanists answer, that the chief of these conditions is confession. VENICE, in Geography, a city of Italy, and for a long time the capital of a republic. This city makes a very grand appearance at a distance, as seeming, from its being built on a multitude of islands, to float on the sea; or rather, with its stately buildings and steeples, as it were, rising out of it. The number of these islands is uncertain: some reckoning 60, others 72, and others’ again making them amount to 138. The Laguna, or marshy lake, which lies between the city and the conti- nent, and is five Italian miles in breadth, is too shallow for large ships; but, by the attention of the republic, was prevented from becoming part of the continent, and from being ever frozen so as to bear an army. Towards the sea, the access to the city is also difficult; but the safe and navigable parts are indicated by piles; which, at the ap- proach of an enemy’s fleet, can be cut away. Besides, as a considerable number of galleys and men of war could be fitted out very expeditiously for sea from the docks, which contained vast quantities of naval stores, the city was strong without fortifications. The fish, caught even at the very doors of the houses, might be reputed a good preservative against famine. The return of the sea is sometimes later here than every sixth hour, and it generally rises between four and five feet, keeping the water between the islands of the city in continual motion. Some of the canals being very narrow, the mud is not so effectually carried off as to prevent ill smells in hot weather. The great canal, which winds through the city, and divides it into two parts, is 1300 paces long. The best way of going up and down the city is in gonda- las, which, indeed, strike the eye with a mournful ap- pearance, being all lined either with black cloth or serge, or painted black. Over the several canals are laid four hundred and fifty (some say upwards of five hundred) bridges, great and small, and the better part of them stone; the highest and longest is the Rialto. (See BBIDGE.) trº Æ is ºf + º, V E N I C E. * BRIDGE.) The city may, indeed, every where be traver- sed on foot; but the streets are very narrow, and the free- stone pavement very slippery in wet weather. The many small bridges, with their steps, are also not a little trou- blesome. Tne whole city is said to be six Italian miles in circumference; and to make the tour of it in a gondo- la, takes up somewhat more than two hours. Venice contains seventy parish-churches, besides others, fifty- four convents of monks, twenty-six nunneries, seventeen rich hospitals, eighteen oratories, forty religious frater- nities with their chapels, and fifty-three squares. The buildings, indeed, are all of stone; but the greater part mean, without beauty or elegance. St. Mark’s square, it is true, is very fine, and so are the several stately mar- ble palaces that border upon the grand canal, though most of them are of Gothic architecture. In the churches and convents, the most admirable parts are the paintings; and indeed Venice, highly renowned for fine paintings, is said, in this respect, to have surpassed even Rome itself. Venice, from the fertility of its neighbourhood, and the facility of carriage, enjoys a constant plenty. The spring water being very indifferent, almost every house has a cistern, into which the rain-water is conveyed from the roof, and clarified by being filtrated through sand. Water is also brought from the river Brenta, and pre- served in cisterns. Among the diversions of Venice, the carnival is accounted the chief: it usually begins the second day of Christinas, and continues till Shrove- Tuesday; consisting chiefly of masquerades and ridottos: St. Mark’s place is the general rendezvous. Other di- versions are plays and operas. The trade in cloth, espe- cially scarlet, silk goods, and looking-glasses, is still very considerable. Here also gold and silver stuffs are manufactured; which, although not so beautiful as those of France, have a very good sale in the Levant. The brocatellas, a kind of stuff like brocade, made of coarse silk, are much used for carpets. Venice is divided into six parts, called Sestierie di Sestieria. S. Marco contains the piazzo di S. Marco, with the adjacent buildings. This square, the pride of the city, forms a right angle, the shortest side of which, two hundred and forty paces long, and seventy-five broad, reaches along the ducal palace. The ducal palace, towards the water-side and St. Mark’s place, is entirely Gothic; but on the side of the small canal, and in the court, of modern architecture, and mostly of marble. It not only served for the resi- dence of the doge, but also for the meeting of the coun- cil. The finest ornaments of the council-chamber and other apartments, are the paintings of famous ancient masters. In one side of the palace, towards the canal, Rio di palazzo, were dark prisons, strongly secured with iron grates. The lower gallery, or archéd walk, on the side of St. Mark’s square, together with the opposite hall, is called Broglio. Here, at a certain hour of the day, the nobles took their walks, and at this time no Venetian of an inferior rank must be seen on it; though a foreigner, as supposed unacquainted with the custom, is not desired to quit the place. Between these two buildings and the piazza were two pillars of Oriental granite, on one of which stood St. Mark’s lion in brass, and on the other a marble statue of St. Theodore. Between these is the place for the public execution of malefactors, through which no nobleman is ever seen to pass. A galley, com- pletely rigged and armed, lay close to the Broglio, for the defence of the ducal palace on any sudden emergen- cy. Contiguous to the north part of the doge's palace is St. Mark’s church, also stiled the doge's chapel. Its ma- terials justly entitle it to be called magnificent, being both on the out and inside, covered with fine marble; but the architecture is entirely Gothic. The best part of it consists of the Mosiac paintings, and the four brass horses, for- merly gilt, standing over the great door, and said to have been brought here from Constantinople. In the church treasury is kept a very famous manuscript of the gospel of St. Mark, pretended to be autographical; but the dampness of the place where it lies has spoiled it to such a degree, that no part of it is any longer legible, and it is not so much as certain whether it be written in Latin or Greek. In the Sestieria di Castello is the arsenal or dock, two Italian miles and a half in circuit, wailed and moated in, with twelve towers along its walls; and within the inclosure a great variety of buildings, in which every thing requisite for a land or sea armament is kept in readiness; with shops, store-houses, and basons and slips for ship-building, &c. Within it lie the men of war, frigates, galleys, and other vessels, with the Bucentauro, which is also laid up here. In the Sistiera di Canale Regio is the theatre, and in this quarier the Jews live, to the amount of fifteen hundred, who must wear a scrap of red cloth in their hats, by way of distinc- tion from Christians. Sestiera di S. Pavolo contains the exchange, the bank, &c. On the invasion of Italy, in the fifth century, by the Huns, under their king Attila, and the general desolation that every where appeared, great numbers of the people who lived near the Adriatic took shelter in those islands where now stand the famous city of Venice; and which islands, about the year. 421, particularly Rialto, had, in some measure, been built upon by the Paduans, for the advantage of commerce. (See VENETIA.) Here having settled their small places or states, they were at first governed by consuls; after- wards by tribunes; and formed a kind of republic, the council of which was represented by the persons of these magistrates. These islands became still better inhabited on the succeeding incursions of the Goths and Longo- bardi into Italy; multitudes from Rome and other large cities repairing thither, so that this state became soon able to make some head against these bold invaders. At length the chiefs of the islands and the Longobardi came to an agreement, by which the former were to remain unmolested. This was the commencement of the city and state of Venice. About the beginning of the eighth, or end of the seventh century, the former government of these islands was abolished, and an unlimited power conferred on Paulucio Anafesto, with the title of duke. Under this sovereignty the state greatly increased, till the people, justly becoming weary of the ills of domestic despotism, chose, in the year 1171, another duke, but curtailed his power, by assigning him a council of 240 persons, composed of commons as well as nobles. Duke Ziani sided with pope Alexander III. against the empe- ror Frederic, and obtained over him such a signal victory at sea, that the pope presented him with a ring, which he was to drop into the Adriatic, as a sign of his mar- riage with, and perpetual sovereignty over it. The Ve- netians, who had already extended their dominion into Istria, Dalmatia, Syria, Lombardy, and other places, made a very considerable acquisition in the beginning of the thirteenth century, by possessing themselves of the principal islands in the Archipelago and Mediterranean, particularly that of Candia. From this time they alone carried on, at an immense profit, the trade for East I º goods, V E N I C E. - -- goods, which they imported from Alexandia, in Egypt, to which place they were brought across the Red sea, and by the way of Suez. Under duke Marino Morosino was introduced the form of electing the doge; and it was at this juncture that jealously and envy formented the war with Genoa, which, after continuing 130 years, was at last put an end to by a treaty, in 1381. During this war, duke Peter Grandonigo, in the year 1296, ordained that the nobility alone should be capable of sitting in the grand council. Thus the government became aristocra- tical. In the 14th century, the Venetians extended their possessions in Lombardy; and, in 1473, the last king of Cyprus appointed the state of Venice his heir. Towards the end of the 15th century, the Venetian commerce, and consequently power, began to decline, when the Portuguese diseovered a route by sea to the East century, the pope, the emperor, France, and Spain, joining in a league against them, they were dispos- sessed of all their towns and places in the kingdom of Naples, the ecclesiastical state, and the Milanese. They received another severe blow from the Turks, who drove them out of the island of Cyprus. In the 17th century a sharp contest arose between the state, the clergy, and the pope, in which, however, they had the advantage. They were also long engaged in trou- blesome wars with the Turks, losing Candia, and gain- ing part of Dalmatia, and all Morea; but the greater part of these have been lost in succeeding wars. Thus the republic of Venice continued upwards of 1300 years, amidst many foreign wars and intestine commo- tions. Its grandeur was chiefly owing to trade and li- berty; and since the decline of the former, its strength and consequence must have suffered a considerable diminution. The power was lodged in the hands of the nobility, said to be near 2000, including those whom public employments in the provinces obliged to reside out of Venice. On the birth of a nobleman’s son, his name was entered in the golden book, otherwise he forfeited his nobility. Every noble was, indeed, a mem- ber of the senate; and on this account it was a received maxim, that they all were equal in dignity. But the difference, notwithstanding, between the interest and authority of families, was very considerable. To the first class belonged the ancient houses, whose ancestors chose the first duke, and who, from thence, were called * Le Case Eletterali:” and on them, preferably to others, were conferred the higher offices. Next follow eight houses, almost as ancient. The second class had its origin from the Serrar del Consiglio; duke Grandon- igo having passed a law that the council should perpet- ually consist of the families which then composed it, and some others which he ennobled. This produced a second class of nobility, who, accordingly, were then re- gistered in the golden book. It consisted of upwards of eighty families, and some of great wealth and reputation. With these were also included families raised to nobili- ty after the Genoese war, on account of their large con- tributions towards carrying it on with vigour. The third and last class was composed of the Cittadini, or citizens, whose nobility was purchased for 100,000 Venetian du- cats, a resource of the republic for raising money in ne- cessitous times. Crowned heads, German and other prin- ces, have not thought it any degradation to be made no- bles of Venice. The habit of the nobility, whilst at Venice, Was a black furred gown, reaching to their heels, with a belt about three inches broad, and plated with silver. Instead of hats they had long caps. The head of the republic was the doge, or duke, who, on the demise of the former, was chosen in a peculiar manner, by forty- one nobles, selected for this purpose by a process which it is needless to describe. These forty-one electors were confirmed by the grand council; and, being shut up in a chamber of the ducal palace, there remained till they had chosen a new doge. To the due and legal election of a doge, it was required, that out of the forty- one he should have twenty-nine votes. His election was followed by a kind of coronation; the ducal cap be- ing placed with great ceremony on his head. This was performed at his public entrance into St. Mark’s church. His yearly income was 12,000 Venetian ducats. He was subject to a variety of restrictions; and he was un- er the inspection and control of the council of ten, who kept a watchful eye over his whole administration, and, at any time, could come and search his most private apartments. In general, his authority, essentially con- sidered, was no greater than that of a private person, unless he could influence the whole council. On his death a formal inquiry was made, whether he had abused his power; whether, from a care of his own con- cerns, he neglected those of the public; whether he lived agreeably to his dignity, &c. If found guilty of any thing alleged to his charge, his heirs were fined in proportion to the nature of the crime. On Ascension- day, the doge, or, in case of illness, the vice-doge, per- formed the annual frivolous ceremony of marrying the Adriatic sea." (See DoGE.) In the grand council, all nobles of the age of twenty-five years might take their place, though some younger found means to obtain ad- mittance. The senate, or pregadi, were a committee of the grand council, by whom they were also chosen. This senate had the management of the most secret and important state affairs, as the making alliances and peace, declaring war, seeding ambassadors, coin- ing money, filling up offices, imposing taxes, &c. Next was the coilegium, in which all public instru- ments directed to the state and doge were read, audi- ences given to foreign ministers, and other matters of in- portance transacted. The procurators of St. Mark had not only the inspection of the church of St. Mark, its li- brary, and the records of the republic, but likewise managed all affairs relating to the poor, together with wills, guardianships, redemption of Christian slaves, and bringing over-rigid creditors to a reasonable composi- tion. Their number never exceeded nine: their office was of great authority, and during life; and out of them the doge was generally chosen. Titular of extſ a dina- ry procurators of St. Mark were more numerous; the republic gladly selling these titles in a public scarcity of money. Il consiglio di dieci was a high penal court, which consisted of ten counsellors, the doge, who was president, and his six consiglieri. The established religion was the Roman Catholic; but Greeks, Armeni- ans, and Jews, were allowed the public exercise of their worship, and Protestants, observing privacy, remained unmolested. The patriarch of Venice, the chief ecclesi- astic of the republic, was chosen by the senate; and though confirmed by the pope, must, in all other respects, be independent of the papal chair. The territo, les of the republic were under governors chosen out ºf the nobility, changed at the expiration of a certain ter; n of years. The annual revenue of the republic was con:- I uted V E N IC E. puted at 8,200,000 ducats, and was under the direction of three governatori dell’ Entrate. In war-time, both the nobles and the other subjects, even the doge, contributed proportionably to their incomes, towards de- fraying the public expenses. The states of Italy sub- ject to the Venetians were the Dogado, the Paduan, the Polesine di Rovigo, the Veronese, the Vicentin, the Bressan, the Bergamasco, the Cremasco, the Trevi- giano, the Feltrin, the Bellunese, the Cadorin, great part of Friuli and Istria; to these may be added a part of Dalmatia, the islands of Corfu, Zante, Cephalonia, and some others. The number of inhabitants in the city of Venice was estimated at 160,000, and, of the whole state, at 2,500,000. In the year 1797, in consequence of some partialities which the Venetians showed to Austria, the French attacked and made themselves master of the city. By the peace of Luneville, Venice with its domi- nions were given to Austria; but by the peace of Pres- burg transferred to the new kingdom of Italy. In De- cember 1807, prince Eugene Napoleon was created prince of Venice by the emperor Napoleon. Venice has always been renowned for its cultivation of the fine arts, and for giving birth to great professors, particularly in painting, architecture, and music. At the head of the first, Titian, Paul Veronese, and Tinto- ret; of the second, Palladio and Scamozzi; and of the third, Zarlino, Lotti, Marcello, and Galuppi; names that can never be heard without pleasure by the votaries of those arts. Printing, too, has been carried on at Venice with great spirit ever since the year 1459, when it was established there by Nicholas Jansen; and in the begin- ning of the next century, pursued by the Aldi with more accuracy than in any other part of Europe. But Venice has long manifested its attachment to music by the establishment of its conservatorios, or mu- sical schools, of which it has four; the Ospidale della Pietà, the Mendicanti, the Incurabile, and the Ospida- letto a S. Giovanni e Paolo; at each of which there is a performance every Saturday and Sunday evening, as well as on great festivals. The performers at them all, both vocal and instrumental, are females: the organs, violins, flutes, violoncellos, and even French horns and double-bases, are supplied by these females. See Con- SERVATORIO. Though the composers of the Venetian school are, in general, good contrapuntists, yet their chief charac- teristics are delicacy of taste and fertility of invention; but many circumstances concur to render the music of Venice better, and more general, than elsewhere. The Venetians have few amusements but what the theatres afford; walking, riding, and all field-sports, are denied them. This in some degree accounts for music being so much, and in so costly a manner, cultivated; the num- ber too of theatres, in all which the gondoliers have ad- mission gratis, may account for the superior manner in which they sing, compared with people of the same class elsewhere. And in the private families, into which the girls of the conservatorios marry, it is natural to suppose that good taste and a love for music are introduced. Venice, in 1639, was the first city in Italy that open- ed public theatres for the performance of operas; and in less than a century from that period, 658 musical dramas were brought on the several stages of that city, the chief part of which were produced by natives of the Venetiai, state. In the lost century, not only the poe- try and music of the lyric theatre were greatly supe- rior to those of preceding times, but the performers; for at Venice all the great vocal talents to which the opera had given birth, were more constantly summon- ed, patronised, and cherished, than in any other city of Europe. - Accounts are kept at Venice in lire of 20 soldi or marchetti; and each soldo is divided into 12 denari di lira. They are also kept in ducats of 24 grossi; and the grosso is divided into 12 grossetti, or denari di du- cato. A ducato of account is worth 64 lire, or 124 mar- chetti. The gold coins of the old republic are zecchi- ni, or sequins, with halves and quarters. The sequin is commonly reckoned at 22 lire, but its agio fluctuates, and in the year 1805 it was 37 fier cent. The silver coins are the scudo Veneto, or della croce, of 12 lire 8 soldi, and halves and quarters in proportion; the duca- tone, or giustina, of l l lire; the ducato effettivo of 8 lire, with halves and quarters; and base silver pieces of 30 soldi, called lirazze, and of 20, 15, 10, and 5 soldi. There are pieces of 10 lire, which were coined in 1796. The copper coins are soldi and half soldi, or bagattini. When Venice became subject to Austria, in 1797, a base silver money was introduced, called moneta pro- vinciale, which, in 1802, was declared to be out of cur- rency; and a new coinage took place, consisting of pieces of 13, l, and 3 lira, or, in Austrian money, of 18, 12, and 6 creutzers, which contained only a fourth of fine silver, but they were heavier than the former coinage. This money was called “moneta di nuovo stampo.” The Austrian government also introduced copper pieces of 6 and 3 creutzers, or 10 and 5 soldi, and pieces of 2 and 1 soldi. All the above-mentioned monies and coins are now valued in “ moneta piccola,” which is the effective currency of Venice. The bank of Venice was instituted in 1587; its ori- ginal capital being five millions of ducats. The owners received no interest for their money, but could draw it out on demand or transfer it in payment, like the banks of Amsterdam, Hamburgh, and other banks of deposit. Bills of exchange where mostly paid in banco, and also wholesale bargains of merchandize above 300 ducats. The bank received no money but sequins and silver du- cats. The bank of Venice was in high credit and pros- perity from its first institution to the year 1797, when the French seized upon the city, and ceded it to Austria; from this period it declined. In 1805 Venice was incor- porated with the kingdom of Italy; and in 1808, the bank was totally discontinued. According to the rate of coinage at Venice, 683 se- quins are to contain a Venetian mark of fine gold, with a small, but uncertain, quantity of alloy. No remedy was allowed at the mint of Venice, either in the weight or fineness of its coins. The Venetian sequin, weighing nearly 54 English grains, is therefore worth 98. 6d. ster- ling. The silver ducat weighs 351 English grains, and is 9 oz. 18% dwts, fine, which gives its value at 403d, ster- ling; hence the ducat of account of 64 lire piccola is worth 31#d, nearly, and the lira about 5.d. sterling; or, more exactly, 11. Sterling = 47 lire 8 soldi piccoli. But tak- ing the value of the lira from the coinage introduced by the Austrian government, it will be found worth about 44d.; and I l. sterling = 56 lire 94 soldi piccoli. Venice has two different weights for merchandize, viz. peso grosso, or large weight; and peso sottile, or small weight: the pound of the former is divided into 12 oz. and 192 carats, in all 2304 carats; and the pound of V E N V E N of the latter into 12 oz. and 144 carats, in all 1728 carats. The pound peso grosso weighs 19 oz. peso sottile; hence 12 lbs. peso grosso = 19 lbs. peso sottile; and 18lbs. peso grosso, or 28} peso sottile = 19 lbs. avoirdupois. A carica is 400 lbs. peso sottile. The ounce for weigh- ing silk and thread is divided into six saggi or Sazi, and these into halves, quarters, &c. Oil is sold either by weight or measure: a migliajo weight contains 40 miri, each 25lbs., in all 1000 lbs. peso grosso. A migliajo measure should contain 1210 lbs., or 40 miri, each 30+ lbs. peso grosso: such a miro answers to about 4% Eng- lish gallons. The amphora, a wine measure, contains 4 bigoncio; a bigoncia, 4 quartari, 16 secchie, or 256 lbs. peso grosso; but a bigoncia of brandy is only 14 secchie. - Two sorts of long theasure are used at Venice, both of which are called the braccio; that for woollens is 263 lºnglish inches, and that for silks is 24; English inches. The Venetian foot is 154 French lines, or 13% English inches; hence 36 Venetian feet = 4.1 English feet. Venice exchanges with London 50 lire piccola, more or less, for 1 l. sterling, at three months’ date. The usance for bills drawn from London is three months after date. Bills are allowed six days grace, after which they must be either paid or protested. Protests are made by the fanti or clerks of the commercial college, who enter all the bills they have protested in a book, to which every merchant has free access. Thus many bills, which would otherwise be returned, are accepted and paid for the honour of the drawer or indorser. This practice is likewise useful in giving early notice of ap- proaching insolvency. (Kelly’s Un. Cambist.) Venice is situated 2 6 miles N. of Rome. N. lat. 45° 28′. E. long. 12° 18'. VENICE, Gulf of See ADRIATIC. VENICIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town in the interior of the isle of Corsica, according to Ptolemy. VENICN II, a people who inhabited the western coast of Hibernia. Ptol. VENICNIUM PROMONTorruM, a promontory on the northern coast of Hibernia. Ptol. VENICONTES, a people of Britain, S. of the Cale- donii to the W. whose town was Orrea. Ptol. VENIERO, DOMENIco, in Biography, an Italian poet, was born of a noble family at Venice in 1517; and after receiving a good education, and being introduced to the friendship of Bembo, and having been thus led into the way of advancement to honourable and lucrative stations, he lost the use of his limbs at the age of thirty-two, and was confined to his chamber for life. In this condition he sought solace from poetry and the conversation of his iearned friends, wilo iu great iſſuilibers resoried io his house. These meetings laid the foundation of the cele- brated Venetian academy, of which Veniero was the prin- cipal ornament. Notwithstanding the pain which he ex- perienced, his poems are distinguished by liveliness of imagery and force of expression. He died in 1582, at the age of sixty-five. His poems were first printed in the collections of Dolce and Ruccelli; and they were edited at Bergamo in 1751 and 1753, with those of his nephews, Maffeo and Luigi Verniero, the former of whom was archbishop of Corfu. Their father Lorenzo was also a poet. Gen. Biog. VENIRE FA CIAs, in Law, is a judicial writ, lying where two parties plead, and come to issue; directed to the sheriff, to cause twelve men, of the same neighbour- Vol. XXXVIII. hood, to meet to try the same, and recognize the truth upon the issue taken. Afterwards a compulsive process is awarded against the jurors, called habeas corpora juratorum, or distringas, that they may appear upon the day appointed. See JURY. - VENIRE Facias is also the name of a writ, which is the proper process in an indictment for any petty misde- meanor, or on a penal statute, and which is in the nature of a summons, to cause the party to appear. And if by the return to such venire it appears, that the party hath lands in the county by which he may be distrained, then a distress in/inite shall be issued from time to time till he appears. But if the sheriff returns that he hath no lands in his bailiwick, then, upon his non-appearance, a writ of caſhias shall issue; and if he cannot be taken upon the first caflias, a second and a third shall issue, called an alias, and a filuries caſhias. - VENIRE Facias tot Matronas. ciendo. - VENISON, VENAuson, the flesh of beasts of game, or of animals to be caught in the way of game, i. e. by hunting, &c. as deer, hare, &c. The word is French, venaison; formed of the Latin venatio, hunting. The old huntsmen have determined, that every beast of the forest, that is food for man, is venison. In many parts of the world the bears are as regularly hunted as the hare and buck, &c. are with us, and there are called venison; but with us, at present, the word venison seems limited to the flesh of the hart, the hind, the buck, the doe, and the other creatures of that kind. Some have extended the signification of the word to the beasts of the forest which were chased as game, and afforded the diversion of hunting, whether their flesh Were eaten or not: thus, in some places, the wolf and the fox are reckoned among the venison beasts. VENIUS, or VAN-VEEN, OTHo, in Biography, was of a distinguished family in Holland, and was born at Leyden in 1556. He received an excellent education from his parents, and though his progress in literature was unusual, yet he was permitted to pursue his desire of becoming a painter. He received lessons in design from Isaac Nicholas, but is more indebted to John Van Winghen. The war in the Low Countries drove him to Liege at the age of fifteen, and there he continu- ed to prosecute his studies in literature and the arts. He acquired the favour of cardinal Grosbeck, at that time prince bishop of Liege, who, desirous of his ad- vancement, advised him to visit Rome, and furnished him with letters of recommendation to cardinal Mar- * * * * * ** ~ 34-7 ſ\ 24 e * !-- ~~~ * ~ * l- > * *** u u v \l avy tº il A ºf $ it * 1 A &M, º, • avy • *_* & 9 See VENTRE Inshi- l, i.e. n rºw, n | * in a 1-e he war as kindly received and entertained by his eminence, and he became a disciple of Fred. Zuccharo, by whose instruc- tions, and his own industry in studying the beautiful works of antiquity with which he was surrounded, he ac- quired a very great degree of correctness in design, and a more elevated taste than his countrymen usually ex- hibited in their works. * Having devoted seven years to his studies in Italy, he visited Germany, where he staid some time, and receiv- ed a flattering invitation to remain in the court of the emperor; but his desire to revisit his native country pre- vailed, and he declined this honourable proposal. As he passed through Munich and Cologne, he was em- ployed by the duke of Bavaria and the elector; and on 3 H his V E N V E N his arrival at Brussels, the governor, Alexander Fat- nese, appointed him his principal engineer and Painter, and sat to him for his portrait. e After the death of his patron he established himself at Antwerp, where he was much engaged in painting historical works for the churches, &c, and gained a great reputation; which has not been diminished by his hav- ing had for his disciple so renowned an artist as Ru- bens. When the archduke Albert was appointed governor of the Netherlands, Otho Venius made the designs for the triumphal arches erected on his entrée, with which the archduke was so much gratified, that he invited him to Brussels, and appointed him his principal painter, and master of the mint, which situations he occupied till his death in 1634, at the age of 78. Otho Venius did not confine himself to painting, he wrote and published several works adorned with prints, chiefly engraved by his brother, Gilbert Venius, from his designs. Among them are, a translation of part of Tacitus; Horace’s Emblems, with notes and observa- tions; the life of Thomas Aquinas; and the Emblems of Love, divine and profane. VENIZY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne; 3 miles N. of St. Florentin. VENLO, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Meuse, late the duchy of Guelderland, situated on the E. side of the Meuse, takes its name from the two Flemish words Weemen and Loo, which signify a low meadow. Before the year 1343, it was only a small town, when Renaud II. duke of Gueldres, fortified it, and gave it the title and privileges of a city. It has only one parish-church, which is dedicated to St. John. Af- ter several changes of professors, it was ceded, in 1715, to the States-General by the barrier treaty. In this town was made the first trial of bombs, about 1588; and they were first used by Alexander Farnese, duke of Par- ma, at the siege of Watchtendonck, not long after. In 1794, it was taken by the French; 12 miles N.N.E. of Ruremond. N. lat. 51° 27'. E. long. 6° 2'. VENNO, a town of the republic of Lucca; 5 miles S.S.W. of Lucca. VENOE, a small Danish island, in the gulf of Lym- fiord. N. lat. 56° 34'. E. long. 8° 38'. VENOM, VENENUM. See Poison. The term venom and floison only differ from each other in this, that the latter is more frequently used where the noxious matter is taken inwardly, as in foods, drinks, &c.; and the former, where it is applied out- wardly, as in stings and bites of serpents, scorpions, vi- pers, spiders, &c. The pike is said to have a venomous tooth. All ve- nomous beasts, in the general, have that quality in a greater degree, when bred in mountains and dry places, than when in wet and marshy places; and the southera more than the northern; those hungry and enraged, more than others; and all of them in summer more than winter. See VIPER. VENONIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Britain, in the 9th Iter of Antonine, situated between Ratis or Leicester, at the distance of 12 miles from it, and Ban- navantum near Daventry; supposed to be the present Cleycester. VENOSA, CARLo GESUALDo, Prince of, in Biogra- filly, a Neapolitan nobleman, whose ſame has been ex- tended by his musical productions more than by his high rank, though this rank will be found reciprocally to have added lustre to the compositions, was nephew to cardinal Alfonso Gesualdo, archbishop of Naples, and had his title from the place which gave birth to Ho- race, the Venusium of the ancients. Pomponius Nen- na, a voluminous and celebrated composer of madrigals, had the honour to instruct him in music. His produc- tions consist of six sets of madrigals for five voices, and one for six. The principal editor of his works was Si- mone Molinaro, maestro di capella at Genoa, who, in 1585, published the first five books in separate parts; and, in 1613, the same madrigals, with the addition of a sixth book, in score. - The numerous editions of these madrigals in differ- ent parts of Europe, and the eulogies bestowed on the author by persons who rank high in literature, as well as music, made us extremely curious to see and exa- mine them. Gerard Vossius, Bianconi, Bapt. Doni, Tassoni, and many others, speak of him as the greatest composer of modern times; as one who, quitting the beaten track of other musicians, had discovered new melodies, new measures, new harmonies, and new mo- dulation; so that singers, and players on instruments, despising all other music, were only pleased with that of this prince. Tassoni tells us, that James I. king of Scotland, had not only composed sacred music, but invented a new species of plaintive melody, diſferent from all others; “ in which he has been imitated by the prince of Ve- nosa, who, in our times, has embellished music with many admirable inventions.” This passage in Tassoni, which has so often been cited by Scots writers, seems to imply, not only that James, king of Scotland, had invented a new species of melody, but that his melody had been imitated by the prince of Venosa; at least, this is the sense in which the passage has been understood by the natives of Scotland, and in- deed by ourselves, till, on finding no kind of similarity between the national tunes of North Britain and the me- lodies of the prince of Venosa, we examined the passage anew, with more attention; when it appeared to us as if Tassoni's words did not imply that the prince of Veno- sa had adofited or imitated the melodies of king James; but that these princely dilettanti were equally cultiva- tors and inventors of music. See DAVID RIzzio, Scots Tunes, and Ossi AN. The Neapolitan prince seems to merit as little praise on account of the expression of words, for which he has been celebrated by Doni, as for his counterpoint; for the syllables are constantly made long or short, just as it best suited his melody; and in the repitition of words, we frequently see the same syllable long in one bar, and short in another, or the contrary; by which it is manifest. that their just accentuation was never, thought of. The remarks of Tassoni certainly must have been ha- zarded either from conjecture or report; as is but too frequently practised by men of letters, when they be- come musical critics, without either industry or science sufficient to verify their assertions. The prince of Venosa was perpetually straining at new expression and modulation, but seldom succeeded to the satisfaction of posterity, however dazzled his con- temporaries may have been by his rank, and the charac- ter he bore among the learned, who so frequently # the 1r V E N V E N their musical information from tradition, that whether they praise or censure, it is usually sans connoissance de cause. Dilettanti usually decide in the same summary way, with an additional prejudice in favour of their own little knowledge, and a disposition to censure whatever they are unable to acquire, be it science or execution. Cicero has long since said, that “it is not with philo- sophy and science, as with other arts; for what can a man say of geometry or music, who has never studied them : He must either hold his tongue, or talk non- sense.” With respect to the eaccellencies which have been so liberally bestowed on this author, who died in 1614, they are all disputable, and such as, by a careful examination of his works, he seemed by no means entitled to. They have lately been said to consist in “fine contrivance, original harmony, and the sweetest modulation conceiva- ble.” As to contrivance, it must be owned that much has been attempted by this prince; but he is so far from being happy in this particular, that his points of imitation are generally unmanageable, and brought in so indiscri- minately on concords and discords, and on accented and unaccented parts of a bar, that, when performed, there is more confusion in the general effect than in the mu- sic of any other composer of madrigals with whose works we are acquainted. His original harmony, after scoring a great part of his madrigals, particularly those that have been the most celebrated, is difficult to discover; for had there been any warrantable combinations of sounds that Palestrina, Luca Marenzio, and many of his predecessors, had not used before him, in figuring the bases, they would have appeared. And as to his modulation, it is so far from being the sweetest conceivable, that, to us, it seems for- ced, affected, and disgusting. We have bestowed more remarks on this prince of musicians, and more time in the examination of his works, than perhaps they now deserve, in order to fur- nish our readers with what seems, to our comprehension, a truer idea of their worth, than that which partiality and ignorance have hitherto given. A score of one of his madrigals in the 3d vol. of Burney’s Gen. Hist. of Mus. p. 223. will justify our censures of the musical productions of this tuneful prince. VENos.A, in Geografi/hy, a town of Naples, in Basili- cata, the see of a bishop, suffragan of Miatera. It con- tains seven churches, and as many convents. In the 9th century, Venosa was taken by the Saracens, and in 1528 by the French; 9 miles N.N.W. of Acerenza. N. lat. 40° 58'. E. long. 15° 48'. VEN as A. Arferia. See ARTERIA Venosa. VENOSTA, in Geography, a valley of the Tyrolese, on the banks of the Adige; 20 miles S. of Glurentz. VENOSUM Fol.IUM, in Botany and Wegetable Phi- siology, a vieny leaf. See LEAF and VEIN. VENOUS, VENosus. See VENAL. VENT, in Geograft/ly, a river of England, in the county of Cumberland, which runs into the south Tyne. VENT, formed from ventus, wind, vent-hole, or shi- racle, a little aperture left in the tubes or pipes of foun- tains, to facilitate the air’s escape; or, on occasion, to give them air; as in frosty weather, &c. for want of which they are apt to burst. A vent, taken in this sense, is properly the end of a pipe, placed erect, and reaching above the ground; usu- ally soldered to the turns, or elbows, of pipes. The vents of large pipes are to be as high as the superficies of the reservoir, unless there be a valve in them. VENT is also used for a little hole, pierced in vessels of wine, beer, &c. that are on tap; and which admits air enough to make the liquor run, but not so much as to corrupt and spoil it. VENT, again, is applied to the covers in wind-fur- naces, by which the air enters, which serves them for bellows; and which are stopped with registers, or slices, according to the degree of heat required: as in the fur. naces of glass-houses, assayers, &c. VENT is also used for a pipe of lead, or other matter; one end of which opens into the cell of a necessary. house, and the other reaches to the roof of the house, to give room fer the corrupt fetid air to exhale, -- I - * * * * *se -- ertures, made in the walls There are also vents, or a - - - - which sustain terraces, to furnish air, and give a passage for the waters. This kind of vent the Italians, and we from them, call a barðacane. * * VENT, in Gunnery. See Touch-Hole. The common method of placing the vent is within about a quarter of an inch from the bottom of the cham- ber or bore. Some, however, have thought, that if the vent was to come out at the middle of the charge, the powder would be inflamed in less time than in any other case; but Mr. Muller, by firing mortars with two vents, one at the bottom and the other in the middle, and so contrived that one was shut whilst the other served to fire, found always the range of the shell greater when the lower vent was used, than when the powder was fired by the middle one. Artillery, p. 83. Mr. Thompson (Count Rumford) has lately made a number of experiments, in order to determine the best position of the vent; from the result of which it appears, that the effect of placing the vent in different positions with respect to the bottom of the chamber, is different in different charges; but the difference in the force ex- erted by the powder, which arose from the particular position of the vent, was in all cases so inconsiderable, as to afford occasion for concluding, that any given charge of powder exerts nearly the same force, whatever is the position of the vent. He infers, upon the whole, that in the formation of fire-arms no regard need be had to any supposed advantages that gunsmiths and others have proposed to derive from particular situations for the vent; such as diminishing the recoil, increasing the force of the charge, &c.; but the vent may be indiffer- ently in any part of the chamber where it will best an- swer upon other accounts; and he thinks there is little doubt but the same thing will hold good in great guns, and all kinds of heavy artillery. Workmen in general agree, that the vent in fire-arms should be as low or far back as possible, in order, as they conceive, to lessen the recoil; accordingly some make the bottom of the chamber flat, and bring the vent out even with the end of the breech-pin; others make the vent slanting through the breech-pin, in such a manner as to enter the bore just in its axis; others again make the bottom of the chamber conical; and there are those who make a little cylindric cavity in the breech-pin, of about two-tenths of an inch in diameter, and near half an inch in length, coinciding with the axis of the bore, and bring out the vent even with the bottom of this little cavity. 3 H 2 The V E N V E N The objection to the first method is, that the vent is apt to be stopped up by the foul matter that adheres to the piece after firing; and which is apt to accumulate, especially in damp weather. The same inconvenience in a greater degree attends the other methods, with the addition of another, arising from the increased length of the vent; for the vent being longer, is not only more liable to be obstructed, but it takes a longer time for the flame to pass through it into the chamber; in conse- quence of which the piece is slower in going off, or, as sportsmen term it, is apt to hang fire. Mr. Thompson proposes, that the bottom of the bore should be in form of a hemisphere; and that the vent should be brought out directly through the side of the barrel, in a perpen- dicular to its axis, and pointing to the centre of the he- mispheric concavity of the chamber. In this case the vent would be the shortest possible; it would be the least liable to be obstructed, and the piece would he more easily cleaned. Similar advantages, he apprehends, would be gained by making the bottom of the bore and vent of the great guns in the same manner. Phil. Trans. vol. lxxi. part. ii. p. 272, &c. From a variety of experiments made by order of the king of Prussia in 1765 and 1766, it appears, that the concave chamber produced the greatest ranges, and that the bottom of the chamber is the best place for the Went. - VENT-4stragal, is that part of a gun or howitz which determines the vent-field. - VENT-Field, is the part of a gun or howitz between the breech-mouldings and the astragal. VENT, Port. See Port-VENT. VENTA, in Ancient Geograft hy, a name given to sc- veral British towns, of which our antiquaries have given different etymologies. Mr. Baxter’s conjecture may be allowed to be most probable, who supposes that it is de- rived from wend, or went, which signifies head or chief. For it is observable, that all the towns which were named Venta, were the capitals or chief towns of the nations or people to whom they belonged. VENTA Belgarum, a town of Britain, placed in the seventh Iter or route of Antonine, from Regnum or Chichester to London, between Clausentum or Old Southampton, and Calleva Atrebatum or Silchester; and situated at the present Winchester, as our antiqua- ries agree. It was the capital of the Belgae. VENTA Icenorum, a town of Britain, placed at the head of the ninth Iter or route of Antonine, 128 miles from London. This town was probably the capital of the Iceni, or ancient inhabitants of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire; and it is gene- rally supposed by our antiquaries to have been situated at Caister, upon the river Yare, about three miles from Norwich, which is thought to have arisen out of the ruins of this ancient city. Here have been found some faint vestiges of this ancient capital of the Iceni. VENTA Silurum, a British town, placed in the four- teenth Iter or route of Antonine, from Isca or Caerleon, to Calleva or Silchester. This was a considerable town of the Silures, between Isca and Abona. It is our Caergwent. See SILUREs. VENTA Cibay, La, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in Guipuscoa; 6 miles from Trevigno. VENTA de Cruz, a sea-port town of America, on the isthmus of Darien, on the river Chagre, where the mer- chandize from Panama is put on board barks to be con- veyed to Porto Bello; 20 miles N. of Panama. N. lat. 9° 26'. VENTA Quemada, a town of Spain, in the province of Jaen; 42 miles N. of Jaen. VENTA de en Medio, a town Peru; 20 miles N. of Oruro. VENTA Sierra, montains of South America, in the province of Venezuela. VENTALDA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland; 34 miles S.E. of Jonkioping. VENTAROLI, a name given in Sicily, &c. to grot- toes formed under their houses, from which issues a con- stant extreme cold wind, and at times with impetuosity, and a noise like water dashing upon rocks. These are shut up with doors like cellars, and made use of as such, as also to keep provisions fresh, and to cool liquors. At Cesi, in the Roman state, there are many such venta- roli; and the inhabitants of that town, by means of leaden pipes, conduct the fresh air from these into the rooms of their houses, so that by turning a cock they can cool them to any degree. Some who have refined still more upon this luxury, by smaller pipes, bring cold air un- der the dining table, so as to cool the bottle of liquor upon it. On mount AEtna and Vesuvius, and in the island of Ischia, there are many caverns of this kind. Phil. Trans. vol. lxx. part i. p. 73. VENTENATIA, in Botany, was so named by M. Palissot-Beauvois, in honour of the late M. E. P. Ven- tenat, member of the National Institute, a distinguish- ed French botanist, who was formerly an ecclesiastic, and, if we mistake not, of some religious order; but he took advantage of the revolution to free himself from such unnatural and immoral shackles, in order to fulfil the duties of a man and a christian. He has distinguish- ed himself by the publication of a Tableau du Regne Végétal, selon (a Methode de Jussieu, in 4 vols. 8vo.; as well as the magnificent Jardin de la Malmaison, with coloured plates, in large folio; and the uncoloured Jar- din de Cels, and Choiac de Plant es; the latter having been soon cut short by his death. The writer of this article had dedicated to the name of M. Ventenat, a New Holland genus, (see STYLIDIUM.) which now yields to the prior right of the genus before us.—Palis. Beauv. Fl. d’Oware et de Benin, fasc. 2. De Theis 479. Poiret in Lamarck Dict. v. 8. 450.—Class and order, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Tiliacae, Juss.' Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in three deep, equal, oblong, obtuse, concave, coriaceous, deciduous segments. Cor. Petals numerous (eleven or twelve), spatulate, spreading, strongly veined; rounded at the extremity; contracted into a claw at the base. Stam. Filannents nu- merous, thread-shaped, erect, unequal, much shorter than the petals, inserted, like them, into the receptacle; anthers . . . . . . Pist. Germen superior, oval; style thread-shaped, undivided, longer than the stamens; stig- ma thick, obscurely five-lobed. Peric. Berry oval-ob- long, of five cells, furrowed longitudinally, terminating in a kind of mammillary point. Seeds numerous in each cell. Ess. Ch. Petals numerous. ciduous segments. many seeds. Calyx in three deep de- Berry superior, of five cells, with Obs. V E. N. V E. N Obs. M. Palissot Beauvois remarks, that this genus is obviously referrible to Jussieu's 13th class, (Poiret by mistake says the 3d), but its order in that class is not so easily determined. Dissections of the ripe seed are wanting to ascertain this point. The fruit nearly ac- cords with Jussieu’s Aurantide, but the structure of the flower, and the want of pellucid dots in the leaves, ex- clude it from that order. The want of stiflulas prevents its perfect agreement with the Tiliaceae, and M. Beau- vois considers this genus as probably making one of a new order, confounded by Jussieu with his Tiliaceae. 1. V. glauca. Giaucous Ventenatia. Palis. Beauv. Fl. d’Oware et de Benin, 29. t. 17. Poiret n. 1.-Native of elevated, airy, open situations, near Agathon, on the coast of Africa. A shrub, with aitcraate, retººd, smooth branches. Leaves alternate, stalked, very large, ellip- tic-oblong, entire, tipped with a long acute point; round- ed at the base; smooth on both sides; covered on the un- der surface with a kind of glaucous viscidity, which when dry becomes almost powdery. Stiftulas none. Flowers lateral, towards the extremity of each branch, solitary, stalked, alternate, sometimes opposite to the leaves; their stalks half the length of the leaves, cylindrical. Calya: short, smooth. Corolla large, of a fine crimson, beauti- fully veined. Poiret. VENTER, in Anatomy, the abdomen; called also mi- nus venter. See ABDOMEN. VENTER is also used for the womb, or uterus, of wo- men. And hence the writ de ventre insfliciendo. Hence, also, in the civil law, we say, fartus sequitur tº entrem, the child follows the belly; meaning, that its condition is either free or servile, according to that of its mother. They also say, to affioint a curator for the belly, with regard to posthumous children, yet in the mother’s womb. With regard to princes, the venter, or belly, has been sometimes crowned in form. VENTER is also used, in speaking of a partition of the effects of a father and mother, among children born, or accruing, from different marriages. This partition is so ordered, as that a single child of one marriage, or venter, takes as much as several of an- other marriage, or venter; in order to which the estate is divided into so many parts as there have been venters, or marriages. VENTER, or Belly, of a muscle. JMuscle. VENTER Draconis, Dragon's Belly, in Astronomy. See Dragon’s BELLY. See also DRAGON, in Astrono- • - > - VENTER Equi, Horse’s Belly, among Chemists, de- notes horse-dung, or a dunghill, on which are inclosed certain vessels for particular operations, to be perform- ed by means of the gentle heat of it. VENTES les Grandes, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine; 9 miles N.W. of Neufchâtel. VENTHIE, LA, a town of France, in the department of the Straits of Calais; 9 miles N.E. of Bethune. VENTIA, in Ancient Geography, or Wensiensium Civitas, a town situated in the Maritime Alps. Dion Cassius, speaking of an expedition, dated in the year of Rome 693, against the Allobroges, who had revolted, mentions a town under this name, at a small distance from the Isere. According to some circumstances per- taining to this expedition, there is reason to believe that See BELLY of a it is Vinei, between Moirène, or Tullin and St. Marc cº- lin, at some distance from the right bank of the Isere. VENTIDUCTS, in Building, are spiracles, or sub- terraneous places, where fresh cool winds, being kept, are made to communicate by means of tubes, funnels, or vaults, with the chambers or other apartments of a house, to cool them in sultry weather. These are much in use in Italy, where they are called ventidotti. Among the French they are denominated firisons des vents, and flalais d’ Eole. See VENTARolſ. VENTILAGO, in Botany, so called by Gaertner, be- cause the appendage to the seed-vessel was thought to bear some resemblance to a winnow or flapper, ventila- brum. It does not answer to the common idea of a fan, being neither plaited, nor much dilated upwards.- Gaertn. v. 1. 223. t. 49. Willd. Sp. P1. v. i. i ijö. Roxb. Coromand. v. 1. 55. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Poiret in Lamarck Dict. v. 8. 452.-Class and order, Pentan- dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Dumosa, Linn. Rhamni, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cup- shaped, with five equal, triangular, deciduous, marginal segments. Cor. Petals five, spatulate, inserted into the rim of the calyx, alternate with its segments, and rather longer. Stam. Filaments five, awl-shaped, opposite to the petals, the length of the calyx; anthers of two round lobes. Pist. Germen superior, invested below with the tube of the calyx, nearly globose; stlye short; cloven half way down; stigmas two, divaricated, acute. Peric. Capsule globular, of one cell, and two valves; splitting at the base; crowned at the summit with an elliptic-ob- long, flat, coriaceous, ribbed wing, many times longer than the capsule. Seed solitary, globose. Ess. Ch. Calyx cup-shaped, with five deciduous seg- ments. Petals five, opposite to the stamens. Cap- sule of one cell, crowned by an elongated wing. Seed solitary. Obs. Gaertner did not see the capsule in a sufficiently advanced state to discover that it has really two valves, which separate at the base, continuing connectcd at the apex by their long coriaceous wing, in which the most remarkable character of the genus consists. The flow- ers are occasionally dioecious, from the imperfection of one or other organ of impregnation. 1. V. maderashatana. Yerra Chirtaly of the Te- lingas. Willd, n. 1. Roxb. Coromand. v. 1, 55. t. 76. (Funis viminalis; Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 3. t. 2.)—Na- tive of forests and uncultivated places, among the moun- tains of Hindoostan and Ceylon, and of rocky thickets on the shores of Amboyna, flowering in the cold sea- son. The stem is climbing to a great extent, with long, round, pliant, tough, leafy, often downy, branches. Leaves alternate, on short stalks, ovatc, blunt- ish, two or three inches long, coriaceous, more or less obscurely crenate, seldom quite entire, smooth or mi- nutely downy, furnished with one midrib, and many trans- verse ones, connected by extremely fine parallel veins. Flowers very numerous, small, greenish-white, in large, terminal, compound flanicles, their scent highly offen- sive, resembling Sterculia fetida. Wing of the cafsule entire, greenish-yellow, slightly dowry, above an inch in length.-Willdenow, according to Poiret, has distin- guished two species of this genus, in the new Transac- tions of the Berlin Society; one having entire and smooth, the other crenate and downy, leaves. But we are pur- suaded, from an examination of wild specimens from Roxburgh • ** - ºr r; ! ºr vy uv - J 5 VENTILATION. Roxburgh and Koenig, that these characters are varia- ble. VENTILATION of Mines, comprises the various modes by which impure air is removed, and a current of atmospheric air propelled through the subterranean openings and passages of mines. The health, the safety, and lives of a very large and industrious class of the community depend on the regular ventilation of mines; yet the application of the principles on which this should be undertaken has been but imperfectly understood, and it is but very recently that the subject has engaged the attention of men of science. Since the constitution of the atmosphere was ascertained, (see ATMosPHERE,) it is well known that the one-fifth part of it, or the oxygen gas, is essentially necessary to support the processes of respiration or combustion, by which it undergoes a che- mical change, and is converted into carbonic acid gas, a gas destructive of animal life, and in which flame is instantly extinguished. It is also as well known, that the remaining four parts of the atmosphere, or the azote, are equally destructive of life, and incapable of support- ing flame: hence the necessity of ventilation, or a regular supply of fresh air, in all confined situations, where men are to labour or exist, is very easily explained. Besides the destruction of oxygen gas by respiration or com- bustion, which takes place in confined apartments above ground, there are other causes that render the air im- pure in almost all subterranean passages or mines, through which there is not a regular current of wind constantly passing. The causes by which the air in mines is rendered impure, or destructive of animal life, are of three kinds. First, the respiration of men and horses in the mine, and the combustion of the lamps, &c.; secondly, the production and evolution of carbonic acid gas in the beds or strata in which the mine is situ- ated; and thirdly, the production of carburetted hydro- gen or inflammable gas. For the properties of these gases, see GAs. The two former sources of impurity are much less destructive of life than the latter, the in- flammable gas or fire-damſ, of the miners: when this be- comes mixed to a certain degree with the air of the mine, it explodes with great violence on the approach of a lamp or candle, and occasions the most fatal accidents, destroying all the vital air in the mine, and burning or suffocating the workmen. By explosions of this nature, it was estimated that not less than six hundred persons perished during the years 1813 and 1814, in the coal- mines on the rivers Tyne and Wear, in Northumberland and Durham; and the destruction of human life in other coal districts has been perhaps equally great, in propor- tion to their extent. In the ventilation of mines, where the air is impure from respiration, combustion, or the evolution of carbonic acid gas, called by the miners choak-damſ, the object of the miner is simply to intro- duce a current of fresh air through the works; but be- side the difficulties to be overcome in effecting this, where the works are extensive, the miner who has to combat with the fire-damp must guard against the grea- ter evil of an explosion, to which he is almost constantly exposed. In the working of metallic mines, the veins being generally nearly vertical, the currents of water, or the natural passages, aided by the varied temperature of the mine, are frequently sufficient to ensure the circulation of air; and these mines are very rarely affected by the production of the fire or choak-damp. It is principally whore a shaft or well is sunk, or a horizontal passage or gallery is made, that any means of artificial ventilation are necessary. The most obvious remedy, and that which is most frequently resorted to, is opening a com- munication with some other part of the mine, or with the surface; and when this is done, the ventilation is found to be perfect by the rushing of the currents, which often takes place with considerable force, from the different degrees of temperature in the lower and uPper air, and these currents change their direction as the temperaturesabove and below alternate. The great objection to this mode is the expense with which it is commonly attended wherever the gallery is at a great depth, and the intervening rock of a very hard kind, and where a shaft is merely wanted to supply air, and not for the passage of the water. To avoid this, the shaft or level is sometimes divided into two distinct parts, com- municating near the part intended to be ventilated, so that a current may be produced in opposite directions on each side of the partition; and this is often effected to a certain extent. It has, however, its limits at no very great distance, and the current is but a feeble one, from the nearly equal temperature of the air on each side of the partition. The other mode employed is to force air down tubes with a large pair of bellows worked by the hand, or by boxes or cylinders of various forms placed on the sur- face, with a large opening against the wind, and a smaller one communicating with the air-pipes by a cylinder and piston working in it, and when driven by a sufficient force, this has great power. wº- Mr. John Taylor, in the Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1810, has described a method of effecting this process more easily, by attaching an air-pump of a very simple construction to a small fall of water. The en- gine discharges more than two hundred gallons of air in a minute, and a stream of water supplied by an inch and a half bore falling twelve feet is sufficient to keep it regularly working. This method may be introduced with great advantage into narrow passages or wells, but would be obviously inadequate to ventilate the immense excavations in coal-mines, except it were directed only to some confined part of the works. In metalliferous mines, the generation of the fire-damp is much less fre- quent than in coal-mimes, and the extent and position of the excavations make the ventilation of the latter a la- bour of much greater difficulty. The most valuable beds of coal in England, with the exception of Stafford- shire, are from two to nine feet in thickness, and they rarely incline more than about fifteen or twenty degrees from the horizontal level, and are frequently nearly flat. Each pit has two shafts or wells, called the downcast fit and the uſicast fit. The excavations or passages in the coal, which communicate from one pit to the other, are frequently not less than forty miles or more in length, through which circuitious route the air has to take its course, though the distanee from the downcast to the upcast shaft, in a right line, may not be more than a few hundred yards or feet, or even much nearer. And here We cannot but observe, that as the means to force the air through a route of such extent must be very com- plicated, and as a failure or accident to a part might des- troy the whole ventilation, we conceive that much too large a surface is frequently worked from two shafts, in order to avoid the expense of additional shafts for seve- ral detached workings of a smaller extent. By this, the risk of the workmen is greatly increased, to save expense to the owners of the coal. In the year 18 l 3, Some gen- - - - tlemen VENTILATION. tlemen in the north of England, impressed by the dread- ful catastrophes which had recently taken place, very laudably established a society, with a view to inquire into the causes of these calamities, and the possible means of prevention. They entitled themselves “A Society for preventing Accidents in Coal-Mines.” Mr. John Buddle, an eminent coal-viewer in Northumber- land, addressed a letter to the president, which was pub- lished by the society in 1815. In this letter he details the various methods which had been employed for the prevention of accidents by fire, which, he says, “consist in a mechanical application of the atmospheric air to the removal or sweeping away of the inflammable gas, as it is generatcd in the quorkings or collieries, or as it is- sues from the fissures which the workings interseci iii their progress.” He details the various methods by which this is effected: these are explained by a number of figures and sections, without which they could not be rendered intilligible to the reader. We shall endea- vour to give an idea of the principle on which the various modes of ventilating mines depend, by stating one of the simplest forms in which they can act. If two wells or shafts were sunk at a given distance, say fifty yards from each other, and a horizontal passage were cut from the bottom of one well to the other, as Soon as the communication were made, there would be a tendency in the air to descend one shaft and ascend the other, whenever the temperature of the external air varied from that of the air below. The currents of air in natu- ral caverns, that are open at each extremity, proceed from the same cause. In certain states of the atmos- phere, should the current not be sufficient, or should a quantity of impure air be generated in the passage, the circulation may be increased by kindling a fire at the top or at the bottom of one of the wells, to rarefy the air and cause it to ascend more rapidly. Or the air may be forced down the other well, by causing a stream of wa- ter to fall into it. Also by means of vanes, or by an air-pump attached to a steam-engine, the circulation may be easily increased according to the will of the en- gineer, and the facilities which may be presented for carrying away the water, &c. Thus little difficulty could arise in a case of simple ventilation of this kind; but if from the horizontal passage which runs from one shaft to the other, we make a number of passages on each side at right angles with it, as is done in coal- mines, the current of air which passes through it will not enter these lateral passages, or occasion any circula- tion in them. In order, therefore, to make the air pass through the whole series, another passage must be open- ed, connecting the further extremities of the lateral passages with each other: the first passage must then be closed, and the air which descends conducted along the lateral passages, up one and down the other, taking a circuitous route through the whole, until it arrives at the upcast shaft, which it ascends. To conduct the air in this manner, a number of trap doors and stops are ne- cessary in order to prevent the mixture of the air from the different passages, which would entirely destroy the ventilation. See Plate IV. Geology, fig. 8. which re- presents part of the workings of a coal-mine; the shaded part is the bed of coal, in which the workings are car- ried along the different passages, from the pit or shaft a, to the pit or shaft at b. The current of air is represen- ted by darts and dotted lines. The stops and trap-doors, which close to prevent the passage of the air, and con- fine the currents to a particular course, are represented by double lines and cross lines, as at t t. This figure represents the improved system of ventilation, by which the current of air sweeps every part of the workings. By tracing the darts and dotted lines, it will be seen that the current of air from the downcast pit a, first passes along the main passage to A, and the adjoining passage MB, to which it has access through lateral passages, called walls, 1, 2, 3, 4: its further progress in every di- rection is closed, except at 5, where it enters the pas- Sage C, from which it has access to the passage D. through the openings 6, 7, 8, 9; at E, the currents unite in one stream, and enter an advanced part of the work- ings, called the head-ways, ventilating the passages F and G, being forced into them by partitions called brati- ces, placed at XX, round which the air musi pass in its progress to H. Where the current of air divides and sweeps along two passages at the same time, and unites again as above- described, it is called double coursing; but where it runs down one passage and up another, as may be seen in its further progress from H on the south side, to H on the north side of the mine, it is called single coursing, The remaining part of the ventilation back to the pas- sage K.K., is in double courses, along which it is forced by the stoppings at 8, 8, s, s, and the other stoppings 7, r, r, r, until it ascends the upcast shaft at 5. Under this system, says Mr. Buddle, if the stophings, &c. be all in order, and the passages kept sufficiently open for the current of air to circulate freely, there can be no partial stagnations in the workings, no accumulation of in- flammable gas. For in the event of a large discharge of gas, from what is called a blower, commencing at any place, as at M, N, P, Q, its stream is immediately. carried off by the circulating current of atmospheric. air, and so diluted that it cannot explode, unless indeed the discharge of inflammable air should be so copious as to mix with the current up to the firing floint, or to that degree in which it would inflame by access to a lighted candle or to fire. This improved system of ventilation by double cour- ses was introduced into the collieries on the Tyne and Wear about the year 1760, and has ever since continued in general use; but it is found inadequate to the intended purpose in the following cases. 1. When sudden discharges of inflammable gas mix. with and raise the whole circulating mass of air to the firing point. 2. When the wind is south-east, and the weather wet or hazy, and the barometer sinks below twenty-nine . inches. In this case the atmospheric current, which under the most favourable state of the air is merely sufficient. to sweep the noxious effluvia from some mines, gets so. contaminated by the discharge of inflammable gas, and . the slowness of its own progress, as to be exceedingly. unsafe, and generally inaccessible with candles. 3. When inflammable air fills a part of the mine be- . tween the workmen and the upcast shaft: * 4. When the gas is ignited by lightning, as it ascends the upcast shaft. The presence of inflammable gas from the slightest mixture, through all its gradations to the first firing point, is readily discoverable by an experienced collier, and he judges very correctly of the degree of inflamma- bility and danger which threaten the safety of the mine, by VENTILATION. by observing attentively the appearance of the spire upon the top of his candle. The common pit-candles vary in size, but those generally used are forty-five to the pound; the wick is of cotton, and the candle made of ox or sheep tallow: but clean ox-tallow is best. The mode of trying the candie, as it is called, to as- certain the mixture of inflammable gas, is as follows. In the first place, the liquid fat is wiped off, the wick snuffed close, and carefully cleansed of red embers, so that the flames may burn as purely as possible. The candle, being thus prepared, is held between the fingers and thumb of the one hand, and the palm of the other is placed between the eye of the observer and the flame, so that nothing but the fire and the flame can be seen, as it gradually towers over the upper margin of the hand. The observation is generally commenced near the floor of the mine, and the light and hand are gently raised up- wards, till the true state of the circulating current be as- certained. The first indication of the presence of in- flammable air, is a slight tinge of blue or a bueish-grey colour shooting up from the top of the spire to the can- dle, and terminating in a fine extended point. The spire increases in size, and receives a deeper tinge of blue as it rises through an increased proportion of inflamma- ble gas, till it reaches the firing point; but the experien- ced collier knows accurately enough all the gradations of show (as it is called) upon the candle, and is very rarely fired upon, excepting in sudden discharges of in- flammable gas. The show upon the top of the candle varies very much, according to the length of run or dis- tance which the current of air has passed though before it is mixed with the inflammable gas. The shorter the run of the current of air before it is mixed with the in- flammable gas, the less will be the show upon the can- dle when at the first firing point, and vice versá. The same size of spire which would indicate danger in a current which has passed one mile, might be per- fectly harmless in a current that had ran five or six miles; consequently the length of run of the current of air is to be taken into consideration, as well as the ap- pearance of the top of the candle. The air-course, too, for a short distance beyond a small discharge of fire- damp may be highly inflammable; but by passing a few yards further, it becomes so diluted as to be perfectly secure. The distance, therefore, within which a blower can be safely approached with candles, is regulated en- tirely by the magnitude of the discharge and power of the current of air. Long experience and attentive ob- servation are consequently necessary to obtain a tho- rough practical knowledge of this art. The workings of a colliery are very often inaccessible with candles near the downcast pit, called the first of the air, while they may be safely entered with any de- scription of light near the upcast pit, called the last of the air. This arises from the inflammable gas, as it is carried from the place of its discharge, being gradually diluted by the atmospheric current. Hence the advan- tage of sufficient extent of pit-room, to obtain length of run to dilute the inflammable air. It is from the want of pit-room, that the explosions in newly-opened collie- ries are generally the most violent. The distance which the current of air passes through, between the down- cast and the upcast pits, varies much according to cir- cumstances. Mr. Buddle has known it to exceed thirty miles. After the current of atmospheric air is so highly mix- ed with an inflammable air as not to be accessible with lighted candles, steel-mills may be employed with safety. We shall further notice Mr. Buddle's observations on steel-mills, but we believe the dicovery of the safety- lamp will entirely supersede their use. “ Although the inflammabie air has frequently fired at the sparks of the steel-mills, it only happens, from all the facts which I have been able to collect, when the mills are played near the place where the hydrogen gas is charged, and this by due attention may be easily avoided. “I neverindeed witnessed an explosion from the sparks of flint; but from my own observations on their appear- ance in dangerous states of the air, as well as from the observations of several intelligent men, I believe that in most cases the change of the appearance of the sparks, if attentively observed, gives sufficient notice of the threatening danger. When elicited in atmospheric air, they are of a bright appearance, rather inclined to a red- dish hue, and as they fly from the wheel seem sharp and pointed. In a current of air mixed with inflamma- ble gas above the firing point with candles, they increase considerably in size and become more luminous. On approaching the firing point with steel-mills, they grow still more luminous, and assume a sort of liquid ap- pearance, nearly resembling the sparks arising under the hammer from iron at the welding heat. They also adhere more than usual to the periphery of the wheel, en- compassing it as it were with a stream of fire, and the light emanating from them is of a blueish tint. When the inflammable gas predominates in the circulating current, the sparks from the steel-mill are of a blood-red colour; and as the mixture increases, the mill totally ceases to elicit sparks. They have the same bloody colour in carbonic acid.” The steel-mill here mentioned is what has been used till very recently in coal-mines, consist- ing of a wheel and spring, which is wound up and set in motion, whereby a constant collision of flint and steel is effected, eliciting a copious stream of sparks. With the concluding remarks of Mr. Buddle’s letter we can by no means agree, when he adds, “On the strength of my own experience in collieries thus circumstanced, I freely hazard my own opionion, that any further appli- cation of mechanical agency towards preventing the ex- plosion in coal-mines would be ineffectual.” Among the means enumerated by this gentleman, the very obvious. one of depending on the greater specific levity of the car- buretted hydrogen gas is entirely omitted; nor is it even stated, that the general inclination of the strata present facilities for the ascent of the inflammable air, were re- quisite precautions taken to conduct it by channels to the month of the upcast pit, which in many situations might be done at a trifling expense. * The public have been given to understand, that an improved and complete system of ventilation, depend- ing on this principle, had been introduced into some of the Staffordshire collieries; but on recent inquiry at the place, we were informed, that the method of ventilation proposed by Mr. Ryan had never been carried into prac- tice to the full extent stated, but considerable advan- tage had been derived from a partial application of the principle by making channels near the roof of the mine for the escape of the inflammable gas. Where the strata rise gradually for a considerable ex- tent, unbroken by faults, it appears easy to discharge the inflammable gas as fast as it is generated. The ºpe- cific gravity of carburetted hydrogen is little more than O]] C- V E. N. V E N \ one half the weight of atmospheric air, being as .555 to 1000. If, therefore, it were conducted along the roof by an unobstructed passage to the upcast shaft, it would rise and discharge itself. Explosions not unfrequently take place at the upcast shaft, from the inflammable air passing near the fire pla- ced at the bottom to rarefy the air and increase the cir- culation. The only expedient at present suggested is the use of charcoal, as the gas will not ignite at a red heat without flame; but charcoal does not promote so rapid a circulation of air as coal or wood, which produce smoke and flame. The carbonic acid gas generated by the combustion of charcoal, being also heavier than at- mospheric air, would in some degree retard the ascent of air from the upcast shaft; and if a small particle of coal fell upon the charcoal fire, it would produce flame, which might cause an explosion. A series of most interesting experiments was under- taken by sir H. Davy in 1815, on the degree of inflam- mability of different admixtures of carburetted hydrogen when passed through small tubes or apertures, which led to the very important and unexpected result, that carbu- retted hydrogen, mixed with atmospheric air in the pro- portion which is most explosive, and then ignited, will not set fire to another portion of the same air, separated from it by a sieve of small wire, the meshes of which amount to two hundred and fifty in the square inch. On this principle he constructed a lamp surrounded by a small wire-sieve in the place of horn or glass, having no aperture for the admission or transmission of air but through the meshes of the sieve. This lamp, when light- ed, was found to burn in explosive mixtures with perfect safety, the flame being confined within the lamp by the intervening wire-sieve. This lamp has since undergone considerable improvements, and some of the objections to which it was first exposed have been removed. Im- portant additions to it are still making by its illustrious inventor. For a full account of its construction and re- cent improvements, we must refer to the article WIRE- Gauze Safety- Lamfl. * VENTILATOR, a machine by which the noxious air of any place, as an hospital, gaol, ship, chamber, &c. may be discharged and changed for fresh. The noxious qualities of bad air have been long known; and no one has taken greater pains to set the mischiefs arising from foul air in a juster light than Dr. Hales; who had also proposed an easy and effectual remedy by the use of his ventilators; his account of which was read to the Royal Society in May, 1741. In the November following, Mr. Triewald, military architect to the king of Sweden, informed Dr. Mortimer, secretary to the Royal Society, that he had in the preceding spring in- vented a machine for the use of his majesty’s men of war, in order to draw out the bad air from under their decks, the least of which exhausted 36,172 cubic feet of air in an hour, or at the rate of 21,732 tons in twenty- four hours. In 1742 he sent one of them, formed for a sixty-gun ship, to France; which was approved of by the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris; and the king of France ordered all the men of war to be furnished with the like ventilators. The ventilators invented by Dr. Hales consist of a square box A B C D (Plate XVII. Pneumatics, fig 1.) of any size: in the middle of one side of this box a broad partition, or midriff, is fixed by hinges X, and it moves up and down, from A to C, by means of an iron rod ZR, Vol. XXXVIII. fixed at a proper distance from the other end of the midriff, and passing through a small hole in the cover of the box up to R. Two boxes of this kind may be employed at once, and the two iron rods may be fixed to a lever F G (fig. 2.) moving on a fixed centre O; so that by the alternate raising and pressing down of the lever FG, the midriffs are also alternately raised and depressed, by which these double bellows are at the same time both drawing in air, and pouring it out through apertures with valves made on the same side with, and placed both above and below the hinges of the midriffs. In order to render the midriffs light, they are made of four bars lengthwise, and as many across them breadthwise, the vacant spaces being filled up with thin pannels of fir- board; and that they may move to and fre with the great- er ease, and without touching the sides of the boxcs, there is an iron regulator fixed upright to the middle of the end of the box A C (fig. 1.) from N to L, with a notch cut into the middle of the end of the midriff at Z, so that the midriffs, in raising and falling, suffer no other friction than what is made between the regulator and the notch. Moreover, as the midriff Z X moves with its edges only one-twentieth of an inch from the sides of the box A B C D E F, very little air will escape by the edges, and, therefore there will be no need of leathern sides, as in the common bellows. The end of the box at A C is made a little circular, that it may be better adapted between A and C to the rising and falling midriff; and at the other end, X, of the midriff, a slip of leather may be nailed over the joints, if needful. The eight large valves, through which the air is to pass, are placed at the hinge-end of the boxes B K (ſig. 2.) as at 1, 2, 3, &c. The valve 1 opens inward to admit the air to enter, when the midriff is depressed at the other end, by means of the lever F G. And at the same time the valve 3 in the lower ventilator is shut by the com: pressed air which passes out at the valve 4. But when that midriff is raised, the valve 1 shuts, and the air passes out at the valve 2. And it is the same with the valves 5, 6, &c. of the other box; so that the midriffs are alternately rising and falling, and two of the ventilators drawing in air, and two blowing it out; the air entering at the vales 1, 3, 6, 8, and passing out at the vales 2, 4, 5, 7. Before these last valves there is fixed to the ven- tilator a box Q Q N M (fig. 3.), as a common receptacle for all the air which comes out of these valves: which air passes off by the trunk P, through the wall of a building. For a farther account of this machine we refer to the author himself, who gives a full detail of it, and of its manner of working. See Description of Ventilators, by Stephen Hales, D. D. Lond. 1743, 8vo. The doctor has shown the use of his ventilators very fully. As to ships, in particular, he observes, that the wind-sail, (see WIND-sail,) made use of at sea to introduce fresh air between decks, is far from being sufficient for that purpose; nor can it be used with equal safety to the sick, and those who are sleeping, by means of the strength of the wind, which conveys the air with too much violence. But when the foul air is carried off by means of ventilators, notwithstanding the great velocity with which they throw out the air, which they may do at the rate of sixty tuns in a minute, yet the motion of it downwards into the hold, to supply what was car- ried off, is so very gentle that it cannot be perceived: be- cause the sum of all the open passages for it through the deck exceeds the opening of the trunk of the ventilator, 3 I in VENTILATOR. in so great a proportion as 100 to 13 or more. Besides, in a calm, the wind-sail can do little or no good: nor when the ship is under sail, at which time the wind-sail is not used. And it is to be observed, that it is not the ventilating of a ship now and then with a wind-sail, when wind and weather serve, that will suffiée; it ought to be done daily, if due regard be had to the health of the ship's crew. The great quantity of rancid noxious va- pours which are incessantly exhaling from a number of living human bodies, the stench that incessantly arises from the bilge-water, and from the hot, stagnant, putrid air in the hold, makes it very advisable to refesh so bad an air continually, either with the wind-sail, when that can be properly used, or else with ventilators, which are intended to supply the defects of the wind-sail. Ventilators must also be of particular service in new ships, which are observed to be more unhealthy, on ac- count of a greater quantity of sappy wreak which arises from new timber, and makes the confined air the more unwholesome. , They will also be an effectual preservative of horses in transports, where they are sometimes suffocated, when in a storm there is a necessity to shut the hatches down. These ventilators will also drive out of the hold of a ship that dangerous vapour which arises from corn, which is so noxious, that sometimes they dare not venture into the hold, till after the hatches have been opened for some time. Ventilation will not only be of service to preserve se- veral kinds of goods, but also the timbers and planks of the hold itself, when laid up in ordinary, as well as when in use, and will make the air in the hold less noxious, though it will still be offensive to the smell, by reason of the bilge-water. But this may be made less offensive, by often letting in sweet water from the sea, and then pumping it out; which good practice ought to be contin- ued, notwithstanding the use of the ventilators. What is here said of the foul air of ships may be ap- plied to that of mimes, gaols, workhouses, barracks, and hospitals. In mines, ventilators may guard against the suffocations, and other terrible accidents arising from damps; which see. (See also VENTILATION.) The air of gaols has been often known to be infectious; and we had a fatal proof of this, by the accident that happened some years ago at the sessions at the Old Bailey. To guard against the like for the future, as well as to pre- serve the health of the prisoners, a worthy magistrate, in 1752, had ventilators placed in Newgate, which were wrought by a windmill; and in the beginning of the year 1753, Dr. Hales gave an account of the good success attending the use of these machines, by a remarkable de- crease in the usual mortality and sickness of that place. Although the old prison at Newgate is now taken down, and a much more commodious one erected near the same spot, it may not be improper to give a brief ac- count of the manner in which the ventilators of Dr. Hales were constructed, and how they were moved by the windmill annexed to them. The midriffs h, h, (fig. 4.) of these two ventilators, two pair of which were laid up- on one another, were each nine feet long, and four and a half wide, and moved up and down by the flat iron rods e, f, passing through the lower and upper ventilators, and through an iron plate at z, about three inches square; over which is another broader iron plate, with a wide hole in its middle, to give room for the iron rod at g to move sideways to and fro, with the under plate, the hole of which exactly fits the iron rod, so that no air can es- cape at g; and there are the like plates at i, the top of the ventilator; and at f, g, are joints, where the iron rods are fixed to the midriffs, by which means both are moved up and down at the same time; and the iron rods of both sides of the ventilators being fixed to one common lever at e e. all the four midriffs are thereby alternately work- ed up and down at the same time. The valve-holes v,v, 2, 3, &c. are twenty-three inches long, and six and a half wide, covered with buckram glued on them, and move on lists of tanned sheep-skin, and fall lists of woollen cloth nailed round the valve-holes. A very large nose (fig. 5.) is fixed with iron hooks k, k, to the ventilators (, ; and this nose is divided into three spa- ces, the middle and largest of which, m m, receives all the foul air blown into it from the eight middle valves a’, 2, 2’, 3, (ſig. 4), whence it passed through a trunk º, t, sixteen inches wide, through the leads of the prison, into the open air; the top of this trunk being covered with weather-boards to keep the rain out, and the mid- dle valves hanging so as to open outwards. The two other outer spaces of the nose f f, receive the foul air, drawn into them, from the several wards, through the trunks fi, f, and passing off into the ventilators, through the eight outer valve-holes v, v, v, v, whose valves open inwards. In these outer partitions of the nose there are two holes z, z, (Jig. 5.) covered with boxes, in the bot- tom of each of which there is a large moveable valve, opening upwards, and towards the ventilators: these are made of such a weight, as to open only when all the trunks to the several wards are shut: by which the ven- tilators will always be supplied with air, so as not to en- danger the breaking of the madriffs for want of it. These ventilators, about eighteen inches deep in the clear, were fixed in an upper room of Newgate, in order to be near the windmill on the leads, which worked them. From each of the other nostrils there went a trunk, twelve inches in the clear withinside; and from these trunks, which descended through all the floors as far as a little below the ceiling of the ground rooms, lesser trunks, six inches square within, branched off, near the ceiling of every room; and extended more or less into the se. veral wards, so that when the foul air was drawn out of any ward, the fresh air might enter on the opposite side, and drive out all the foul air before it. By other contrivan. ces with sliding shutters and handles, the several wards might be ventilated at such a time, or in such a degree, as was found necessary. In the case of a prison that is built with an open area in the middle, Dr. Hales observes, that the side of the prison which is opposite to the side where the ventilators are, may be commodiously ventilated in its turn, by having a round brick air-gutter under ground; through which the foul air of those wards might easily be drawn. The windmill for working the ventilators was con- trived to move with a small degree of wind, and to ob- tain a sufficient power in a small compass. In fig. 6, c is one of the cross-trees which support the mill-post d, and the braces e, e, the cross-trees rest on the blocks a, a, and are fixed to the floor by strong iron bolts. The mill-post d, being hollow, admits the iron rod b to pass through from the crank of the iron axle-tree i; the turn- ing frame g n moves on the girdle f on which lies a broad VENTILATOR. broad circular iron plate, where is the bearing of the brass friction-wheels, whose iron axle-trees move in brass collars: the turning-frame g n carries the axle-tree i i, and the sails l, k, which are turned, so as always to face the wind, by the vane h; the frame is kept from wracking by iron braces g, r, represented by the double pricked lines. The crank z is six inches and a half long, and therefore gives a stroke of thirteen inches; but the lower end of the rod ac is fixed to the lever of the ventilator (fig. 4.) at such a distance from the cen- tre of its motion, as to raise and fall the midriffs fifteen inches. The iron axle-tree extends forward, about two feet and a half beyond the face of the sails; from the ex- tremity of which, s, eight iron braces, l, l, go to each arm, to which they are fastened by iron screw-boits, which bind them and the iron circle of pricked lines m m (fig. 7.) fast together: the diameter of this circle is six feet, and the sweeps or arms of the mill k k are se- ven feet three inches long, and they are mortised into the drum y y. A void space of about six inches breadth is left between the sails, as represented in the figure, that the direct current of the wind, as it passed through, might give a turn to the course of the wind; which other- wise, being driven obliquely from the face of the pre- ceding sail, would be forced to act on the back of the following sail, and thereby abate the force, and retard the motion of the mill. The brake-pole (jig. 6.) is n; and the single pricked line t at the end of it is the sword which is to clasp round the nave to stop the mill, by pull- ing the rope w; oo is the bottom shear-tree of the turning- frame; and f expresses the manner of screwing the brass collars of the axle-tree nearer and nearer, as they wear away. For a farther account of this machine, see Hales’s Treatise of Ventilators, part ii. 1758, p. 32, &c. A Dr. Hales farther suggests, that ventilators might be of use in making salt, in order to which there should be a stream of water to work them, or they might be work- ed by a windmill, and the brine should be in long nar- row canals, covered with boards or canvas, about a oot above the surface of the brine, in order to con- fine the stream of air, so as to make it act upon the surface of the brine, and carry off the water in vapours. Thus it might be reduced to a dry salt, with a saving of fuel, in winter and summer, or in a rainy or dry state of the air. Ventilators, he apprehends, might also serve for drying linen hung in low, long, narrow galleries, es- pecially in damp, rainy weather, and also in drying wool- len cloths, after they are fulled or dyed, and in this case they might be worked by the fuliing waier-mill. Ven- tilators might also be an useful appendage to malt and hop-kilns; in which case in would be best to have the air-trunk enter the kiln about eighteen or twenty-four inches from the ground, and just opposite to the fire; but in order to prevent the air’s blowing too strongly on the fire, a skreen of brick-work might be formed about a yard distant from the hole of the air-trunk, and a yard square; for thus the air from the ventilators would be better diffused through the whole kiln. Dr. Hales is also of opinion, that a ventilation of warm dry air from the adjoining stove, with a cautious hand, might be of service to trees and plants in greenhouses; where it is well known that an air full of the rancid va- pours, which perspire from the plants, is very unkindly to them, as well as the vapours from human bodies are to men. For fresh air is as necessary to the healthy state of vegetables as of animals. The larger kinds of ventilators used by the doctor, are ten feet long, five feet broad, and two feet high in the clear within. Those he used by way of experiment on board the Captain, a seventy-gun ship, were ten feet long, four feet three inches wide in the clear within, and thir- teen inches deep; one inch of which being occupied by the midriff, there remained a foot depth for it to rise and fall in. A ventilator of these dimensions will, through a trunk of a foot square, drive the air at the rate of twen- ty-five miles in an hour, which is double of what Ma- riotte assigns for the velocity of a pretty strong wind. But besides these large ventilators, the doctor made a smaller sort, four feet in length, sixteen inches in breadth, and thirteen inches deep, all in the ciear within. This smaller ventilator may be very useful in preserving the bread, in the bread-room of a ship, sweet and dry. Pease also, and oatmeal, which are apt to heat and spoil in casks, may be preserved, by putting them into a large bin, with a false bottom of hair-cloth laid on bars, by which fresh air may be blown upwards through them with these small ventilators. Ventilators are also of excellent use for the drying of corn, hops, and malt. See GRANARY. Gunpowder may be thoroughly dried, by blowing air up through it by means of ventilators. What advantage dry gunpowder has over that which is damp, may be seen by the experiment mentioned in the article GUNPow DER. These small ventilators will also serve to purify most easily and effectually the bad air of a ship’s well, when there is occasion for persons to go down into it, by blow- ing air through a trunk, reaching within a yard of the botton of the well, both for some time before, and during their stay there. They may be also made use of at sea to sweeten stinking water, &c. See Sea-WATER. Dr. Hales made also several trials for curing ill-tasted milk by ventilation. For these and other uses to which they might be ap- plied, as well as for a particular account of the construc- tion and disposition of ventilators in ships, hospitals, prisons, &c. and the benefits attending them, see Hales’s Treatise on Ventilators, part ii. passim; and Phil. Trans. vol. xlix. p. 332, &c. The ventilators in large ships, since the order for ven- tilating the fleet, issued by the lords of the Admiralty in 1756, are fixed in the gunner's fore-store-room, and ge- nerally a-head of the sail-room. The foul air is carried up through the decks and fore-castle, near the foremast, sometimes afore it, and sometimes abaft it, but more fre- quently on its starboard side; the lever, by which the ventilators are worked, is under the fore-castle in two- deck ships, and between the upper and middle decks in three-deckers; sometimes the lever is hung athwart- ships; in some ships afore and aft; and in others oblique. The iron rod, which communicates the motion from the lever, passes through the partners of the fore-mast, and is connected with another lever, suspended at or near the middle; in some ships over the ventilators; in others under them, when it is found necessary to fix them up to the deck. The best method to save room is to place the ventilators over one another, with their circular ends to- gether; the air trunk should be so high above deck, that the men on deck may not be incommoded by the foul air 3 I 3 which V E N V E N which blows out of it; and therefore the trunk comes through the upper deck, near and behind the foremast. Dr. Hales has calculated the following table for the sizes of ventilators, &c. adapted to ships of war. Guns. Length. || Breadth. JDepth. Trunk. # Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Sq. In. 3 ſ 100 || 10 O 4, 6 2 O 12 T. & 90 || 10 O 4, 6 1 1 O 1 l; # U 80 || 10 O 4, 6 | 8 1 1 F 7O || 10 O 4, 6 l 8 | 1 60 || 1 O O 4, 6 | 8 1 1 50 9 O 4 3 | 6 | O 40 8 6 4 O | 6 9% 2O 8 O 4 O | 6 9 The construction of twenty-gun ships being various, the sizes of ventilators for these must be left to the direc- tion of the officers of the yard. When the hold is to be ventilated from one end to the other, three doors of the gang-way into the gunner’s store room must be opened, and all the gratings on the gun-deck be covered with tarpaulins, leaving all doors open, whose rooms want ventilation, on the orlop and the steward-room hatch. But when it is thought pro- per to ventilate between decks, then the doors of the gang-way into the gunner's store-room must be shut, and the scuttle in the headmost trunk or pipe upon the gun-deck must be opened; and all the gratings of the middle deck, if the ship be a three-decker, or of the up- per deck, if it be a two-deck ship, be laid with tarpaulins; and, if possible, one of the stern-posts opened, or the af- termost hatch-way, or a scuttle on purpose, through the deck, as near the stern as possible. Hales's Treat, part ii. p. 97, &c. The method of drawing off air from ships by means of fire-pipes, which some have preferred to ventilators, was published by sir Robert Moray in the Phil. Trans. for 1665. These are metalline pipes, about two inches and a half in diameter, one of which reaches from the fire- place to the well of the ship; the other three branches go to other parts of the ship; the stoke-hole and ash-hole being closed up, the fire is supplied with air through these pipes. The defects of these, compared with venti- lators, are particularly examined by Dr. Hales, ubi supra, p. 113. See AIR-Piñe and SHIP. Mr. Erasmus King proposed to have ventilators worked by the fire-engines in mines; and Mr. Fitzgerald has suggested an improved method of doing this, which he has also illustrated by figures. See Phil. Trans. vol. I. p. 727, &c. There are various ways of ventilating the air of rooms: Mr. Tidd contrived to admit fresh air into a room, by taking out the middle upper sash-pane of glass, and fix- ing in its place a frame-box, with a round hole in its middle, about six or seven inches diameter; in which hole are fixed, behind each other, two or three small twirling windmills, with sails of very thin broad copper- plates, which spread over and cover the circular hole, so as to make the air which enters the room to spread round in thin sheets sideways; and thus not to incom- mode persons, by blowing directly upon them, as it would doif it were not hindered by the sails, which turn on the same axle-tree, each hess than the other. See AEoLUs. This method of refreshing rooms is much approved of, and used by many, not only in England, but also in other countries. For other methods of ventilating ships, buildings, rooms, &c. see AIR-Chamber, BELLows, AIR- Piñe, Centrifugal WHEEL, and WIND-Sail. VENTILLA, in Geografhy, a town of Peru, in the diocese of La Paz; 9 miles S. of La Paz. VENTININA, a term used by Paracelsus and his followers, to express the art of divining, or knowing by the winds and their courses the good or ill effects of sea- SOH].S. VENTIS Pont E, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hispania, in Betica, in the vicinity of Caracca. VENTO, MATTEo, in Biography, a Neapolitan, and disciple of Jomeli. That, however, is not discoverable in his compositions, which are easy and graceful, but have none of the solidity or originality of his master. Arriving in England in 1764, at the inauspicious termi- nation of the reign of the Mingotti and Giardini at the Opera, he had the good fortune to be engaged by Gor- don and Vincent, the new impresarii, to compose an ope- ra, in which Manzoli was to perform the principal part. The opera which he had to set was the Demofoonte of Metastasio, of which the airs are natural, graceful, and pleasing; always free from vulgarity, but never very new or learned. They were, however, in great public and private favour a considerable time. In 1765, on the second arrival of Elisi, he set Sofonis- ba, in that easy and graceful style which pleased more generally than what professors would call better music. This drama was repeated more frequently than any oth- er during the season, and the songs, printed by the elder Wilckie, were long after in favour at concerts and pub- lic places, as well as among lisping misses and dilet- tanti. In 1767, on the arrival of Guarducci, Vento set the opera of “La Conquista del Messico,” of which the airs, like those of his former operas, were elegant and pleas- ing. After this he seems to have filled up his whole time in teaching, till the arrival of Gabrielli, in 1776, when he set “La Vestale,” in his usual easy style; and when we told him that his airs were somewhat too fa- miliar for great singers, he said, “God forbid I should ever compose difficult music!” This composer’s harpsichord pieces are flimsy, and so much alike, that the invention, with respect to melo- dy and modulation of the eight sets, may be compress- ed into two or three movements. In these Sonatas, as well as in his songs, he avoids vulgar passages, and has a graceful, easy, and flowing melody; but his bases are too like Alberti's, and his trebles too like one another, eith- er to improve the hand or delight the ear. He had a great number of scholars, which ensured the expense of printing his pieces, though not their general and public favour. One or two sets of such easy compositions would, indeed, have been very useful to scholars in the first stages of their execution; but eight books, in which there is so little variety, can never be wanted, or indeed borne, but by those who think it right implicitly to receive all their master's prescriptions. His duos for voices are alike trivial and uninteresting, and the opera of “Arta- serse,” which he composed for the Harmonic Meeting, that was set up in 1771 by the friends of Guadagni and *. Giardini V E N V E N Giardini against the great Opera, under the manage- ment of Mr. Hobart, which people of the first rank were so impatient to hear in a clandestine way, as to run the risk of pains and penalties for it, when published, ap- peared to have less merit and novelty than any one of his former works. Vento died in 1777, very rich, as there was every rea- son of industry, parsimony, and avarice, to imagine; but by some strange disposition of his property and affairs, none of his effects could be found at his death; and his widow and her mother were left wholly destitute of sup- port, but from charity and the lowest menial labour. VENTOSA, SPINA. See SPINA Ventosa. VENTOSITY, in Medicine. See FLATULENCE and TYMPANITEs. VENTOSC, CAPE, in Geography, a cape on the N.E. coast of the island of Cabrera, in the Mediterranean. N. lat. 39° 10'. E. long. 2° 55'. VENTOTIENA, in Geografthy, an island in the Me- diterranean, near the coast of Naples, anciently called Pandataria; according to sir William Hamilton, composed of volcanic matter thrown up by fire. It is now, as it seems to have been for ages, used as a place of banishment for criminals of a superior rank. Hither Ju- lia, the daughter of Augustus, was sent, accompanied by her mother Scribonia. Some years the virtuous Agrippina was also confined here; and Octavia, wife of Nero, and daughter of Claudius, was at the instigation of Poppaea banished and murdered in this island; 17 miles W. of Ischia. N. lat. 40° 53'. E. long. 13° 19'. VENTRAE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy; to which the Romans sent a colony about the year 35 l from the foundation of Rome, according to Diodorus Siculus. VENTRE, in Geograft.hy, a town of Hindoostan, in the circar of Ellore; 7 miles W. of Ellore. VENTRE Insficiendo, in Law, a writ for the search of a widow that says she is with child, and thereby holds land from him that is, otherwise, next heir at law. See Jury of MATRONs. VENTREVRE, in Geography, a small island in the Atlantic, near the coast of France. N. lat. 47° 28′. W. long. 2° 59'. VENTRICULUS, in Anatomy, the stomach. See Stom ACH. VENTRICULI Cordis, the two cavities of the heart, which propel the blood into the arteries; they are the right and left, or pulmonary and aortic. See HEART. VENTRICUL1 or Ventricles of the Brain, cavities in dif- parts of its substance. They are the two lateral, right and left, called also tricomes; the 3d, 4th, and 5th, or ventricle of the septum lucidum. See BRAIN. VENTRICUL1 Ardor. See ARDoR. VENTR16 ULUs Succenturiatus, in Medicine, a name given by some to the duodenum, when very large. Med. Ess. Edinb. abr. vol. ii. p. 34. g VENTRILOQUOUS, VENTRILoquus, compound- ed of venter, belly, and loquor, I sheak, gastriloquus, or engastrimyth us, a term applied to persons who speak inwardly; having a peculiar art of forming speech, by drawing the air into the lungs; so that the voice, pro- ceeding out of the thorax, to a by-stander seems to come from some distance, or in any direction. See ENGAs- TRIMYTHUS, £ever, t * * * * * * * Such a person we had formerly in London, a Smith by profession, who had the faculty in such perfection, that he could make his voice appear, now, as if it came out of the cellar; and the next minute, as if in an upper room; and nobody present could perceive that he spoke at all. Accordingly, he has frequently called a person first up, then down stairs; then out of doors, then this way, then that; and all this without stirring from his seat, or appearing to speak at all. We cannot forbear making a few extracts on this cu- rious subject from a work, published in 1772, entitled “Le Ventriloque,” &c. or the Ventriloquist, by M. de la Chapelle, censor royal at Paris, member of the Acad- emies at Lyons and Rouen, and F.R.S. Some faint traces of the art or faculty of ventriloquism are to be found in the writings of the ancients; but many more are to be discovered there, if we adopt this author’s opinion, that the responses of many of the ancient oracles were actu- ally delivered by persons possessing this quality, so very capable of being applied to the purposes of priestcraft and delusion. The abbé de la Chapelle, having heard many surprising circumstances related concerning one M. St. Gille, a grocer at St. Germain-en-Laye, near Pa- ris, whose powers as a ventriloquist had given occasion to many singular and diverting scenes, formed the reso- lution of seeing him. Being seated with him on the op- posite side of a fire in a parlour on the ground-floor, and very attentively observing him, the abbé, after half an hour's conversation with M. St. Gille, heard himself cal- led, on a sudden, by his name and title, in a voice that seemed to come from the roof of a house at a distance; and whilst he was pointing to the house from which the voice had appeared to him to proceed, he wº, yet more surprised by hearing the words “it was not from that quarter,” apparently in the same kind of voice as before, but which now seemed to issue from under the earth, at one of the corners of the room. In short, this factitious voice played, as it were, every where about him, and seemed to proceed from any quarter, or distance, from which the operator chose to transmit it to him. To the abbé, though conscious that the voice proceeded from the mouth of M. St. Gille, he appeared absolutely mute, while he was exercising this talent; nor could any change in his countenance be discovered. He observed, however, that M. St. Gille presented only the profile of his face to him, while he was speaking as a ventrilo- quist. On another occasion, M. St. Gille sought for shelter from a storm in a neighbouring convent; and finding the community in mourning, and inquiring the cause, he was told, that one of their body much esteem- èd by them had lately died. Some of the religious at- tended him to the church, and showing him the tomb of their deceased brother, spoke very feelingly of the scan- ty honours that had been bestowed on his memory; when suddenly a voice was heard, apparently proceeding from the roof of the choir, lamenting the situation of the defunct in purgatory, and reproaching the brotherhood with their want of zeal on his account. The whole community being afterwards convened into the church, the voice from the roof renewed its lamentations and re- proaches, and the whole convent fell on their faces, and vowed a solemn reparation. Accordingly they first chaunted a de frofundis in full choir, during the inter- vals of which the ghost occasionally expressed the com- fort VENTRIL OQUOUS. fort he received from their pious exercises and ejacula- tions in his behalf. The prior, when this religious ser- vice was concluded, entered into a serious conversation with M. St. Gille, and inveighed against the absurd in- credulity of our modern sceptics, and pretended philoso- phers, on the article of ghosts and apparitions; and M. St. Gille found it difficult to convince the fathers that the Whole was a ludicrous deception. Another instance of his extraordinary powers occur- ed in presence of a large party, consisting of commissa- ries from the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and other persons of the highest quality, together with a certain lady, who was not in the secret, and who was only told, that an aerial spirit had lately established it- self in the forest of St. Germain-en-Laye, and that they were assembled to inquire into the reality of the fact. When the party sat down to dinner, the aerial spirit be - gan to address the lady with a voice that seemed to be in the air over their heads; sometimes he spoke to her from the trees around them, or from the surface of the ground at a great distance, and at other times from a considerable depth under her feet. The lady, being thus addressed for more than two hours, was firmly per- suaded that this was the voice of an aerial spirit; and it was some time before she was undeceived. Several other instances of M. St. Gille’s talents are related; and the abbe, in the course of his inquiries, was informed, that the baron de Mengen, a German noble- man, possessed this art in a very high degree. He also relates, from Brodeau, a learned critic in the sixteenth century, one of the singular feats performed by a capital ventriloquist in his time, who was called Louis Brabant, and was valet de chambre to Francis I. Our country- man Dickenson speaks of him particularly, in his tract entitled “Delphi Phoenicizantes,” printed in duodecimo at Oxford, in 1655. Louis had fallen in love with a beautiful and rich heiress, but was rejected by the pa- rents as an unsuitable match, on account of his low cir- cumstances. However, the father dying, he visits the widow; and on his first appearance in the house, she hears herself accosted in a voice resembling that of her dead husband, and which seemed to proceed from above. “Give my daughter in marriage to Louis Brabant, who is a man of great fortune, and excellent character; I now endure the inexpressible torments of purgatory, for hav- ing refused her to him; obey this admonition, and I shall be soon delivered; you will provide a worthy husband for your daughter, and procure everlasting repose to the soul of your poor husband.” The dread summons, which had no appearance of proceeding from Louis, whose countenance exhibited no change, and whose ſips were close and motionless, was instantly complied with; but the deceiver, in order to mend his finances for the accomplishment of the marriage-contract, applies to one Cornu, an old and rich banker at Lyons, who had accu- mulated immense wealth by usury and extortion, and was haunted by remorse of conscience. After some conversation on demons and spectres, the pains of purga- tory, &c. during an interval of silence, a voice is heard like that of the banker’s deceased father, complaining of his dreadful situation in purgatory, and calling upon him to rescue him from thence, by putting into the hands of Louis Brabant, then with him, a large sum for the re- demption of Christians in slavery with the Turks; threat- ening him at the same time with eternal damnation, if he did not thus expiate his own sins. Upon a second in- terview, in which his ears were saluted with the com- plaints and groans of his father, and of all his deceased relations, imploring him for the love of God, and in the name of every saint in the Calender, to have mercy on his own soul and others, Cornu obeyed the heavenly voice, and gave Louis ten thousand crowns, with which he returned to Paris, and married his mistress. The miser, being afterwards undeceived, was so mortified, that he took to his bed and died. The abbé de la Chapelle takes occasion to account for all the circumstances attending Saul’s conference with the Witch of Endor, (which see,) and endeavours to show that the speech, supposed to be addressed to Saul by the ghost of Samuel, actually proceeded from the mouth of the reputed sorceress, whom he supposes to have been a capital ventriloquist. On these grounds he explains that transaction, and reconciles all its circumstances to the re- lation given of it in Scripture; where, it is to be observed, that Saul is not said to have seen Samuel, but only to have heard a voice, which a ventriloquist can produce and transmit from any quarter, and with any degree of strength whatever. He afterwards brings many instan- ces to prove, that the ancient oracles principally sup- ported their credit, and derived their influence, from the exercise of this particular art. Many other learn- ed men have given the same account of the witch of Endor. Though she is said to have a familiar shirit, yet the Hebrew word ob, and the plural oboth, is gene- rally rendered by the LXX #yſzaré tºv 90s, ventrilo- quist. Thus it is rendered Isaiah, xix. 3. It appears ~from Plutarch (De Defect. Orac. tom. ii. p. 414.), Suidas (tom. i. ad voc. zſage av60s, p. 667.), and Josephus (Antiq. lib. xiv. p. 354.), that those who were anciently called ventriloquists had afterwards the name of Pythonesses, which implies a pretence to divination. Accordingly Python is the word used by the Vulgate, version, l Sam. xxviii. 7, 8; though not, as Voltaire seems to intimate, in the Hebrew; and, therefore, there is no ground for the conclusion which he draws, viz. that the history was not written till the Jews traded with the Greeks, after the time of Alexander, i. e. for deter- mining the date of a Hebrew book from the use of a word in a Latin translation, made many hundred years after it, and not to be found in the original. From baron de Mengen’s account of himself, and the observations made by M. de la Chapelle in his frequent examinations of M. St. Gille, it seems that the factitious voice produced by a ventriloquist does not (as the ety- mology of the word imports) proceed from the belly, but is formed in the inner parts of the mouth and throat. The art, according to this author, does not depend on a particular structure or organization of these parts, pecu- liar to a few individuals, and very rarely occurring, but may be acquired by almost any ardently desirous of attain- ing it; and determined to persevere in repeated trials. The judgments we form concerning the situation and distance of bodies, by means of the senses mutually assisting and correcting each other, seem to be entirely founded on experience (see Reid’s Inquiry into the Hu- man Mind, p. 70, edit. 2.); and we pass from the sign to the thing signified by it immediately, or at least without any intermediate steps perceptible to ourselves. Hence it follows, that if a man, though in the same room with another, can by any peculiar modification of the orsº, O VENTRILOQUOUS. of speech produce a sound, which in faintness, tone, body, and every other sensible quality, perfectly resembles a sound delivered from the roof of an opposite house, the ear will naturally, without examination, refer it to that situation and distance; the sound which the person hears being only a sign, which from infancy he has been accus- tomed, by experience, to associate with the idea of a per- son speaking from a house-top. A deception of this kind is practised with success on the organ, and other musical instruments; and there are many similar optical de- ceptions. Rolandus, in his Aglossostomographia, mentions, that if the mediastinum, which is naturally a single membrane, be divided into two parts, the speech will seem to come out of the breast; so that the by-standers will fancy the person possessed. For some facts and observations tending to explain the curious phenomena of ventriloquism by Mr. John Gough, we refer to the Manchester Memoirs, vol. v. part 2, p. 622. London, 1802, in which the ingenious author in- vestigates the method whereby men judge by the ear of the position of sonorous bodies relative to their own per- sons. This author observes in general, that a sudden change of direction in sound, our knowledge of which, as he conceives, does not depend on the impulse in the ear, but on other facts, will be perceived, when the origi- nal communication is interrupted, provided there be a sensible echo. This circumstance will be acknowledged by any person who has had occasion to walk along a val- ley, intercepted with buildings, at the time that a peel of bells was ringing in it. For the sound of the bells, instead of arriving constantly at the ears of a person so situated, in its true direction, is frequently reflected in a short time from two or three different places. These deceptions are in many cases so much diversified by the successive interpositions of fresh objects, that the steeple appears, in the hearer’s judgment, to perform the part of an expert ventriloquist on a theatre, the extent of which is adapted to its own powers, and not to those of the human voice. The similarity of effect which connects this phenomenon with ventriloquism convinced the au- thor, whenever he heard it, that what we know to be the cause in one instance is also the cause in the other, viz. that the echo reaches the ear, while the original sound is intercepted by accident in the case of the bells, but by art in the case of the ventrilo- quist. In order that the cause which gives rise to the amusing tricks of this uncommon talent may be pointed out with the greater clearness, it will be proper to de- scribe certain circumstances that take place in the act of speaking, because the skill of the ventriloquist seems to consist in a peculiar management of them. Articula- tion is the art of modifying the sound of the larynx, by the assistance of the cavity of the mouth, the tongue, teeth, and lips. The different vibrations, which are excited by the joint operation of the several organs in action, pass along the bones and cartilages, from the parts in motion to the external teguments of the head, face, neck, and chest; from which, a succession of similar vibrations is impar- ted to the contiguous air, thereby converting the superi- or moiety of the speaker’s body into an extensive seat of sound, contrary to general opinion, which supposes the passage of the voice to be confined to the opening of the lips. "when an orator addresses an audience in a lofty and spacious room, his voice is reflected from every point of the apartment, of which all present are made sensible by the confused noise that fills up every pause in his discourse; nevertheless, every one knows the true place of the speaker, because his voice is the prevailing sound at the time. But were it possible to prevent his words from reaching any one of the audience directly, what would then follow? Undoubtedly a complete case of ventriloquism would be the consequence, and the person so circumstanced would transport the orator, in his own mind, to the place of the principal echo, which would perform the part of the prevailing sound at the instant. This he would be obliged to do, because the human judgment is bound, by the dictates of experience, to regard the person as inseparable from the voice; and the deception in question would be unavoidable, being produced by the same concurrence of causes which makes a peel of bells, situated in a val- ley, seem to change place in the opinion of a traveller. It is the business of a ventriloquist to amuse his admirers with tricks resembling the foregoing delusion; and it will be readily granted, that he has a subtle sense, highly corrected by experience, to manage, on which account the judgment must be cheated as well as the ear. This can only be accomplished by making the pulses, consti- tuting his words, strike the heads of his hearers, not in the right lines that join their persons and his. He must, therefore, know how to disguise the true direction of his voice, because the artifice will give him an opportu- nity to subsitute almost any echo he chuses in the place of it. But the superior part of the human body has been already proved to form an extensive seat of sound, from every point of which the pulses are repelled, as if they diverged from a common centre. This is the reason why people, who speak in the usual way, cannot con- ceal the direction of their voices, which in reality fly off towards all p ints at the same instant. The veſitriloquist, therefore, by some means or other, acquires the difficult habit of contracting the field of sound within the compass of his lips, which enables him to confine the real path of his voice to narrow limits. For he, who is master of . the art, has nothing to do but to place his mouth oblique- ly to the company; and to dart his words, if the expres- sion may be used, against an opposing object, whence they will be reflected immediately, so as to strike the ears of the audience from an unexpected quarter, in con- sequence of which the reflector will appear to be the speaker. Nature seems to fix no bounds to this kind of deception, only care must be taken not to let the path of the direct pulses pass too near the head of the person who is to be played upon; for, if a line, joining the ex- hibitor's mouth and the reflecting body, approach one of his ears too nearly, the divergency of the pulses will make him perceive the voice itself, instead of the rever- berated sound. The author has given the following narrative of a ven- triloquist, whom he attended in the exercise of his art. His audience was arranged in two opposite lines, corre- sponding to the two sides of a long narrow room. The benches on which they were seated reached from one end of the place to the middle of it, the other part re- maining unoccupied. The feats exhibited by him were the three following. First: he made his voice come from behind his audience, but it never seemed to pro- ceed from any part of the wall, near the heads of the people present; on the contrary, it was always heard re- sembling the voice of a child, who seemed to be under the V E. N V E N the benches. He stood during the time of speaking in a stooping posture, having his mouth turned towards the place from which the sound issued; so that the line, join- ing his lips and the reflecting object, did not approach the ears of the company. Second: advancing into the vacant part of the room, and turning his back to the au- dience, he made a variety of noises, that seemed to pro- ceed from an open cupboard which stood directly before him, at the distance of two or three yards. Third: he placed an inverted glass cup on the hands of his hearer and then imitated the cries of a child confined in it. His method of doing it was this; the upper part of the hearer’s arm laid close along his side; then the part below the el- bow was kept in a horizontal position, with the hand turn- ed downwards, which was done by the operator himself. After taking these preparatory steps, the man bent his body forwards in a situation which presented the profile of his face nearly to the front of his hearer, whilst his mouth pointed to the cup; in which posture he copied the voice of a confined child so completely, that three positions of the glass were easily distinguished by as many different tones, viz. when he pressed the mouth of the cup close against the palm, when one edge of it was ele- vated, and when the vessel was held near the hand, but did not touch it. The second and third instances of ven- triloquism afford strong proofs, that this delusive talent is nothing more than the art of substituting an echo for the primary sound; for, besides the change perceivable in the direction of the voice, it was found to be blended with a variety of secondary sounds; such as we know by experience are produced, as often as a noise of any kind issues from a cavity. The method of preventing the vibration of the vocal organs from reaching the external teguments is still wanting, as our author acknowledges, to complete his theory of ventriloquism; and this, he presumes, can only be supplied by an adept in the art. VENTRY, in Geograft hy, a small town of the county of Kerry, Ireland, situated on a harbour to which it gives name, on the Atlantic ocean. It is 4% miles W. of Dingle. VENTURINE, or ADVENTURINE, is sometimes used for the finest and slenderest gold wire, used by embroi- derers, &c. When reduced into powder, as fine as it can be clip- ped, or filed, this powder may be strewed on the first layer of pure warnish, made use of in japanning, after the warnish is dry, in order to lay any colour over it. VENUE, or VENEw, in Law, a neighbouring or near place. Locus quem vicini habitant. - Thus we say, twelve of the assizes ought to be of the same venue where the demand is made. In transitory actions, the courts will very often change the venue, or county, in which the cause is to be tried. The statute 6 Ric. II. cap. 2. having ordered all writs to be laid in their proper counties, this, as the judges con- ceived, empowered them to change the venue, if requir- ed, and not to insist rigidly on abating the writ, which practice began in the reign of James I.; and this power is discretionally exercised, so as not to cause, but pre- vent a defect of justice. Therefore the court will not change the venue to any of the four northern counties, previous to the spring circuit; because there the assizes are holden only once a year, at the time of the summer circuit. And it will sometimes remove the venue from the properjurisdiction, (especially of the narrow and li- mited kind,) upon a suggestion, duly supported, that a fair and impartial trial cannot be had therein. Blackst. Comm, book iii. VENUS, in Astronomy, one of the inferior planets; denoted by the character Q. Venus is easily distinguished by her brightness and whiteness, which exceeds that of all the other planets; and which is so considerable, that, in a dusky place, she projects a sensible shadow. Her place is between the earth and Mercury. She constantly attends the sun, and never departs from him above 47° 48' or 44° 57’. If S be the sun (Plate XXI. Astronomy, fig. 8.), E the earth, V Ve- nus or Mercury, and EV a tangent to the orbit of the planet, then will the angle SEV be the greatest elonga- tion of the planet from the sun; which angle, if the orbits were circles having the sun in their centre, would be found by saying, ES: SV :: rad.: sin. SEV. But the orbits are not circular, in consequence of which the angle EVS will not be a right angle, unless the greatest elongation happens when the planet is at one of its apsides. The angle SEV is also subject to an alteration from the va- riation of SE and SV. The greatest angle SEV hap- pens, when the planet is in its aphelion, and the earth in its perigee; and the least angle SEV, when the planet is in its perihelion, and the earth in its apogee. M. de la Lande has calculated these greatest elongations, and finds them 47° 48' and 44° 57" for Venus, and 28° 20' and 17° 36' for Mercury. If we take the mean of the greatest elongations of Venus, which is 46° 22'.5, it gives the angle VSE = 43° 37'.5; and as the difference of the daily mean motions of Venus and the earth about the sun is 37', we have 37' : 43° 37'.5 :: 1 day : 70.7 days, the time that would elapse between the greatest elongations and the inferior conjunction, if the motions had been uniform, which will not vary much from the true time. See ELONGATION. To find the fiosition of a planet when stationary. Let S be the sun (ſig. 9.), E the earth, P the contemporary position of the planet, Xy the sphere of the fixed stars, to which we refer the motions of the planets; let EF, PQ, be two indefinitely small arcs described in the same time, and let EP, FQ, produced, meet at L; then it is manifest, that whilst the earth moves from E to F, the planet appears stationary at L; and on account of the immense distance of the fixed stars, EPL, FOL may be considered as parallel. Draw SE, SFw, SVſ), and SQ; then, as EP and FQ are parallel, the angle QFS — PES = PwS — PES = ESF, and SPw — SQF = SvF – SQF = PSQ, that is, the contemporary variations of the angles E and P are as ESF : PSQ, the contempora- ry variations of the angular velocities of the earth and planet, or, (because the angular velocities are inversely as the periodic times, or inversely in the sesquiplicate ratio of the distances) as SP3, SE, or (if SP: SE :: a . 3 3 1) as a” : 12. But sin. SEP : sin. SPE being as SP : SE, or a . 1, the contemporary variations of these an- gles will be as their tangents. Hence, if a. and y be the sines of the angles SEP and SPE, we have a y :: a = 1, Jº !/ and v+: 1, whence 2' = a2 (Z =====TT and * = VHF the sine of the planet's elongation from the Sun, when sta- tionary, y Ez. V E N U. S. à Ez. If P be the earth, and E V chus ; and we take the distances of the earth and Venus to be 100000 and 72333, we find a = 0.48264 the sine of 28° 5'1' 5", the elongation of Venus when stationary, upon the suppo- sition of circular orbits. For excentric orbits, the points will depend upon the position of the apsides and places of the bodies at the time. We may, however, get a very near approxima- tion thus. Find the time when the planet would be sta- tionary, if the orbits were circular, and counpute for several days, about that time, the geocentric place of the planet, so that you get two days, on one of which the planet was direct, and on the other retrograde, in which interval it must have been stationary, and the point of time when this happened may be determined by To find the time when a planet is stationary, we must know the time of its opposition, or inferior conjunction. Let m and n be the daily angular velocities of the earth and planet about the sun, and v the angle PS E, when the planet is stationary; then m — n, or n — m, is the daily variation of the angle at the sun between the earth and planet, according as it is a superior or inferior planet ; 1 day : Ol' hence, m — n, or n - ºn, ; v :: 7?? - m’ , the time from opposition or conjunction to the 77 - 171. stationary points both before and after. Hence, the planet must be stationary twice every synodic revolution. Eac. Let P be the earth, E Venus; then the angle S P E = 20° 5 l'.5; therefore, P S E = 13°; aiso, m – m = 37' ; hence, 37' : 13° :: 1 day : 21 days, the time between the inferior conjunction and stationary po- sitions. If the elongation be observed when stationary, we may find the distance of the planet from the sun, compared with the earth’s distance, supposed to be unity, For ac2 = a2 .. h 2 2:3 ag-L a FI’ ence, a + (if t = the tangent of the angle whose sine is ar) a” — tº £2 # tº + t 1 + +, upon the supposition of circular orbits. A superior planet is retrograde in opposition, and an inferior planet is retrograde in its inferior conjunction ; for let E be the earth (fig. 10.), P a superior planet in opposition; then, as the velocities are as the inverse square roots of the radii of the orbits, the superior planet moves slowest; hence, if E F, P Q, be two indefinitely small contemporary arcs, P. Q is less than E F, and on account of the immense distance of the sphere y Z of the fixed stars, F Q must cut EP in some point x be- tween P and m, consequently the planet appears retro- grade from m to n. If P be the earth, and E an inferior planet in inferior conjunction, it will appear retrograde from v to w. These retrograde motions must necessa. rily continue till the planets become stationary. Hence, a superior planet appears retrograde from its stationary point before opposition to its stationary point after ; and an inferior planet, from its stationary point before infe- rior conjunction to its stationary point after. When Venus appears west of the sun, that is, from her inferior conjunction to her superior, she rises before Vol. XXXVIII. 3:2 X a - - acº — 2. 2 – 1 - cº- a = t”; consequently, a him, and is called Phosfi/horus, or Lucifer, or the Åfºrms. ing star ; and when she appears east of the sun, that is, from her superior conjunction to her interior, she sets after him, or shines in the evening after he sets, and is called Hesſierus, or Vesſer, or the Evening star : being each in its turn for two hundred and ninety days, To delineate the appearance of a planet at any time. Let S be the sun (ſig. 11.), E the earth, V Venus, for example ; a V b the plane of illumination perpendicular to S V, c V d the plane of vision perpendicular to E V, and draw a v perpendicular to c d ; then ca is the breadth of the visible illuminated part, which is projected by the eye into c v, the versed sine of C va, or SV Z, for SV c is the complement of each. Now the circle terminating the illuminated part of the planet, being seen obliquely, appears to be an ellipse; the the projected hemisphere of Venus next to the earth, m n, c d, two diameters perpendicular to each other, and we take c v = the versed sine of S V Z, and describe the ellipse m v m, then c v is the axis minor, and ºn c m v m will represent the visible enlightened part, as it appears at the earth; and from the property of the ellipse, this area varies as c v. Hence, the visible enlightened part : the whole disc :: the versed sine of S V Z: diameter. Hence, Mercury and Venus will have the same phases from their inferior to their superior conjunction, as the moon has from the new to the full ; and the same from the superior to the inferior conjunction, as the moon has from the full to the new. Mars will appear gibbous in quadratures, as the angle S V Z will then differ con- siderably from the two right angles, and consequently the versed sine will sensibly differ from the diameter. For Jupiter, Saturn, and the Georgian, the angie S.V. Z. never differs enough from two right angles to make those planets appear gibbous, so that they always appear full- orbed. r Dr. Halley proposed the following problem: Tô find the position of Venus when brightest, supposing its orbit, and that of the earth, to be circles, having the sun in their centre. Draw S r perpendicular to E V Z, and put a = S E, b = S V, a = E V, y = V r ; then b – y is the versed sine of the angle SV Z, which versed sine varies as the illuminated part; and as the intensity of light varies inversely as the square of its distance, the quantity of light • * * * ** therefore, if c in d m represent 6 — ? b 1/ * = ** – but received at the earth varies as ... ; 3' 3:2 322 2 ar a” = 52 + x2 + 2 x 1) : hence, y = ; sub- stitute this for 9, and we get the quantity of light to be as 0 a” — 0° - acº 2 b x – a2 + 52 + x2 2C2 dºº- 2 acº 2 2-3 mum ; put the fluxion = 0, and we get r = W3 as -H 52 — 26. Now, if a = 1, b = .72333, as in Dr. Halley's tables, then r = .43036 ; hence, the angle E S V = 22° 21', but the angle E S V, at the time of the planet's greatest elongation, is 43°40'; hence, Venus is brightest between its inferior conjunction and its greatest elonga- tion ; also, the angle S E V = 39° 44', the elongation of Venus from the sun at the same time, and 2 SV Z = V S E + V E S = 62° 5', the versed sine of which is 0.53, radius being unity; hence, the visible enlightened part : whole disk :: 0.53 : 2; Venus, therefore, appears a little more than one-fourth illuminated, and answers to the appearance of the moon when five days old. Her 3 K diameter * * a maxi- V E N U. S. 49 diameter here is about 39”, and therefore the enlighten- ed part is about 10’’.25. At this time, Venus is bright enough to cast a shadow at night. This situation hap- pens about 36 days before and after its interior conjunc- tion; for, supposing Venus to be in conjunction with the sun, and when seen from the sun to depart from the earth at the rate of 37' in 1 day, we have 37' : 22° 21' :: 1 day : 36 days nearly, the time from conjunction till Venus is brightest. If we apply this to Mercury, 5 = .3171, and ar = 1.00058 ; hence, the angle E S V = 78° 553'; but the same angle, at the time of the planet’s greatest elonga- tion is 67° 133". Hence, Mercury is brightest between its greatest elongation and superior conjunction. Also, the angle S E V = 22° 183', the elongation of Mercury at that time. - When Venus is brightest, and at the same time is at its greatest north latitude, it can then be seen with the naked eye at any time of the day, when it is above the horizon; for when its north latitude is the greatest, it rises highest above the horizon, and therefore is more easily seen, the rays of light having to come through a less part of the atmosphere, the higher the body is. This happens once in about eight years, Venus and the earth returning to the same parts of their orbits after that interval of time. Vince’s Elements of Astronomy. The diameter of Venus is to that of the earth as 114, to 10 nearly, her apparent diameter equal to 59', and real diameter equal to 9330 miles; her apparent diame- ter, when reduced to the mean distance of the earth, is, according to Dr. Herschel, 18".79, and her real diame- ter a little larger than that of the earth (see PLANET) : her horizontal parallax about 30’; her distance from the sun is to that of the earth from the sun as 72333 to 100000; and her real distance is 68,891,486 miles; her excentricity is Tºrgths of her mean distance from the sun (see Excentricity); the inclination of her orbit to the plane of the ecliptic 3° 23' 35"; her periodical course round the sun is performed in two hundred and twenty-four days seventeen hours nearly ; and her motion round her own axis in twenty-three hours, or according to the observations of Bianchini, in twenty-four days eight hours: according to Dr. Herschel, uncertain, but not so slow as twenty-four days. See DIAMETER, Dis- TANCE, EXCENTRICITY, No DE, PARALLAx, and PE- RIoD. See also PLANETS, PLANETARIUM, and Solar SYSTEM. ^ - Venus, when viewed through a telescope is rarely seen to shine with a full face, but has phases just like those of the moon; being now gibbous, now horned, &c. and her illumined part is constantly turned towards the sun, i. e. it looks towards the east, when Phosphorus; and towards the west, when Hesſierus. These different phases of Venus were first observed by Galileo, who thus fulfilled the prediction of Coperni- cus: for when this excellent astronomer revived the ancient Pythagorean system, asserting that the earth and planets moved round the sun, it was objected that in such a case the phases of Venus should resemble those of the moon; to which Copernicus replied, that some time or other that resemblance would be found out. Galileo sent an account of the first discovery of these phases in a letter, written from Florence in 1611, to William de Medici, the duke of Tuscany’s ambassador at Prague ; desiriºg him to communicate it to Kepler. The let- ter is extant in the preface to Kepler’s Dioptrics, # and a translation of it may be seen in Smith's Optics, p. 416. Having recited the observations which he had made, he adds, “we have hence the most certain, sensible de- cision and demonstration of two grand questions, which to this day have been doubtful and disputed among the greatest masters of reason in the world. One is, that the planets in their own nature are opaque bodies, attrib- uting to Mercury what we have seen in Venus: and the other is, that Venus necessarily moves round the sun, as also Mercury, and the other planets; a thing well be- lieved indeed by Pythagoras, Copernicus, Kepler, and myself, but never yet proved, as now, by ocular inspec- ticſ, upon Venus.” He closes with explaining the ci- pher that had been sent, in the following words: “ Haec immatura à me frustra leguntur, o, y : i. e. Cynthiae fig- uras a mulatur mater annorum, or, Venus imitates the phases of the moon.” M. Maraldi made several observations on Venus in 1729, but could perceive no spot; and, therefore, those observed by Bianchini must either have disappeared, or the air at Paris was not so clear as at Rome. Martin Folkes, esq. formerly president of the Royal Society, spoke of Bianchini with respect, as too accurate to make any mistakes in astronomical observations, and too honest to publish any thing that was not exactly agreeable to truth. See Wature of the PLANETs. Sometimes Venus is seen in the disk of the sun in form of a dark round spot. This happens when the earth is about her nodes at the time of her inferior con- junction. These appearances, called transits, happen but seldom. We have had two in the last century, viz. one in June 176 l, and another in June 1769. The next will not occur before the year 1874. See PARALLAx. The effect of the parallax being determined, for com- puting which Dr. Maskelyne proposed a new method in relation to the transit of Venus in 1769, the transit af- fords a very ready method of finding the difference of the longitudes of two places where the same observations are made. For compute the effect of parallax in time, and reduce the observations at each place to the time, if seen from the centre of the earth, and the difference of the times is the difference of the longitudes. From the mean of sixty-three results from the transits of Mercury, Mr. Short found the difference of the meridians of Green- wich and Paris to be 9' 15"; and from the transit of Venus in 1761, to be 9' 10" in time. Except such transits as these, Venus exhibits the same appearances to us regularly every eight years; her conjunctions, elongations, and times of rising and setting, being very nearly the same, on the same days, as before. In 1672 and 1686, Cassini, with a telescope of 34 feet, thought he saw a satellite moving round this planet, and distant from it about three-fifths of Venus’s diame- ter. It had the same phases as Venus, but without any well-defined form ; and its diameter scarcely exceeded one-fourth of that of Venus. Dr. Gregory (Ast. lib. vi. prop. 3.) thinks it more than probable that this was a satellite; and supposes the reason why it is not usually seen, to be the unfitness of its surface to reflect the rays of the sun’s light; as is the case of the spots in the moon: of which, if the whole disk of the moon were composed, he thinks, that planet could not be seen as far as to Ve- I) llS. Mr. Short, in 1740, with a reflecting telescope of 16# inches V E N U S. inches focus, perceived a small star near Venus; with another telescope of the sarºe focus, magnifying fifty or sixty times, and fitted with a mucrometer, he found its distance from Venus about 10°: with a magnifying pow- er of 240, he observed the star assume the same phases with Venus; its diameter seemed to be about onc third, or somewhat less, of the diameter of Venus; its light not so bright and vivid, but exceeding sharp and well defit,ed. He viewed it for the space of an hour, but never had the good fortune to see it aft cr the first morn- ing. Phil. Trans. No 459. p. 646, or Martyn's Abr. vol. viii. p. 208. M. Montaigne, of Limoges in France, we are told in the Encyclopédie, art. Venus, preparing for observing the transit of 1761, discovered in the preceding May a small star about the distance of 20' from Venus, and its diameter was about one-fourth of the planet. He made other observations for several days, which were communicated to M. Baudouin, who read two memoirs on the subject to the Royal Academy of Sciences, in which he endeavoured to state the elements of the orbit of this satellite ; but it is to be considered, that Mon- taigne’s telescope had no micrometer, and that his dis- tances must be very vague and uncertain. If Venus has a satellite, it must, according to Dr. Herschel, be less in appearance than a star of the eighth or ninth mag- nitude. Phil. Trans. for 1795. After all, it must be acknowledged, that Venus may have a satellite, though it is difficult for us to see it. Its enlightened side can never be fully turned towards us, but when Venus is beyond the sun; in which case, Ve- nus appears little bigger than an ordinary star, and there- fore, her satellite may be too small to be perceived at such a distance. When she is between us and the sun, her full moon has her dark side turned towards us; and when Venus is at her greatest elongation, we have but one half of the enlightened side of her full moon towards us, and even then it may be too far distant to be seen by us. But it was presumed, that the two transits of 176 : and 1769, would afford opportunity for determining this point ; and yet we find that, although many observers directed their attention to this object, no satellite was seen in the sun’s disk; and, therefore, it is reasonable to conclude, that Venus has no satellite. The phenomena of Venus evidently show the falsity of the Ptolemaic system : for that system supposes, that Venus's orb, or heaven, incloses the earth, passing be- tween the sun and Mercury. And yet all our observa- tions agree, that Venus is sometimes on this side of the sun, and sometimes on the other; nor did ever any body see the earth between Venus and the sun; which yet must frequently happen, if Venus revolved round the earth in a heaven below the sun. } Dr. Desaguliers contrived a planetarium to represent the phenomena of Venus, according to the discoveries of Bianchini : as did also Mr. Ferguson an orrery for the same purpose. The principal properties of these ma- chines are the following: that the angle of the axis of the globe representing Venus makes, with the ecliptic, an angle of 15°; that the tropics are 75° from the equa- tor; that the tropics are 15° from the equator; that the plane of a solar horizon for the longest day cuts the plane of the equator at an angle of 15°; that the sun’s greatest declination is 75°; that there are but 93 days in every revolution round the sun; and that to bring the days to an even reckoning, every fourth year must be a leap year, which, taking in the four quarters of a revo- lution, will make the leap year in Venus consist of ten of her days, equal to 74 months of our time; and that the long day for the north pole will contain 4; apparent diurnal revolutions of the sun. For a detail and idus- tration of the phenomena resulting from these proper- ties, see Desaguliers’s Exp. Phil. vol. ii. p. 552, &c. Phil. Trans, vol. xliv. p. 127, &c. &c. Ferguson’s-As- tron. p. 8, &c. For the history and account of various instruments of this kind, see ORRERY and PLANETARIUM. 3 k 2 V E N U. S. TABLE I.— Epochs of the Mean Longitude of Venus. Years. Mean. Long. Aphelion. Node. S. D. M. S. S. D. M. S. jS D. M. S. Nat. J. C. C. 5 28 29 1 O 9 14 8 12|l 29 22 9 1 O( ; O 1 7 42 1 O 9 l 5 39 12|2 O 13 49 1 40C 2 27 3 l l () l O 12 12|2 l 1 2 5 29 1 50ſ | 9 || 6 44 O|| 1 O 4, 33 1212 12 H 7 9| B. N. s. 1600 3 19 55 52|10 5 54 1212 13 8 48 C. 17OOH ! O 7 32 45] 1 O 7 || 5 || 2 || 2 || 4 O 28 B. 1740 1 0 1 5 I S 58 l O 7 46 36|2 14, 21 8 B. 176C 4 I 9 4 34|l O 8 3 482 1 4 3 l 28 B. 1780. IO 22 55 10 l O 8 20 ( 2 1 4 4 I 48 1786|| 7 23 1 6 16|| 1 O 8 23 52|2 l 4 44, 54 1787; 3 8 3 4 6 O 8 25 4, 2 1 4 45 25 B. 1788/10 24 27 24llo 8 26 29|2 14 45 56 1789; 6 9 l 4, 54|| O 8 27 17| 2 || 4 46 27 1 79 || 1 24, 2 24 O 8 28 612 l 4, 46 58 179 9 8 49 54|| 0 8 28 5 |2 14, 47 29 B. 179° 4 2.5 l 3 3 l 1 O 8 29 43|2 14 48 () 1793; O 1 O 1 || 1 O 8 3O 39|2 l 4 48 3 ] 1794 7 24, 48 3 || 1 O 8 3 || 2 |2 l 4, 49 2 1795| 3 9 36 l l l O 8 32 9| 2 || 4 49 33 B. 1796|| 1 O 25 59 38|| 1Q 8 S2 582 1 4 50 4 1797; 6 : O 47 8|1 O 9 33 46|| 2 | 4 50 35 1798 l 25 34 38|l O 8 34 35}2 14, 5 I 6 1799| 9 || O 22 8] 1 O 8 35 23| 7 || 4 51 37 C. 1804, 4, 25 9 38; 1 O 8 36 || 2 |2 4, 52 8 180 l O 9 57 8 O 8 37 2 l 4, 52 39 18' 2. 7 24 44, 38|l O 8 37 4912 l 4, 53 1C 18; 3| 3 9 32 7|1 ) 8 38 38-2 1 4 53 4. ' B. 18 4|| O 25 55 45|l O 8 39 26||2 l 4, 5 4 1 . 18° 5' 6 1 O 43 15||1 O 8 40 l 512 14 54, 43 1806; 1 2 5 30 45|l O 8 4 l 312 14, 55 4 1807| 9 || O 18 l 5|l Ó 8 41 5°2 l 4, 55 45 B. 1808; 4, 26 41 52'll O 8 42 4ſ 12 14 56 : 1 St & O l l 29 22: 1 () 8 4 3 2 9|2 4, 56 47 18 O} 7 26 16 52] 1 O 8 44, 1812 l 4, 57 18 lsº 3 l l 4, 22|| 0 8 45 612 l 4 57 49 B. 18 l ‘’. I O 27 27 59|| || O 8 45 5512 14 58 20 18 13ſ 6 12 15 2011 O 8 46 4.342 1.4 58 51 18 14|| 1 27 2 59, O 8 47 32|2 4 59 22 18 15| 9 || 1 50 20 ! O 8 48 2 |2 14, 59 53 B. 1816, 4, 28 I 4 7| O 8 49 O 2 15 O 24 18 17 O 3 l 36 ) () 8 49 58|| > || 5 O 55 1818 7 27 49 6"1 0 8 50 46/2 15 1 26 1819; 3 ] 2 S6 3.6; O 8 5 35|2 l 5 1 57 B. 182 ) 1 O 2 Q ) 8 52 24 iſ 15 2 * x- —r TABLE II.-Mean Motion of Venus for Years. Years. Mot. in Long. Mot. Aph.|Mot. Node. S. D. M. S. D. M. S. D. M. S. 1| 7 14 47 30| O O 49| O O 31 2: 2 29 3.5 Of O I 37| O l 2H S| 10 14 22 3C O 2 26 O 1 33 B. 4|| 6 O 46 7| O 3 14 O 2 4 5 l l 5 33 37| O 4 3| O 2 35 6|| 9 O 21 7| O 4, 52 O 3 6 7| 4 || 5 8 37| O 5 40] O 3 37 B. 8 l 32 4 O 6 29 O 4, 8 9| 7 || 6 19 44; 0 7 | 7 || 0 4 39 1 (\| 3 || 7 || 4 || O 8 6. O 5 10 1 || || C 15 54 44; 0 8 55} 0 5 4 1 B. I 6 2 1.8 22 O 9 43| O 6 12 § 1 17 5 5 || O l O 32 O 6 43 1 A ) l 53 2 1 0 1 1 20 O 7 14 | | | | 6 40 5 || 0 || 2 9| O 7 45 B. 1 ( , J 3 4, 29 O 1 2 58 O 8 16 | 7 || 7 || 7 5.1 5 9 O 13 46|| 0 8 47 1 || 3 2 39 28 O 1 4 35 | O 9 | 8 | C , ) l 7 26 58 O 15 23 () 9 49 ~ 2 || 6 3 50 36|| 0 || 6 || 2 || 0 1 0 20 4 O 7 41 12| 0 32 24 O 20 40 6 || 6 1 1 3 l 48 O 48 36! O 31 () 8 || 0 || 5 22 24 l 4, 48} O 41 20 106 || 6 | 9 || 3 (* 1 21 Oi O 51 49 2 C. l 8 26 (, ; 2 4.2 OH ! 43 20 3( 7 27 39 O. 4 3 O 2 35 © 4O(|| 2 16 52 O 5 24 O} 3 26 4() § 50, 9 6 5 ( 6 4.5 ( || 4 || 8 20 E | 6OO! 3 25 l 8 C 8 6 O 5 1 O (, :*: § - - 2 7O, 1 O 1 4 31 O 9 27 O} 6 1 4t) gº 80 5 3 44 Ol 1 O 48 C 6 53 20 9 O || 1 22 5’ Cl 12 9 O| 7 45 C. 1 OO! | 6 || 2 || O O. 1 3 30 O 8 36 4() 1 10C l 1 23 C 14 51 O 9 28 20 12C (Y| 7 20 36 1 6 12 ( ; 10 20 O 13’)(); 2 9 49 O} 1 7 33 Öl 1 1 1 1 4 . 1 4 || 8 29 2 (, 18 54, OH 1 2 3 2 | 1 500|| 3 || 8 15 O| 20 ! 5 | 1 2 55 ( S- 2)(\O| 24, 20 Of 27 O O. 17 13 20 V E N U S. TABLE III.—Mean Motion of Venus for Days. In the Months January a d February of a Bissextile Year, subtract 1 from the given Day of the Month. F| t; s º ‘: JANUARY. g | g | 3 || FEBRUARY. § ; ‘; MARCH. 5 # S- 2 3 2, :* | * | 9. :* º * 2. : # | 3 | # # | 3 || : # £ -5 F | F j e E. te s 3. Mot. Long. º # Mot. Long. * || 3 || Mot. Long. S. D. M. S. SEC, SEC. S. D. Mi. S S F. C. SEC. i S. D M. S SEC. SEC l O 1 3 8 O O 1 || 1 2 1 i 6 || 0 4. 3 i 3 6 7 48 8 5 2 O 3 12 l 6 O O 2 1 22 52 1.8 4. 3 3 || 3 || 43 53 8 3 O 4 48 23 1 O 3 l 24, 28 25 5 3 3 3 9 20 4 8 5 4. O 6 24, 3 l l O 4. l 26 4 33 5 3 4. 3 1 O 56 12 8 || 5 5 O 8 O 39 I O 5 l 27 40 4 l 5 3 5 3 12 32 20 9 5 6 O 9 36 47 I O 6 l 29 16 49 5 3 6 3 14 8. 27 9 6 7 O 1 1 12 55 l l 7 2 O 52 57 5 3 7 3 15 44, 35 9 6 8 O 1 2 49 2 1 l 8 2 2 29 4 5 3 8 3 17 20 43 9 6 9 O 14, 25 l O 1 l 9 2 4 5 12 5 3 9 3 18 56 5 I 9 || 6 1 O O 16 l l 8 I l 1 O 2 5 4 1 20 5 3 1 O 3 20 32 59 9 6 | I O 1 7 37 26 2 I 1 I 2 7 17 28 6 4. l 1 3 22 9 7 9 6 12 O 19 13 34 2 1 I 2 2 8 53 36 6 4. 12 3 23 45 14 9 6 1 3 O 2() 49 4 1 2 l 3 2 l O 29 43 6 4. 13 3 2 5 21 22 1 () 6 l 4 O 22 25 49 2 1 14 2 1 2 5 51 6 4. 14 3 26 57 30 1 () || 6 ! 5 O 24, 1 57 2 l 15 2 13 41 59 6 4. 15 3 28 33 38 1 O 6 i 16 O 25 38 5 2 i 16 2 15 18 7 6 4. 16 4 O 9 46 1 O 6 17 O 27 14 l 3 2 l ! 7 2 l 6 5 4 15 6 || 4 17 4 l 45 53 1 O || 3 + | 8 O 28 50 2 1 3 2 | 8 2 18 3O 23 7 4. l 8 4 3 22 l l{} 7 19 1 O 26 28 3 2 19 2 20 6 30 7 4. 19 4 4 58 9 I () 7 2U) 1 2 2 36 3 2 2O 2 21 42 38 7 4. 2O 4, 6 34, 17 1 1 7 2 l 1 3 38 44 3 2 2 1 2 23 18 46 7 4. 2 1 4, 8 1 O 25 1 I 7 22 1 5 14, 52 3 2 22 2 24, 54 54 7 4. 22 4, 9 46 32 | 1 7 23 l 6 5 l O 3 2 23 2 26 3 l 2 7 5 23 4 l l 22 40 1 1 7 24 | 8 27 7 3 2 24 2 28 7 9 7 5 24 4 12 58 48 1 1 7 25 1 1 0 3 15 3 2 25 2 29 43 | 7 7 5 25 4, 14 34 56 I l 7 26 | | | 3 Q 23 3 2 26 3 l l 9 25 8 5 26 4, 1 6 1 1 4 1 1 7 27 1 | 3 || 5 3 4. 2 27 3 2 55 33 8 5 27 4, 17 47 l. 1 1 1 7 2 & 1 1 4 5 1 3 4 28 3 4 3 || 4 | 8 5 28- 4 is 23 19 | 2 || 7 ‘2G | 1 || 6 27 46 || 4 || 2 ..] 29 || 4 20 59 27 | 12 7 } l 18 3 54. 4. 3 * || 3 , 4 22 35 3.5 12 8 3 | I 19 40 2 4. 3 3 I 4 24 l l 43 | | 2 8 V E N U. S. TABLE III.-continued. ºr Sº # # 3. $- p- P $– N g *- ‘j APRIL. # #| || MAY. # # ºf U NE 2. : C ſºr ſt 9. wº rt 2. g -- --> .. —w * º- }-2 : * | 3 | # # | 3 || 3: # 3 3. 5° a E. º a E. tº § 5. Mot. Long. ſe F Mot. Long # Mot. Long. - S. D. M. S. SEC. SEc. S. De M. S. SE. C. S.E. C. S. D. M. S. S.E. C. SEC. } 4, 25 47 50 I 2 8 l 6 13 51 4.5 | 6 || 1 () l 8 3 3 l 47 2() || || 3 2 4, 27 23 58 | 2 8 2 6 15 27 52 16 || 1 O 2 8 5 7 54, 2O 3 3 4, 29 O 6 12 8 3 6 || 7 4, O 16 1 () 3 8 6 44, 2 2J 3 4. 5 O 36 l 4 13 8 4. 6 18 40 8 | 6 1 1 4. 8 8 20 1 O 2 | 3 5 5 2 1 2 22 13 8 5 6 20 || 6 || 6 17 1 1 5 8 9 56 18 2 1 6 5 3 48 30 | 3 8 6 6 2.1 5.2 24 17 | 1 6 8 1 || 32 26 2 1 7 5 5 24, 37 13 8 7 6 23 28 3 17 | 1 7 8 13 8 33 2 1 3 8 5 7 O 45 1 3 8 8 6 25 4 39 17 1 | 8 8 l 4 44, 4 l 21 l 3 9 5 8 36 53 3 .8 9 6 26 40 47 17 | | 9 8 l 6 20 49 2 1 ! 4 1 O 5 10 l 3 1 13 8 l O 6 28 l 6 55 17 || || 1 || 1 , ) 8 l 7 56 57 2 l l ; 4 1 l 5 l l 49 9 13 9 | 1 6 29 53 3 17 | 1 11 8 19 33 5 22 14 12 5 l 3 25 16 14 9 12 7 l 29 10 I 8 11 l 2 8 2 1 9 12 22 | 4 13 5 15 l 24 | 4 9 1 3 7 3 5 18 | 8 1 I 13 8 22 45 20 22 14 14 5 6 37 32 14 9 14 7 * 4 4 1 26 | 8 1 1 l 4 8 24 2 1 28 22 l 4 1 5 5 18 13 40 14 9 15 7 6 17 34 | 8 1 | 15 8 25 57 36 22 14 16 5 19 49 48 14 9 l 6 7 7 53 42 18 12 l 6 9 27 33 44 22 14 17 5 2 1 25 55 1 4 9 17 7 9 2 9 50 | 8 12 17 8 29 9 5 1 2 l 4 18 .5 23 2 3 1 4 9 || || 8 7 II 5 57 | 8 || 12 18 9 O 45 59 22 l 4 19 5 24, 38 l 1 14 9 19 7 12 42 5 18 12 19 9 2 22 2 3 l 4 2. 5 26 1 4, 19 15 Q 2O 7 14, 18 l 3 | 9 12 20 9 3 58 15 23 l 5 21 5 27 50 27 15 9 21 7 15 54, 21 19 12 2 l 9 5 34 23 23 i 5 22 5 29 26 34 1 5 1 () 22 7 17 3O 29 19 2 22 9 7 || O 30 23 1 5 23 6 1 2 42 15 l{ 3 7 19 6 3 19 12 || 23 9 8 46 38 23 $ 5 24 6 2 38 50 1 5 l () 24 7 20 42 44 | 9 \ 2 24. 9 10 22 46 23 l 5 25 6 4 1 4 38 15 l O 25 7 22 18 52 19 | 2 25 9 l l 58 54 23 15 26 6 5 5 | 6 1 5 1 O 26 7 23 55 O 19 12 26 9 13 35 2 24 | 5 27 6 7 27 13 * 6 1 O 27 7 25 31 8 3. | 2 || 27 9 | 5 || 1 || O 24 15 28 6 9 3 2 1 16 1 O 28 7 27 7 15 2(; 13 28 9 16 47 1 7 24 15 , 29 6 1 O 39 29 16 | O 29 7 28 43 23 2 : 3 29 9 18 23 25 24 15 3O 6 12 15 37 | 6 1 O 30 8 O 19 31 2() ! 3 3O 9 19 59 33 24 || 15 31 8 1 55 39 20 ! 3 V E N U. S. jº- TABLE III.-continued. —-mºs- U U Ü ©2 §3 Fº - *: JULY. = | < | } AUGUST. g | | | SEPTEMBER. 3. Qſì O 2. 3. Ǻ 3. O 9, * | * I S. s' | 3 || S, 2 = 3. F- * 3. 3. > || 2 || 5 * 3. O :- || B. 9 ~5 O C rºy P. E. tº o E. > ſº- E. 5- 65 F- Mot. Long. 5* . Mot. Long. * * || 5 || Mot. Long. º s. D. M. s. Iseo. Iseo. S, D. M. S. S.E. C. SEC. S. D. M. S. S.E.C. (SEC, | 9 2 1 35 4 1 24 15 1 l l l l l 5 4 3 28 || || 8 l 1 O 55 45 32 2 i 2 9 23 l l 49 24 | 6 2 ! l l 2 5 1 5 l 28 18 2 1 2 3 } 53 33 || 2 | 3 9 24, 47 56 24 | 6 3 I l l 4, 27 59 29 18 3 1 4 8 O 33 | 2 | 4. 9 26 24 4 25 | 16 4 l l l 6 4 6 29 || || 8 4. 1 5 44, 8 33 || 2 | 5 9 28 O 12 25 || || 6 5 || 1 || 17 40 14 29 || || 8 5 1 7 20 16 33 2 | 6 9 29 36 20 25 16 6 I l 19 16 22 29 19 6 1 8 56 24 33 || 2 | 7 1 O 1 12 28 25 | 6 7 l 1 20 52 30 29 19 7 1 1 O 32 32 33 2 1 8 1 O 2 48 35 25 16 8 1 l 22 28 3 29 19 8 1 1 2 8 4U 33 || 2 | 9 10 4 24 43 25 | 6 9 l 1 24 4 45 29 | 9 9 l 13 44 47 34 || 2 | 1 O || 1 O 6 O 51 || 25 | 16 || 10 || 1 1 25 40 53 || 30 | 19 || 1 O 1 15 20 55 34 || 2 | | 1 I O 7 36 59 26 16 || 1 || | l 27 17 1 3O 19 1 1 1 l 6 57 3 34 22 | 2 1 O 9 13 7 26 | 6 12 1 l 28 53 SO 19 | 2 1 18, 33 l 1 34 || 22 13 || 1 O l O 49 l 26 || | 6 || 13 O O 29 1 7 30 || | 9 || 1 3 1 20 9, 19 34 22 | 4 || 1 O 12 25 22 26 || 17 14 O 2 5 24 30 19 || | 4 || 1 2 1 45 26 || 34 22 15 1 O l 4, 1 30 26 || 17 | 1.5 O 3 41 32 30 | 1.9 || 15 1 23 2 1 34 3 22 I 6 1 O || 5 37 38 26 17 | 6 O 5 I 7 40 30 || 19 1.6 1 2 4 57 42 34 22 17 1 O | 7 || 3 46 26 || || 7 || 1 7 O 6 53. 48 30 19 || 1 7 1 26 33 50 35 22 18 10 18 49 53 26 17 18 O 8 29 56 31 2O 18 1 28 9 58 35 22 19 1 O 20 26 1 27 17 19 O 1 O 6 3 31 2O 19 l 29 46 5 35 22 2O 1 O 22 2 9 27 | 17 | 20 O 1 1 42 l 1 31 20 20 2 l 22 13 35 | 22 2 1 1O 23 38 17 27 17 || 21 O 1 3 18 19 31 2O || 2 | 2 2 58 21 35 22 22 I O 25 l 4, 25 27 || || 7 || 22 O 14, 54 27 3 l k 20 22 2 4 34 29 35 | 22 23 i O 26 5 O 33 27 17 || 23 O 1 6 3O 3.5 ; : 23 2 6 1 O 37 35 23 24, 1 O 28 26 40 27 | | 7 || 24 O 18 6 42 3 l 20 24 2 7 46 44 36 3 25 1 1 O 2 48 27 17 25 O l 9 42 50 32 20 25 22 52 36 23 26 1 1 1 38 56 28 18 26 O 21 18 58 32 20 26 2 1 O 59 36 || 23 27 1 1 3 || 5 4 28 | 8 || 27 O 22 55 6 32 20 27 2 I 2 35 8 36 23 28 1 l 4, 5 I 12 28 i 8 i 28 Ö 24, 31 #4 32 20 - 29 2 14, 1 1, 1 6 36 23 29 1 1 6 27 19 28 18 29 O 26 7. 2 | 32 20 29 2 15 47 23 23 3O || 1 || 8 3 27 28 l 8 || 3 , O 27 43 29 32 || 2 | 3() 2 l 7 23 3 | 35 23 $ 1 1 1 9 39 35 28 18 || 3 || O 29 19 37 3. 2 1 V E N U S. A TABLE III.- continued. | g s' | \, º º: October. , , , ; ; ; Now EMBER. 3 3 DECEMBER. 3. 3. & 3 2 ºf 3 5 c 9 3. 2 > 9 || || || 3. : :- i 3 - | 3 || 3: T - || 2 || 5 > | 3. 3 s ~ # s rt, 3. 3 Tº. 㺠! # Mot. Long. | | | # Mot. Long. F | * | = | Mot. Long. | f | * 3. S. D. M. S. S.E. C. S.E. C. S. D. M. S. SEC SE. C. S. D. M. S. Slº. C. S.E. C. | 1 || 2 || 8 58 3 36 23 || 1 || 4 8 39 41 4 | | 26 || 1 5 26 43 35 || 45 28 2 || 2 20 S5 47 37 S 2 || 4 1 () l 5 49 41 26 || 2 || 5 28 19 43 || 45 29 3'ſ 2 22 11 55 37 || 23 3 4, 11 51 57 41 26 3 5 29 55 5 l 45 || 29 | 4 || 2 23 48 2 | 37 24 | 4 || 4 13 28 5 || 4 || 26 | 4 || 6 || 31 59 45 29 | 5 || 2 25 24 10 37 24 || 5 4, 15 4 12 || 4 | | 26 5 6 3 8 7 || 45 29 6 || 2 27 () l 8 37 24 || 6 || 4 || 6 4O 20 || 4 || || - 26 || 6 || 6 4 44 l 4 || 45 29 a * tº-sº ** -º- |-- - 7 || 2 28 36 26 || 37 || 24 || 7 || 4 18 16 28 41 || 26 || 7 || 6 6 20 22 45 29 8 || 3 O 1 2 34 3 24 8 4 9 52 3 4, 1 || 26 8 6 7 56 SO 45 29 9 || 3 || 48 41 38 24 || 9 || 4 21 28 44 42 27 || 9 || 6 9 32 38 i.46 29 | 10 || 3 3 24 49 38 24 || 1 O || 4 23 4 51 42 27 || 1 O 6 : ] 8 46 46 || 29 # 1 1 || 3 5 O 57 38 || 24 || 1 | 4, 24 40 59 42 27 || 1 || 6 1 2 44, 53 || 46 29 12 || 3 6 37 5 38 24; 12 || 4 26 17 7 42 27 || || 2 || 6 14 21 1 || 46 29 13 || 3 8 13 13 ||38|| 24 || 13 || 4 27 53 15 42 27 | 13 || 6 15 57 9 || 46 29 1 4 || 3 9 49 21 38 || 24; 14 || 4 29 29 22 || 42 || 27 || || 4 || 6 17 33 17 | 46 30 1 5 || 3 || 1 2 5 28 38 || 24; 15 || 5 || 5 so | 42 27 | 15 6 19 9 2 5 46 3O | 16 || 3 13 1. 36 38: 25 16: 5 2 41 38 43 27 || || 6 || 6 20 45 32 47 30 | 17 | 3 14 37 44 39 25, 17 || 5 4 17 46 43 27 || 17 || 6 22 21 40 || 47 3 | 18 3 16 13 52 39 || 25; 18 5 5 53 54 43 27 || || 8 6 23 57 48 47 30 # 19 3 17 5 O O" 39 || 25 19 5 7 3O 2 43 27 || | 9 6 25 33 56 47 || 3O 20 ! 3 19 26 7 39 25 20 5 9 6 1 O 43 28 20 6 27 1 O 4. 47 3O 21 3 2 1 2 15 39 25 21 || 5 || O 42 : 7 || 43 || 28 || 2 | 6 28 46 12 47 || 3O | 22 || 3 22 38 23 39 || 25 || 22al 5 12 8 25 || 43 28 l 22 || 7 o 22 19 || 47 so | 23 3 24 14 31 39 || 25 || 23 | 5 13 54 33 || 43 28 || 23 || 7 || 58 27 47 30 ; 24 || 3 25 50 39 4. 25 : . 24 || 5 || 5 3O 41 44 28 24 7 3 34 35 | 47 || 3O 25 || 3 27 26 47 | 40 || 25 l 25 | 5 || 7 6 49 || 44 28 25 || 7 5 lo 43 || 48 || 3 26 || 3 29 2 5 4 || 4G | 25 26 || 5 || 8 42 56 44 28 26 || 7 6 46 51 || 48 || 3 27 || 4 O 39 2 4(, ; 25 27 | 5 20, 19 4 || 44 || 28 2. 7 8 22 58 || 48 || 3 | 28 4 2 l 5 10 40 26 28 5 21, 55 12 44 28 28 7 9 - 59 6 48 || 3 | 29 || 4 3 5 1 | 8 40 26 || 29 || 5 23 31 20 44 28 29 || 7 l l 35 l 4 || 48 || 3 | 30 || 4 5 27 26 40 26 || 30. 5 25 7 28 44 28 || 30 || 7 || 3 l l 22 || 48 || 3 31 || 4 7 3 33 40 || 26 3 || || 7 || 4 47 3O 49 || 3 v E N US, O fy | 09 || () OE | 08 9) nuțJN e Joſ[„$ o99 $ | 69 || 99 || || 6Ž ç，,,o jo oneſ aq, yw Ieuoņuodoid ole saoq， aq L ºsjea X 001 uſ „gº sºqsȚuțu!PuonenDQI QS3) eºUIJLŹ,9 Ş | 89 || 39 [ | 82 +-• • ----� ！�• §�ș:： ||-- *�Ǻ (Y�8 0& \ , ... | 6 | 9 I23 98[† 9†[õ ÝŽ | gs6572,9 % || 89 || 38 0 || 8 || 8 & 9 O įž | {{ | 5' ） | $$ | $ğ Ģ ģ |}| ſy 9x}| $ ſſ | }} | ºg 63 | }; | 0° 2 | 68 g & | 2,8 || 83 O || 2 || & 8 & 0 || A. żž ſ ºſ į žç 2ì | }} | os ſae5 | 9º 9ý į 33 | $Ý $ſ | $3 | 9$ 83 | $; | 38 9 | 8•••• --> șž ſ ºſ į šș și*9. §§ į š | $ 4ſ | ŠŤ | $3 $ſ | Šğ | 41 83 || 54 | €Ž $ | 4† z g | 98 || 73 0 || 9 || ?, † º. O | 9 Žž ſ ºſ į ſą šį įğ | $3 $$ | } | } | }} | Ă Ă | $ $Ý į š% || 48 43 | Ă | Wº Y | 9Oz, z, ſ 98 || 0 & 0 | 9 || & 0& Q | 9 șž | iº | §§ õž | #º | §z 65 - || ſ | ¡ ¿șğ | $3 $Y | \; | 9I 93 | ğ% || 9 | 8 || ?==æ-， # | ſſ | ¡ ¿ | 9$ | ¡ ¿ſ | $ſ %ſ | }} | 48 | W | }} | ſº ſº | Ă | 88 || || 38 g | 38 || 8 0 | Z | [ 8 0 | € | 62 |YÝ | № šž | 93 | Ş ş öſ,{9§ 4Ý |„№ž | & | \{ | }} | & | ſg | Ă | 6Ý 9I† g | Î Ş | † 0 || I | O Ň O | I º , Ç!, ſºț§ 2.,93() I| #//6 {}//6țyOff;//6%8 Z,//OOO* O £[$* Q GH SI S “JAI • CI ſë ;[ 9 § &●© • •�• • •• CI/// /// / / / / ºg ſºſaſ ºs ºſs | ſq | 's 'ſw | ſq | 's ºw ||g|G| is 'n ſyſql -s ºn l'Eſq| 's ºw--◄ ）-^* |-• •|--• • • •• • • $‘UITºtſ\\∞ ||-- ‘A ‘3țS | –– ‘AI ‘3țS I -- ‘III ºżųS ! -- ‘II （31s|-- I :$1S-- " O ， IS// / I’U [[W]， // „É }·$uor I· åttorſ·$uorȚ§ |ºs nuº A. Jo ÁIeulouy upº IN ‘nuounºu y*: OIN‘QOWIºno IN 'spt， 0.99$ pue ºsº? nugſſy ºsum opp ‘Ō82. I JOJ Snuº A jo ļļq，Q 9ų). Jo uoņenbºſ--‘A ‘º Tav LMoſ snu? A jo uoņOJN u 29 IN-‘AI ĀTRI VJL 3 I. VOL. XXXVIII. TABLE VI-Logarithms of the Distance of Venus from the Sun for 1780." Argument. Mean Anomaly of Venus. Sig. O. Sig. I. Sig. II. Sig. III. Sig. IV. Sig. V. Currections of the Logarithms D. Logarith. Diff Logarit. Diff Logarith. |Diff| Logarith. Dij}. Logarith. Diff Logarity |D f.] d after 100 Years. o 9.852318 || || 9 86.1924 | as 986845 an | * 839.359 |ss || 9.837.856 as 9.83674 | as 29 || * * | * | * * | | 9,862317 | 3 || 9.86.1898 || 3 || 9.860801 || 3 | * $59,396 || 3 || 9.837811 || || || 9.856729 . 22 || o O 26 | XII. O 3 || 9 362315 || 3 || 9 86.1872 || || 9,8697.35 | . 98.392.54 || 33 9.857766 | | | 9.856695 || 3 || 28 10 | T 3. 20 3 || 9.8623 l 3 9.861 S44. 9 86O709 9 8592, ; 2 9.85772 | 9.85667, ) 27 2O 24 1 O gººm-- 3 l—-——l 28 46 52 l—— 44 --- 23 |-|--|| 1 O 22 | XI. O 4 | * 8.52319 || 4 || 9.86.1816 so | 3.869383 || 4 || 3:359159 sº 9.857677 as 9 856647 as 26 || “ 1 O 2O 20 5 | * $62306 | | | 9 86,786 ||, | 9.360616 || || || 3:35.1998 || 3 || 3.857634 . . . 9.856624 || || 25 2O 17 10 6 || ".862 30 6 9,861 757 '3. 9.869569 47 9.859()46 52 9 857 59 1 43 9.8566O2 22 24 II O 13 | X O 7 || 9 862295 9,861 726 9.86 , 522 9.85899.4 9.857 548 9.85658() 23 e e --—| 6 3 l l —--—l 48 –--—l 52 – —— 42 ----| 20 ; - º ; 8 || 9 86.2289 9.86 1695 sº, 9.860474 9.858942 a 9.857506 9.8565,60 º 9 || 9 86.228 l 986 iggs | * | 9.860426 : J 85,889 () ; 9.857.465 º 9.85654, 1 i. ..., || III. 1. º IX. 2. 10 || ".862273 | | | 9 85.1630 ... 9.860377 ..., | 9.858839 || 33 9 85.7424 || 4 || 9.856522 is 20 2O + 1 | | 9.862264 9.861597 | * | 9.860328 9.858.787 9.857384 9.856504 19 || IV O ſº VIII 10 l 1 ||——- -— 34 - – 49 - 5 1 || ---—l 40 ––– 17 |--|| 1, # 12 9.832253 | | | | | 86.563 || 3s 9.850279 || 49 9.858736 so 9-857344 so 9.856487 | 16 || 8 2O 2O 1 O | 3 || 9.86.2242 | 13 9,861528 || || || 9,869230 || 3 || 9.3586.84 so | 9 857395 || | | 98.3647.1 | is 17 || v. O 22 VII. O 14 || || 862230 | | | 98.61493 || || || 9 860130 ..., | 9.358634 || || || 9.857.257 | . 9.85.6456 | | | | 6 o 1 O 24 26 1 5 9.8622 1 7 9,861 4.57 9,860 l 30 9.858.583 9 857 229 9.85.6442 15 2O 26 1 O l 3 ——-—| 7 ||—---| 50 5 1 |. ——| 37 | - -——— 13 VI. O | + 26 || VI. O 16 || 9 862204 is 9.85142 37 9.859089 sm 98.58532 so | 9.857.192 as 9 856429 || 1s 14 | 17 | 9.862189 || || || 9,861383 || || 9.869029 . . . 9.838482 so 9.837.156 . 9.856416 || || || 13 18 98.62.174 || || 9 861345 ..., | 9.359979 || || 9.858432 so | 3:35.7129 || 3: 9.856495 || || | 12 This equation of the distance | 9 || 9.862 l 57 9.86 l 306 9.85.99.28 9.858.382 9.857O85 9,856.394 | | || arises from the diminution of the * *– 17 —- 39 || –--—| 5 | –- 49. 3 -———l 10 equation of Venus. It changes * | *.832.42 is ºf so | **ś7 52 | **ś so | **ś9 || 35 | *ś4 || 8 || 2 || its sign for any time before 1780. 2 9.86.2122 is 9,861228 || || || 9.859825 ... 9.858283 || 3 || 2:357917 | 3 || 9.856376 a 9 22 || 9-362104 || 3 |985, 187 | | | 9.8597.4 || 3 || 9.358234 is 9.856984 sº | 9.856368 || 7 || 8 ‘) S | 9,862, ) 84, 9.86 l l 46 9.859.722 9.858 186 9.8569 5 1 9,85636 l 7 2O —a 41 | –--—l 5 l l —--—l 48 -——l 31 | x_---——ſ 6 24 9.862064 || 2 | 9.86; 195 | is 9.859671 sº | 9-858138 as 9.85692, is 9-356:55 || 5 || 6 25 | 9.862.43 || 3 || 9,861963 | | | 9.839519 || 3 || 9 858999 || is 9:356389 || 36|| 2:356359 || 3 || 5 26 9.862921 || 3 | 9.86.1929 || || || 9 8595.67 | ..., | 9.858943 ºf 9.853859 || 3 || 3:356343 || 3 || 4 27 | 9 86 1998 9,86097.8 9.859 5 15 9.857995 9.85683() 9.856342 3 -—l—--— 24 |— 44 –- 52 |—--—l 47 | —---—l 29 ––– 2 || -- 28 9,861974 | as 9.860934 || 4 || 9.859463 so | 9.857948 as 9.85389 as 9.85% | 3 || ? 29 |9.851949 || 3 | 9.830899 || || 9,859.411 || 3 || 9.837.99 || || || 3:353773 ||37 | **ś8 || | | | 3() 9.86 1924, 9, 86084.5 9.859 3.59 9.857.856 9.856746 9.85.6337 O Sig. XI. Sig, X. Sig. IX. Sig. VIII. Sig. VII. Sig. VI. : V E N U. S. TABLE. VII.-Heliocentric Latitude of Venus, with the Reduction to the Ecliptic. Argument. The Longitude of Venus — that of the Node. Sig O. lat. JV. O. I. lat. JV. I. II. lat. JV. II. *8. VI. lat. S. VI. VII. lat. S. VII. VIII. lat. S. VIII Sub. Sub. Sub. Deg. Latitude. i. from Latitude. i. from. Latitude. i. from. Deg. * | Log. * | Log. § - Log. D. M. S. M. S. D. M. S. M. S. D. M. S. M. S. () O O O O O O 1 4 l 45 2 37 19 O 2 56 1 7 • 2 3 57 i 3O l O 3 33 O 6 O 1 44, 48 2 40 202 2 58 2 2 33 583 29 2 O 7 6 O 1 3 l 1 47 50 2 43 2 l 4 2 59 44 2 30 594, 28 3 O 1 O 39 O 19 2 1 5 O 50 2 45 226 3 1 22 2 26 605 27 4. O 1 4 12 O 4. 1 53 48 2 47 2.38 3 2 57 2 23 6 15 26 5 O 17 44 O 3 | 6 1 56 44 2 50 25O 3 4, 29 2 19 626 25 6 O 21 1 6 O 38 8 1 59 37 2 52 263 3 5 58 2 15 636 24 7 O 24, 48 O 44 1 1 2 2 28 2 54 276 3 7 23 2 1 O 645 3 8 O 28 19 O 50 I 5 2 5 1 7 2 55 288 3 8 45 2 6 655 22 9 O 31 50 O 56 19 2 8 4 2 57 3O 1 3 l O 3 2 1 664 21 10 O 3.5 20 1 2 23 2 10 49 2 58 3 l 4 3 i 1 18 1 56 673 2O | | O 38 49 1 8 28 2 I 3 31 2 59 328 3 12 29 1 5 1 681 19 | 2 O 42 i 8 i i 3 33 2 || 6 || || 3 O 34 1 3 13 37 1 46 689 I 8 3 O 45 46 l 19 38 2 18 48 3 1 3.54 3 14 4, 1 1 4 1 697 . 17 14 O 49 l 3 1 25 44 2 2 1 2 3 3 1 367 3 l 5 4 1 36 7O4. 16 15 O 52 40 | 30 5 1 2 23 5.5 3 1 38O 3 l 6 38 1 3O 7 11 15 16 O 56 5 1 3 58 2 26 24 3 1 394 3 l 7 32 1 25 7 17 14 17 O 59 2 1 4 l 65 2 28 5 1 3 l 4O7 3 1.8 22 19 | 723 3 18 1 2 53 1 46 73 2 3 l l 5 3 O 420 3 19 7 1 13 729 I 2 19 6 15 l 51 8O 2 33 36 2 59 434 3 19 50 | 8 734 I 1 2J 1 9 3.5 1 56 89 2 35 55 2 58 447 3 20 29 1 2 739 1 O 2 1 I l 2 5 4 2 1 98 2 38 l 1 2 57 460 3 2 i 4 () 56 7.43 9 22 1 l 6 1 3 2 1 ()7 2 40 23 2 55 473 3 2 1 36 O 50 747 8 23 19 31 2 1 O I l 6 2 4.2 33 2 54 486 3 22 4 O 44 75 1 7 24 1 22 46 2 15 126 2 44, 40 2 52 498 3 22 28 O 38 754. 6 25 l 26 O 2 19 136 2 46 44 2 5 O 5 i ! 3 22 48 () 3 1 7 56 5 26 1 29 12 2 23 1 46 2 48 45 2 47 523 3 23 5 O 25 7.58 4. 27 I 3 3 2 26 I 57 2 5 O 42 2 45 536 3 23 18 O 1 9 76() 3 28 1 S5 3.2 2 30 168 2 52 37 2 4 3 548 3 23 27 O ! 3 761 2 29 l 38 39 2 33 | 79 2 5 4 29 2 40 560 3 23 33 O 6 7.62 l SO 1 4 1 4.5 2 37 19 O 2 56 17 2 37 57. I 3 23 3 O O 7.62 O Add to | Sub. Add to | Sub. Add to | Sub. XI. lat. S. Long. Log. X, lat. S. Long. Log. IX. lat. S. Long. Log. A. V. lat. . XI. IV. lat. JW. X. III. lat. JV. IX. V. IV. III. 3 L 2 V E N U. S. Eachlanation of the Tables.—Table I. contains the epochs of the mean longitude, of the aphelion and node. Table II. contains the mean motions of the same, for years. Table III. contains their mean motions for days. Table IV. contains their mean motions for hours, minutes, and seconds. Table V. contains the equation of the orbit for the year 1780; but this equation di- minishes 25" in 100 years. Table VI. contains the logarithm of the distance of Venus from the sun, for the year 1780, with the corrections for 100 years, owing to a change of the excentricity. Table VII. contains the heliocentric latitude of Venus, the reduction in longi- tude to the ecliptic, and the reduction of the logarithm of the distance, in order to get the curtate distance from the sun. The greatest equation (Table V.) of the orbit is 47' 20", and this diminishes at the rate of 25" in 100 years; that is, the diminution for every minute of the equation is very nearly O’. 5; we shall, therefore, take the secular diminution at the rate of 0".5 for every min- ute of the equation: thus, if the equation be 16', the di- minution is 4” for 100 years; and for any other number of years, the diminution is in proportion. For any time be- ..fore 1780, this correction must be added to the equation. In Table VI. there is a small table for the correction of the logarithms of the distance of Venus from the sun, for 100 years; entering it with the mean anomaly of Venus, and applying the correction according to the sign, for any time after 1780; but with a contrary sign, before 1780. To find the heliocentric Latitude and Longitude of Penus, and the Logarithm of her Distance from the Sun. —From Table I. take out the epochs of the mean lon- gitude, the aphelion and node, for the given year; and place them in a horizontal line. But if the given year be not found in the Table, take that nearest year prece- ding the given year, as an epoch, and take out as be- fore ; under which (Table II.) place the mean motion in longitude, of the aphelion and node, answering to the num- ber of years elapsed since the epoch, to the given year. Under these, write down (Table III.) the mean mo- tion of the same, for the given day of the month. Under these, write down (Table IV.) the mean mo- tions of the same, for the given hours, minutes, and seconds. Add together the numbers in the several columns, rejecting 12 S, or any multiple thereof, if they occur, and you get the mean longitude, places of the aphelion and node, for the given time. Subtract the longitude of the aphelion from the mean longitude, and the remainder is the mean anomaly. With the mean anomaly enter Table V., and take out the equation of the orbit with its proper sign, making proportion for the minutes and seconds, if there be any. But this requires a correction, at the rate of O''.5 for every minute of the equation for 100 years; and for any other time, the correction will be in proportion; to be subtracted after 1780, and added before that time. Apply the equation with its proper sign to the mean longitude, and you get the longitude on the orbit, from the mean equinox. From the longitude of Venus in her orbit, subtract the longitude of the node ; and you have the argument, called the Argument of Latitude. To the longitude on the orbit, apply the reduction (Table VII.) with its proper sign, and you have the lon- gitude upon the ecliptic, from the mean equinox. To the longitude thus found, apply the nutation with its proper sign, and you get the true longitude of Venus on the ecliptic, from the true equinox. With the argument of latitude enter Table VII., and take out the latitude, making proportion for the minutes and seconds, if necessary; and this is the true heliocen- tric latitude of Venus. With the mean anomaly of Venus enter Table VI., and take out the logarithm of her distance from the sun, making proportion of the minutes and seconds, if neces- sary. But this must be corrected by the small Table, to be entered with the mean anomaly, and you get the cor- rection for 100 years; and for any other time, the cor- rection will be in proportion, to be applied with a cons trary sign, before 1780. With the argument of latitude enter Table VII., and take out the reduction in the column under Sub. Log., making proportion for the minutes and seconds, if ne- cessary; and subtract it from the logarithm of the dis- tance last found, and you have the logarithm of the cur- tate distance. Eac.--On June 23, 1690, new style, at Ih 18' 11° mean time at Greenwich; to find the heliocentric lati- tude and longitude of Venus, and the logarithm of her. distance from the sun. --~~$. Longitude. Aphelion. Node. & { * o / // • o 4 // tº o f y/ Epoch for 1660 - - 3 19 55 52 16) 5 54 l 2 2 13 8 4.8 Mot. for 80 years - O || 5 22 24 } 4 48 41 20 Mot. for 10 years - 3 l 7 14. 3 6 5 O ! | June 23 - - - - 9 8 46 38 23 1 5 t 1 hour - - 4. O | 18’ - - - | | 2 * . 1 lº' gº tº I lº -----sºmºs } Mean Long. - - - 4 || 5 || 7 21 10 7 7 29 2 I 3 55 33 Equation - - - - + 6 50 4, 15 17 21 4 5 24 l l > Long. On orbit - - 4, 15 24 l l 6 8 9 52 2 1 28 38 b. Reduction - - - - — 2 32 Mean Anomaly. Arg. of Latitude. > Long. from mean equ. 4 15 21 39 - Log. Dist. - - 9.85 6347 Hel. lat. 2° 58' 5 1// Nutation - - - - -H 2 Reduction - - — 588 ; * is gºmºrºs ! True long. on ecl. - 4, 15 21 4 1 Log. curt. dist. 9.85 57.59 V E N U S. VENUs, in Chemistry, is used for the metal Coffer; which see. Its character is Q ; which, say the adepts, expresses it to be gold, only joined with some corrosive and arsenical menstruum ; which, removed, copper would be gold. Venus is universally allowed, by the chemists, &c. to be one of the most powerful medicines in nature ; of this, is said to have been composed the famous Butler's stone, which cured most diseases by only licking it. Of this is composed that noble remedy of Van Hel- mont, viz. the sulphur of vitriol, or ens vitrioli, fixed by calcination and cohobation. Of the ens vitrioli of Venus is likewise composed Mr. Boyle’s arcanum, the edlcothar vitrioli. It is certain copper is a powerful eſſietic, and an ah- tidote against poisons; for it is no sooner taken, than it exerts its force : whereas other vomitories lie a good while in the stomach : but one single grain of rust of Venus immediately vomits. Hence sirups, that have stood over night in copper vessels, create a vomiting. However, pure copper, in its metallic state, or cal- eined by fire, appears to be indissoluble, and of no con- siderable effect, in the bodies of animals: but dissolved in the nitrous or marine acids, and crystallized or exsic- eated by heat, it proves a strong caustic. Preparations of this kind, though formerly used, are now laid aside. Copper, combined with the vitriolic acid, or with ve- getable acids, or corroded by the air, acts outwardly, as an efficacious detergent and a gentle escharotic, and internally as a virulent emetic and cathartic. Some have ventured on small doses, as quick emetics for ex- pelling poisons; but the end may be obtained by less dangerous means. It has been also reckoned an excellent medicine in chronical cases: hence a famous physician is recorded to have cured Charles V. of a dropsy by the use of cop- per. A saturated solution of the metal in volatile spirits is . recommended by Boerhaave in disorders proceeding from an acid, weak, cold, phlegmatic cause. He says, that if three drops be taken in the morning in a glass of mead, and the dose doubled every day, to twenty-four drops, it proves attenuating, warming, and diuretic ; that by this medicine he once cured a confirmed ascites; though in other similar cases it failed ; that it is the only preparation of copper which does not prove emetic ; and that it may be tried with safety. Dr. Lewis, however, is of opinion, that in considerable doses it would exert the same virulent operation with the other soluble pre- paraiivus or solutions of copper. A solid of this kind, made by rubbing together in a glass mor- tar two parts of blue vitriol, and three of the volatile salt, procured from sal ammoniac, till all effervescence has ceased, and then gently drying the concrete, is or- dered in the last Edinburgh Pharmacopeia, under the name of cuftrum ammoniacum. It has frequently been given with success in epileptic and convulsive disorders. Lewis. See SULPHATE of Cofiñer. See also SAPPH1- RINA Agua, and Aqua Cuſhri Ammoniati. Venus is dissoluble by all the salts known, both acid, alkaline, and nitrous ; nay, even by Water and air, con- sidered as they contain salt. It is from this common reception of all menstruums, that cºpper is called Venus, q, d. meretrix fºublica, a common prostitute : though others take the denomina- tion to have been occasioned by its turning of a sea- e preparathon ** r a. * * * *-* * * green colour, when dissolved by acid. internally, with great caution. VENUS, Crystals of See CRYSTAL, VERDEGREASE, and CoPPER. VENUs, Shirit of. See AcETIC Acid. VENUs, in Mythology, the goddess of love, thus in- voked by Lucretius : “Quae quoniam rerum naturam sola gubernas, Nec sine te quicquam dias in luminis oras Exoritur, neque fit lactum, nec amabile quicquam.” It must be given She is represented by the poets, painters, and statuaries of antiquity, in a variety of alluring forms; with her hair sometimes waving over her naked shoulders, and sometimes negligently tied behind in golden tresses; with a mantle, exhibiting all the colours of the rainbow, and glittering with diamonds, sometimes flowing loosely, and at other times bound with a girdle or belt, called cestus, of which it is said that, “in eo deliramenta om- nia inclusa erant; ibi inerat amor, inerat desiderium, inerat et amantium colloquium, itinerat et blanda Io- quentia quae furtim mentem prudentium subripit :” accompanied by two Cupids, the three Graces, and ſol- lowed by the beautiful Adonis, who held up her train ; and riding in a chariot of ivory, finely carved, and beau- tifully painted and gilt, and drawn by swans, doves or swallows. She is sometimes exhibited like a young virgin rising from the sea, and riding in a shell ; at other times with a shell in her hand, and her head crowned with roses; sometimes with a mirror in her hand, and golden sandals and buckles on her feet; sometimes with poppy in one hand, and an apple in the other; and at Elis she was represented as treading on a tortoise; the tor- toise being an emblem of reserve and modesty. According to Cicero (De Nat. Deorum, lib. iii.) there were four principal deities under the denomination of Venus; one, the daughter of Coelum and Dies, called. Venus Urania, who had a temple at Cythera, and also at Elis, with a statue of gold and ivory, executed by Phi- dias: the second, produced from the froth of the sea, called by the Greeks A/ihrodità and Anaduomene, whose cradle was a shell, in which she was driven by Zephy- rus upon the island Cyprus, and received by the Hours, or Horac, who educated her, and presented her to the gods, and who was at length, as some Say, married to Vulcan : the third, born of Jupiter and Dione, and, as Cicero says, married to Vulcan ; and the fourth, born of Syria and Tyrus, called Astarte, and said to have been married to Adonis. Plato, in his “ Banquet,” allows only two; one, the daughter of Coelus, and the other, of Jupiter. Pausanias distinguishes three ; one celes- tial, which presided over chaste loves; one terrestrial, or popular, who was the goddess of marriages; and a third, named Apostrophia, or the averting Venus, who banished infamous passions. Among the moderns, sir Isaac Newton, in his “Chronology,” seems to own no other Venus besides Calycopis, the mother of Eneas, and daughter of Otreus, king of Phrygia, whom Thoas (or Vulcan), surnamed Cinyras, married, and erected temples to her at Paphos, at Amathus, in the island of Cyprus, and at Byblos in Syria; instituting priests to her honour, a sacred worship, and the scandalous feasts called the “Orgies;” for which reason she acquired the name of the Cyprian and Syrian goddess. This cele- brated author relies on the authority of Tacitus (Hist. 1. ii. c. 3.) who thus speaks of her : “We are told that Ciny was V E N US. Cinyras consecrated an ancient temple to Venus of Paphos, the landing-place of this goddess, who sprung from the foam of the sea.” His opinion may be easily reconciled to Lactantius's account, extracted from Eu- hamerus's sacred history, viz. that this was a woman of Cyprus, who by her behaviour encouraged gallantry, and gave rise to the fable of Venus. Banier traces the origin of the fable of Venus to Phoenicia. He is of opinion that there never was an- other Venus worshipped among the Orientals but the Venus Celestis, that is to say, the planet of that name; and Astarte, the wife of Adonis, whose worship was intermixed with that of the planet, or, which comes to the same, that Syrian Venus, the fourth in Cicero, so celebrated in antiquity. The Phoenicians, in conduct- ing their colonies into the islands of the Mediterranean sea, and into Greece, introduced thither their worship of this goddess. They stopped first in the island of Cy- prus, which lies next the coasts of Syria; and there the worship of this goddess was generally received. From thence they went to Cythera, an isle near the continent of Greece : there the Greeks began to traffic with them, and to get some knowledge of their religion; and this is the reason of their giving out, that it was near this island the goddess was seen for the first time, because it was there they came to hear of her first. A very convincing proof that the worship of Venus was esta. blished in that island, before it passed into the continent, is, that the temple of Cythera was accounted the most ancient of any that Venus had in Greece, as Pausanias remarks. From Cythera the worship of this goddess passed into Greece ; and as those who had brought it thither came by sea, the Greeks, who endeavoured to give every thing a marvellous dress, say she had sprung from the sea, and gave her the name of Aphroditë, a word which imports foam. This, no doubt, is the true explication of this fiction, and it is needless to search into it for any other mystery. The Greek poets embellished this fable according to their own fancy. Having heard of Astarte’s passionate love of Adonis, they took care to apply this circumstance to their Venus: and, moreover, they con- sidered Love as the son of this goddess, and gave her the three Graces for her daughters. In fine, they form- ed that love system, of which the ideas have served, in after-ages, to embellish the works of their brother-poets. A young virgin rises out of the foam of the sea, and ap- pears upon a shell-fish; she sits down on mount Cythe- ra, where the flowers spring up under her feet; the Hours, charged with the care of her education, conduct her to heaven, where all the gods, charmed with her beauty, make love to her; she matches with Vulcan, the most deformed of all; she disgraces herself by her gallantries with Mars and Mercury; by the one she has Cupid, and by the other Anti-Cupid ; Bacchus is her ’squire; in fine, she presides over marriages and gal- lantry ; and, therefore, has a mysterious girdle given her, called the cestus of Venus, which not only makes herself amiable, but has virtue to kindle the flame of an extinguished passion, &c. This was not all, they foisted into the history of the goddess Venus, most of the celebrated pieces of gal- lantry. Some beauty being surprised in an intrigue, gave rise to the adultery of Mars with Venus, and to the stratagem of Vulcan. Venus, whatever might be the dishonourable ideas entertained concerning her, was nevertheless regarded as one of the principal deities; and as she patronized scandalous passions, she was worshipped in a manner worthy of her. Her temples, open to prostitution, taught the corrupt world, that in order to pay due hon- our to the goddess of love, they were to have no regard to the rules of modesty. The virgins prostituted them- selves publicly in her temples, and there the married women showed as little reserve. Amathus, Cythera, Gnidos, Paphos, Idalia, and the other places especially consecrated to this goddess, were distinguished by the most infamous abuses. Farther, as there were several Venuses, her worship was not every where the same. In some places they only burned incense upon her altars; elsewhere they made her an offering of sweet odours, one ingredient of which was the flesh of a sparrow; in other places they sacrificed to her a white goat. The women had also a custom of consecrating their hair to this goddess; and the tresses of Berenice, which she had vowed to Venus, were placed among the stars. Among the flowers, the rose was particularly conse- crated to this goddess, because this flower had been tinged with the blood of Adonis, whom one of its thorns had wounded, which changed it into red from white, which it was before this adventure. The myrtle, too, was dedicated to her, because it commonly grows upon the borders of the water where this goddess was born. The swans and sparrows were peculiarly consecrated to her, but above all the pigeons, from the fable which sets forth, that while this goddess was one day playing with Cupid, the little god would needs wager to gather more flowers than she, and a nymph named Peristera, having assisted the goddess, she won the wager, with which Cupid was so provoked, that he transformed the nymph into a pigeon. As there were several persons who bore the name of Venus, her worship was not every where the same. Venus was known under several appellations and characters; derived either from the places where she was worshipped, or from some particular circumstances that had given rise to her worship. Accordingly we read of the Venus Amathusia, Amica, Anaitis, Aſlaturia or Desidiosa, Aſhrodita, Archytis, Argynnis, Armata, •Aurea, Barbata, Basilis, Callyfliga, Calva, Clwacina, Colias, Cyfria, Cytherea, Elefihantina, Elycoſis, Ery- cina, Etaira, Genitriac, Hortensis, Imſiroba, Libitina, Marina, JWeſihthe, Pahhia, Praxis, Ridens, Verticordia, Victrix, Zerynthia, &c. &c. Praxiteles executed two statues of Venus, one cloth- ed, bought by the inhabitants of Cos, and another naked, which he sold to the Cnidians. See ANAD'Uom ENE, and VENUS De Medicis. The Venus of M. Maffei seems to have been formed in conformity to the well-known passage of Terence, “Sine Cerere & Baccho friget Venus.” The goddess in this statue is accompanied with two Cu- pids, and crowned with ears of corn, bolding a thyrsus, wrapped about with leaves and clusters of grapes; and as she carries in her hand three arrows, she seems to teach us that her arrows fly more unerringly when Ce- res and Bacchus concur. Pausanias informs us that he had seen in Elis a fine statue of Venus Urania or Ce- lestial, whose feet rested upon the back of a tortoise ; and another of terrestrial Venus, placing her feet upon a he-goat. - We have on medals the Venus Urania, or Celestis, with V E N U. S. *** - with a star or sun, or celestial globe in her hand; and the Venus Paphia, almost naked, leaning on a column, with a helmet and the arms of Mars in her hands, bearing an inscription Veneri Victrici, or Veneri Gene- trici. She is sometimes seen armed, sometimes resting upon a dolphin, holding a pigeon in her lap, or with Adonis, accompanied by his dogs, or with Cupid and the three Graces; but more frequently rising from the sea, seated upon a shell borne by two Tritons, or upon a chariot drawn by two sea-horses, or by a female sea-goat, or rather he-goat; for, according to Pausani- as, her statue, made by the famous statuary Scopas, was upon that animal, and in that case she is accompanied by Nereids and Cupids, mounted upon dolphins, one of the Nereids holding a lute in her hand, and mounted upon a sea-centaur; but more frequently her chariot is,drawn by Swans or pigeons, birds consecrated to her. Some- times she appears herself supported by a Triton, having a buckler in her hand, on which is represented a head ; Sometimes mounted upon sea-horses, she seems to skim over the waves of the sea, her head being covered with a veil which swells in the wind, with Cupid swimming at her side. An oar at the foot of the goddess seems to represent the Venus Pelagia or Marine : and the figure which she holds in her hand, a cornucopia, expresses the blessings produced by maritime commerce. There is also a picture of the Venus Desidiosa in the Barberini palace at Rome, which is one of the finest-coloured pic- tures that is left us by the ancients ; the hair of whose head may be compared with Guido’s, and the colouring of the flesh reminds us of Titian. Part of this picture is lost, and part restored by Carlo Marat. Venus is described by Statius (lib. i. sylv. v. 56) much in the same manner as she is represented in the Barberini picture. We shall only add, that Venus is sometimes descri- bed by the poets of the third age under the character of the goddess of jealousy, rather than as the goddess of love; in which Valerius Flaccus (Argon. ii. v. 106.) and Statius (Theb. v. v. 69.) have drawn two very terri- ble pictures of her. Spence’s Polymetis, p. 74. VENUs de M dicis, in the history of Ancient Sculpture, a famous statue of white marble, about five feet high, brought from the Medicis palace at Rome to Florence, by order of duke Cosmo III., and now standing in the great duke’s palace. The hips, legs, and arms, were broken off by the removal of this statue ; but they have been rejoined with an art, that renders their former sep- ara" on imperceptible. The inscription on the base in- tiſ, ates that this was the work of Cleomenes, an Atheni- ai', the son of Apollodorus: the pedestal is modern ; the statue seems to bear a little forwards; the right knee advances a little ; the left hand is placed before that part which distinguishes the sexes, and the right across her breasts; yet without touching the body. The head in- clines a little to the left shoulder; so that her face seems to be turned away a little from the observer: and from this circumstance some have taken occasion to remark, that the air of the head of this Venus expresses three different passions; as you first approach her, you per- ceive aversion or denial in her look; as you advance a step or two nearer, she shows compliance; and one step more to the right, it is said, turns into a little insidious and insulting smile : but Mr. Spence does not allow that this account is justified by the statue itself. The attitude of the Venus de Medici is peculiarly graceful : that attitude may be described in two verses of Ovid, Art. Am. V. 614. “Ipsa Venus pubem, quoties velamina ponit, Protegitur laeva semi-reductā manu.”. The bloom of youth, the pleasing softness of her look, and her beauty and modesty, seem to rival each other in the charms of her countenance. Her person is some- what plump, and the flesh is so admirably executed, that it seems so soft as if it would yield to the touch. Time has given to the white marble a yellowish hue, though still in the sun-shine it is almost transparent : her hair is brown, which may be no more than the faded gilding not unusual among the ancients. The head, which is said to be too small in proportion to the other parts, is suspected by some not to have been executed by the same artist who made the body : this will ever be the standard of female beauty and softness: the breasts are also the finest that can be conceived, small, distinct, and delicate, suggesting an idea of softness, which no copies can imitate, and also of firmness: from the breasts, her shape begins to diminish gradually down to her waist; but with an exquisite fineness of shape, the Ve- nus of Medici has what the Romans call corfi us solidum, and the French the enbonfoint ; and her waist in par- ticular is not represented as stinted by art, but as ex- actly proportioned by nature to all the other parts of her body. There is also a tenderness and elegance in every other part of her form : her legs are neat and slender: the small of them is finely rounded, and her feet are lit- tle, white and pretty : so that she possesses all those lesser beauties which the poets have marked out in the female make ; the teretes sura (Hor. lib. ii. od. iv. ver. 21.), and the fies candidus (Id.lib. iv. od. i. v. 27), and exigu- us (Ovid. Am. lib. ii. el. iii. ver, 7.) And one may well say of this statue, what one of the persons in Plautus's Epidicus (act v. sc. i.) says of a complete beauty : “Ab unguiculo ad capillum summum, est festivissima.” Though the Venus of Medici has not escaped censure, with regard to the smallness of her head and hips,the large- ness of the nose, the depth of the partition along the ver- tebrae of the back, the length of the fingers, which, ex- cepting the little finger on the left-hand, are without joints; and though, in comparing the parts separate, as the head, nose, &c. of this statue, with those of others, the similar parts might be found even of superior work- manship ; yet for such a combination of beauties, the delicacy of shape and attitude, and symmetry of the whoje, it is universally allowed that the world doth not afford its equal. This incomparable statue stands be- tween two others, which in any other place would be es- teemed admirable pieces: that on the right of the Venus de Medici is twice as big, with the golden apple in her hand, and is called Venus Victric; the other, by Hercu- les Ferrata, is distinguished by the name of Venus Ura- nia. Spence’s Polymetis, p. 6, &c. Keysler's Travels, vol. i. p. 434. VENUs, in Heraldry, is used for the colour vert. VENUs, in the Linnaean system of Matural History, a genus of the Testacea order of worms. See Conc Ho L- O G Y. VENUs, Mount of Mons Veneris, among Anatomists, is a little hairy protuberance in the middle of the Pub, O V E P V E. R. of women; occasioned by the collection of fat under the Skin in that place, Among chiromancers, the mount of Venus is a little eminence in the palm of the hand, at the root of one of the fingers. VENUS’s Comb, in Botany. See ScANDIx. VENUs’s Fly-Traft. See D10NAEA. VENUS’s Looking-Glass. See CAMPANULA and SPEC- ULUM Weneris. VENUs’s JWavel- Wort. CYNo Glossum, n. 18. VENUs, Cafe, in Geograf hy, a cape on the coast of Otaheite. N. lat. 17°29'. W. long. 149° 36'. VENUSIA, VENosA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy in Apulia, near mount Vultur, watered by a small river called Aufidus. It is said to have been de- nominated Aphrodisia. It became a Roman colony in 460 U.C. It was formerly a magnificent city, but its baths, theatres, and temples have been destroyed. It was the birth-place of Horace. VENUSTI, MARCELLo, in Biography. This paint- er was born at Maptua in 1515, and was a pupil of Pie- rino del Vaga. He is however far better known as the painter of several designs of Michaei Angelo, (to which he gave a colour unknown to that great composer,) than by any original works of his own. The cardinal Farnese engaged him to copy the great work of the Last Judgment in the Capella Scitina, upon a small scale, which he accomplished very much to the satisfaction of M. Angelo, who in consequence engaged him to paint an altar-piece for the Capella de Cesi in the church of La Pace, from a design of his own, of the Annunciation. There are several pictures in England, which are called Michael Angelo’s, that have every appearance of being painted by Venusti. Some works of his own are spo- ken of with respect, particularly the Martyrdom of St. Catherine, in the church of S. Agostino; and St. John in the Wilderness, in St. Catherine alli Funari. He died in 1576, aged sixty-one. VENZONE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the country of Friuli, on the Tajamento; 18 miles W.N.W. of Friuli. VEPILLIUM, or VEPILLUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, S. of Carthage, situated two leagues S.E. of Almana, which has still some vestiges of the Romans. VEPRECULAE, in Botany, the thirty-first natural order among the Fragmenta of Linnaeus, named from veſires, a brier or bramble, because the plants which compose this order are pliant shrubs, of humble growth. The genera mentioned at the end of the Genera Planta- ºrum are Dais, Quisqualis, Dirca, Dahhne, Gnidia, Lachnea, Passerina, Stellera and Thesium ; to which Linnaeus has added in manuscript, Struthiola, Santalum (with a doubt whether it should not rather be referred to the Bicornes), and Scleranthus. No remark occurs, in Giseke’s publication of the Praelectiones of Linnaeus, on this order. As far as concerns the eight first named of the above genera, with Struthiola, it is precisely anal- ogous to Jussieu’s THYMELAEAE, see that article. Thesium and Santalum belong to Mr. Brown’s SANTALAceae, an order extracted from the Onagra and Eleagni of Jussieu, which the reader will find in its proper place. Scleran. *** seems naturally one of the Caryofibyllei, notwith- standing the insertion of its stamens into the calya", which obliged Jussieu to range it with his Portulaceae. See CoryLED ON, n. 19, and Perhaps this decision may partly be supported by the habit, and the aspect of the flower. VEPRIS, Juss. 371, a name given by Commerson to what is now called Scopolia; see that article. VER-PuceRoN, in JVatural History, a name given to a kind of insects which are fond of eating the puceron, and destroy them in vast numbers. They are thus called, as the ant-eater is, formica-leo, from their destroying great numbers of them. These ver-pucerons are a sort of worms produced from the eggs of flies, and are of two principal kinds; the one having legs, the other none. When we observe the vast number of young produ- ced by every puceron, and the quick progress they make in their multiplication, we are apt to wonder, that every plant and tree in the world are not covered with them ; but on the contrary, when we observe the devastation these devourers make among them, we are apt to wonder how any of them escape at all, to perpetuate the species. These worms indeed seem created for no other purpose but to destroy them; and this they do in so violent a manner as is scarcely to be conceived. As the flies of many kinds lay their eggs on meat and other substan- ces, which they know will afford food for the young ones, when hatched from them : so the parents of these worms lay their eggs on the branches and leaves of trees load- ed with pucerons, on which they know they will feed. The worms produced from them are devourers from the very instant they are hatched, and find themselves placed in the midst of prey, being every way surround- ed by a nation of creatures which are their proper food, and which are furnished with no weapons, either offen- sive or defensive, and which never so much as attempt to fly from them, but seem wholly ignorant of their danger, till seized upon by the devourers. Reaumur’s Hist. of Insects, vol. vi. p. l l 1. The flies, which are produced from these worms, are all of the two-winged kind; but there are several differ- ent species of them ; the generality of them resemble wasps, and have a very flat body. Goedart, who has described some of these flies, was surprised to see them very small when first produced from the chrysalis, yet growing very large in a quarter of an hour’s time, and that without taking any nourishment; but this was only owing to their several parts having been squeezed while in the chrysalis, and expanding themselves when they were at liberty from the compression. These are the changes of this kind of leo-puceron; but the other de- vourer of these creatures, which has six legs, is of a different kind, and indeed is in itself reducible to several species, some of these six-legged worms becoming four- winged flies, and others a kind of beetles. These, from their near resemblance to the formica-leo, are by Reau- mur distinctly called puceron-lions. VER-Polyfie, a name given by Reaumur, and some other authors, to a species of water-worm, by no means to be confounded with the creature called simply the polype, and which is so famous for its reproduction of parts cut off, and for many other singular properties. This ver-polype is a species of water-worm, produced from the egg of a tipula, and had this name given it from some remarkable productions, placed at the ante- rior and posterior parts of the body, which are supposed to have some analogy with the parts of the sea-fish call- ed the folyhus. These worms are found in muddy ditches, usually either crawling upon, or buried in the mud. Reaumur’s Hist. Insects, vol. ix. p. 49. VER V E. R V E R VER du Gard, in Geograft hy, a town of France, in the department of the Gard; 6 miles S.E. of Uzes, VERA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Asia, in Media, on an eminence, and strong by its situation.-- Also, the name of a river of Gaul. VERA, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in Navarre : 25 miles N. of Pamplona. —Also, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada; 34 miles N.E. of Almería. N. lat. 37°8'. W. long. 2° 4'.—Alse, a river of Euro- pean Turkey, which runs into the gulf of Salonichi, near the mouth of the Vardar. V ERA Billa. See BILLA. VERA BADURGAM, in Geograf hy, a town of Hindoostan, in Mysore; 8 miles W.S.W. of Caveripa- talm. VERACINI, ANTo Nio, in Biograft hy, uncle and master to Francesco Maria Veracini, the celebrated performer on the violin, published at Florence, in 1692, ten sonatas, the usual number, till Corelli’s time; and afterwards, “ Sonate da Chiesa,” two sets; but this author not being possessed of the knowledge, hand, or caprice of his nephew, his works are now not sufficiently inter- esting to merit further notice, particularly as there was nothing marked or original in his style; the harmony in- deed was correct; but “much may be right, yet much be wanting.” V ERACIN1, FRANC Esco MARIA, a native of Florence, and contemporary with Tartini, who were regarded as the greatest masters of the violin that had ever appear- ed; nor were their abilities confined merely to the ex- cellence of their performance, they extended to compo- sition, in which they both manifested great genius and science. But whatever resemblance there may have been in the professional skill of these two masters, it was impossible for any two men to be more dissimilar in disposition; Tartini was so humble and timid, that he was never happy but in obscurity; while Veracini was so foolishly vain-glorious as frequently to boast that theye was but one God, and one. Veracini. Being at Lucca at the time of La Festa della Croce, which is celebrated every year on the 14th of Septem- ber, when it is customary for the principal professors of Italy, vocal and instrumental, to meet, Veracina entered his name for a solo concerto ; but when he went into the choir, in order to take possession of the principal place, he found it already occupied by Padre Girolamo Lauren- ti, of Bologna ; who not knowing him, as he had been some years in Poland, asked him where he was going? Veracini answered to the place of first violin. Laurenti then told him, that he had been always engaged to fill that post himself; but that if he wished to play a con- certo, either at vespers, or during high mass, he should have a place assigned him. Veracini, with great con- tempt and indignation, turned his back on him, and went to the lowest place in the orchestra. In the act or part of the service in which Laurenti performed his concerto, Veracini did not play a note, but listened with great attention. And being called upon, would not play a concerto, but desired the hoary old father would let him play a solo at the bottom of the choir, desiring Lanzetti, the violoncellist of Turin to accompany him; when he played in such a manner as to extort an e viva / ..in the public church. And whenever he was about to make a close, he turned to Laurenti, and called out: “Cosi sisuona per fare il primo violino:” “ this is the way to play the first fiddle.” Many silly stories of this kind are handed about Italy concerning the caprice and Vol. XXXVIII. arrogance of this performer, who was usually qualified with the title of Caño flazzo. - Veracini would give lessons to no one except a nephew, who died young. The only master he had him- self in his youth, was his uncle, Antonio Veracini, of Florence; but by travelling all over Europe he formed a style of playing peculiar to himself. Besides being in the service of the king of Poland, he was a considerable time at different courts of Germany, and twice in En- gland, where, during the time of Farinelli, he composed several operas: among which was “ Adriano,” in Lon- don, in the winter of 1735 and 1736, which had a run of twelve nights; and in 1744, “L’Errore di Salomone,” in which Monticelli performed. Veracini’s first arrival in England was in the year 1714, when in the advertisements of the time for the opera of Dorinda, it is said that “Signor Veracini, late- ly arrived, will perform symphonies;” and the same year, with the operas of Creso, Arminio, and Ernelinda, solos on the violin were frequently performed by Vera- CII) I. We saw and heard him perform in the year 1745, at Hickford’s room, where, though in years, he led the band at a benefit concert for Jozzi, the second singer, at the opera, in such a bold and masterly manner as we had never heard before. Soon after this, in returning to the continent. Veracini was shipwrecked, and lost his two famous Steiner violins, thought to have been the best in the world, and all his effects. He used to call one of his violins St. Peter, and the other St. Paul. As a composer he had certainly a great share of whim and caprice, but he built his freaks on a good founda- tion, being an excellent contrapuntist. The peculiari- ties in his performance were his bow-hand, his shake, his learned arpeggios, and a tone so loud and clear, that it could be distinctly heard through the most numerous band of a church or theatre. - Veracini and Vivaldi had the honour of being thought mad for attempting in their works and performance what many a sobergentleman has since done uncensured ; but both these musicians, happening to be gifted with more fancy and more hand than their neighbours, were thought insane; as friar Bacon, for superior science, was theught a magician, and Galileo a heretic. VERA-CRUZ, in Geograft hy, a sea-port of Mexico, in the province of Tlascala, with a secure harbour de- fended by a fort, upon a rock of a neighbouring island, called St. John d’Alva, in the gulf of Mexico. This is fortified with 300 pieces of cannon; and signals are made from a high tower. This is a place of very great extent, and perhaps one of the most considerable in Spanish America for trade, it being the natural centre of the American treasure, and the magazine of all the merchandise sent from New Spain, or of that transport- ed hither from Europe. It receives a prodigious quanti- ty of East India goods over land from Acapulco, brought from the Philippine isles. Upon the annual arrival of the flota here from Old Spain, a fair is opened, which lasts many weeks, when this place may be said to be im- mensely rich. Its situation is unhealthy, from the bogs round it, and the barrenness of the soil. It parts the sea in a semicircle, and is inclosed with a single wall or parapet, six feet high and three broad, surmounted by a wooden pallisade much decayed. The wall is flanked with six feeble bastions, on square towers twelve feet high. On the shore to the S.E. and N.W. are two re- doubts, with some cannon to defend the port. The 3 M houses V E. R V E. R houses are well built with stone and lime, and have wood- en balconies. The streets are wide, well paved with pebbles, and kept in excellent order. The churches are much decorated with silver; and in the dwelling- houses, the chief luxury consists of porcelain and other Chinese articles. The principal inhabitants are mer- chants; but European commerce is mostly carried on at Xalapa. The population is about 7000 or 8000 : the inhabitants are generally proud, indolent, and devout ; but commerce is well understood, and here are seven or eight houses, each worth a million of dollars. The wo- men are rarely handsome, and live in retirement; the only amusements being a coffee-house and processions, or religious masquerades, the penitents whipping them- selves with much bloodshed. A charity of 6000 dollars to marry four poor girls has, as is usual in such cases, reverted to the rich. The harbour of Vera. Cruz might offer anchorage to 40 or even 60 ships of war in four to ten fathoms; but the northerly winds are terrible, and often drive vessels on shore. In the rainy season the marshes on the South are haunted by caymans, or alli- gators, from seven to eight feet in length, but innocent. The sea-fowl are innumerable, and the mosquitoes very troublesome. The north winds are said to be so violent, that the ladies are excused from going to mass; and these gales sometimes load the walls with sand. In the rainy season the water regularly falls in the night. Earthquakes are frequent. Vera-Cruz having been ta- ken and plundered several times by the Buccaneers, the Spaniards have built forts, and placed sentinels along the coast : their ordinary garrison consisting only of 60 hºrse and two companies of foot; 180 miles E.S.E. of Mexico. N. lat. 19° 5'. W. long, 97° 26'. V ERA-CRUz, a port in the bay of St. Philip and St. Jago, in Terra Australis del Espiritu Santo, discovered by Quiros in 1606, and, according to him, capable of containing 1000 ships, with clear soundings of black sand, and water from three feet to 40 fathoms. VERA-CRUz, Old, a sea-port of Mexico, in the pro- vince of Tlascala. This is the port where Cortez land- ed in 1518; 1.5 miles N. of Vera-Cruz. This is situa- ted insalubriously; and the river is full of caymans, so strong as to draw an ox under water. They are fond of the flesh of dogs. N. lat. 19° 20'. W. long. 97° 40'. VERACUNDALORE, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic ; 20 miles S.W. of Bomrauzepollam. VERAGILA, a small island in the gulf of Venice. N. lat 44° 12'. E. long. 15° 32'. VERAGRI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of the Alps, in the Pennine valley. Caesar places them be- tween the Nantuates and the Seduni. VERAGUA, in Geography, a province of Mexico, bounded on the N. by the gulf of Mexico, on the E. by the province of Darien, on the S. by the Pacific ocean, and on the W. by Costa Rica. This coast was first dis- covered by Columbus, in the year 1503, to whom it was granted, with the title of duke. To the river now call- ed Veragua, he gave the name “Verdes-aguas,” on ac- count of the green colour of its water; or, according to others, because the Indians called it by that name in their language. But however that may be, it is from this river that the province derives its name. In 1538, the captains Gasper d’Espinosa and Diego de Alvirez, renewed the discovery by land; but, being repulsed by Prince Urraca, were obliged to content themselves with a settlement in the neighbourhood; and even here the Spaniards were not able to maintain their ground against the frequent incursions of the Indians; so that finding the absolute necessity of a stronger settlement, they built the city Santa Fé, on the spot where it now stands. This province, though geographically belonging to North America, is included within the kingdom or territory of Terra Firma. The country is rugged and mountainous, but abounding with beautiful and excellent woods, and having vales that afford rich pastures. The monkeys found here are small but beautiful, being of a buff.co- lour, with a white crown; but too delicate to be removed from their native clime. It is said to rain here every day in the year; and the rain is attended with tremendous thunder and lightning, and produces torrents that de- scend with rapidity and violence from the mountains. Its gold-mines are rich, but little wrought, because every article must be carried on the shoulders of the Indians over steep mountains. The Doraces, and other savage tribes, live naked in the mountains, on roots and fruits; but several have been converted since the year 1760 by the Franciscans, who have founded some Indian villages. The capital of this province is called by the same name, and also St. Jago de Veragua (which see); it is situa- ted in a warm and moist climate, abounding in maize, yucca, a root of which bread is made, plantains, and cat- tle, but principally in swine. The natives dye their cot- ton of a rich and permanent purple, with the juice of a sea-snail found on the coast of the Pacific, akin to the murex of the ancients; with which, and some gold from the mines, they carry on trade with Panama, and the provinces of the kingdom of Guatimala. Here is an elegant hospital; and fourteen villages are subject to the jurisdiction of this town, which is ruled by a gover- The F. - - VERAL, a river of Spain, which runs into the Ara- OI). VERALA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Hispania Citerior, between Calaguris and Trisium. VERAMALLY, in Geografthy, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic; 18 miles S. of Tritchinopoly. VERANO Ave, or Ave de Verano, in Ornithology, the name by which the Portuguese in the Brazils call a large bird of the thrush kind, approaching to the size of a small pigeon, remarkable for its loud noise ; and more commonly known by its American name guiraſianga. VER ANOCA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Asia, in Phoenicia. VERAPATCHY, in Geography, a town of Hindoos- tan, in the Mysore; 20 miles W.N.W. of Dindigul. VERA-PAZ, a province of Mexico, in the domain of Guatimala, bounded on the N. by the province of Chia- pa, on the E. by the bay and province of Honduras, on the S. by Guatimala, and on the W. by Soconusco; about 1.20 miles in length, and 74 in breadth. In one part of the country the air is healthy, in the other not. The country is subject to earthquakes, thunder, and nine months’ rain. The soil is mountainous, yielding little corn, but abounding in forests of cedar, &c. in which are many wild beasts. The principal commodities are drugs, cocoa, cotton, wool, honey, &c. - VERA-PAz, or CoEAN, a town of Mexico, and capital of the province of Vera-Paz, situated on a river which runs to the bay of Honduras; 600 miles S.E. of Mexico. N. lat. 15° 50'. W. long. 91° 14'. VERATO, a town of Naples, in the province of Otran- to ; 4 miles S. of Alessano. VERATRUM, in Botany, which some derive from were atrum, truly black, because the root is, externally 3: VERATRUM. at least, of that colour; may more safely be left among those ancient names whose origin is uſiknown. It oc- curs in Lucretiuš and Piiny, indicating some very active or poisonous plant ; and is generally supposed synony- mous with the #x2:30p.2% Asv2.0% of Dioscorides, itself rather doubtful, and whose particular designation is a contra- diction to the above etymology. Whatever difficulties may attend the determination of the ancient Vera trum, this name is now universally applied to the genus we are about to describe, one of whose original species having nearly white, and the other as nearly black, flowers, the English appellations, of White and Black Hellebore, suit them so well, as to efface all memory of old uncertainties.—Linn. Gen. 540. Schreb. 715. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 895. Mart. Miii. Dict. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 425. Pursh 24?, Juss. 47. Tourn. t. 145. Lamarck Illustr. t. 843. Gaertn. t. 18.-Class and order, Polygamia Monoecia, or more properly Hear- andria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Coronaria, Linn. Junci, Juss. Melanthaceae, Brown. - Gen. Ch. Cal. none, unless the corolla be taken for such. Cor. Petals six, elliptic-oblong, sessile, thinner at the margin towards the base, and finely serrated or fringed in that part, permanent. Stam. Filaments six, inserted into the base of the petals, awl-shaped, con- verging round the germens, spreading at the summit : anthers quadrangular, versatile, attached by the back. Pist. Germens three, superior, oblong, compressed, erect, countined, termiuating in three very short styles, with simple spreading stigmas. Peric. Capsules three, oblong, erect, compressed, of one cell and one valve, but sting at their inner margins, by which they are ori- gically connected. Seeds several, obliquely imbricated, inserted into each margin of the capsule, oblong, com- pressed, winged at each end ; the wing at the lower part rounded. Several flowers, on the same plant, have only slight rudiments of a pistil. Ess. Ch. Calyx none. Petals six, permanent, Ses- sile, equal, bearing the stamens. Styles permanent. Capsules three, bursting at the inner edge. Seeds nu- merous, compressed, imbricated, winged at each end. Some flowers male. Obs. This genus has been thought too near MELAN- THIUM, see that article. The cafi sules of the latter are single, of three cells, and in some species the cells burst externally, but this is not the case with M. sióiricum, whose cells burst at the inner angle only. The subject wants revision. The habit of Melanthium, for the most part an African genus, is very unlike Veratrum, the leaves being sicnder, and inflorescence more simple, The corolla is more coloured, with elongated ciaws; aud though permanent, has less of the coriaceous nature of a ca/yr. HELoNIAs, (see that article,) which Mr. Ker would unite with Vera trum, has a roundish three-celled capsule, and a different habit. 1. V. album. White Veratrum, or Common White Hellebore. Linn. Sp. Pl 1479, Wäld. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Jacq. Austr. t. 335. Fi. Dan, t. 1 12 J. Mili. Ic. t. 271. Mill. Illustr. t. 98. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 100, (Hel- leborus praecox ; Ger. Em. 440. Eijeborum album ; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 559.)—Panicle thrice compound. Petals ascending, elliptical.—Native of alpine meadows in most parts of Europe, from Norway to Greece; but not of Britain. It is, of course, a hardy perennial in our gardens, where it has been cultivated time out of mind, flowering from June to August. The root is tuberous, black on the outside, with long, simple, white, cylindri- cal fibres. Stem from two to four or five feet high, stout, erect, simple, leafy, terminating in a large, branching, downy flanicle, of innumerable greenish-white ſº overs, with little or no scent, an inch broad, whose fetals when in full perfection spread horizontally, but in fading re- turn to their original ascending posture, becoming green, leafy, and coriaceous. The leaves are large, el- liptical, entire, with many ribs, plaited smooth, of a fine green; the uppermost becoming oblong or lanceolate bracteas. Each partial flower-stalk is also accompanied by an elliptic-lanceolate downy bractea, various in length. This stately plant, accompanied by Gentiana lºt tea, makes a magnificent appearance in rich pastures on the alps of Switzerland and Savoy, where they both grow more luxuriantly than in gardens.—Mr. Sieber of Prague has sent us from the alps of Austria, under the name of “ P. viride Bernhardi,” what seems a greener- flowered variety of the album, and different from the following ; but it is extremely difficult to decide on this point, without seeing the plants alive. 2. V. viride. Green Veratrum. Ait. n. 2. Willd. n. 2. Pursh m. 1. Bigelow Bost. 246, (V. album ; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 249. Helonias viridis; Curt. Mag. t. 1096.)— Spikes panicled, dense, cylin- drical. Petals ascending, elliptical.—In swamps and on mountain bogs, from Canada to Carolina, flowering in July. A stately plant, from three to six feet high. Pursh. Dr. Bigelow, in his Flora Bostomiensis, says this plant, not unfrequent in meadows and swamps about Boston, is called Poke root, or Swamp Hellebore. It was cultivated in England by Peter Collinson, in 1742. The foliage and habit are like the preceding, but the flanicle is larger and greener; its branches longer and more cylindrical, spiked, not racemose, each flower being nearly or quite sessile. The fetals are broader; their margins thickened and mealy about the base. 3. V. nigrum. Dark Veratrum. Linn. Sp. PI. 1479. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 4. Jacq. Austr. t. 336. Curt. Mag. t. 963. (Helleborus albus praecox; Ger. Em. 440. f. 2.)—Clusters panicled, dense, cylindrical. Petals obovate, widely spreading ; at length reflexed.— Native of dry mountainous situations in Siberia, [[un- gary, Austria and Greece, flowering in July. Perfect- ly hardy in our gardens, where it blossoms freely, and increases without any care, provided the soil be dry. It agrees with the first species in habit and leaves, but is rather taller, and is very remarkable for the dark purplish-brown, almost black, hue of its flowers, which exhale a faint cadaverous scent. They compose long, cylindrical, sessile clusters, assembled into a long fami- cle, accompanied by narrow strap-shaped &racteas in the lower part. Each flower is but half as broad as those of V. album, and the fetals turn backward as they fade, becoming finally of a dull green. 4. V. virginicum. Virginian Veratrum. Ait. n. 3. (Melanthium virginicum ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 483. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 266. Pursh 240. Helonias virginica; Cºurt. Mag. t. 985. Asphodelo affinis floridana, ramo. so caule, floribus ornithogali obsoletis ; Pluk. A malth. 40. t. 434. f. 8.)—Clusters panicled, loose. Petals el- liptical, spreading, with two spots at the base; hairy at the back-In low grounds, amongst luxuriant herbage, from New York to Carolina, flowering in June and July, perennial. Rather scarce in gardens, though tolerably hardy. The stem is from three to five feet high, downy. Ileaves linear-lanceolate, folded, ribbed, 3 M 2 pointed. V E. R. V E R pointed. Panicle pyramidal, of numerous, loosely racemose, many-flowered branches, whose partial stalks are about half as long again as the fetals. Flowers green, with two brown spots on each fetal. After being expanded for some time, they turn to a red- brown. 5. V. fiarviſlorum. Small-flowered Veratrum. Mi- chaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 250. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 5. Pursh n. 2.-4: Clusters panicled, with slender branches. Petals oval-lanceolate, acute at each end. Leaves elliptical, flat, smooth.”—On high mountains in Carolina, flowering in July. Flowers small, green. Root perennial. Pursh. The leaves are like those of a Veratrum, but not so much furrowed, or plaited. Pe- tals without glands. Inflorescence that of a Melanthi- tum. Michaur. We have seen no specimen nor figure, neither of this nor the following. 6. V. angustifolium. Narrow.leaved Veratrum. Pursh n. 3:—“ Dioecious. Panicle simple. Petals li- near. Leaves very long, linear, keeled.”—On high mountains of Virginia and Carolina. Perennial, flow- ering in June. Stem tall. Flowers greenish-yellow. JPurs/h. 7. V. Sabadilla. Caustic Veratrum, or Indian Caustic Barley. Retz. Obs, fasc. i. 3 1. n. 107. Willd. n. 5. (Cevadilla; Dale Pharmac. 286. Hordeum causti- cum ; Bauh. Pin. 23. Theatr. 467, with a probably fictitious figure. Ytzcvimpatli, seu Canis interfector, vel Hordeolum; Hernand. Mex. 307, with an appa- rently authentic figure.)—Leaves linear-lanceolate, rib- bed. Cluster simple, dense, solitary, terminal.—Native of the colder regions of Mexico. The leaves appear to be all nearly radical. Stem solitary, simple, erect, al- most naked, three spans high. Cluster erect, cylindri- cal, a span long, nearly or quite simple. Flowers turn- ed to one side, of a very dark purple. Petals ovate.— Retzius, who first introduced this plant into a scientific botanical work, found a specimen of the flowers, im- ported along with the seeds, in a druggist’s shop. They answered to the character of a genuine Veratrum, as might be expected from the seeds and caſsules, which we have occasionally met with, and whose qualities are analogous to those of V. album. But the learned pro- fessor never thought of tracing out the synonyms, or searching for any figures, of this little-known plant ; which defect, we have endeavoured to supply. For the medical properties of the seeds in question, see CEva- DILLA. - For V. luteum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1479. HELONIAS, n. 3. VERATRUM, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy, herbaceous, perennial kind, among which the species cultivated are, the white-flowered veratrum, or white hellebore (V. album); the dark-flowered vera- trum (V nigrum); and the yellow-flowered veratrum (V. luteum). The first sort has the stems three or four feet high, and branching out on every side almost their whole length: the branches and principal stem being termi- nated by spikes of flowers set very close together, which are of a greenish-white or herbaceous colour, and ap- pear in July. The second sort has the stalks rising higher, but the flowers are of a dark-red colour, which appear almost a month Sooner. The third sort has a large tuberous root with a sin- le stem, about a foot high, having the flowers produc- ed at the top, in a single thick close spike, which are Willd. n. 6, see small, and of a yellowish-white colour, appearing in June. Method of Culture.—All these plants may be in- creased by seed and parting the roots. - The seed should be sown in the autumn or early spring, upon a bed or border of light earth, or in a box filled with the same sort of mould. When the plants are come up in the spring, keep them clear from weeds, and refreshed with water occasionally when the season is hot and dry ; and in the following autumn, when the leaves decay, take them up carefully without injuring the roots, and plant them out about half a foot Square in a fresh bed of light mould ; and when they have re- mained in it till fit for flowering, they should be re- moved into the borders, clumps, or other parts. This is, however, a tedious method, as they seldom flower in less than four years; therefore the root method is most- ly had recourse to. The roots may be divided in autumn, when the leaves decay, and be planted out in a light, fresh, rich mould where they are to grow ; they should not be removed oftener than once in about four years. The roots should not be parted too small. These plants have a fine effect in the middle of large borders, clumps, and other similar situations, in plea- sure grounds and other places by the singularity of their large furrowed leaves, and their different modes of flowering. The first sort is much cultivated as a medicinal plant for the use of its root, as well as the black sort occa- sionally ; in which intention the plants should be set out in beds or borders in any common parts of the ground. - VERATRUM, in the Materia Medica. See HELLE- BORE, - Mr. James Moore has suggested that a vinous infu- sion of the root of the veratrum album, or white helle- bore, constitutes the active ingredient in the eau médi- cinale d’Husson. Mr. Moore gives the following pre- paration : take of white hellebore-root, eight ounces; white wine, two pints and a half. The root is to be cut in thin slices, and infused for ten days, occasionally shaking the bottle. Let the infusion be then filtered through paper. The dose of the mixture, in cases of gout, may be from one fluid-drachm to three fluid-drachms. VERB, in Grammar, a word serving to express what we affirm of any subject, or attribute to it; or, it is that part of speech, by which one thing is attributed to an- other, as to its subject ; as the words is, understands, hears, believes, &c. This is, in other words, the defi- nition of a verb adopted by Dr. Priestley in his Gram- mar. But this definition seems to include not only verbs, but likewise all adjectives, and abstract nouns signifying qualities; for when we say “God is good,” or “Gocqness belongs to God,” do not the words “good” and “goodness” express what is affirmed of or attributed to the Deity P But if in this definition it is merely asserted, that the essence of the verb consists in affirmation, it might have been expressed with greater precision, thus : “a verb is a word affirming something of, or attributing something to, a thing.” It is, says Dr. Blair, the affirmation that seems to be that which chiefly distinguishes the verb from the other parts of speech, and gives it its most conspicuous power. Hence there can be no sentence, or complete proposi- tion, without a verb either expressed or implied; for whenever we speak, we always mean to assert, that Something V E R B. something is or is not; and the word which carries this assertion, or affirmation, is a verb. This ingenious writer, however, seems to have improperly included time as one of the three things implied in all verbs, adding this to the attribute of some substantive, and an affirmation concerning that attribute. The definition of Dr. Beattie seems to be more objectionable. He defines a verb to be “a word necessary in every sen- tence, signifying the affirmation of some attribute, to- gether with the designation of time, number, and per- son.” According to this definition, neither infinitive moods, nor gerunds, nor supines, nor participles are verbs; for they neither contain an affirmation, nor sig- nify time, nor are limited either to number or person. If affirmation, which we conceive to be the case, be essential to verbs, it is possible to form a tolerably co- pious language with only one verb in it; for infinitives, participles, adjectives, &c. may be so united to nouns by the copula, or verb Is, alone, as to express almost any idea which we can have occasion to communicate. But if the circumstances of time, person, and number, be essential to verbs, it is more than probable that lan- guages may subsist in the world, which have not a sin- gle verb in them. And in this case Dr. Beattie cannot consistently maintain, as he asserts, that a verb is “a word necessary in every sentence.” In the Malayan lan- guage, e.g. which is held in high estimation, and which has wide extent in the East Indies, the verb admits of no modification whatever, on account either of person, tense, or voice ; in all these respects, the personal pro- nouns only, with particles prefixed, determine the sense. The verb is thus called of the Latin verbum, word, by way of eminence; as being the principal word of a sentence. Accordingly verbs, as Dr. Adam Smith ob- serves, must have been coeval with the first attempts towards the formation of language. No affirmation can be expressed without the assistance of some verb. This writer suggests, that the radical verb, or the first form of it, in most languages, would be what we now call the im/hersonal verb : as “it rains,” and the like : as this is the simplest form of the verb, and merely affirms the existence of an event, or of a state of things. By de- grees, after pronouns were invented, such verbs became personal, and were branched out into all the varieties of tenses and moods. On this subject, see VERB, Substantive, infra. The common definition given by grammarians is, that the verb is a word which betokens being, doing, or suf. fering. This is the definition of the learned bishop Lowth, and it includes nothing more than what is essen- tial ; so that it is equaliy applicabie to the verb in aii languages, in all its various forms, comprehending not only infinitives and participles, but likewise gerunds and supines. If it is in any respect defective, it is because it does not in all cases sufficiently distinguish verbs from verbal nouns. Infinitives and participles, gerunds and supines (see each in its place), not only signify ac- tions, but govern the cases of nouns and pronouns in the same manner with the verbs, and therefore should be comprehended under the name of verbs. But those verbal nouns which do not govern accusative cases have not the same pretensions; for they have not the regi- men of verbs, but of substantives, and consequently more properly belong to that class. To conceive the origin and office of verbs, it may be observed, that the judgment we make of any thing, as when I say the earth is round, necessarily includes three terms. The first, called the subject, is the thing we affirm of, e.g. earth. The segond, called the attribute, is the thing affirmed, e. g. round. The third, is, con- nects those two terms together, and expresses the ac- tion of the mind, affirming the attribute of the subject. This last is what we properly call the verb; and which some of our later grammarians, particularly the Port Royalists, choose to call by a more significant word, affirmation. The reason is, that its principal use is to signify affirmation; that is, to show the discourse in which that word is used, is the discourse of a man who does not only conceive things, but judges and affirms somewhat of timem. By this circumstance, a verb is distinguished from nouns, which also signify an affirmation, as affirmans affirmatio; those only signify an affirmation, as that, by a reflection of the mind, is rendered an object of thought: so that they do not show, that the person who uses them affirms, but only that he conceives an affirmation. Though the principal use of verbs be to signify af- firmation or assertion, they also serve to express the other emotions of the soul; as to desire, pray, com- mand, &c.; but this they only do by changing the mood, or inflexion. Here, we only consider the verb in its primary sig- nification, which is that it has in the indicative mood. On this footing, the verb should have no other use, but to mark the connexion which we make in the mind, be- tween the two terms of a proposition; but the verb esse, to be, is the only one that has retained this simplicity: nor, in strictness, has this retained it, but in the third person, as est, is. - In effect, men being naturally inclined to shorten their expressions, to the affirmation they have almost always added other significations in the same word; thus, e.g. they add that of some attribute, so as that two words make a proposition; as in Petrus vivit, Peter lives : where vivit includes both the attribute and affirmation ; it being the same thing to say Peter lives, as that Peter is living. And hence the great variety of verbs in every language. For if people had been contented to give the verb its general signification, without any additional attribute, each language would only have needed one verb, viz. the verb substantive est, is. Again, on some occasions, they also superadd the sub- ject of the proposition, as sum homo, I am a man ; or vivo, I live : and hence the diversity of persons in verbs. Again, we also add to the verb, a relation to the time, with regard to which we affirm; so that one single word, as canásti, signifies that I attribute to the person I speak the action of supping, not for the present time, but for the past: and hence the great diversity of tenses in most verbs. The diversity of these significations, or additions in the same word, has perplexed and deceived many of our best authors, in the nature of a verb; and has led them to consider it, not according to what is essentiai to it, which is to affirm ; but according to some of these its accidental relations. Thus, Aristotle, taking up with the third of those ad- ditional significations, defines verb to be voz significano cum tempore; a word signifying something with time. Others, as Buxtorf, adding the second relation, define it, vox flexilis cum tem/hore et fiersona; a word admit. ting of divers inflexions, in respect of time and person. Others, taking up with the first of the additional sig- nifications, which is that of the attribute, and co, sider- ing that the attributes men ordinarily add to the affirma- **On? V E. R. B. tion, were actions and passions, have supposed the es- sence of a verb to consist in signifying actions or fiassions. Lastly, Scaliger imagined he had made a great disco- yery in his book of the Principles of the Latin Tongue, in saying, that the distinction of things into fiermanentes, and fluentes, into what remain, and what pass away, is the proper source of the distinction between nouns and verbs; the first being to signify what remains, and the second what passes. But from what we have said, it is easy to perceive, that these definitions are all false : and that the only true definition is voz significans affirmationem: this de- finition includes all that is essential to the verb: but if one would likewise include its principal accidents, one might define it, voz significans affirmationem, cum desig- natione fierson ac, et temporis; a word which signifies an affirmation, with a designation of person, number, and tense; which is what properly agrees to the verb Substantive est. For as to other verbs, considered as becoming differ- ent by the union of certain attributes, one may define them thus: voac significans affirmationem alicuſ us at- tributi, cum designatione fierson at, numeri, et temploris; a word which expresses the affirmation of some attri- bute, with a designation of person, number, and time. Verbs, according to Mr. Harris, are those attribu- tives, which have a complex power of denoting both an attribute and an assertion: those which take the at- tribute alone without the assertion are fiarticiſiles; and all other attributives are included under the general name of adjectives. And as some attributes have their essence in motion, e. g. to walk, to live, &c. others in the privation of motion, e.g. to rest, to die, &c. and others again in subjects, which have nothing to do with either motion or its privation, as great and little, white and black, &c. these last are adjectives, and those which denote motion or its privation are either verbs or parti- ciples. But motions and their privation, comprehend- ed under the general term energy, imply time as their concomitant, and hence, he says, verbs which denote them, come to denote time also. See TENSE. See also Moop. Every energy has a reference, says this ingenious wri- ter, to some energizing substance, and is conversant about some subject; and hence he derives the distinction between verbs active and fiassive : and as every energy respects an energizer, or a passive subject; hence ap- pears the reason why every verb, whether active or pas- sive, has in language a reference to some noun for its nominative case. When among the infinite subjects, to which the energy refers, that happens to occur, which is the energizer also, as Brutus loved himself, slew himself, &c. in such case the energy hath to the same being a double relation, both active and passive; and this gave rise among the Greeks to that species of verbs, called verbs middle ; but in other languages, the verb still re- tains its active form and the passive subject (se or himself) is expressed like other accusatives. Again, in some verbs, it happens that the energy always keeps with- in the energizer, and never passes out to any foreign subject, because the energizer and the passive subject are united in the same person ; and then we obtain that species of verbs, called by grammarians verbs neuter, as if they were void both of action and passion, though they may rather be said to imply both. Of the above species of verbs, the middle cannot be called necessary, because most languages have done without it; those remaining are, therefore, the active, the fiassive, and the neuter, which seem essential to all languages whatever. Mr. Harris observes, that though the greater part of verbs denotes attributes of energy and motion; there are some which appear to denote nothing more than a mere simple adjective, joined to an assertion, as 'izzºt in Greek, equalleth in English, albeo and tumed in Latin ; and there are also verbs, which are formed out of nouns, or in which the substantive is converted into an attribu- tive. There are other supposed affections of verbs, be- sides moods and tenses, such as number and I erson. But these are, in fact, the properties not of attributes, but of substances. Hermes, chap. vi. viii. and ix. Verbs are variously divided : with respect to the sub- ject or signification, they are divided into active, fass- ive, neuter, &c.; with respect to their construction, into transitive and in transitive; with repect to their forma- tion or inflexions, into regular and irregular, fiersonal and imſicrsonal; auxiliary, substantive, &c. See LAN- GUAGE, GRAMMAR, and the subsequent articles. VERB JActive, is a verb which expresses an action that falls on another subject, or object. It is called also transitive, because the action passeth over to the object, or hath an effect upon some other thing. See ACTIVE. VERB Passive, is that which expresses a passion ; or which receives the action of some agent, and necessarily implies an object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon : it is conjugated, in the modern tongues, with the auxiliary verb I am, je suis, je sono, &c. Some do not allow of any verbs passive in the mod- ern language ; the reason is, what we call passive is no- thing but the participle of the verb, joined with the auxiliary verb, to be ; whereas the verbs passive of the Latin, &c. have their particular terminations. See PAS- SIVE. VERB JVeuter, is that which signifies an action that has no particular object on which to fall ; but which, of itself, takes up the whole idea of the action : or a verb neuter expresses being, or a state or condition of being ; when the agent and the object acted upon coincide : as, I sleef, thou yawnest, he snores, we walk, you run, they stand. The Latins call them neuters, because they are nei- ther active nor passive : though they have the force and signification of both ; as, I languish, signifies as much as I am languishing ; I obey, as much as I exercise obedience, &c. only that they have no regimen to partic- ularize this signification. The verb neuter is called in- transitive; because the effect is confined within the agent, and doth not pass over to any object. The distinction between verbs absolutely neuter, as, to sleef, and verbs active intransitive, as, to walk, though founded in nature and truth, is of little use in gram- mar; the construction of both is the same. Lowth’s Gram. p. 62. Of these verbs, there are some which form their tenses by the auxiliary verb to have; as, I have slºfit, wou have run. These, grammarians call neuter active. Others there are, which form their compound parts by the auxiliary to be; as to come, to arrive, &c. for we say, I am come, not I have come, &c. These are called neuters fiassive. The neuter verb is varied like the active; but, hav- ing somewhat of the nature of the passive, admits in many instances of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signification; chiefly in such verbs as signify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition; as, I am come, I was gone, &c. In English, many verbs are used both in an active and V E. R. B. and neuter signification, the construction only deter- mining of which kind they are. VERB Substantive, is that which expresses the being, or substance, which the mind forms to itself, or sup- poses in the object; whether it be there, or not ; as, I am, thou art. Existence, says Mr. Harris, may be considered as a universal genus, to which all things of all kinds are at all times to be referred. The verbs, therefore, which denote it, claim precedence of all others, as being es- sential to the very being of every proposition in which they may still be found, either exprest, or by implica- tion ; express, as when we say, the sun is bright; by im- plication, as when we say, the sun rises, which means, when resolved, the sun is rising. The verbs is, groweth, becometh, est, fit, Özépzet, is, ºréxet, yiyvilai, are all used to express this general genus; and are called by the Latins verbs substantive, and by the Greeks ##axzz Özapºlize, verbs of existence, a name more apt, as being of greater latitude, and comprehending equally as well attribute as substance. The principal of these verbs is the verb is \, est, is. when we say, B is; or qualified, as when we say, B is an animal, B is black, &c. And with respect to this difference, the verb, is, can by itself express absolute existence, but never the qualified, without subjoining the particular form; consequently, when is only serves to subjoin some such form, it has little more force than that of a mere assertion. Under the same character, it becomes a latent part in every other verb, by express- ing that assertion, which is one of their essentials: e.g. riseth means is rising, &c. Moreover, as to existence in general, it is either mutable, as in the objects of sensation; or immutable, as in the objeets of intellec- tion and science. All mutable objects exist in time, and admit the several distinctions of present, past, and fu- ture: but immutable objects know no such distinction, but rather stand opposed to all things temporary. And hence result two different significations of the substan- tive verb is, as it denotes mutable or immutable being: e.g. if we say, this orange is rifle, Is meaneth that it ex- isteth so now at this present, in opposition to past time, when it was green, and to future time, when it will be rotten: but if we say, the diameter of the square is in- commensurable with its side, we do not intend by Is that it is incommensurable now, having been formerly com- mensurable, or being to become so hereafter : on the contrary, we intend that perfection of existence, to which time and its distinctions are utterly unknown. Under the same meaning, we employ this verb, when we say, truth is, or God is : the opposition is not of time present to other times, but of necessary existence to all tempo- rary existence whatever. Hermes, p. 88, &c. In every language, says Dr. Adam Smith, in his “Formation of Languages,” annexed to his “ Theory of Moral Sentiments,” there is a verb, known by the name of the substantive verb, in Latin, sum, in English, I am. This verb, he says, denotes not the existence of any particular event, but existence in general. On this account it is the most abstract and metaphysical of all verbs, and consequently could by no means be a word of early invention. Nevertheless he allows, that it is in every language; and therefore in languages which are in their earliest infancy. Others are of opinion, not without reason, that the verb substantive, or copula, is, is not only the most necessary, but the most simple of all verbs, for it contains nothing more than an assertion, or affirmation, that a thing exists. The idea conveyed All existence is either absolute, as by this simple proposition is coeval with thought itself: for what can we think about, unless we think that some- thing is, or exists P This copula, or verb of existence, is, must appear to be coeval with language itself. But we cannot reasonably infer from hence, that this was the case with respect to any other finite verb. It is probable, that people, in their first attempts to express their ideas by words, would be some time before they invented any other word containing in itself an assertion or affirmation : for they would not, at a very early pe- riod, think of contriving words so complex in their na- ture as to include in them both the name of an action and an assertion. An ingenious writer on the subject of verbs (see Pickbourn’s Dissertation on the English Verb) conjec- tures that the first mode of expressing actions or pas- sions would be by farticiſiles or verbal nouns; i. e. words signifying the names of the actions or fiassions they wanted to describe : and these words, connected with their subject by the copula is (a word coeval with speech itself), might, in these rude beginnings of lan- guage, tolerably well supply the place of verbs; e. g. from observing the operations of nature, such words as rain or raining, thunder or thundering, would soon be invented ; and, by adding the copula is, they would say, thundering, or thunder, is, or is not; raining, or rain, is; which, by the rapidity of pronunciation, might in time form the verbs rains, thunders, &c. The observa- tion of their own actions, or the actions of the animals around thern, would soon increase their stock of ideas, and put them upon contriving suitable expressions for them. Hence might arise such words as these : sleep, or sleefing; stand, or standing ; run, or running; bite, or biting; hurt, or hurting: and by joining these to substantives, by means of the copula is, they might form such sentences as these, Lion is sleefing, or per- haps Lion sleef, is, stand is, &c. which would soon be contracted into Lion sleefs, stands, runs, bites, hurts, &c. Thus our little insulated family might become possessed of verbs including an attribute and an af. firmation in one word. The next step would probably be a distinction between actions in their frogressive and in their finished state ; i. e. actions going on in their presence, and perceived by their senses; and such as were ended, and consequently only known to them by memory, by refort, or by their effects: and they might perhaps apply such words as raining, thundering, sleep- ing, &c. to the former kind of actions; and such as rained, thundered, sleñt, &c. to the latter. And by joining the copula is to these words signifying perfect actions, in the same manner in which they had joined it before to the words signifying imperfect ones, and af- terwards contracting them into single words, they might soon acquire a verb expressing a finished action and an affirmation in one word. This improvement would probably suggest to them the idea of making such further alterations in, or additions to, their verbs, as would make them significant of all the grand divi- sions of time. But still their verbs would have neither fierson nor number, and would probably remain in that state till the invention of pronouns. But this, requiring some de- gree of abstraction, would probably not happen very early ; for in their first efforts to express themselves, they would be more likely to say, “Thomas loves #Pil. liam and Henry,” than “I love thee and him.” How. ever, in process of time, pronouns would no doubt be introduced ; and they might perhaps make such altera- tions. V E. R V E R ; * tions in their verbs, as to accommodate them to their numbers and persons, though such an accommodation does not seem absolutely necessary. Languages may therefore exist which do not vary their verbs to express either number or person. And, further, it is fossible that there may be languages so constructed as not to admit any variation in their verbs, even to express time; for if the verb only contains, in itself, an assertion and an attribute, the time of it may be fixed by adverbs and other adjuncts. This author concludes that a definition applicable to the verb in all languages, and in all its forms, cannot comprehend in it any thing more than what bishop Lowth has expressed by saying, “A verb is a word signifying to be, to do, or to suffer.” The copula, or substantive verb, is, according to this author, is, as we have already stated, the simplest of all verbs; and must necessarily have been contemporary with the first efforts of mankind to express their ideas by words. Without this we cannot unite an adjective to a substantive, or affilm that any thing is good or bad, or possesses any quality whatever, or even exists. But this is the only verb, containing an affirmation, which is so perfectly simple in its nature as not to comprehend, at least, two ideas, which may be easily separated, nay which must necessarily be separated, in the operations of the mind, whenever it endeavours to express them. Pluit, it rains, or is raining, comprehends the idea which the mind forms of that operation of nature which we call rain or raining, and likewise an affirmation of the-judgment which the mind forms concerning its pre- sent existence ; and therefore cannot be expressed more simply and naturally than by is raining, or rain is, which is easily contracted into, rains. VERBs, Auxiliary, or Helping, are those which serve in conjugating active and passive verbs; such are, I am, I have, &c. The auxiliary verbs are, like prepositions, words of a very general and abstract nature. They imply the dif- ferent modifications of simple existence, considered alone, and without reference to any particular thing. In the early state of speech, the import of them would be incorporated with every particular verb in its tenses and moods, long before words were invented for denot- ing such abstract conceptions of existence, alone and by themselves. But after these auxiliary verbs, in the progress of language, came to be invented and known, and to have tenses and moods annexed to them, like other verbs; it was found, that as they carried in their nature the force of that affirmation which distinguishes the verb, they might, by being joined with the partici- ple which gives the meaning of the verb, supply the place of most of the moods and tenses. The abbot de Dangeau distinguishes all verbs into two general kinds; auxiliary verbs, and verbs which make use of auxiliaries. This distinction some may tax as not very just : in regard auxiliary verbs sometimes make use of auxili- aries themselves: but this does not destroy the division; it only shows, that the auxiliary verb has two formali- ties, or two different qualities, under which it is to be considered ; in virtue whereof, it constitutes, as it were, two sorts of verbs. The verbs which make use of auxiliaries, he divides into active, neuter, and fironominal. Verbs neuter, he farther distinguishes into neuters active and neuters fias- sive. Pronominals he distinguishes into identic, reciſiro- cal, neutrized, and fiassived. But several of these are pe- culiar to the French language. See Auxiliary Verbs. When an auxiliary is joined to the verb, the auxiliary goes through all the variations of person and number; and the verb itself continues invariably the same. When there are two or more auxiliaries joined to the verb, the first of them only is varied according to person and num- ber. The auxiliary must admits of no variation. VERBs, Regular, are those which are conjugated af- ter some one manner, rule, or analogy. VERBS, Irregular, or Anomalous, are those which have something singular in the terminations or forma- tions of their tenses. See ANoMALouis Verbs. The formation of verbs in English, both regular and irregular, is derived from the Saxon. The irregular verbs in English are all monosyllables, unless compound- ed; and they are for the most part the same words which are irregular verbs in the Saxon. The first class of irregulars comprehends those that are become so from some kind of contraction ; thus, some verbs end- ing in d or t have the present, the past time, and the participle perfect and passive, all alike without any va- riation ; as, beat, burst, cost, &c. which are contractions from beated, bursted, costed, &c. because of the disa- greeable sound of the syllable ed after d or t. Others in the past time and participle perfect and passive, vary a little from the present, by shortening the diphthong, or changing the d into t ; as lead, led; meet, met; bend, bent, &c. Others not ending in d or t are formed by contraction ; as, have, had, for haved; flee, fled, for fee- ed., &c. The following, beside the contraction, change also the vowel ; sell, sold; tell, told; clothe, clad. The second class of irregulars are those that end in ght, both in the past time and participle, and change the vowel or diphthong into au or ou: they are taken from the Saxon, in which the termination is hte: as, bring, brought; buy, bought; seek, sought, &c. The third class of irregulars form the past time by changing the vowel or diphthong of the present and the participle perfect and passive, by adding the termination en: these also derive their for- mation from the Saxon : such are, fall, fell, fallen; shake, shook, shaken; draw, drew, drawn; slay, slew, slain, &c. &c. When en follows a vowel or liquid, the e is dropped. Some verbs, which change i short into a or u, and i long into ou, have dropped the termination en in the participle ; as, begin, began, begun; sing, sang, or sung; &c. To this third class belong the defective verbs, be, been; go, gone, i. e. g.oen. The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular, and irregular, simple and compounded, taken together, is about four thousand three hundred. See in Dr. Ward’s Essays on the English Language the cata- logue of English verbs. The whole number of irregu- lar verbs, including the defective, is about one hundred and seventy-seven. Lowth’s Gram. p. 85. See Conj U- GATION. VERBs, Defective, are those which are not only for the most part irregular, but are also wanting in some of their parts. Such are the auxiliary verbs, most of which are of this number. They are in use only in some of their tenses and moods; and some of them are a composition of tenses of several defective verbs having the same signification. Sce INCHOATIVE. VERB’s Impersonal. See IMPERSONAL. There are also reduñlicative verbs ; as, resound, re- call, &c.; and frequentative verbs, &c. See TRANSITIVE, and VERB Mc- VERB’s Inchoative. VERBs, Transitive. tive, supra- Tor V E R V E. R. For the observations of an ingenious and learned co- adjutor on the origin, nature, distribution, and proper- ties of verbs, we must content ourselves with referring to the article GRAMMAR. It will be found that his sen- timents differ in a variety of respects from those of much approved and popular writers, above stated : and we therefore prefer submitting them in the language of the author to the judgment of the philological reader, without any abridgment, and without any recapitulation, which would encroach too much on the limits to which we are confined. On this subject, see LANGUAGE. VERBAL, something that belongs to verbs, or even to words spoken with the mouth. Verbal nouns, are those formed from verbs. INFINITIVE. A verbal contract, is that made merely by word of mouth, in opposition to that made in writing. VERBAL Accident. See AccIDENT. VERBANO, in Geography, a department of Italy, constituted of part of the duchy of Milan, situated on the side of lake Major, anciently called Verbanus Lacus, and the bailiwicks ceded by the Swiss. It con- tains 166,842 inhabitants, who elect twelve deputies. Varesio is the capital. VERBANUS, in Ancient Geography, a lake of Gallia Transpadana : its northern part was in Rhae- tia, and its southern part in Gaul. VERBAS, in Geography, a river of Bosnia, which runs into the Save ; 25 miles N. N. E. of Banjaluka. VERBASCULUM, in Botany, the diminutive of Verbascum, perhaps from some similarity of colour and aspect, which may be traced in the Primrose and Cow- slip. Bauh. Pin. 241. This is precisely synonymous with FRIMULA; see that article. VERBASCUM, a plant frequently mentioned by Pliny, which, from all that he says about it, evidently belongs to the present genus, being the 4×owos of the ancient, as of the modern Greeks. The above name is supposed to be corrupted from Barbascum, which originated in barba, alluding to the shaggy hairiness of the plant. (See PHLoMIs.) We do not however find any good authority for this supposition.—Linn. Gen: 97. Schreb. 132. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1001. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 383. Sm. Fl. Brit. 249. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. l. 149. Pursh 142. Schrad. Monogr. 5. Juss. 124. Tourn. t. 61. Lamarck Illustr. t. 117. Gaertn. t. 55.—Class and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Luridae, Linn. Solamea’, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inſerior, of one leaf, small permanent, in five deep, erect, acutc, Heariy equal, segments. Cor. of one petal, wheel-shaped, unequal ; tube very short; limb spreading, in five deep rounded segments. Stam. Filaments five, awl- shaped, unequal, distant, declining, wooiſy, shorter than the corolla, inserted into its base; anthers compress- ed, erect, more or less kidney-shaped, bursting length- wise, imperfectly two-celled. Pist. German superi- or, roundish ; style thread-shaped, sightly swelling upwards, declining, rather longer than the stamens; Stigma obtuse. Peric. Capsuie roundish-ovate, or ovate-oblong, slightly compressed, of two cells and two valves, bursting in the upper part, the valves Sometimes splitting half way down; partition double, from the inflexed parahiel margins of the valves, but often incompiete. Rece/it. ovate or globular, central, connected at each side, in an early state at least, with VoI. XXXVIII, See the valves. Seeds numerous, minute, angular, dotted, inserted into the receptable. Ess. Ch. Corrolla wheel-shaped, irregular. Sta- mens distant, declining, bearded. Capsule superior, of two cells, with inflexed valves, and many seeds. Stigma simple. Obs. There is so great a space between the inner edges of the inflexed valves and the central receptacle, in V. fulverulentum and some other species, that the ripe capsule is literally of but one common cell, though originally of two. Hence arose an error in Engl. Bot. p. 58, 59, which is corrected at p. 487 of the same work. CELSIA (see that article) differs from this genus in having four stamens only, two long and two short. Professor Schrader, in the first part of an excellent monograph on Verbascum, published at Gottingen in 1813, p. 14, asserts that this difference is very constant and invariable, and therefore he is not disposed to concur with those botanists who combine these two genera. We heartily assent to this determi- nation. With regard to the new genus of Ramondia, founded, if we mistake not, on W. Myconi, and distin- guished by having a capsule of one cell, with two late- ral linear receptacles; we must suspend our judg- ment till we can examine into that character, but the habit of the plant, and its oblong heart-shaped two- celled anthers, indicate a very distinct genus. The species of Verbascum are among the most un- certain of any well-known genus. They are more than commonly variable in the colour and size of their flowers, and appear to be very subject to cross im- pregnation. Hence we are led to mistrust some re- puted species, described even by the ablest writers. The production of several mule ones has been traced and recorded, and we have observed others. Professor Schrader indeed has long cultivated and studied what he has described, and his accuracy is indisputable. We shall give his new species, on his own authority, and we shall profit by his remarks, in the general charac- ters here prefixed to the particular descriptions, . The root is generally biennial, rarely perennial, its form tapering. Stem generally solitary, from a foot and a half to four or eight feet in height, erect, some- times peculiarly stiff and straight, rarely a littie Zig- zag, leafy, in several instances alternately branched, many-floweved, panicled, with racemose stalks; in V. Myconi only altogether wanting. Leaves all radical the first year, subsequently all cauline : stalked, ses- sile, or decurrent : always alternate, simple, oblong ; undivided, lobed or pinnatifid ; simply or doubly cre- mate or toothed, rareiy entire; generally covered with dense, white, shaggy or starry, or mealy and deciduous, wooliness; sometimes nearly smooth. Flowers race- mose, generally aggregate, crowded, and Very nume- rous; mostly yellow, rarely yellowish-white, or Put- ple, or brownish. Bracteas mostly ovate, or lanceo- late, pointed, of two orders, external and internal. The whole genus is nearly, if not entirely, European, the species found in America, except perhaps K. Clay- toni of Pursh and Michaux, having been apparently introduced from this quarter of the world. The Le- vant produces many fine ones, not well known to Lin- Iłże UIS, Sect. 1. Leaves decurrent. 1. V. Thaftsus. Great Mullein; or High Taper. Linn. Sp. Pl. 252. Willd. n. 1. Schrad, n. 1. Pursh n. 1. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engi. Bot. t. 549. Fl. Dam. t. 3 N - 631. (Tapsus VERBASCUM. 33 1. (Tapsus barbatus; Ger. Em. 773. Qxorces Aevzn appºy ; Diosc. book 4. chap. iO4.)—Leaves decurrent, crenate, woolly on both sides. Stem simple. Cluster dense. Flowers almost sessile.—Frequent throughout Europe, on banks and waste ground, flowering in July and August; very common in Greece. Mr. Pursh ob- serves that, though common in America, this plant was probably introduced from Europe; nevertheless it springs up abundantly in the most remote parts of the country, in fields newly cleared and burnt. The root is biennial. Stem from three to five feet high, erect like a staff, woolly, winged with decurrent acute leaves which are clothed with white entangled starry wool, like cloth or flannel. Flowers very numerous, large, of a bright golden-yellow, with orange-coloured hairy stamens, and roundish red anthers. Mr. Robson of Darlington communicated to Dr. Withering a mule plant, produced under his own eyes, from this species impregnated by W. nigrum. Mr. D. Turner found a corresponding specimen, now before us, at Barton, near Swaffham, Norfolk. The leaves are but slightly de- current. Shike elongated and slender.—The leaves of V. Thaſhsus, about a handful boiled in a pint of milk, sweetened with sugar, strained, and the milk taken at bed-time, are useful in coughs, and more especially serviceable in allaying the irritation of the piles. V. fulverulentum has the same qualities.— V. thafusiforme, Schrad. n. 2. seems scarcely more than a variety with a larger corolla, and two of the anthers oblong, instead of their being all round. 2. V. crassifolium. Thick-leaved Mullein. Schrad. n. 3. “Hoffmannsegg and Link Lusit. v. 1. 213. t. 26.”—“Leaves decurrent, obscurely crenate, densely woolly; the upper ones rather acute. Cluster dense. Flowers almost sessile. Filaments smooth. Two of the anthers oblong.”—Found in sandy ground in Portu- gal. The smooth filaments afford the chief distinction between this plant and the last, at least its variety called thafusiforme. Experience must shew, by cultivation, whether this be permanent. 3. V. cushidatum. Pointed-leaved Mullein. Schrad. n. 4. t. 1. f. 1. (V. Thapsus; Ehrh. Pl. Off. n. 111.)— Leaves decurrent, crenate, woolly on both sides; the upper ones pointed. Cluster somewhat interrupted. Two of the anthers oblong.—Found in mountainous woods near Vienna. Schott. Near Upsal. Ehrhart. 'í'his Dr. Schrader mentions as the V. Thaftsus of the Vienna botanists, agreeing in habit with the two forego- ing, but the stem is of more humble stature, and more slender. Leaves smaller, less densely woolly; the up- per ones taper-pointed. Inflorescence and flowers more like V. ſihlomoides, the claster being interrupted, the flowers more stalked, and aggregate in little tufts. Corolla large. Two longer stamens having oblong an- /hers ; and in our specimen from Ehrhart smooth fila- ments, though the rest are hairy. 4. V. niveum. Snow-white Mullein. Tenore Hort. Neap. 109. Schrad. n. 5–Leaves half-decurrent, cre- hate; woolly and very white beneath; more slightly so above. Cluster dense. Flowers nearly sessile. An- thers uniform.—Found near Naples. Stem two or three feet high, round; at length smooth and brownish. Leaves thickish, soft; their upper surface becoming green and slightly downy, though the under is snow- white. Flowers yellow, in tufts, almost sessile, about the size of W. Thafts us. Filaments clothed with white wool. Schrader. This appears to be really a very dis- tinct species. 5. V. densiflorum. Dense-flowered Mullein. “Ber- tol. Pl. Rar. Ital. v. 3. 52.” Schrad. n. 4.—“Leaves downy; the radical ones lanceolate, elongated, crenate, deeply serrated at the base; upper stem-leaves point- ed, toothed, half-decurrent. Cluster dense. Flowers aggregate, nearly sessile.”—Found on the summit of mount Bruciana, between Carrara and Massa. Stem four or five feet high, angular, clothed with tawny woolliness, especially the upper part. Radical leaves more than eighteen inches long, two or three broad in the middle; green above; most hairy beneath; those of the stem gradually shorter upward, ovate, pointed, ses- sile, with a small decurrent wing on each side, more downy all over, especially the uppermost. Cluster ve- ry dense, above a foot long. Flowers large, yellow, in tufts on extremely short stalks. Pubescence of the Whole plant yellowish or tawny, composed of branched entangled hairs, and much the most dense in the upper part. Bértolini. 6. V. thafts.oides. Long-spiked Mullein. Schrad. n. 7. t. 5. f. 2. “Hoffmanns. et Link Lusit. v. 1. 214 excluding the synonyms.”—Leaves finely crenate, dow- ny ; radical ones oblong-lanceolate; the rest oblong, acute, half-decurrent. Flowers on short stalks, aggre- gate, rather crowded. Anthers nearly equal.—Native of Portugal. Perennial. Stem three or four feet high, or more, generally branching at the top into several long, rather slender, tolerably dense clusters of yellow flow- ers, smaller than V. Thaftsus. Schrader. We con- ceive this to be no other than the Linnaean V. Thafisi ; See W. Lychnitis. 7. V. macranthum. Great-flowered Mullein. Schrad, n. 8. “Hoffmanns. et Link Lusit. v. 1. 215. t. 27.”— Leaves finely crenate, downy; radical ones elliptic- oblong, tapering at the base; the rest oblong, acute, half-decurrent. Cluster interrupted, with distant tufts of flowers. Two of the anthers oblong.—Found by way sides, in the northern part of Portugal. Root sup- posed to be biennial. Stem two or three feet high, erect, simple, at length smooth and of a purplish-brown. Leaves thick, reticulated with veins beneath; their up- per side becoming green and almost naked by age : radical ones stalked, three or four inches long, and half as broad. Flowers large, handsome, yellow. Hair of the stamens orange-coloured. Cañsule small.— Schrader. 8. V. ſihlomoides. Southern Woolly Mullein. Linn. Sp. Pl. 253. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 6. Schrad. n. 10, Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 224, unpubl. (V. foliis radi- calibus ovatis petiolatis, &c.; Mill. Ic. 182. t. 273. V. rugulosum ; Willd. Enum. 224. V. thapsoides; Vil- lars Dauph. v. 2. 490, according to a specimen from the author. Schrad.) (3. V. australe; Schrad. n. 9. t. 2. Leaves ovate, finely crenate, downy on both sides; lower ones stalked; upper pointed, clasping the stem, slightly decurrent. Cluster interrupted.—Native of barren waste ground in the south of Europe, and east of Asia. We gathered it on the ramparts of Pavia; and Dr. Sibthorp at Constantinople. A large biennial species, hoary all over, with dense, starry, entangled, woolly hairs. Stem solitary, erect, simple, round, lea- fy, ending in a long, interrupted, many-flowered fasci- culated cluster, sometimes accompanied at the base with one or more much shorter ones. Radical leaves, as well as those on the lower part of the stem, four inches or more in length, stalked, broadly ovate, blune fish, obscurely crenate, thick, rugged, reticulated with VERBASCUM. with copious veins, each tapering at the base into a winged footstalk: the upper ones gradually smaller, pointed, sessile; heart-shaped at the base, clasping the stem, and somewhat decurrent; diminishing into taper- pointed bracteas, which project further than their re- spective tufts of flowers. Flowers large and handsome, of a golden-yellow, about five in each tuft, accompani- ed by small, lanceolate, partial bracteas. Partial stalks shorter than the calyx, which is smooth internally. Stamens purple, either all densely hairy, with yellow, nearly uniform, anthers, or two of them bear more or less oblong and imperfect anthers ; in which case the respective filaments are less hairy, or quite naked. Germen clothed with very dense wool, which comes off as the cañsule ripens. We scarcely discover any difference between the V. australe of our learned friend, and the fiſhlomoides, of which his description answers exactly to our speci- mens. The radical leaves of the australe perhaps are larger and more lanceolate, but this can hardly indicate more than a variety. The anthers and filaments are acknowiedged to vary in both, and we have found them to do so in fiſhlomoides. 9. V. condensatum. Dense-flowered round-leaved Mullein. Schrad. n. 11. t. 3.-4: Leaves downy; radi- cal ones elliptic, oblong, tapering at the base, doubly and unequally crenate; those of the stem oblong, acute, simply crenate ; uppermost roundish-ovate, pointed, slightly decurrent. Clusters dense. Two of the an- thers oblong.”—Observed by Mr. Schott in Austria, on a barren soil. Biennial. We cannot but suspect this to be a variety of the last, with a more dense inflo- rescence ; larger, more strongly crenate, radical leaves, and broader upper ones. The two species are, at least, very nearly akin. 10. V memorosum. Grove Mullein. Schrad. n. 12. t. l. f. 2.-4: Leaves acute, crenate, downy : radical ones oblong, tapering at each end; lower stem-leaves lanceolate, contracted at the base; middle ones oblong- hanceolate ; upper oblong, slightly decurrent. All the tufts of flowers a little remote. Two anthers oblong.” —Found by Mr. Schott in groves in Austria. Bien- nial. Akin to P. f.hlomoides, but distinguished by its straight, wand-like stem, four feet high, with a solitary lax cluster, and the narrow elliptic-lanceolate shape of all its leaves, which are of a yellowish green, the radi- cal ones becoming finally rather naked on the upper surface. ll. V. montanum. Mountain Mullein. Schrad. n. 13. “Hort. Gotting. fasc. 2. 18. t. 12.”—“Leaves downy ; radical ones oblong-elliptical, crenate, stalked; those of the stem obiong, rather acute, sightly tie- nate; uppermost acute, rather decurrent. Flowers nearly sessile, in rather crowded tufts. Anthers almost equal.”—Native of the Pyrenées as well as of the alps of Switzerland and Germany. Biennial. Stem eigh- teen inches or two feet high, erect, simple, clothed, like the rest of the herbage, with yellowish rusty pu- bescence. Leaves somewhat wrinkled, reticulated be- neath ; the radical ones three to four and a half inches long, two to two and a half broºd. obtuse, losing part of their thick downiness by age : lºwer stem-leaves ta- pering into a footº talk ; the vest “cute, sessile, or, about the top of the stem, slightly decurrent. Cluster from about three to six inches long. Flowers nearly sessile, in tufts more or less crowded; some solitary. Brac- teas ovato-lanceolate, pointed, scarcely exceeding the flowers, except the lowermost. Calyx as in V. ſihlo- Żmoides. Corolla most like V. Thafi sus. Two of the Jilaments more slightly hairy than the rest, sometimes naked; their anthers perfect, but rather larger and more oval than the three others. If cultivated in shady situations, the stem sometimes reaches the height of six feet, and becomes branched in the flowering part; the leaves also grow much larger, of a dirty green, a little polished on the upper side; the clusters above a foot long, thicker, and more compact. Schrader. 12. V. collinum. Hill Mullein. Schrad. n. 14. t. 5. f. 1.-" Leaves crenate, downy ; lower ones ellip- tic-oblong, stalked : those about the middle of the stem oblong-lanceolate, rather acute, tapering at the base ; uppermost oblong, acute, slightly decurrent. Tufts of flowers distant. Anthers equal.”—Native of hillocks, and dry grassy ground, in some parts of the north of Germany. Perennial. Stem two or three feet high, erect, simple, slightly angular in the upper part; reddish below. Leaves soft, wrinkled, downy on both sides; pale green above ; hoary and reticu- lated beneath; radical ones four or four and a half inches long, and half as broad; the rest gradually Smaller upwards, the top ones being about an inch and a half in length. Cluster twelve or eighteen inches long, rarely having a branch at the base. Flowers yellow, Sweet-scented, resembling V. nigrum, with purple-bearded filaments, and composing numerous little tufts, often near an inch from each other. Schra- der. We should suspect this might be a mule pro- geny of W. nigrum, impregnated by some of the fore- going species; having found near Norwich what has every appearance of being a similar offspring of ni- grum, from the pollen of V. fulverulentum. 13. V. versiflorum. Various-flowered Mullein. Schrad. n. 15.-‘‘Leaves crenate, downy ; lowermost elliptic-oblong, stalked; those of the stem oblong, acute, slightly decurrent; uppermost pointed. Clus- ters panicled. Tufts distant, of few flowers. Anthers equal.”—Found in sandy ground near Prague, but rarely. The herbage is clothed with dense down, of a dirty yellowish-green hue. Stem two or three feet, or more, in height, branched in the flowering part, rare- ly simple. Leaves rather thick and rugged ; radical ones from three and a half to six inches long, one and a half to two and a half broad, most evidently and acutely crenate at the base; those about the middle of the stem only sessile. Clusters panicled, a foot loºg, or more. Flowers generally the size of V. ſihaeniceum, slightly fragrant, in rather distant tufts. Partial stalks half as long again as the calyx. Bracteas ovato-ian- ceolate, with long points; the inner ones linear, much Smaller. Corolla of a rusty red, but variable, the base ,-4° 34's cºrn ºn 1 law, carvºna onfc kar, *...* -º, Vºx Mº A.R.E. º.º.º. A vºz A. *** Jº Jº A *-* A A *** *-* ***.*. yellow wool that clothes the three smaller filam, mts. Two larger filaments covered entirely with purple wool, some of which also is seen about the middle of the three others. Anthers kidney-shaped ; those of the two longer filaments rather larger, and finally more oval. Pollen whitish. Sometimes the corrolla is found twice its usual size, and the partial flower-stalks are occasionally more long and slender than above de- scribed. Professor Schrader received this from Mr. Tausch, a Bohemian botanist, as V. rubiginosum of Waldstein and Kitaibel; a species unknown to us, bu which he says is widely different. 14. V. ramigerum. Branched Decurrent Mullein, Schrad. n. 16. t. 4.—“Leaves finely downy ; radical ones oblong-lanceolate : those of the stem oblong, acute, doubly crenate, half-decurrent ; uppermost 3 N 2 pointed, rºled varif H +he same k iſ d of * *. (, Mº’ v - tº ºf Jº, ºw.º...", * A A * * * * * * * - - - - * **** * * VERBASCUM. pointed. Clusters panicled. Tufts distant, many- floºered. Anthers equal.”—Native of the duchy of Mecklenberg-Swerin. Link. The habit of this spe- cies resembles V. Lychnitis. Root biennial. Stem from four to six feet high, erect, thick ; rather angu- lar, brown, and mºch branched in the upper part; the branches spreading, angular, and, like the rest of the stem, slightiy downy. Upper side of the leaves cover- ed with very thin pubescence under more hoary, and more thickly clothed : the radical, and lower stem- leaves, often a foot or more in length, four or five inches wide, tape;ing down into the footstalk. Flow- ers yellow, from fifteen to twenty in each tuft of the principal cluster, on stalks twice the length of the calyx; ; fewer in the lateral clusters; the lower tufts many of them very distant from each other. Bracteas ovato-lanceolate. Calyx and corolla larger than in V. Lychnitis. Stamens like those of that species. Schra- der. - 15. V. mucronatum. Pointed-leaved Mullein. La- marck Dict. v. 4, 218. Schrad. n. 17 ; excluding per- haps Tournefore’s synonym.—“Leaves crenate, clothed with dense hoary dºwn; radical ones oblong-lanceolate ; those of the stem oblong, acute, half decurrent ; upper- most ovate, long-pointed. Spikes panicled. Fowers in nearly sessile heads.” Found in Crete by M. Labil- lardiere, Root biennial. Whole herbage covered with hoary down. Stem, in the cuſtivated plant at least, from six to eight feet high, straight, thick, branched upwards. Lower leaves one and a half, or two feet long, on short stalks, acute; the rest more pointed, and unequally decurrent. Shikes panicled, various in length, their points somewhat incurved. Flowers yellow, ra- ther large, in distant, many-flowered, sessile heads, hoa- ry with deciduous wooliness. Bracteas lanceolate- Filam, nts all ciothed with whitish wool Schrader. 16. V. sinuatum. Scollop-leaved Mullein. Linn. Sp. Pl. 254. Wilid. n. 12. Ait. n. 14. Schrad. n. 18. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 227, unpubl. (V. crispum et sinuatum ; Bauh. Hist. v. 3, 860. V. aliud ; Camer. Epit. 882. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 492. V. laciniatum Matthioli; Dalech. Hist. 1302. 2xopo's £282,23 ; Diosc. book. 4, chap. 104.)—Leaves serrated, powdery ; ra- dical ones pinnatifid and wavy ; the rest undivided, de- current. Stem panicled, many-flowered. Native of dry barren exposed situations, in the south of Europe, and north of Africa; a hardy bennial, long known in our botanical gardens, but seldom long preserved— Dr. Sibthorp observed this to be the most common Mullein throughout Greece and all the circumjacent islands. The root is brown, and rather woody. Herb of a dark green, besprinkled with loose tufts of pow- dely, hoary, Sarry pubescence, but far less Woolly, or uniformly hoary, than any of the preceding species — The leaves also differ widely from all the foregoing, in being pinnatifid half way to the midrib, with jagged and plaited lobes; the radical ones a span long, on shertish stalks; the rest smaller, sessile, decurrent; the upper ones very small, ovato-lanceolate, undivided, more decurrent, reflexed ; all of them reticulated with veins, yugose; most hoary beneath. The stem is erect, one and a half or two feet high, zigzag, alternately branched from top to bottom, panicled, often tinged with dark purple. Panicle spreading, with copious, hoary, somewhat winged branches. Flowers generally tufted, stalked, yellow, with purple hairy filaments.- Cañsule small, roundish. The figure of Matthiolus, copied by Dalechamp and Tabernaemontanus, is more sea-shore near Yalva, in Bithynia. like the cultivated variety of the following species, but differs in its branching panicled stem. - Sect. 2 Leaves not decurrent. - 17 V. ſilicatum. Plaited-leaved Mullein. Prodr, Fl. Graec. n. 24. Fl. Graec. t. 226, unpubl. (V. sinuatum 3; Linn. Sp. Pl. 255. V. pinnatifidum ; Ait. n. 15, but not of Vahl nor Willdenow. V. graecum fruticosum, folio sinuato candidissimo ; Tourn. Cor. 8. Voyage, v. 1. 128, with a figure. ©xotzog Asvºn 9xxx; Diosc. book 4. chap. 104.)—Leaves lyrate-sinuated, crisped, somewhat crenate, downy on both sides. Spike simple, interrupted, leafy-Native of the isle of Hydra, and very plentiful about Athens. , Root tapering, pos- sibiy perennial. Stem ascending, simple, leafy, clothed, like the foliage and calyx, with dense starry, rigid, yel- lowish woolliness. Leaves obovate-oblong, thick; plait- ed or crisped at the margin; their upper surface even, and aimost without sign of veins; under reticulated: radical Ones stalked, near a span long ; the rest sessile, clasping the stem, and gradually smaller upward; flo- ral ones very small and pointed. Shike solitary, erect, a foot iong, leafy or bracteated. Flowers three or four sessile together in the bosom of each bractea, yellow, almost an inch broad. Filaments yellow, bearded from the middle to the summit Anthers all nearly alike. Cañsule ovate, acute, hard, smooth when ripe. The leaves vary in acuteness; and in the garden plant, raised from Dr. Sibthorp's seeds, become more dilated, flattened, and less crisped, resembling the figure of Matthiolus, cited under our preceding species, but the pubescence still remains totally different. 18. V. auriculatum. Auricled Mullein. Prodr. Fl. Graec. m. 523. Fl. Graec. t. 225, unpubl. (V. orientale maximum candidissimum, ramis candelabrum aemulan- tibus; Tourn. Cor. 8.)—Leaves elliptic-oblong, downy on both sides, auricled at the base. Clusters panicled, zigzag.—Native of the island of Samos. Biennial. The whole herb is clothed with dense snow-white down. Stem two feet high, stout, leafy ; branched and becom- ing smooth in the upper part. Leaves crowded, sessile, two or three inches long, bluntly pointed, accompanied by axiliary tufts of smaller ones; their upper surface covered with a dense and even coat of wool, hardly marked by rib or veins; the under reticulated, scarce- ly iess densely clothed with a starry cobweb-like pu- bescence: their base contracted, but augmented with a rounded lobe at each side, embracing the stem. Flowers yellow, stalked, tufted and bracteated, as in V. ſihlomo- ides, but only half as large. Calyz with smooth points. Beard of the filaments yellowish-white. Anthers orange- coloured, nearly uniform. We think Tournefort’s sy- nonym is here rightly applied, though cited by Lamarck and Schrader for mucronatum, n. 5, which must be a different plant from the present, unless it be inaccurate- ly described. 19. V. fainmatifidum. Pinnatifid Mullein. Vahl Symb. v. 2. 39. Willd. n. 13, excluding the synonym of Tournefort, which belongs to our n. 17-Leaves flat, pinnatifid, cut, powdery ; nearly naked on the upper side; radical ones stalked. Stem panicled, many- flowered.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the Sandy Root perennial, blackish, divided at the summit. Stem one to two feet high, erect, very much branched in all directions, leafy, round, dark-purple, sprinkled with downy mealiness. Radical leaves three inches long, on long stalks, flat, deeply pinnatifid, cut, wrinkled and veiny; dark green and almost naked above; paler, and powdery with - starry VERBASCUM. starry hairs, beneath ; the younger ones very densely woolly; those of the stem not half so large, sessile, not decurrent, less divided : floral ones aggregate, spread- ing, extending for the most part beyond the flowers, which are sessile, crowded, yellow, hoary externally, with orange-coloured stamens. Cañsule nearly globose. 20. V. Boerhaavii. Boerhaavian Mullein. Linn. Mant. 45, excluding the reference to Miller; see n. 8. Willd. n. 3. (V. blattariae foliis nigrum, amplioribus floribus luteis, apicibus purpurascentibus; Boerh. Lugd.- Bat. v. 1. 228.)—Leaves obovate, somewhat lyrate, doubly crenate, veiny, slightly downy. Spike inter- rupted. Flowers in nearly sessile tufts. Bracteas all linear.—Said to be a native of the south of Europe. The Linnaean specimen grew in the Upsal garden. This species is very little known, perhaps from Lin- natus having cited a plate of Miller's, which is as little like his specimen as aimost any Verbascum can be, and belongs to W. fiſhlomoides. Hence V. Boerhaavii is ad- mitted, without sufficient grounds, into the catalogue of our garden plants. We have, at least, never seen any thing answering to it. The leaves are a foot long, and almost four inches broad, membranous, copiously reti- culated with veins; pinnatifid, in a lyrate manner, at the base; nearly smooth on the upper surface; the under partly clothed with light, deciduous, starry wool, resembling mouldiness. Shikes (whether solitary or numerous, does not appear from the specimen) a foot long, slightly and loosely woolly, of numerous scatter- ed tufts of large yellow flowers with purple stamens. 21. V. haemorrhoidale. Madeira Mullein. Ait. n. 5. Willd. n. 4.—“Leaves ovate-oblong, downy, slight- ly and minutely crenate ; tapering at the base. Clus- ters elongated. Flowers in sessile tufts, without brac- teas.”—Native of Madeira, from whence it was brought to Kew by Mr. Masson, in 1777. This is marked as a biennial greenhouse plant, flowering from June to Au- gust. 22. V. Lychnitis. White Mullein. 253. Willd. n. 6, 3. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Fl. Dan. t. 586. Linn. Sp. Pl. Engl. Bot. t. 58. Villars Dauph. v. 2. 490. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 491. Ger. Em. 775. (V. flore albo parvo ; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 857. Raii Syn. 287.) 9. V. Thapsi; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1669. (V. Thapsoides; Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 3. Huds. 90. Schrad. n. 7. “Hoffmanns. et Link Lusit. v. 1. 21.4.” V. angusti- folium ramosum, flore aureo, folio crassiope ; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 860.) Leaves wedgeshaped-oblong; stripped of down on their upper side. Stem angular, panicled.—-Native of pastures, road-sides, and waste ground, in various parts of Europe, flowering in July and August. In Eng- land it rarely occurs, except on chalky ground in Kent, where it abounds. The root is biennial, scarcely pe- rennial. Stem a yard high, straight and upright, fine- ly downy; copiously panicled at the top. Leaves el- liptic-oblong, tapering at the base, crenate, reticulated with veins; white and woolly beneath; dark green and slightly downy, or quite naked, above; those at the root, and lower part of the stem, stalked; the rest ses- sile, not decurrent, all narrow at the base. Branches of the ſhanicle racemose, with many woolly tufts of stalked, rather small, ſlowers, whose corolla is cream- coloured, tinged with yellow. Filaments yellowish, hairy. Anthers orange-coloured, uniform. The variety g, a very celebrated and much disputed plant, is not preserved in the Liºlacan herbalium. It is described as the mule offspring of W. Lychnitis, from the pollen of P. Thaſºsus. We have specimens, arti- ficially produced in this manner, by Mr. Griffith, of Garn, Denbighshire. These agree with the Portu- guese plant, sent by professor Link, as his V. Thay- soides. So that we conceive the real V. Thaſisi, or Thafts.oides, is before us. Yet there are parts of the Linnaean description, Sh. Pl. 1670, that puzzle us: such as the purple beard attributed to the filaments of P. Lychnitis and of this variety. Our specimens are in- termediate, in every respect, between Lychnites and Thaftsus. Their corolla is yellow. Beard of the fila- ments white. Upper leaves somewhat decurrent. As the real species of this genus evidentiy vary before our eyes, there can be little doubt that their mule proge- nies are still more uncertainly defined. 23. V. fulverulentum. Yellow Hoary Mullein. Nor- folk Mullein. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 487. Ait. n. 8. Villairs Dauph. v. 2. 490. (V. Lychnitis; Willd. n. 6. 2. V. pulverulentum, flore luteo parvo ; Bauh. Hist. 860. Raii Syn. 287. V. n. 583, a ; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 257.) 6. V. nigro-pulverulentum; Fl. Brit, ibid. Leaves ovate-oblong, obscurely serrated, covered on both sides with powdery deciduous wool. Stem round, panicled, much branched.—Native of banks, and the borders, of fields, on a gravelly or chalky soil, in Eng- land, Austria, and Switzerland, flowering in July. This beautiful and stately plant is frequent about Norwich, and most parts of Norfolk; also near Bury, Suffolk; and, according to Ray, at Woilerton, near Nottingham. No species can be more distinct from the last, with which it has been confounded, even by Linnaeus. The root is biennial. Stem three or four feet high, branch- ed from top to bottom in a conical form, covered with innumerable golden flowers, larger than the last, whose Jilaments are clothed with white hairs, and their anthers are vermilion. The whole herbage is invested with white meally down, easily rubbed off. Leaves all ses- sile, thick and woolly; the radical ones numerous, a foot long; upper ones ovate, pointed, clasping the stem, not decurrent. Mr. Sieber has sent an Austrian speci- men of this species, named V. floccosum ; but we know not of its having been published under that deno- IIllination. Our variety 3 is found near Hellesdon, and in other parts of Norfolk. The leaves are like hulverulentum, fowers, and purple woolly stamens, like nigrum ; so that, according to the opinion of Linnaeus, the latter was the mother of this apparently mule production. We believe it moreover to be perennial. W. hulverulentum displays a remarkable degree of irritability, if the stem be smartly struck, twice or thrice, with a small stick. In the space of a few minutes, the flowers close, and begin to drop off, all in their turn fall- ing to the ground in the space of a quarter of an hour, if the weather be warm and still ; if otherwise, this qua- lity is less perceptible. We were first informed of it by the very ingenious Mr. Correa de Serra. 24. V. gallicum. Dauphiny Mullein. Willd. n. 11. (V. Chaixi.; Villars Dauph v. 2.49 i. t. 13; synonyms all very doubtful)—Leaves ovate-oblong, crenate, downy beneath; radical ones stalked ; heart-shaped and pinna- tifid at the base. Stem angular, panicled at the top.– Native of several parts of Dauphiny, in rocky situations. The habit of this plant, its panicle, and the soft durable pubescence of the backs of its leaves, as well as the shape of such as grow on the stem, most resemble V. J.VChmitis ; the yellow flowers, purple hairy stamens, aS VERBASCUM. as well as the size, form, and long footstalks of the ra- dical leaves, which are doubly crenate, rather accord with W. nigrum. But these radical leaves are remark- able for a few deep parallel segments at their base. We have a specimen from the author himself, or his bad figure would little avail us. The late Mr. Donn favoured us with a specimen, above twenty years ago, from the Cambridge garden, of a tall Mullein, agreeing with this in most respects; but the lower leaves are taper at the base, and scarce- ty pinnatifid. This came from Poland, and is doubt- less V, fiolandicum of his Hort. Cantab. ed. 5. 45 ; but unfortunately a name does not make a species, any more than floccosum of the same useful work, see our n. 23. This Polish plant seems a mule between mi- grum and Lychnitis ; or it may be a variety of gallicum. 25. V. nigrum. Dark, or Black, Mullein. Linn. Sp. Pl. 253. Willd. n. 8. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 59. Ger. Em. 775. Fl. Dan. t. 1088. (V. tertium; Matth. Valgr. v. 2.489.)—Leaves oblong-heartshaped, stalked, waved and crenate, slightly downy. Cluster solitary, spiked, many-flowered.—Native of banks, and road-sides, in most parts of Europe. With us it oc- curs chiefly on a chalky or gravelly soil, in shady lanes, or on grassy hillocks, flowering in July and August. The root is perennial. Stem erect, simple, angular, leafy, brown or purplish, two or three feet high, rarely branched. Leaves of a fine deep green, not hoary, though somewhat downy ; all stalked, except the very small upper ones. Cluster very long, slender, com- pact, though here and there interrupted, composed of innumerable tufted golden flowers, with bearded violet filaments, and orange anthers. This is altogether a very elegant species. We received, many years since, from the late Mr. Davall, specimens and seeds of a variety of this species, having white flowers. These dried specimens differ little from our wild plant, except a slight degree of luxuriance, owing to culture, nor can it be doubted that they are the white-flowered variety, mentioned by Casper Bauhin, and others. But the far more luxuri- ant progeny from their seeds, in lady Amelia Hume’s garden, bore large copper-coloured flowers, almost like V. cuftreum, Curt. Mag. t. 1226, which, but for its solitary ſlower-stalks, we should believe to be our plant. Such is the Proteus-like nature of this whim- sical genus ! 26. V. ferrugineum. Rusty Mullein. Ait. n. 9, excluding the reference to Andrews. Willd. n. 7.- “Leaves somewhat villous, wrinkled ; those on the stem nearly sessile, equally crenate ; radical ones ob- long-heartshaped, doubly crenate.”—Native of the south of Europe; said to have been cultivated, at Edinburgh, by Mr. Sutherland, in '683, and marked by Mr. Aiton as a hardy perennial, flowering from May to August. We have no specimen, but we remember to have ex- amined an authentic one in Sir Joseph Banks’s herba- rium, which proved totally unlike the Greek plant of Dr. Sibthorp, figured as ferrugineum by Mr. Andrews, which is our W. triste, hereafter described. Such errors are excusable in such a tribe. We have a no- tion that the specimen betrayed some affinity to V. Boerhaavii, n. 20, but we dare not assert it. 27. V. triste. Brown-flowered Mullein. Prodr. Fl. Graec. n. 529. (V. ferrugineum; Andr. Repos. t. 162.) —Leaves elliptical, wavy and partly toothed, nearly smooth; radical ones stalked. Cluster solitary, simple. Stem leafy-Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp on mount Athos. By his means the plant has been introduced into the gardens of England, where it proves a hardy perennial, flowering most part of the summer, and propagating itself copiously by seed, without requiring any care. This species differs from all the foregoing, in its very long simple cluster terminating the stem, at first drooping, but gradually becoming erect, and, as it flowers, extending itself to the height of five feet, being composed of innumerable, scattered, solitary, spreading, almost capillary partial stalks, each three or four times as long as its accompanying lanceolate brac- tea, and bearing a solitary inodorous flower, an inch broad, of a peculiarly dull greenish or yellowish brown, whose filaments are densely bearded with purple. Sometimes, from luxuriance, two of these stalks grow together, but each has always its own bractea. The whole cluster, bracteas, and obtuse calyx, are clothed with glandular viscid hairs. The radical leaves are numerous, on longish stalks, wrinkled, slightly downy, a little viscid, green, reticulated with veins; their mar- gin variously waved, or bluntly toothed: those on the stem are nearly sessile, ovate or heart-shaped, more or less acute. We cannot perceive any alteration in this plant after cultivating it for fifteen years, and yet there is scarcely a permanent specific character, to distin- guish it from the following. Can Tournefort's Blatta- ria orientalis, bugula folio, &c. Voy. v. 2. 83, with a plate, acknowledged to be a variable plant, possibly belong to our triste 2 28. V. ſihaeniceum. Purple-flowered Mullein. Linn, Sp. Pl. 254. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 11. Jacq. Austr. t. 125. Curt. Mag. t. 885. (Blattaria flore purpureo; Ger. Em, 776.)—Leaves ovate, crenate, smooth, chiefly radical and sessile. Cluster solitary, simple. Stem nearly leafless.-Native of Austria, and the south of Europe. A hardy perennial, cultivated in England ever since Gerarde’s time. It is of more humble growth than the last. Leaves chiefly radical, and near- ly sessile, scarcely at all downy; their margin simply or doubly crenate. Inflorescence like the preceding but the flowers are of a dark violet hue, and the sta- mens less hairy. Sometimes the stem becomes leafy, as in Jacquin’s figure, and perhaps, as he represents it, branched; but we have never seen an instance of the latter. 29. V. ovalifolium. Oval-leaved Mullein. Donn. Cant. ed. 5. 45. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1037. Ait. n. 2.—“Leaves oval, sessile, acutely crenate ; Smoothish on the upper side. Stem erect, simple. Flowers spiked.”—Native of mount Caucasus. Introduced into England by Mr. Loddiges, in 1804. A hardy bi- ennial, flowering from July to September. This has the aspect of several species in our first section, the flowers being as large as any of those, yellow, with orange-coloured, partly hairy, stamens ; and nearly sessile, in a long dense shike. But the leaves are not decurrent, nor, though downy, at all hoary or woolly. We have seen no specimen. Dr. Sims has exhibited in Curt. Mag. t. 1226, by the name of V. cuſhreum, a Mullein, whose stalked leaves, and racemose flowers, variegated with tawny-buff and purple, each on a hartial stalk of considerable length, all appear so different from V. ovalifolium, the brac- teas, and calyz likewise, being altogether unlike the figure of this species, that, but for our confidence in its excellent cultivator Mr. Loddiges, we could scarcely believe it came up from seeds of the ovalifolium. Per- haps, as Dr. Sims suggests, the parent may have been impregnated VERBASCUM. impregnated by W. fiſheniceum, or we would rather say our triste. When the plant blooms within-doors, the corolla is pale yellow, with a purple eye. The inspec- tion of this plant is enough to daunt the most ardent student of species of Verbascum, and to cause a general mistrust of them all. 30. V. virgatum. Large-flowered Primrose-leaved Mullein. With. Bot. Arr. 250. Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 550. Ait. n. 12. (Blattaria flore amplo; Ger. fºrm. 778. B. magno flore; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 859. Lob. Ic. 564.)—Leaves ovato-lanceolate, toothed, ses- sile ; heart-shaped at the base; radical ones downy, and somewhat lyrate. Stem branched. Flowers ax- illary, on short stalks, partly aggregate.—Native of Worcestershire. Biennial, flowering in July and Au- gust. Stem five or six feet high. Whole plant green, not hoary, though more or less covered with short, prominent, often forked, glandular hairs. The radical leaves, which resemble those of a primrose, are always So clothed. Those of the stem are very numerous, acute, toothed or sharply crenate, broad and rounded at the base, gradually diminishing upwards. Flowers from the bosoms of many of the upper leaves, large, yellow, some of the lowermost four, five, or six toge. ther, the rest solitary, as are all those of the weaker branches. Flower-stalks hairy and viscid, seldom so long as the calyx, whose segments are lanceolate, acute, and glandular. Filaments bearded with purple. An- thers uniform. 31. V. Blattaria. Moth Mullein. Linn. Sp. Pl. 354. Willd. n. 10. Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot. f. 393. (Blattaria flore luteo; Ger. Em. 778)—Leaves oblong- lanceolate, acute, smooth, serrated; lower ones blunt- ish, tapering at the base, or stalked. Stem branched, racemose. Flower-stalks much longer than the brac- teas.--Native chiefly of the southern parts of Europe, rare in England, flowering in July. Root tapering, an- nual. Stem three or four feet high, leafy. Leaves much narrower, and more deeply serrated or notched than in the last, the upper ones becoming gradually more pointed, and smaller, to the bottom of the long simple clusters, where they are replaced by a small, Solitary, lanceolate bractea under each flower-stalk, as in P. triste and fihaeniceum. The corolla is smaller than the last, bright yellow, more or less streaked with Purple. Filaments clothed with purple hairs: some- times the corolla seems to become purplish all over. A supposed variety, with large white flowers, mark- ed partially with purplish-brown at the back, is common in gardens; coming up from seed, and remaining un- altered, through many successive years. This is Blat- ?aria alba, Bauh. Pin. 241, but we can discover no specific difference between it and the wild or cultivated yellow-flowered kind. 32. V. Sfinosum. Thorny Mullein. 254. Amoen. Acad. v. 4. 307. Willd. n. 16. Vahl Symb. v. 2. 39. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 229. (Leu- coium spinosum creticum ; Clus. Hist. 299. Ger. Em. 459. L. Spinosum cruciatum; Alpin. Exot. 37. t. 36. Galastivida prima di Candia; Pon. Bald. 114.)—Stem leafy, shrubby, much branched, spinous. Leaves all Stalked, hoary.—Native of the higher mountains of Crete ; a stranger in our gardens, even by name. This differs widely from all the rest, in its hardy, shrubby, bushy stem, a foot high, whose very compound branch- * harden at their points into smooth rigid thorns. Jeaves crowded, an inch or inch and half long, oblong, ebtuse, deeply toothed, downy and white on both sides: Linn. Sp. Pl. contracted at the base into the footstalks. Flowers Scattercq, stalked, lateral and terminal, yellow, hardly above half an inch broad. Stamens Orange-coloured. Calyx obtuse. Cañsule small, villous. Two other species, mentioned by Linnaeus, remain to be noticed; W. Osbeckii, and V. Myconi, Linn. Sp. Pl. 255. The former we have shewn to be the TRI- GUERA of Cavanilles (see that article); nor does it an- swer to the characters of a Verbascum. The latter, figured in Curt. Mag. t. 236, an elegant, herbaceous, stemless plant, long known in our gardens, appears to be the Ramondia of Schrader and others, as we have mentioned in our remarks subjoined to the generic character of the present genus, from which this species must, doubtless, be excluded.—Willdenow has a V. Bamadesii, adopted from Vahl’s Symb. v. 2. 39, and compared with W. Osbeckii. With this we are quite unacquainted. From the present view of Verbascum, more complete than any that has hitherto been given, and yet so far from perfect, the reader may chiefly learn that no cer- tain limits have as yet been found for many of the spe- cies of this genus, while others, apparently much alike, remain permanent and distinct. To fix them all, a long course of experiment, by cross impregnation, would be necessary. - VERBAscum, in Gardening, furnishes plants of the hardy, annual, biennial, and perennial kinds, among which the species cultivated are, the annual mullein (V. boerhaavii); the moth mullein (V. blattaria); the great mullein (V. thapsus); the woolly mullein (V. phlomoides); the white mullein (V. lychnitis); the scollop-leaved mullein (V. sinuatum); the rusty mul- lein (V. ferrugineum); the purple mullein (V. phoeni- cum); and the borage-leaved mullein (V. myconi). In the first sort the flowers have an agreeable scent at a little distance ; but if Smelt too long, or too near, it becomes less pleasant. The second sort has yellow flowers, which are streak- ed more or less with purple, and is very ornamental, flowering from July to November, or even later in mild weather. It varies with white flowers. The third sort has a biennial root, and the flowers are of a bright yellow colour, and sometimes, but rare- ly, white. - The fifth sort is remarkable for its straight wand- like angular stem, and cream-coloured flowers, which are produced in great numbers in a compound cluster- ed terminating raceme. Sometimes the colour of the flowers is yellow. The ninth sort has the flowers large in proportion to the size of the plant, of a blueish-purple colour, and highly ornamental, somewhat like the auricula, appear- ing in May, and continue successively in blossom for several months. It is a desirable plant to cultivate, especially for decorating rock-work. Method of Culture.—These plants may all be in- creased by seeds, and offsets taken from the roots. The well-ripened seeds should be sown in the autumn, or early spring, in a bed of light mould, or in the bor- ders or other parts where they are to remain, covering them lightly in. When the plants are up a few inches in height, in the bed method, they should be removed into nursery rows till the autumn, when they must be removed to where they are to remain. The annual sort is, however, best sown at once where the plants are to grow, which is best done in patches. The V E. R V E. R. The offsets of all the perennial sorts should be taken off in the autumn, or very early in the spring: and be planted out where they are to grow. This is better than afterwards transplanting them. º They are all hardy plants, that succeed in almost any common soil and exposure, in borders, &c. e They afford a good effect in their different foliage, modes of flowering, and sweet scent of their flowers, in the large borders, clumps, and other parts of pleasure- grounds; the larger sorts being placed backwards in them. VERBELIET, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 6 miles S.W. of Erlau. VERBENA, in Botany, among the Romans, was the name of some evergreen aromatic shrub, esteemed Sa- cred and employed in various solemn ceremonies. Hence it was called Hierobotane, and Herba sacra. Some derive verbena from verro, to sweep or cleanse ; because the plant might be used for cleaning the altars or temples: others from Herbena, corrupted from her- ba bona, or good herb. But these rather prove that no good Latin etymology was to be found. , De Theis gives a much better, and indeed a direct, derivation of the word, from Bullet’s Dictionaire Celtique, where the Celtic name of the plant is said to be Ferfaen, whence comes, still less changed, its English appellation, Ver- vain. The Roman shrub, above alluded to, is some- times thought to have been our Rosemary, which could hardly be the Celtic plant; and we must rely on tradition, which has handed down our Common Ver- vain, the Linnaean Werbena, with much superstitious celebrity, even to the present day, as the Ferfaen of our barbarous ancestors. It still, from time to time, makes the fortúne of quacks and village doctresses, whether they aim at notoriety or lucre ; and a person named Morley once wrote a pamphlet, recommending the root to be worn as a charm, in scrophulous disor- ders, but, as Mr. Curtis remarks, he accompanied it with powerful medicines.—Linn. Gen. 14, Schreb. 20. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1 (5. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew v. 4. 38. Brown Prodr Nov. Holl. v. 1. 5 14. Sm. Fl. Brit. 608. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 40 l. Pursh 415. Juss. 109. Tourn. t. 94. La- marck Illustr. t. 17. Gaertn. t. 66. (Blairia; Gaertn. t. 56. Zappania; Scop. Insubr. v. i. 34. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. l. 514. Pursh 417. Lam. Il- lustr. t. 17.)—Class and order, Didynamia Gymnosfer- mia. (D. Angiospermia; Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew.) Nat. Ord. Personatae, Linn. Vitices, Juss. Gen. Ver- benaceae, Juss. in Ann. du Mus. v. 7. 63. Brown. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, angu- lar, tubular, linear, with five teeth, one of which is smaller than the rest, permanent. Cor. of one petal, unequal; tube cylindrical, straight, the length of the calyx, soon dilated and incurved; limb spreading, clo- ven half way down into five, more or less unequal, rounded segments. Stam. Filaments four, setaceous, very short, inserted into the tube of the corolla, and concealing within it, two of them shorter than the rest; anthers oblong, incurved. Pist. Germen superior, quadrangular; style simple, thread-shaped, shorter than the tube; stigma obtuse. Peric. scarcely any, except an evanescent membranous tunic, the calyx containing the seeds, which are either four, or only two, oblong, parallel, erect, straight at the inner edge, gib- bous at the outer. Ess. Ch. Corolla funnel-shaped, rather unequal, curved. Calyx with five teeth. Seeds two or four, with a membranous evanescent tunic. thought, of Buenos Ayres. globose. Obs. We have concurred with many other botanists, in separating from this genus the diandrous species; which moreover have only four teeth to their calyx, and never more than two seeds. (See StachyTARPHE- TA.) But it does not seem necessary to retain also Zaffania, distinguished by its two seeds, and more dense inflorescence, which is as truly spicate as in ac- knowledged Verbena. I. V. mexicana. Mexican Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 28. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 1. (V. mexicana, tra- chelii folio, fructu aparines; Dill. Elth. 407. t. 302.) —Leaves ovate, acute, harsh. Spikes lax. Calyx of the fruit reflexed, hispid, of two round lobes. Seeds two.—Native of Mexico. Cultivated in Sherard’s garden in 1726. A stove plant, flowering in summer. Stem herbaceous, two or three feet high, square, leafy, rough and furrowed, branched in the upper part. Leaves opposite, on short stalks, strongly serrated like those of a common nettle, rough with minute rigid bristles. Shikes terminal, stalked, erect, long and slender; lax and interrupted in the lower part. Flow- ers very numerous, small, pale purple. The calyx when in fruit becomes stałked, recurvid, tumid, and is at all times hoary with bristly hairs. We are not cer- tain that this species has always four perfect stamens. Two of the anthers are most visible in the mouth of the tube. 2. V. stachadifolia. Oval-spiked Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 27. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 2. (V. n. 4; Browne Jam. I le. t. 3. f. l. Lavandula frutescens, foliis latio- ribus crenatis; Plum. Ic. 154. t. 162. f. 1.)—Spikes dense, imbricated, ovato-cylindrical. Leaves lanceo- late, wavy, toothed, clothed with depressed hairs; hoa- ry beneath. Stem shrubby.—Native of the West In- dies. Stem spreading five or six feet, woody, but not lasting above two or three years. The leaves are stalk- ed, two or two and a half inches long, acute, reticula- ted with veins, flat, not plaited, as the erroneous engra- ving, after Plumier’s drawing, is made to express, but wavy at the margin, with small acute teeth; the upper surface is covered with rigid depressed bristles: the under with softer hairs. Shikes hairy, an inch long, about thrice the length of their staiks. Of the sta- mens, seeds, or colour of the flowers, we are ignorant. 3. V. globiflora. Round-headed Vervain. L’Herit. Stirp. 23. t. 12. Willd. n. 8. (Nepeta maxima, flore albo, Spică habitiori; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 173. t. 108. f. 1.)—Spikes dense, imbricated, roundish-ovate. Leaves ovate, crenate, rugose, downy. Stem shrubby, erect.— Native of South America; perhaps, as L’Heritier We have from thence a specimen somewhat like it, but smaller in every part, possibly because it is a wild one. L’Heritier’s plant was cultivated at Paris, being a shrub of humble growth, of a strong disagreeable odour. The leaves are shor- ter and more ovate than in the last, differing also from that species in being finely and closely crenate, not wavy or toothed. The shikes also are much shorter, nearly Flowers white. Stamens four, all perfect. Seeds two. 4. V.javanica. Java Vervain. Burm. Ind. 12. t. 6. f. 2. Willd. n. 9. (Zappania javanca; Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8. 840.)—Spikes dense, imbricated, cylindri- cal. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, crenate, finely downy. —Native of Java. Stem ascending, roundish, clothed, like the rest of the plant, with fine, short, close hairs. Leaves an inch and a half long, acute at each end. Flowers in short cylindrical spikes, on axillary, often opposite VERBENA. opposite, stalks, the length of the leaves. Linnaeus, suspected this not to be different from W.stºchadifolia, but they are very unlike in the margin of their leaves, as well as in general appearance. 5. V. modiflora. Knot-flowered Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 28. Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 3. Bauh. Prodr. 125. Burm. Ind. 12. t. 6. f. 1. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 553, unpublished. (Zappania nodiflora; Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. l. 514. Pursh 417. Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8. 839.)—Spikes dense, imbricated, ovate. Leaves wedge-shaped, toothed. Stem creeping.—Na- tive of the south of Europe, Levant, East and West Indies, and North America, in watery situations, ſlow- ering at various seasons. The root is fibrous, peren- nial. Stems herbaceous, trailing and Creeping to a great extent. Leaves an inch or inch and half long somewhat spatulate, smooth; entire at the base. Flow- ers light purple, with dark-red bracteas. Calyx. Some- what two-lipped Seeds two. 6. V. bonariensis. Cluster-flowered Vervain. Linn, Sp. Pl. 28. Willd. n. 11. Ait. n. 5. Poiret in Lam. n. 13. (V. bonariensis altissima, lavandulae canariensis spică multiplici: Dill. Elth. 406. t. 300.)—Spikes ag- gregate, tufted, level-topped. Leaves lanceolate, Ses- sile, clasping the stem.—Native of Buenos Ayres, from whence it came into Sherard’s garden; and is still seen in some curious collections, being a hardy biennial plant, flowering throughout autumn. The stem is often six feet high, square, rough, clothed with long, harsh, coarsely serrated leaves, and terminating in copious tufts of blue flowers, made up of short spikes, on very long, opposite, panicled stalks. Seeds four, linear, striated, curiously rough on the inner side. 7. V. rugosa. Rugose Vervain. Willd. Enum. 633. Pursh n. 8. (V. angustifolia; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 14. Ait. n. 7. Poiret in Lam. n. 11.)—Spikes thread-shaped, solitary, terminal or axillary. Leaves lanceolate, sparingly serrated, furrowed with veins; tapering at the base.—In dry soil, by road-sides, par- ticularly on limestone, from Pennsylvania to Tenessee, flowering from June to August. Perennial. Not above a foot high. Flowers fine blue. Pursh. 8. V. clavata. Whorled Vervain. “ Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 21. t. 33. f. B.” Poiret in Lam. n. 15.—Flowers in umbellate heads. Uppermost anthers club-shaped at the back. Leaves whorled, wedge-shaped, undivided or lobed.—Native of Peru, in Sandy situations, flower- ing in August and September. The stems are nume- rous, erect, much branched, hoary ; naked below. Leaves five or six in each whorl; some entire, linear- lanceolate, revolute; others divided or three-cleft, hard- iy an inch iong, moderately downy, a little fringed. Flowers terminal, sessile, collected into a head in the form of an umbel, each with one or two linear, oblong, downy, fringed bracteas. Corolla purplish-red. Sta- mens four. Anthers heart-shaped, surmounted by a Small club-shaped appendage. Seeds four. Poiret. 9. V. his/hida. Bristly Vervain. “FI. Peruv. v. 1. 22. t. 34. f. A.” Poiret in Lam. n. 16.—“Spikes ter- nate, cylindrical. Leaves ovate or oblong, undivided or somewhat three-cleft, deeply serrated, half-embra- cing the stem.”—Native of Peru, in dry chalky ground, flowering in March and April. The stems are nume- rous, herbaceous, spreading, hispid, a foot high, branch- ed, quadrangular. Leaves opposite, sometimesternate, sessile, contracted, and in a manner decurrent, at the base, wrinkled, strongly veined, hispid, with deep, tooth-like, often unequal, serratures; their length two or three inches, breadth one inch. Flowers much Vol. XXXVIII. into the gardens of Europe. crowded, in terminal stalked shikes, generally three upon each branch, thick, cylindrical, two or three inch- es long, the lateral ones much shorter. Bracteas soli- tary to each flower, half-lanceolate, fringed. Calya: Duplish. Tube of the corolla purple ; limb pale blue. Stamens four. Seeds four. Poiret. 10. V. hastata. Halberd-leaved Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 29. Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 6. Pursh n. 4. (V. al- tissima americana, spică multiplici, urtica, foliis an- gustis, floribus caeruleis; Herm. Parad. 242, with a plate.)-Spikes panicled, linear, acute. Leaves lan- ceolate, pointed, deeply and doubly serrated; lower ones hastate, or pinnatifid.—By road-sides in wet situ- ations, and on the banks of rivers, from Canada to Ca- rolina, perennial, flowering in July and August. From two to five feet high. Flowers purple, sometimes white. Pursh. The leaves are three inches, or more, in length, rough to the touch, like a fine file. Shikes two inches long, becoming longer, and lax, after flow- €TII).9". 11. V. triphylla. Lemon-scented Vervain. L’He- rit. Stirp. 21. t. 1 1. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 4. Curt. Mag. t. 367. (Zappania citrodora; Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8, 845.)—Spikes panicled. Leaves lanceolate, minutely and distantly toothed, three in a whorl. Stem shrubby.-Native of Chili, where it was found by the unfortunate DoMBEY, (see that article,) and introduced In Italy, Spain, and the south of France, this valuable shrub is quite naturaliz- ed, and its delightfully scented leaves, having the flavour of lemon, are useful in fevers, and other inflammatory disorders, being taken as tea, like balm, hyssop, &c. With us it is a hardy greenhouse plant, flowering in summer. The leaves are of a light bright green, roughish, two inches long, apparently entire to a slight observer, soon drying, and fragrant for a long time af- terwards if rubbed. Flowers small, pale lilac, in ag- gregate, panicled, loose, terminal spikes. The speci- fic name of this plant is not well chosen, so many Peru- vian and Chili shrubs having three leaves in a whorl. Ortega who thought it a new genus, called it Aloysia citrodora, and the French retain the latter appellation, as if citrea would not far more elegantly express their meaning. But who shall weed the rank wilderness of recent botanic names : in which the venerable fabric raised by Linnaeus is almost hidden, like the temples at Paestum, before they were cleared. 12. V. virgata. Wand-like Verbena. “Fl. Peruv. v. 1, 20. t. 32. f. B.” (Zappania virgata; Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8. 845.)—“Spikes axillary, ternate, slen- der. Flowers whorled. Leaves ovate, acute; crenate.” —Native of the extensive forests of Peru, flowering in August and September. A branching shrub, ten or twelve feet high, with a very agreeable scent. Leaves stalked, opposite, spreading, three or four inches long, an inch and a half broad; rough on the upper side; veiny, wrinkled and downy beneath. Shikes generally three from the bosom of each leaf, composing a spread- ing panicle. Calyac downy. Corolla white. Seeds two. Poiret. 13. V. laſfulacea. Bur Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 28. Willd. n. 14. Swartz Obs. 16. Jacq. Obs, fasc. i. 37. t. 24. (Scorodonia floribus spicatis purpurascentibus pentapetaloideis, semine unico majori echinato; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 174. t. I 10. f. 1.)—Clusters solitary, lax, simple calyx of the fruit inflated, roundish. Seeds ob- long, tuberculated. Leaves ovate, acute, sharply ser- rated.—Native of waste ground and stony places, in the West Indies. The Stems are herbaceous, two or 3 O three VERBENA. three feet high, branched, leafy, square, smooth, hol- low. Leaves stalked, two inches long, slightly bristly. Clusters from the forks of the stem, long, weak, and slender, of numerous, distant, little, pale-blue flowers, on short partial stalks. Calyz downy ; as the fruit ri- pens becoming globose, enclosing the four hard seeds, which are closely combined, beset externally with four thick spines. Dr. Swartz, in his Flora Ind. Occ. 1090, points out the affinity of this species to his own genus GH1N1A, (see that article.) founded on Verbena curas- savica of Linnaeus. The fruit of Ghinia, however, is a druña, with a nut of four cells. 14. V. Forskalai. Arabian Vervain. Vahl Symb. v. 3. 6. Willd. n. 15. (Phryma; Forsk. Fl. Arab. Fel. n. 372.)—Clusters terminal, simple. Calyx of the fruit roundish, beaked, reflexed. Seeds rounded, cor- rugated. Leaves ovate-oblong, acute, bluntly serrated. —Found by Forskall in Arabia Felix. Very nearly akin to the last, but more robust and erect, with rough- er, more deeply serrated, leaves. Seeds not oblong and spinous, but roundish and toothed, inflexed at the points. Wahl. 15. V. caroliniana. Carolina Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 29. Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 8. Pursh n. 9. (V. carolinensis, melissae folio, aspero; Dill. Elth. 407. t. 30 l.)—Spikes aggregate, lax and slender. Leaves el- liptic-lanceolate, acute at each end, serrated, nearly sessile ; rough above; somewhat downy beneath.—In dry sandy fields, from Carolina to Georgia, perennial, flowering in June and July. Pursh. Herb erect, branched, somewhat hairy. Leaves harsh, with minute bristly tubercles, on the upper side, an inch and a half or two inches long, unequally, not deeply serrated. Flowers pale red, very small. Calyx bristly, twice the length of the minute, ovate, pointed bracteas. Seeds four, oblong. 16. V. urticifolia. Nettle-leaved Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 29. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 9. Pursh n. 6. {V. folio urticae angustiore; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. '57. V. eceta Canadensis; Moris sect. 1 1. t. 25. f. 3. V. peregrina, foliis urticae; Dodart Mem. 627. t. 35.)— Spikes aggregate, lax and slender. Leaves ovate, acute, Serrated, stalked, hairy on both sides.—About road- sides and cultivated grounds, from New England to Ca- rolina, perennial, flowering from June to September. Flowers very small, white. Pursh. Akin to the last, but taller, and clearly distinguished by its stalked, coarse- Jy serrated, nettle-like leaves. Bracteas ovate, slightly pointed, shorter than the calyar. 17. V. stricta. Stout Upright Vervain. Venten. Hort. Cels. t. 53. Ait. n. 10. Wild. Enum. 633. Pursh n. 10. Donn Cant. ed. 5. n. 10. (V. rigens; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 14. V. paniculata ; Donn Cant, ed. 5. n. 8.)—Spikes aggregate, corym- bose, straight, dense, obtuse. Bracteas taper-pointed, as long as the calyx. Leaves ovate, on short stalks, unequally Serrated, downy and hoary on both sides.— Native of Carolina, and the Illinois country, perennial, flowering in July and August. Pursh. A tall, stout, hoary plant, whose stiff round stem is clothed with numerous, coriaceous, veiny leaves, an inch and a half to two inches long, acute, coarsely serrated; most downy beneath. Shikes from two to four inches long, in strong plants numerous, crowded at the top of the stem, in a corymbose manner, hoary, imbricated. Brac- seas ovate, with taper points, generally exceeding the calyx, whose teeth are also long and slender, Corolla targe, of a violet blue. 18. V. diffusa. Spreading Vervain. Poiret in Lam. n: 14. Pursh n. 7-Spikes very long, lax, panicled, widely spreading. Bracteas acute, about as long as the calyx. Stem erect, much branched. Leaves ova- to-lanceolate, Serrated, somewhat downy.—Native of North America; cultivated at Paris, according to Poi- ret, on whose authority Mr. Pursh gave this species a place in his Flora. He speaks of it as having a near resemblance to V. urticifolia, with very small, some- what purple, flowers. We have seen no specimen. 19. V. flamiculata. Compound-panicled Vervain.— Lamarck Illustr. v. 1, 57. Dict. n. 8. Pursh n. 5.— Spikes compound, in a corymbose panicle. Leaves lanceolate, deeply serrated and jagged ; tapering at the base; harsh on both sides, slightly downy.—In the natural meadows of the high mountains of Virginia and Carolina, perennial, flowering in July and August. From four to six feet high. Flowers very numerous, purple. We have from the Paris garden a specimen marked V. ſhaniculata of Jussieu, which answers well to the description by Poiret in Lamarck’s Dictionary, and is doubtless what they all intended. Our specimen indeed is but eighteen inches high, and the leaves are about two inches, not four or five, in length. They taper down into short stalks, and are not much pointed. Both surfaces are rough like a file, as is likewise the square stem, which terminates in a corymbose flanicle, of compound or branched sfiikes. The bracteas are ovate, with a fine point, shorter than the calyx. Co- rolla rather small.—What we received from the late Mr. Donn of Cambridge, as his V. ſhaniculata, is not this, but our stricta, n. 17. 20. V. corymbosa. Corymbose Chili Vervain. “FI. Peruv. v. . 22. t. 33. f. A.” Poiret in Lam. n. 16– Spikes aggregate, corymbose. Leaves sessile, triangu- lar heartshaped, wrinkled, harsh, deeply serrated, pointed.—Native of Chili, in waste ground amongst rubbish, flowering in November and December. The stems are erect, herbaceous, Square, a foot high, with opposite branches. Leaves about an inch and a half in length, distant, strongly veined, almost triangular. Flower-stalks at the summits of the stem and branches, opposite, three-cleft, the lowermost axillary, all form- ing a corymb of oblong &flikes, of violet-coloured flowers. Bracteas lanceolate, taper-pointed. Seeds four. Poiret. 21. V. officinalis. Common Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 29. Willd. n. 20. FI. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 767. Curt. Lond. fasc. l. t. 41. Woodv. Suppl. t. 218. Fl. Dan. t. 628. Brown n. 1. (V. communis; Ger. Em. 7 18. Verbena; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 56. Verbenaca ; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 399. Camer. Epit. 797.)—Spikes slender, panicled. Bracteas ovate. Leaves deeply cut. Stems mostly solitary, somewhat prickly. Na- tive of waste ground, and road-sides, in most parts of Europe, common in England, flowering in July. We received it among the first specimens, sent from New South Wales, in 1792, by Dr. John White. Mr. Brown also saw it there, and in the tropical part of New Hol- land. The root is perennial, woody, branching, send- ing up, from each of its summits, a solitary stem, about a foot high, curved at the base, acutely quadrangular, smooth, except a greater or less proportion of minute hooked prickles. Ileaves variously jagged, somewhat hairy, tapering at the base into a broad footstalk. Flow- ers small, pale lilac, in acute shikes, at first dense, but becoming long and lax as the seeds ripen. Bracteas ovate, half the length of the calyx. Seeds while young w enfolded VERBENA. enfolded in one common skin, or tunic, almost obli- terated as they ripen, when each appears marked at the summit with excavated dots. This is the plant used by Mr. Morley to cure the king’s evil, by hanging its root round the neck. Curtis has very justly expo- sed his pretensions, and his affected disinterestedness. Ray long ago remarked that the sensible qualities of the Vervain were too slight to make its many boasted virtues credible. Nevertheless it is still used, and we believe will do no harm ; unless the patient be deluded by this means to neglect what might be more service- able. Dioscorides, whose ispo, Golovn, or Holy Herb, this is, first published its powerful use in incantations, and yet he has been believed for its other qualities. 23. V. shuria. Jagged-leaved Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 29. Will. n. 9. Ait. n. 12. Pursh n. 3.—“Spikes thread-shaped. Bracteas longer than the calyx. Stem decumbent, much branched and divaricated. Leaves in many jagged segments.”—On slate hills and lime- stone rocks, in the Illinois country, Virginia and Ken- tucky, biennial, flowering in July and August. Fowers very small, blue. Pursh. We have never 'seen this plant, nor had Linnaeus a specimen. 23. V. suftina. Trailing Spanish Vervain. Linn. Sp. Pl. 29. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 14. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 554, unpubl. Clus. Hist. v. 2.46. (V. sacra ; Ger. Em. 7 18.)—Spikes thread-shaped, solita- Bracteas shorter than the calyx. Stems decum- bent, branched. Leaves doubly pinnatifid. Native of Spain and the Levant, in spots overflowed in winter, flowering in July. Root annual. Herb somewhat dowly, spreading every way, a little glaucous, with square stems a foot long. Leaves in many, narrow, wedge-shaped, notched segments. Shikes from the ends, as well as the forks of the branches. Flowers small, light purple, becoming distant as the seeds ripen. Bracteas ovate, bristly like the calyac, and about half its 1ength. Seeds oblong, smooth. 24. V. frostrata. Prostrate Vervain. Ait. n. 18.- “Spikes thread-shaped, solitary. Calyx twice as long as the seeds. Leaves deeply serrated or cut.”—Found by Mr. Menzies, on the north-west coast of America; and introduced in 1794 into Kew garden. It is peren- nial and 11ardy, flowering in June and July. 25. V. cuneiformis. Wedge-leaved Vervain. “Fl. Peruv. V. 1 22. t. 32. f. A.” Poiret in Lam. n. 3.— Spikes ternate, oblong. Bracteas lanceolate, acute, fringed. Leaves three-cleft, cut. Stem erect.—Na- tive of Sandy ground in Peru, flowering from March to May. The whole filant is bristly, two feet high, * * * * *-* * * * *-* * Leaves scssic, Haif claspiiig tile stein ; con- tracted at the base; divided almost half way down into three large, oblong, serrated lobes, rough and hispid on both sides, two or three inches long, and about as broad. Shikes short, ternate. Flowers blue. Poiret. 26. V. bracteosa. Bracteated Vervain. Michaux Boreal,-Amer. v. 2. 13. Wiiid. Enum. 634 Pursh n. 2. (Zappania bracteosa; Poiret in Lam. v. 8. 843.)— Spikes solitary, with lanceolate spreading bracteas, longer than the flowers. Stem decumbent. Leaves lacinated, very haily.—Native of Iliinois and Kentucky, perennial, flowering in July. Flowers light purple. Pursh. A small very hairy piant, said to have some resemblance to V. suftina, n. 23, but the long wide- spreading bracteas a e peculiar. The stems are from Six to nine inches in length. Shikes from the ends, as Well as the forks, of t.e branches, two or three inches long. Seeds only two. 27. V. Aubletia. Rose-coloured Vervain. Hort. Vind. v. 2.82. t. 176. Linn. Suppl. 86. Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 11. Pursh n. 1. Curt. Mag. t. 308. Buchnera canadensis; Linn. Mant. 88. Obletia; Journ. de Rozier, v. 1. 367. t. 2. Erinus laciniatus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 879. Lychnidea verbenae tenuifoliae folio; Feuill. Peruv. v. 3. 35. t. 25.)—Spikes capitate, solita- ry; cylindrical after flowering. Bracteas awl-shaped, as long as the taper-pointed calyx. Leaves three-lobed, cut. Stem erect.—Native of Carolina and Georgia, flowering in June and July. The seeds appear to have been brought to Europe by M. Richard, senior, and were sent by him to Kew garden, in 1774. The plant is biennial in our climate, requiring the shelter of a frame in winter. The herbage is green, roughish to the touch. Stem a foot high, or more, square, leafy, branched from the bottom. Leaves stalked, broadish, variously cut. Flowers larger than most of the genus, of a fine pink or crimson, numerous, in stalked heads, which afterwards become thick, close, cylindrical spikes. The bracteas are very narrow, permanent, downy as well as the calyac, whose teeth are also very long and slender. Seeds four, oblong; furrowed in the lower, reticulated in the upper, part. This is undoubtedly a genuine and most obvious Verbena, nor can we account for the error of Linnaeus, who, with the ripe naked seeds on his original specimen, and the long-pointed calyx, referred it to Buchnera. It was called Obletia, either by its discoverer, or by La Tour- rette, who sent a specimen and figure to Linnaeus, by which the latter corrected his mistake. Their inten- tion was to honour Aublet, whose name was sometimes written Oblet. With respect to the other Linnaean synonym, hitherto neglected by most of those who have noticed this Werbena, it depends entirely on Feuil- lée’s plate and description, which led Linnaeus to refer this, as well as the following species, to Erinus, with- out seeing a specimen of either. Lamarck, Poiret, and Willdenow, apply these latter synonyms to their V. erinoides, Willd. Enum. 634, which is V. multifida, Fl. Peruv. v 1. 21. t. 33. f. C. 28. V. veronicifolia. Speedwell-leaved Vervain. (Erinus peruvianus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 879. Lychnidea veronicae folio, flore coccineo ; Feuill Peruv. v. 3. 36. t. 25.)—Spikes capitate, solitary, cylindrical after flow- ering. Bracteas awl-shaped, as long as the taper-point- ed calyx. Leaves ovate, serrated, acute at each end. Stem erect.—Found by Feuillée in fields on the north side of the river de la Plata, in Paraguay. This seems to agree with the last in the flowers and inforescence, differing only in the simple undivided form of the leaves ; but whether that difference be constant and specific, can be determined by future comparison of the two plants. The other synonym of Feuiltée hav- ing been misunderstood, and, as we presume, distin- guished without reason from V. Auðletia, we have here recorded this for the consideration of those who may hereafter meet with materials for solving our doubts. VERBENA, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy, herbaceous, and tender exotic kiſſids, annong which the species cultivated are, the Indian vervain (V. indica); the trailing vervain (V. Supina); the betony-leaved vervain (V. orubica); the Jamaica vervain (V. jamai- censis); the Mexican vervain (V. mexicana); the globe-ſlowered vervain (V. globiflora); the cluster- fleweled vervain (V. bonariensis); the halbert-leaved vervain (V. Hastata); and the three-leave vervain (V. triphylla), A. And 3 O 2 Jacq. V E R V E R And there are many other species that may be cul- tivated for variety. - The first sort is an annual plant with a purplish flower. In the second sort the flowers are of a light blue colour, and large. The third arises with a shrub- by stalk, and the flowers grow in thick terminating spikes about a foot in length; are large, and of a fine blue colour. The fourth sort is three or four feet high in the stem, and much branched, the flowers blowing in succession, beginning at the bottom, but very few together, violet-coloured, with the throat and long slender incurved tube of a white colour. The seventh has four-cornered stalks, which rise to the height of five or six feet, the flowers of which are blue, appear- ing late in summer. The eighth has many four-corner- ed furrowed stalks, which are terminated by spikes of blue flowers, in clusters, which appear in August. The ninth is a very sweet-smelling under shrub, and very pleasant, like that of the lemon. Method of Culture.—These plants are not raised without difficulty or attention. They may be increased by seeds, which should be sown in pots, or on a hot- bed, in the early spring, plunging the pots in the bed. When they are in a state of growth to remove, they should be planted in separate pots, and replunged in a fresh hot-bed, shade being given till they have taken new root, when they must have the management of tender plants of the exotic kind. The annual sorts should be kept in the stove, or a glass case, where there is a bark-bed to plunge them in, when too large to be continued under the frames; and the perennial sorts may be placed simply in such cases, air being admitted in a cautious manner. Of these kinds, such as do not afford good seeds in this climate, may be increased by planting cuttings in the summer months in pots of good mould, placing them in the bark-bed of the stove, where they may be preserved many years. The eighth sort may be raised from seeds by sowing them in the autumn, and by parting the roots and planting them out at the same time. They succeed best on a soft loamy soil, and are so hardy as to thrive in the open air. The ninth sort may be readily increased, by planting cuttings in the spring or autumn in pots of good mould. It should have the protection of the greenhouse or a glass case. They afford variety among other potted plants in the greenhouse and stove, and some of the hardy sorts oc- casionally in the open ground. VERBENACA, in Botany, with the earlier bota- mists among the moderns, and even with Pliny himself, seems to be synonimous with VERBENA, see that arti- cle. Linnaeus indeed uses this word as the specific name of a common English species of Salvia, not sup- posed by any body, that we can find, to have been the so much honoured Verbenaca of the Romans, see Pliny, book 25. chap. 9. He was led to this adoption of the name by Triumfetti, who compares the division of the leaves of this plant to those of Verbenaca, or Vervain. The application, therefore, is faulty, and causes a con- fusion of ideas. See SALVIA. VERBENICO, in Geography, a town of the island of Veglia, with a small harbour, containing about $200 inhabitants. VERBERATION, formed from verbero, I smite, in Physics, a term used to express the cause of sound, which arises from a verberation of the air, when struck, in divers manners, by several parts of the sonorous. body first put into a vibratory motion. - VERBERIE, in Geografiny, a town of France, in the department of the Oise : near it is a medicinal spring; 9 miles S. of Compeigne. VERBESINA, in Botany, according to Ambrosi- nus, who is followed by Linnaeus, Phil. Bot. 175, origi- nated in Forbesina ; which latter arose from the leaves being divided like a pair of forceps. Professor Mar- tyn, however, derives Forbesina from poeg", food, or fodder ; the chief objection to which is, that the plants of this genus do not appear to be serviceable, or to have been recommended, for any such purpose. De Theis considers the above name as synonymous with Verbe- na, because, as he says, the undulated obtuse leaves of Kerbesina alata resemble that plant; but this explana- tion is unauthorized.—Linn. Gen. 437. Schreb. 570. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2221. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 120. Pursh 564. Juss. 188. Lamarck Illustr. t. 684. Gaertn. t. 17 l. (Synderella: ibid. t. 171.)-Class and order, Syngenesia Polygamia- sufterflua. Nat. Ord. Compositae offiositifolia, Linn. Corymbiferas, Juss. Gen. Ch. Common Calyx concave, of several ob- long, channelled-concave, erect, mostly equal leaves, in a double row. Cor. compound, radiated; that of the numerous perfect florets in the disk funnel-shaped, five-toothed, erect; of the few (about five) female flo- rets of the radius ligulate, either broad and three-cleft, or very narrow and undivided. Stam. in the perfect florets, Filaments five, capillary, very short; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. Pist. in the same flo- rets, Germen rather oblong; style thread-shaped, the length of the stamens: stigmas two, reflexed; in the female ones, the same. Peric. none, except the un- changed calyx. Seeds in all the florets alike, solitary, thickish, angular, crowned with a chaffy crown of two, Or more acute teeth. Recefit, covered with deciduous chaffy scales. Ess. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-down bristle- pointed. Calyx of two rows of scales. Florets of the radius about five. Obs. We have shewn, under the article PHAETHU- SA, that the genus established by Gaertner, with that name, is a real Werbesina, though a Siegesbeckia of Linnaeus. The bristly-pointed crown of the seed in the genus before us being wanting in W. Lavenia, alba and firostrata of Linnaeus, the two latter are removed to ECLIPTA, and the first to LAvenia ; see those arti- cles. The number of radiant florets is uncertain in many species. Sect. 1. Eeaves alternate. I. V. alata. Wing-stalked Verbesina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1270. Willd. n. 1. Ait... n. 1. Curt. Mag. t. 1716. (Cannabina indica, foliis integris, alato caule; Magn. Hort. 40. t. 8. Chrysanthemum americanum, caule alato flore aphyllo globoso aurantio, foliis bac- charidis; Commel. Hort. v. 1. 5. t. 3. C. corassavi- Cum, alato caule, floribus aurantiis; Herm. Parad. 125, with a plate.)—Leaves alternate, decurrent, un- dulated, bluntish. Bristles of the seed two, very un- equal.--Native of South America and the West Indies. Cultivated ever since the beginning of the last centu- ry in our stoves, where it flowers most part of the summer, and being not uncommon, has been figured in more publications than we have thought necessary to quote, but which are cited by those mentioned above. VERBESINA. above. The fitant is perennial, hoary when young, erect, branched, three or four feet high, readily known by its winged stem. Leaves three or four inches long, veiny, wavy and toothed. Flowers of a very rich orange-colour, almost globular, three quarters of an inci, broad, on long naked, alternate, often purplish, stalks, at the ends of the branches. Florets of the radius, in our gardens at least, numerous. Seeds bor- dered with a membrane; their terminal awns awl- shaped, rigid, one much longer than the other, incur- ved and hooked. Linnaeus has hinted that this spe- cies differs so much in habit and structure from the rest, as almost to constitute a distinct genus. Gaertner makes it the type of Verbesina, and yet asserts that this genus is only Shilanthus with a radius. Indeed these two genera do run very much into each other; and the radius occasionally appears or vanishes in Several species of each, nor are the bristles of the Seed perhaps strictly constant even in the same spe- cics. We scarcely think the difficulty would be much lessened by removing W. alata to SPILANTHUs, see that article ; though such a measure might be sanctioned by the habit of the plant. The remaining species, very various in habit, have not been sufficient- ly examined or compared to allow of a clear decision respecting them, and we must take them in general as we find them. *. 2. V. chinensis. Chinese Verbesina. Linn. Sp. PI. 1270. , Willd. n. 2–Leaves alternate, stalked, ovato- lanceolate, obtuse. Seed-down with four bristly points. —Brought by Osbeck from China. Stem shrubby, with round, leafy, downy branches. Leaves an inch and a half long, bluntly serrated, finely downy. Flowers the size of the preceding, yellow, with numerous short rays, growing about the ends of the branches, on long- ish, slightly leafy, nearly simple, stalks. Seeds slender, quadrangular, each crowned with a jagged membrane, and four small, erect, straight bristles. 3. V. virginica. Virginian Verbesina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1270. Willd. h. 3. Pursh n. 1. Michaux Bore- al.-Amer. v. 2. 134.—Leaves alternate, stalked, lance- olate, nearly entire. Stem slightly winged. Corymb. compound. Calyx oblong, downy.—In shady woods on the mountains, from Pennsylvania to Carolina, pe- rennial, flowering from July to September. Rays three or four, white. Pursh. 4. V. virgata. Wand-stalked Verbesina. Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 38. t. 275. Willd. n. 4.—Leaves alternate, lanceolate, serrated, tapering at each end. Flowers corymbose.—Native of Mexico. Perennial, flowering in the garden at Madrid in December. Stem four feet high, erect, wand-like leafy. Leaves a span long, ta- pering down in the footstalks. Flowers yellow, an inch broad, with about twelve elliptical radiant florets. Seeds black, elliptical, bordered with a whitish wing, and crowned with two small erect, often deciduous bristles. - 5. V. mutica. Parsley-leaved Verbesina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1273. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 2. Swartz Obs. 3.14. t. 8. f. 1. (Bidens apiifolia; Linn. Am. Acad. v. 405. Chrysanthemum palustre minimum repens, apii folio; Sloane Jam. v. l. 263. t. 155. f. 3. C. humile, ranunculi folio; Plum. Ic. 75. t. 86. f. 2.)—Leaves al- ternate, deeply three-cleft, toothed; radical ones obo- vate, serrated. Stems procumbent. Seeds without awns.—Foundin rather moist pastures, and by way-sides. in the West Indies. Swartz, Miller cultivated it in 1768, from seeds sent by Houstoun, from whom Gronovius received specimens in 1732. This species, having no bristly crown to the seed, belongs rather, as Dr. Swartz observes, to Anthemis ; but the habit is somewhat ad- verse. The stems, a span long, spread every way on the ground, and are leafy, more or less branched. Leaves much divided and toothed ; glaucous beneath. Flowers small, yellow, with numerous radiant florets. Seed bordered. º 6. V. Boswallea. Fennel-leaved Verbesina. Linn. Suppl. 379. Willd. n. 6.-Ileaves alternate, three- cleft, with many capillary segments. Stems prostrate. Seeds hairy, with two bristles. Female floret solitary. —Native of the East Indies. Used by the natives in formentations. An annual, herbaceous, decumbent plant, having the taste and smell of fennel; the divi- sions of the leaves also resembling that herb, only shortcr and fewer. Flowers mostly solitary, axillary or terminal, stalked. Calyz-scales few, broad, ellipti- cal, with a membranous edge. Florets five or six only ; of which one is ligulate and female ; the rest four cleft. Seeds compressed, black, clothed with shaggy golden hairs, and crowned with two black bristles. Linnaeus, or rather Koenig, who sent him this plant, appears to have had an intention of making it a new genus, by the name of Boswallea, which might have been done without violence to nature. We are not informed of the origin of the name. - 7. V. gigantea. Great Pale Verbesina. Jacq. Coll. v. 1. 53. Ic. Rar. t. 175. Willd. n. 7. Ait.n. 3. Swartz Ind. Occ. 1368. (Bidens frutescens, sphondylii folio et facie; Plum. Ic. 41. t. 51.)—Leaves alternate, pinna- tifid, sinuated, toothed. Stem shrubby.—Native of mountainous thickets, in Jamaica and other parts of the West Indies, flowering in December and January. Though often seen in our more curious stove collec- tions, it very rarely flowers. The stem is ten or twelve feet high. Leaves deeply pinnatifid; downy beneath ; the lower ones twelve to eighteen inches long. Flow- ers small, white, or flesh-coloured, numerous, in large, corymbose, terminal fanicles. Seeds, according to Jacquin, crowned with a solitary bristle. 8. V. Coreopsis. Alternate-leaved Winged Verbe- sina. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 134. Pursh n. 3. (Coreopsis alternifolia; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1283. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2257. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2.50. t. 110. Chrysanthemum virginianum, caule, alato, ramosius, flore minore; Pluk. Phyt. t. 159, f. 3. C. caule alato, vir- ginianum, &c.; Moris. sect. 6. t. 7. f. 7.5, 76.)—Leaves afternate, lanceolate, serrated, stalked. Stem winged. Panicle corymbose, leafy.—On the mountains of Vir- ginia and Carolina; perennial, flowering from July to September. From three to seven feet high, the stem furnished with several narrow, green, entire leafy wings. Leaves four or five inches long, roughest on the upper side ; the lower ones opposite, or three or four in a whorl; but the greater part are alternate. Flowers several, in a downy-stalked branched panicle. Calya widely spreading, almost flat, so that the disk becomes nearly globose, subtended by four or five orange-coloured, spreading, ligulate florets, near an inch long. Seed crowned with two short bristles. This species is naturally very nearly allied to V. Sieges- beckia, hereafter described, see, n. 1 1. nor can they be generically separated. - Michaux and Pursh mention a white-flowered varie- ty, always destitute of rays, found by the latter on the COaSt. VERBESINA. eoast of Carolina, which is Athanasia flamiculata, Wait. Carol. 20 l. This Mr. Pursh strongly suspects to be a very distinct species. 9. V. helianthoides. Sun-flower Verbesina. Mi- chaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 135. Pursh n. 4.—“Leaves alternate, broadly lanceolate, acute, slightly toothed ; rough above : downy and hoary beneath. Stalks, sin- gle-flowered, aggregate.”—In the western parts of the Allegany mountains, and in the Tennessee and Illinois countries; perennial, flowering in August and Septem- ber. Flowers like a Helianthas. Michaux, Pursh. Sect. 2. Leaves offiosite. 10. V. fimmatifida. Pinnatifid Yellow Verbesina. Cavan. Ic. v. 1. 67. t. 100. Willd. n. 8. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 30. t. 305.-Leaves opposite, pinnatifid, serrated. Stem winged.—Native of Mexico, flowering in the European stoves in December and January, but not yet known in the English collections. The stems are several, rather shrubby, with four, slightly wavy, membranous wings. Leaves about a foot long, taper- ing at the base. “Inflorescense like V. gigantea, but the fowers are more numerous, yellow, with several eonspicuous rays. Seed crowned with two bristles. | I. V. Siegesbeckia. Half-rayed Verbesina. Mi- chaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 134. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 4. Pursh n. 2. (Siegesbeckia occidentalis; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1269. Phaëthusa americana; Gaertn. v. 2.425. t. 69. Pursh 561. Chrysanthemum americanum, caule alato, amplioribus foliis binatis, floribus e pallide lutescentibus parvis; Pluk. Mant. 46. t. 342.)—Leaves opposite, ovato-lanceolate, serrated, stalked; tapering at each end. Stem winged.—In shady woods, from Virginia to Carolina; perennial, flowering from July to September. A tall herbaceous plant, with four, or more, narrow, uninterrupted wings, running along the stem and branches. Leaves six inches long, undivided, bright green; roughish above; downy beneath ; the upper ones sometimes three in a whorl. Panicle ter- minal, forked, downy, leafy. Radiant florets from one to three, near an inch long, ligulate, bright yellow. We have already (see PHAETHUSA) given reasons for the above synonyms. Pursh rightly suspected these two plants to be the same, but retained Phaethusa out of deference to Michaux, who nevertheless has omit- ted it in his F ora. 12. V. serrata. Serrated Downy Verbesina. Ca- van. Ic. v. 3. 7. t. 214. Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 5.- Leaves opposite, stalked, ovato-lanceolate, with tooth- like Serratures; downy beneath. Flowers corymbose. —Native of Mexico. We have a garden specimen from the original author. Mr. Lambert received seeds from him in 1803. The root is perennial. Stems three feet high, erect, round, clothed with white cot- tony down, especially when young. Footstalks short, combined by a dilated downy base. Leaves three in- ches long, strongly and unequally serrated ; green, but rather silky, above ; more hoary, and densely downy, beneath, copiously reticulated with veins. Flowers yellow, numerous, in a downy corymbose flanicle. Outer calyx-leaves obovate, recurved. Rays four or five, broad, toothed. Seeds bordered, crowned with two short bristles. 13. V. ceanothifolia. Five-ribbed Verbesina. Willd. n. 1 1.-Leaves opposite, ovate, serrated, with five com- bined ribs; their under side downy. Flower-stalks racemose, panicled, axillary.—Native of the neigh- bourhood of Acapulco, in Mexico. The stem is round, erect. Leaves on short stalks, oblong-ovates bluntly serrated, veiny, clothed on both sides with short scattered hairs; rough beneath. Flower-stalks long, from the bosoms of all the upper leaves. Akinto the following. Willdenow. 14. V. biflora. Twin-flowered Verbesina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1272. Willd. n. 12. (“Valliamanga-nari; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 10.79. t. 40.” Willd.)—Leaves opposite, stalked, ovate, Serrated, with three combined ribs; their under side paler, scarcely downy. Flowers solitary or in pairs, on axiliary and terminal stalks. Native of the East Indies. The stem appears to be herbaceous, or slightly shrubby, with forked and sub- divided, striated, nearly smooth, leafy branches. Leaves two inches or more in length, pointed, their three ribs united a little above the base; their upper side rough with minute depressed bristles; under smooth, or be- sprinkled with softer hairs. Flower-stalks long, either from the forks of the branches, or about their extremi- ties, bearing one or two yellow flowers, an inch broad, almost always accompanied by a lanceolate leaf oppo- site to each partial stalk. Outer calyx-scales ovate, bristly. Radiant florets several, elliptical, toothed at the end. Seeds abrupt, triangular, destitute of a crown, or terminal bristles. The scales of the receftacle are obovate, concave, furrowed, abrupt, rough at the ex- tremity, resembling the inner leaves of the calyx. Linnaeus points out the affinity of this species to his V. Lavenia : but this regards their habit only, for LAve- NIA, now a separate genus, (see that article,) has a naked receſſitacle, and three bristles to the seed. 15. V. sativa. Oil-seed Verbesina. Sims in Curt. Mag, t. 1017. Ait, n. 6.-Leaves opposite, oblong, clasping the stem, distantly serrated. Calyx simple, of five leaves.—Native of the East Indies; cultivated in the Mysore country, and several other parts of In- dia, for the sake of the expressed oil from its seeds, which serves as a substitute for that of Sesamum. Dr. Roxburg sent some of these seeds in 1805, to Mr. Wil- liam Salisbury, the assiduous possessor of the botanic garden at Brompton. The plant is annual, either to be kept in the store, or raised on a hot-bed, and then planted out, and flowering in autumn. Leaves four inches or more in length, green, not hoary. Flowers yellow, two inches broad, with about eight large broad radiant florets, jagged or toothed at the end. These jlowers stand on long simple stalks, from the forks of the stem, and bosoms of the upper leaves. The sim- ple calyac, of five broad leaves, agrees with that of the next species; so that, as Dr. Sims observes, if one be reckoned a Verbesima the other must. We are not inclined to disturb them, because the whole genus, though in many respects very natural, still labours under some strange exceptions and anomalies, which ought all to be well considered by those who attempt a reform. 16. V. calendulacea. Marigold Verbesina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1272. Wild. n. 13. Ait. n. 7. (Caltha flore solitario, ex alis foliorum longissimo pedunculo pro- deunte; Burm. Zeyl. 52. t. 22. f. 1. “Pee Cajoni; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 10. 83. t. 42.”)—Leaves op- posite, oblong-lanceolate, very remotely Serrated, ses- sile; tapering at the base. Calyx simple, of five leaves. —Native of Ceylon, and other parts of the East In- dies; cultivated by Miller. An annual stove-plant, flowering V E R V E R #owering from July to September. The stem is branched, clothed, as well as the leaves, with rigid de- pressed bristles. The upper surface of the latter is, besides, usually rough with callous tubercles: their length and shape are variable, and their marginal Ser- ratures are few and remote. Flowers yellow, not half the size of the last, on long, simple, mostly axillary stalks. Radiant florets from five to eight or ten, elliptical, toothed. Seeds very numerous, composing a globular head, wedge-shaped, abrupt, each crowned with two short bristies. 17. V. modiflora. Sessile-flowered Verbesina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 127 l. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 8. (Bidens nodi- flora, folio tetrahit; Dill. Elth. 53 t. 45. Chrysanthe- mum conyzoides nodiflorum, semine rostrato bidente ; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 262. t. 154. Synedrella nodiflora; Gaertn. v. 2. 456. t. 171.)—Leaves opposite, ovate, Ser- rated, with three combined ribs; tapering at the base. Flowers axillary, nearly sessile.—Native of the West Indies. Cultivated early at Chelsea, and in Sherard’s garden, being a tender annual, raised and kept in the stove, for the sake of curiosity, but having nothing to recommend it to popular notice. The stem is erect, a foot high, branched from the base. Leaves two or three inches long, broadly ovate, tapering suddenly into a winged footstalk. Flowers solitary, or in pairs, small, yellow, with several emarginate rays. Calyx certain- ly of two very different rows of scales, though the outermost consists of but two leafy ones. Seed crown- ed with two rigid awns. 18. V. dichotoma. Forked Verbesina. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 9. Murray in Comm. Goett. for 1779. 15. t. 4.—“Leaves opposite, ovate, pointed, serrated, hairy, with three combined ribs. Stalks axillary, single-flow- ered. Stem forked.”—Native of the East Indies. Annual. Whole heró beset with copious, short, white hairs. We have seen no specimen. ig. V. fruticosa. Shrubby West Indian Verbesina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1271. Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 10. (Bi- dens frutescens, ilicis folio, flore luteo ; Plum. Ic. 42. t. 52.)—Leaves opposite, stalked, ovate, serrated, rough, with three combined ribs. Stalks single-flower- ed, axillary. Stem shrubby.—Native of the West In- dies. We have a specimen from Dr. Swartz, though this species is not mentioned either in his Prodromus or FZora. forked. The leaves appear to vary in hairiness, as well as size, but are always rough with minute tubercles. A lowers yellow, with numerous broad rays. Seed com- pressed, crowned with two bristles. VERBESINA, in Gardening, affords plants of the her- * ºr *-* *-* *-*. sº a *-* * *. a. * * * * * which the species culivated are, the wing-stalked ver- besina (V. alata); the Chinese verbesina (V. chinen- sis); the sessile-flowered verbesina (V. nodiflora); the shrubby verbesina (V. fruticosa); and the tree verbe- “sina (V. gigantea). - The first is an herbaceous perennial plant, with the flowers in single heads, of a deep orange-colour, ap- pearing most part of the summer. The second is a shrubby plant with yellow flowers. The fourth rises with a shrubby stalk seven or eight feet high, and has yellow flowers. Method of Culture.—These plants may be increased by sowing the seeds upon a moderate hot-bed, or in pots plunged into it, in the early spring months; and when the plants are of sufficient growth, they should be removed into separate pots, or into a new hot-bed, The stem is woody, repeatedly branched and for 2000 years. giving shade till they become new-rooted ; afterwards managing them as tender annual piants, being careful not to draw them up weak : about the middle of sum- mer they may be taken up with balls to their roots, and be planted in a warm sheltered border, being protect- ed and watered till re-rooted, little care being after- wards necessary : these produce seeds often in the au- tumn ; but in the stove they may frequently be preser- ved over the winter. They produce variety in stove and greenhouse col- lections, and sometimes in the borders during the sum- mer season, especially the first sort by its orange flow- €1’S. - VERBIAGE, in Grammar and Rhetoric. See VER- BOSITY. VERBICAE, in Ancient Geografhy, a people of Afri- ca, in Maulitania Tingitana. VERBIEST, FERDINAND, in Biografiſhy, a celebra- ted missionary, was born in Flanders, and attained dis- tinction as a mathematician in China about the begin- ning of the 17th century. He was appointed by the emperor Cam-Hi president in the tribunal of mathe- matics, and entrusted with the care of the Calendar. He also obtained permission to preach the Christian religion in China, and made many.efforts for inducing the emperor to embrace the Christian faith; but though Verbiest succeeded in prevailing with him to acknow- ledge his belief in one God, he failed in his attempts to convert him to Christianity. Such, however, was the respect which the emperor entertained for this mission- ary, that on occasion of his death, in 1688, he compo- sed a eulogy upon him, and ordered him to be in- terred with Christian honours. The principal work of Verbiest is entitled, “Astronomia Europaea, sub Im- peratore Tartaro-Sinico Cam-Hi, ex umbra in lucem revocata a P. Ferdinando Verbiest, Flandro-Belga, e S. J. Academiae Astronomicae in Regia Pequinensi Prae- fecto;” Dillingae, 1687, 4to. He also caused to be con- structed, at the request of the emperor, a variety of as- tronomical instruments, and wrote sixteen volumes, in the Chinese language, on their construction and use. Verbiest contrived likewise to convey over a long bridge, by means of pullies, several immense blocks of stone for building a mausoleum for the emperor, which, it is said, 500 horses could not have drawn, and extend- ed an aqueduct several furlongs over a wide plain. He moreover cast upwards of 130 pieces of brass cannon for the use of the Chinese government, and calculated astronomical tables with eclipses of the sun and moon IMontucia Hist, des Mathem. Gen. Biog. & VERBINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Bel- gic Gaul, belonging to the Veromandui, upon the route from Bagacum Nerviorum to Durocortorum, between Buronum and Calusiacum. Anton. Itin. VERBO, in Geografiſhy, a town of Hungary; 16 miles N. W. of Leopoldstadt. - VERBOSANIA, a town of European Turkey, ir Bosnia; 15 miles W. N. W. of Bosnaserai. VERBOSITY, in Rhetoric, an offence against ener. getic and vivid brevity or conciseness in writing. This differs from pleonasm ; as in the latter, words are used which make no addition to the Sense, whereas in the ver- bose manner, not only singie words, but whole clauses, may have a meaning; but it would be better to omit them, because their meaning is unimportant; and there- fore, instead of enlivening the expression, they make it languish. Another difference is, that in a proper pied- I).3Słł, V. E. R. V E R nasm a complete correction is always made by expun- ging; but this will not always answer the purpose in the verbose style, as it is often necessary to alter as well as to raze. Moreover, verbosity does not mean the same thing which the French express by the term “ver- biage,” which is commonly understood to denote a pa- rade of fine words, plausibly strung together, so as ei- ther to conceal a total want of meaning, or to disguise something weak and inconclusive in the reasoning. The former, or verbosity, is merely an offence against viva- city; but the latter is more properly a transgression of the laws of perspicuity. One instance of a faulty exuberance of words is the immoderate use of circum- locution. In some circumstances circumlocution is a beauty, in others it is a blemish. It is often used for the sake of variety; sometimes for the sake of decen- cy: at other times, propriety requires the use of cir- cumlocution, as when Milton says of Satan, who had 'been thrown down headlong into hell, - “Nine times the space that measures day and night To mortal man, he with his horrid crew Lay vanquish’d rolling in the fiery gulf.” In this case, “nine days and nights” would not have been proper, when speaking of a period before the cre- ation of the sun, and consequently before time was por- tioned out to any being in that manner. Sometimes even the vivacity of the expression may be augmented by a periphrasis, as when it is made to supply the place of a separate sentence. An instance to this purpose occurs in the words of Abraham, (Gen. xviii. 25.) “Shall not the judge of all the earth do right?” This circumlocution for God serves as an argument in sup- port of the sentiment, and conduces more to concise- ness. Such also is the periphrasis employed by Cice- ro, who, instead of saying simply, Milo's domestics killed Clodius, says, “they did that which every master would wish his servants to do in such an exigence.” Another source of languor in the style is the inser- tion of such clauses, as to a superficial view appear to suggest something which heightens, but on reflection are found to presuppose something which abates the vigour of the sentiment. Such is the following sen- tence from Swift : “Neither is any condition of life more honourable in the sight of God than another, otherwise he would be a respecter of persons, which he assures us he is not.” The last clause enervates the thought, as it too plainly implies, that without this assurance from God himself, we should naturally con- clude him to be of a character very different from that here given him by the preacher. Akin to thisis the juve- nile method of loading every proposition with assevera- tions. Such a practice in conversation tends to suggest a suspicion of the speaker’s veracity, rather than to en- gage the belief of the hearer; and it has a somewhat similar effect in writing. Thus in our translation of Gen. ii. 17. God is represented as saying to Adam, concerning the fruit of the tree of knowledge, “In the day thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die.” The adverb surely, instead of enforcing, enfeebles the denun- ciation. Another example, somewhat similar, is the manner in which our interpreters have attempted, in the New Testament, to strengthen the negative, Wherever the double negative (8 km) occurs in the Greek, even in the most authoritative threatenings, by rendering it sometimes in no case, sometimes in no *tise ; neither of which phrases expresses more than the single adverb not ; and as they partake of the nature of circumlocution, they in effect debilitate the expres- sion. Another cause of a languid verbosity is the load- ing of the style with epithets. Epithets used sparing- ly, and with judgment, serve to enliven the expression; but a profusion of them has an opposite tendency. Be- sides, they lengthen the sentence, without adding pro- portionable strength. We may also add, that the crowding of epithets into a discourse betrays a violent effort to say something extraordinary; and nothing is a clear evidence of weakness than such an effort, with- out a correspondent effect. There is, however, one kind of composition, the para- phrase, of the style of which verbosity is the proper cha- racter; because it is the professed design of the para- phrast to say in many words what his text expresses in few. Another species of verbosity is a prolixity in narration, arising from the mention of unnecessary cir- cumstances. Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, vol. ii. VERBOVETZ, in Geografthy, a town of Croatia, at the conflux of the Csernets and Glocovia; 7 miles N. E. of Ivanitz. VERBRO AA, a river of Denmark, in North Jut- land, which runs into the sea, 6 miles W. N. W. of Hioring. VERBROECK, a town of Flanders; 8 miles E. S. E. of Hulst. VERCEL, a town of France, in the department of the Doubs ; 11 miles N. E. of Ornans. VERCELLAE, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Ita- ly, in Gallia Transpadana, and the capital of the people called Sessites. It had within its territory a temple and a wood consecrated to Apollo. Here the Cimbri were defeated by the Romans, under Marius and Catullus. After the decline of the Roman empire, it became a republic, and from that state it fell under the dukes of Milan; and, lastly, it was given as a marriage portion to Amadeus III., duke of Savoy. See VERCELLI. VERCELLI, or VERCEIL, in Geografthy, a town of Piedmont, and, under the French dynasty, the capital of the department of Sesia; which see. It is situated at the junction of the Cerva with the Sesia, and was anciently called Vercellae. It is the see of a bishop, suffragan of the archbishop of Milan. There are two churches which are called cathedral, and twelve others, two abbeys, nineteen convents of both sexes, three pro- vostships, two priories, three poor-houses, and five hos- pitals; the inhabitants are about 20,000. In 1800, the French took Vercelli from the Austrians, with consi- derable stores; 30 miles S. W. of Milan. N. lat. 45° 22'. E. long. 8° 26'. VERCHATURSKY, GoRy, mountains which di- vide European and Asiatic Russia, extending almost north and south to a great length, and about 40 miles in breadth. They are covered with wood, firs, larch, birch, &c. VERCHEN, a town of Anterior Pomerania; 6 miles S.W. of Demmin. VERCHES, LEs, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Mayne and Loire; 10 miles S.W. of Sau- Iſhu P. VERCHIERE, a town of Canada, on the right bank of the St. Lawrence. N. lat. 45° 47'. W. long. 73° 9'. VERCHODVERSKOI, a town of Russia, in the government of Viatka; 40 miles N. of Viatka. VERCHOIANSKOI, an ostrog of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, on the Yana. N. lat. 65° 40'. E. long. 130° 14'. VERCHOKIZILSKOI, a fort of Russia, in the go- Vernment V ER V E. R. vernment of Upha, at the union of the Kizil and Ural ; 40 miles S. of Verchouralsk. VERCHOLENSK, a town of Russia, in the go- vernment of Irkutsk, on the Lena; 120 miles N. of Irkutsk. N. lat. 54°. E. long. 105° 34'. VERCHOTOMSKOI, a town of Russia, in the go- vernment of Kolivan; 32 miles N. N. W. of Mungatz- koi. VERCHOTURA, a town of Russia, in the province of Ekaterinburg, near the river Tura. This was the first town which the Russians built in Siberia. It has four churches and two convents, besides chapels; and is the see of a bishop. Verchotura is situated on a ri- sing ground, and fortified with pallisadoes and a ditch, and defended by a garison under a commandant. The adjacent country is inhabited by a people called Vogu- litz, who live on fruits in huts among the woods, em- ploying themselves in hunting and shooting, without agriculture. In the beginning of the 18th century, they were many of them converted to Christianity, and now mix probably with the rest of the people; 120 miles N. of Ekaterinburg. N. lat. 58° 45'. E. long. 60° 14'. VERCHOVAGSKOI, a town of Russia, in the go- vernment of Vologda, on the Vaga; 48 miles S. of Vielsk. VERCHOURALSK, a town of Russia, in the go- vernment of Upha, on the Ural ; 120 miles S. E. of Upha. N. lat. 53° 36'. E. long. 59° 14'. VERD, or VERDE, Cafe, a cape on the west coast of Africa. N. lat. 14° 48'. W. Iong. 17° 31'. VERD, or Werde Islands, Cafe, islands of Africa, in the Atlantic, deriving their name from the cape oppo- site to which they are situated, and discovered by the Portuguese in 1446. They are so called, as some say, from a green plant, called Sargosso, resembling water- cresses, and bearing fruit like a gooseberry, which is found floating near them, and in such abundance as to impede the progress of vessels in their course. They are usually reckoned ten in number, and including rocks, they amount to fourteen. The two largest are St. Ja- go or Yago in the south-east and St. Anthony in the north-west. Four of these islands are situated towards the east, viz. Santiago, Mayo, Bonavista, and Salt isle ; four towards the north-west, viz. St. Nicholas, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and St. Anthony; and two are Somewhat detached towards the south, viz. Brava and Fuego. (See each island respectively.) These islands are generally mountainous; some of them are barren and uninhabited ; others are productive of rice, bana- nas, oranges, cotton, and sugar; and it is said the goats produce thrice a year, and the vines twice; they abound With Poultry and rabbits, and turtles are plentiful on the shores. The air is hot and insalubrious, rain being very rare ; but a north-east breeze commonly rises be- fore four in the afternoon. The manufacture of leath- er and salt constitute the chief riches. Many of them have been furnished by their proprietors with cows, goats, hogs, asses, mules, &c. These islands are situ- ate about 390 miles W. of Cape Verd, and between 15° and 18° of N. lat. VERDACHELON, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic; 20 miles S. W. of Trivady. . VERDAPETTY, a town of Hindoostan, in the pro- Vince of Madura; 22 miles S. of Madura. VERDE, CAPE, a mountainous cape on the coast of Peru. S. lat. 6° 20'.—Also, a cape on the coast of Genoa. N. lat. 43° 50' E. long. 7° 50'. Vol. XXXVIII. VERDE, or Green Island, an island on the north coast of South America, at the mouth of the river S. Mar- tha. VERDE Island, or Verde Key, one of the small Baha- mas. N. lat. 22° 54'. W. long, 75° 26'. VERDEGREASE, VERDIGREASE, Verdegris, or Perdigris, a kind of rust of copper, formed from the corrosion of copper by a fermcnted vegetable, and into a blueish-green substance, of great use among paint- ers for a green colour. The word is formed from the Latin, viride aris : it is also called a rugo. Others call it the flower, and others the vitriolic salt of coffer ; though, in reality, it is rather the proper substance of the metal. The greatest quantities of verdigris have been man- ufactured at Montpellier, the wines of Languedoc being very proper for this preparation; and it has been ex- ported thence in cakes, each weighing about twenty- five pounds. The following process for making it is described by M. Monet, of the Royal Society of Mont- pellier, and is published in the Memoirs of the Acade- my for the years 1750, and 1753. Vine-stalks, well dried in the sun, are steeped during eight days in strong wine, and afterwards drained. They are then put in- to earthen pots, and wine is poured upon them ; the pots are carefully covered ; the wine undergoes the acetous fermentation, which in summer is finished in seven or eight days, but requires longer time in winter, although the operation is always performed in cellars. When the fermentation is sufficiently advanced, which may be known by chServing the inner surface of the lids of the pots, which during the process of the fer- mentation is continually wetted by the moisture of the rising vapours, the stalks are then to be taken out of the pots: these stalks are by this method impregnated with the acid of the wine, and the remaining liquor is but a very weak vinegar. The stalks are to be drained du- ring some time in baskets, and layers of them are to be put into earthen pots with plates of Swedish copper, so disposed, that each plate shall rest upon and be co- vered with layers cf stalks. The pots are to be cover- ed with lids, and the copper is thus exposed to the ac- tion of the vinegar, during three or four days, or more ; in which time the plates become covered with verdi- gris. The plates are then to be taken out of the pots, and left in the cellar three or four days; at the end of which time they are to be moistened with water, or with the weak vinegar above-mentioned, and left to dry. When this moistening and drying of the plates have been thrice repeated, the verdigris will be found to have considerably increased in quantity, and it may be then scraped off for sale. A solution or erosion of copper, and consequently a verdigris, may be prepared lºy cmploying ordinary vin- egar instead of wine, as directed in the above process. But it will not have the unctuosity of ordinary verdi- gris, which is necessary in painting. Good verdigris must be prepared by means of a vinous acid or solvent, half acid and half spirituous. Accordingly, the suc- cess of the operation depends cniefly on the degree of fermentation to which the wine employed has been car- ried : for this fermentation must not have been so far advanced, that no sensibly vinous or spirituous part re- mained in the liquor. Macquer’s Dict. Chem. See the process as described by Chaptal, under the article CoPPER. The Society of Arts, &c. offered a premium in 1756 for the making of verdigris in England; and in 1760 3 P intimated, V E. R. V E. R intimated, that it might be made by moistening with the cheapest and worst sort of cyder, the marc or remains of apples, pears, gooseberries, currants, sloes, crabs, black-berries, or any fruits deprived of their juice by expression, proceeding afterwards by the process above described. The premiums offered by the Society were several times claimed and allowed; and it was resolv- ed, in 1763, that verdigris actually made of British ma- terials, and submitted to various trials, was even superior to the foreign. Accordingly, a considerable manufac- tory was established, and successfully carried on for the purpose of making verdigris. The goodness of verdigris is judged of from the deepness and brightness of its colour, its dryness, and its forming, when rubbed on the hand with a little water or saliva, smooth paste, free from grittiness. This concrete is partially dissoluble in water and rectified spirit, and almost totally in vinegar; from the acetous solution, well saturated, and left to exhale slowly in a warm air, the greatest part of the verdigris may be recovered in a crystalline form, called distilled verdi- gris. See CRYSTALs of Venus, and CoPPER. The crystals, distilled with a suitable fire, in a retort or other like vessel, give over the acetous acid in a high- ly concentrated state, but somewhat altered by the pro- cess. See AcFTIC Acid. The matter which distilled vinegar leaves undissolv- ed, on being mixed with some borax and linseed oil, and fluxed in a crucible, yields a brittle metallic substance, of a whitish colour, not unlike bell-metal. Neum. Chem. by Lewis, p. 64, n. a. Verdigris is employed externally for deterging foul ulcers, and as an escharotic; but it is seldom used, though milder than the sulphate or blue vitriol. It is employed as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia. Hoff- man recommends it particularly for destroying the cal- losities of old fistulae ; tents of powdered verdigris, made up with saliva, or other liquids, not fat or oily, con- sume, he says, the hardest callus in three our four days, so as to render it completely separable. A detergent ointment, called mel a gy/itiacum, is prepared by boil- ing five parts of verdigris in fine powder with sixteen of honey, and seven of vinegar, till reduced to a clear consistence. The thinner matter which floats on the top of this mixture, after standing for some time, is gene- rally used, unless it be required more acid; in which case the thick part which has subsided is shook up among It. In the Edinburgh dispensatory, an ointment, called aumguemtum eac arugine, has been directed, composed of white wax and resin, each two ounces, olive oil one pint, and verdigris half an ounce. When these kinds of applications are employed for venereal or other ulcera- tions in the mouth or tonsils, great caution is necessary, lest they should pass into the stomach; in which case, dangerous and even fatal consequences may ensue. Verdigris is rarely or never given internally. It has been reckoned tonic, and administered with this view in a dose under gr. ss. Some recommend it, in the dose of a grain or two, as an emetic, which produces almost instantaneous effect, where poisonous substances have been taken, for the immediate rejection of them. But warm Water, milk, and oils, are much less dangerous, and more proper. In too large doses, it quickly proves fatal; and, on dissection, the coats of the stomach ap- pear much thickened, and of a green colour. Lewis’s Mat. Med. . M. Navier has lately evinced the salutary effects of liver of sulphur, and particularly of liver of sulphur of Mars, as an antidote against the poison of Verdigris. G Verdigris makes a blue-green colour in paint; but IS generally used in yellow, which, by a proper mixture, renders It a true green. It is bright when good ; but SCOI) flies, When used in oil. When dissolved in vine- gar, it is used in water painting, and is more durable; it may be also dissolved in the Juice of rue, and thus produces a fine full green colour, equally fit for wash- ing with that dissolved in vinegar. Verdigris, with a decoction of logwood, strikes a deep black, which, when diluted, becomes a fine blue. See DYEING. VERDE).LO, in Matural History, the name of a green marble used in Italy as a touchstone, for the try- ing of gold, &c. VERDEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, and capital of a principality of the same name, on the Al- ler, which divides itself here into two branches, the smaller of which lies near the town, and is at present only frequented by the ships going up and down the Aller. In the town are four churches, and a Latin school; 56 miles S.S.W. of Hamburgh. N. lat. 529 58'. E. long. 9. 15'. * VERDEN, a principality of Germany, bounded on the north and west by the duchy of Bremen, and on the east and south by the duchy of Lunenburg; about twenty- four miles in length, and nearly as much in breadth. This principality consists for the most part of heath and dry land, as also of forests; but on the rivers We- ser and Aller is good marsh-land. The Aller waters al- most all the southerly, but the Weser a part only of the Westerly boundaries of the country. Verden was formerly a bishopric, founded by Charlemagne. At the peace of Westphalia, in the year 1648, the crown of Sweden obtained the bishopric as a duchy. In 1712, the Danes invading the duchy of Bremen, the inhabit. ants of Brunswick-Lunenburg possessed themselves of it. In 1715, by virtue of the alliance concluded at Wismar, it was ceded, together with Bremen, by the king of Denmark, to the electoral house of Brunswick- Lunenburg ; such cession being also made again in the year 1719, by the crown of Sweden. This duchy has the same regency with the duchy of Bremen. The in- habitants are Lutherans. VERDERER, or VERDERoR, formed from virida- rius, which Ulpian used in the like signification, a judi- cial officer of the king’s forest, whose business is to look to the vert, and see it well maintained. He is sworn to keep the assizes of the forest; as also to view, receive, and enrol, the attachments and pre- sentments of all manner of trespasses, relating to vert and venison therein. VERDERONNE, or LA BoualARDERIE, in Geo- grafhy, a small island in the gulf of St. Laurence, near the east coast of Cape Breton. VERDESE, a town of the island of Corsica, in the district of Cervionne. VERDETER. See VERDETER. VERDETUM, the name of a green substance, used as a colour in painting. It is a very pure kind of ver- digris, being an aerugo of copper, produced by the va- pour of vinegar. VERDI, in Geography, a small island in the Indian Sea, near the west coast of Madagascar. S. lat. 149 35'. E. long. 47° 50'. VERDICT, V E. R. V E R VERDICT, from were dictum, q. d. dictum veritatis, the dictate of truth, is the answer of the jury given to the court, concerning the matter of fact, in any cause, civil or criminal, committed by the court to their trial and examination. See JURY. A verdict is either firivy or fºublic : a firivy verdict is when the judge hath left or adjourned the court; and the jury, being agreed, in order to be delivered from their confinement, obtain leave to give their verdict privily to the judge out of court; which is of no force, unless afterwards affirmed by a public verdict given openly in court, in which the jury may, if they please, vary from their privy verdict. If, indeed, the judge hath adjourned the court to his own lodgings, and there receives the verdict, it is a public and not a privy ver- dict. In a criminal case, no privy verdict is allowed. But the only effectual and legal verdict is the ſublic verdict; in which they openly declare to have found the issue for the plaintiff, or for the defendant; and if for the plaintiff, they assess the damages also sustained by the plaintiff, in consequence of the injury upon which the action is brought. This is either general or sfiedial. VERDICT, General, is that which is brought into the court, in like general terms as the general issue : as in action of disseisin, the defendant pleads, no wrong, no disseisin. Then the issue is general, whether the fact be wrong or not: which being committed to the jury, they, upon consideration of the evidence, come in and say, either for the plaintiff, That it is a wrong disseisin; or for the defendant, That it is no wrong, no disseisin : and in criminal cases, Guilty, or JVot guilty. VERDICT, Shecial, is when they say at large, that such and such a thing they found to be done by the defendant, or tenant; declaring the course of the fact, as in their opinion it is proved ; and as to the law, upon the fact, praying the judgment of the court. The special verdict, if it contains any ample declara- tion of the cause from the beginning to the end, is called a verdict at large. This is grounded on the stat. Westm. II. 13 Edw. I. cap. 30. in order to avoid the danger of an attaint ; which see. After stating the facts, they conclude conditionally, that if upon the whole matter the court shall be of opinion that the plaintiff had cause of action, they then find for the plain- tiff; if otherwise, then for the defendant. This is en- tered at length on the record, and afterwards argued and determined in the court at Westminster, from whence the issue came to be tried. Another method of finding a special verdict is when the jury find a ver- dict generally for the plaintiff, but subject, nevertheless, to the opinion of the judge, or the court above, on a shecial case. This is attended with much less expense, and obtains a speedier decision than the other. But as nothing appears upon the record but the general ver- dict, the parties are precluded hereby from the benefit of a writ of error, if dissatisfied with the judgment of the court or judge upon the point of law. Blackst. Com. book iii. See JURY. - - - VERDICT, Attainder by. See ATTAINDER. VERDICT, False. Sec ATTAINT. VERDIER, ANTony DU, in Biografthy, lord of Vau- privas, was born at Montbrison in Forez in the year i544, and distinguished himself not only by his writings, but by encouraging literature, for which purpose he granted to men of letters the use of his well-furnished li- trary. He was advanced to the office of historiographer of France, and having occupied the rank of gentleman t in ordinary to the king, died in the year 1600. Of his numerous writings, the only work that has been noticed by posterity is his “Bibliotheque des Auteurs François.” It was first printed at Lyons in 1585, fol. and again pub- lished, under the title of “Bibliotheque de la Croix du Maine,” by De Juvigni at Paris, in 5 vols. 4to. 1772-3, with notes and corrections. VERDIER, CLAUDE DU, the son of Antony, though a man of learning, gained little reputation by his Latin and French publications. Having mismanaged a good estate transmitted to him from his father, he passed the latter part of his life in obscurity, and died in 1649, aged above 80. Moreri. VERDISTAN, CAPE, in Geography. (See Caſhe BARDISTAN.). This cape is a land-mark which ships generally look out for in their passage up the Persian gulf. There is a dangerous shoal, which extends a considerable way to sea, and those are fortunate who pass by this place without meeting with a gale of wind. Here they manufacture an excellent kind of cloth, which is much worn by the Arabs. On this coast lies Congon or Kungoon, a large and populous town, which carries on a considerable trade with the gulf, and also with the inland country. The Portuguese had once a considerable settlement here. Between this and Taehire or Tahirea there is another town of some note, called Toombuch, and also the villages of Shilee (Sheeloo), Burg, and Ynat. VERDITER, VERDETER, a kind of mineral sub- stance sometimes used by the painters, &c. for a blue, but more usually mixed with a yellow for a green colour. See TERRE-VERTE. Verditer, according to Savary, ought to be made of the lapis Armenus; or, at least, of an earthy substance much like it, brought from the mountains of Hungary, &c. only prepared by powdering it, and cleansing it by lotion. But this stone and earth are very rare ; and the ver- diter used is not a native, but a factitious substance, or blue pigment, obtained by adding chalk or whiting to the solution of copper in aquafortis. (See CoPPER.) It is prepared by refiners of silver, who employ for this purpose the solution of copper, which they obtain in the process of parting, by precipitating silver from aquafortis with plates of copper. It is said, that a fine- coloured verditer cannot be obtained from a solution of copper prepared by dissolving directly that metal in aquafortis; and that the silver is necessary. Accord- ing to Dr. Merret's account of the method of preparing it, a quantity of whiting is put into a tub, the copper solution ponred on it, and the mixture stirred every day for some hours together, till the liquor loses its colour. The liquor is then poured off, and more of the solution of copper added ; and this is to be repeat- ed till the matter appears of the proper colour; after which it is spread on large pieces of chalk, and laid in the sun to dry. Boyle observes, that the process often miscarried, and that heating the liquor, before it is pour- ed on the whiting, has been found to contribute to its success. It is still, however, Dr. Lewis says, very apt to fail in the hands of the most skilful workmen; the preparation, instead of a fine blue, turning out of a dir- ty green. - From the liquor poured off in making verditer, Mr. Boyle says (Works Abr. vol. i. p. 169.), that the re- finers obtain, by boiling, a kind of saltpetre, fit with the addition of vitriol to yield them a new aquafortis. Some have said that a deeper and brighter kind of verditer 3 P 2 may V E R V E R may be made by using a filtered solution of pearl-ashes instead of the chalk, in the above process. º Verditer, when good, is a cool full blue, but without the least transparency either in oil or water. In oil it is subject to turn greenish, and sometimes black; and in water it is not always found to hold. . It is chiefly used for paper-hangings and coarse work, and in var- IllS 13. - VERDON, or Fordon, in Geografhy, a town of Prussian 1 omerelia; 60 miles S. of Dantzig. VER Don, a river of France, which runs into the Du- rance, at Pertuis, in the department of the Mouths of the Ri.óne. VERDONE, in Ichthyology, the name of a fish of the turdus or wrasse kind, called by some authors tur- dus viridis minor. See TURDUs and LABRUs It is of a fine green colour in all parts of its body; the back, sides, and belly, have all plainly the same colour; but in different degrees: the back being of the deepest dye; the belly has something of yellowness with the green, and the sides are variegated with lines of a fine blue. It has only ol:e long fin on the back, which has thirty rays or ribs, the eighteen foremost of which are rigid and prickly, the others soft and flexile. It is caught in the Mediterianean, and sold in the mar- kets in Italy. Salvian de Aquat. p. 88. VERDOY, in Heraldry, is applied to a bordure of a coat of arms, charged with any kinds or parts of flowers, fruits, seeds, plants, &c. Of these there are eight in number. VERDUN, in Géografthy, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Meuse. Before the revolution the capital of a pro- vince, called Verdunois, and the see of a bishop, suffra- gan of Treves. It is large, populous, and consists of three parts, the Upper, Lower, and New Town. Ex- clusive of its fortifications, this place is further defend- ed by a fine citadel. The bishop, before the city and district were annexed to the crown of France, was a prince of the empire, and afterwards styled himself such, as also earl of Verdun. Exclusive of the cathe- dral in this city, are one collegiate and nine parish churches, six abbeys, and one college. Verdun was formerly an imperial city; 33 miles N. W. of Toul. N. lat. 49° 9'. E. long. 5° 27'.—Also, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 15 miles W. of Jaca.-Also, a town of France, in the department of the Aude ; 6 miles N.E. of Castelnaudary. VERDUN-cur-Garonme, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Upper Garonne; 12 miles S.S.E. of Castie-Sarasin. VERDUN-sur-Saône, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Saône and Loire, situated at the conflux of the Saône and the Dubs; 9 miles N.E. of Châlons-sur- Saône. N. lat. 36°54'. E. long. 5° 7'. VERDURE, the quality of greenness. is French, formed of verd, green. VERiº, Sir FRANCIS, in Biography, an English officer in the reign of queen Elizabeth, was a descendant from a branch of the De Veres earls of Oxford, and born in 1554. Being sent with a body of troops, under the command of the earl of Leicester, to the assistance of the United Provinces in 1585, he distinguished himself first in the defence of Sluys, and in 1588 at Bergen-op- Zoom by resisting the arms of the duke of Parma. For his services on this occasion he obtained the honour of knighthood, and was employed on many subsequent occasions, in which he gained signal reputation, inso- The Word much that he was at length entrusted with the com- mand of the English forces serving with the States. When these forces were withdrawn in the year 1592, Sir F. Vere was chosen representative for the borough of Leominster. In 1596 he successfully executed a commission with which he was entrusted to the States, and on his return obtained the command of a ship, with the rank of vice-admiral. In the expedition against Cadiz, he acquitted himself with skill and courage, and was principally instrumental in the capture of the town. On his return from an expedition with the earl of Es. sex to the Azores, he was appointed governor of Brill one of the towns assigned to queen Elizabeth as secu. rity for money advanced to the States. At the battle of Nieuport, in 1600, his conduct, and the valour of the English whom he commanded, contributed very essentially to the success of the day, though the loss of lives was considerable, and Vere himself received 3. Wound, which he concealed till victory was secured. The States, duly apprized of his merit, appointed him, in 160, governor of Ostend, which was besieged by a powerful army under the command of archduke Albért. By means of artifices which some have thought incom. patible with the character of a generous Soldier, he Prolonged the siege, and deferred a surrender by ne- gotiation, till he obtained a reinforcement of troops, and then informed Albert that the treaty was at an end. The prince was indignant, nor were the States pleased with the fraud. This circumstance probably occasion- ed his resignation of the command at Ostend; but be- ing solicited by the States to procure fresh Supplies of men from his own country, he succeeded in obtaining them. His government of the Brill, which expired with the death of Elizabeth, was renewed by James I. ; but his peace with Spain in 1604 terminated the occu. pation of military men. Sir Francis was also governor of Portsmouth, and remained at home till his death, in 1608, the 54th year of his age. A splendid monument was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey by his widow. His exploits have been recorded by him- self, in a work entitled “The Commentaries of Sir Francis Vere, being divers Pieces of Service wherein he had Command, written by Himself in way of com. mentary,” published from his MSS. by William Dil- lingi.am, D.D. fol. Cambridge, 1657. VERE, HoRACE, baron of Tilbury, younger brother of the preceding, whom he accompanied in many of his actions in the Low Countries, and distinguished him. self on several occasions. He succeeded his brother in the government of Brill, and held it till the year 1616 when it was restored to the States. Although he wa. entrusted, in 1620, by king James with a tardy and scanty aid to his son-in-law the king of Bohemia, he contributed for some time to preserve the Palatina. from being overrun by the Imperialists; and at last surrendered on honourable terms to Tilly at Manheim. On the accession of Charles I. he was the first peer greated by the king, under the title of lord were of Tilbury. Retaining the post of general of the forces in the service of the States-general, he was appointed master of the ordnance in 1629; but retired from pub- lic employment some short time before his death, which Was occasioned in 1635, in the 70th year of his age, by an apoplectic fit. Lord Vere, no less skilful and brave than his brother as a commander, was of a milder and more modest temper. Biog. Brit. VERE, in Geography, a river of England, in the coun- ty of Herts, which runs into the Coln, 2 miles S.E. of St. Albans, V E R V E R St. Albans.—Also, a county or parish on the south side of the island of Jamaica. VERE, Caſhe, a cape on the W. coast of Calabria. N. lat 32° 90'. E. long. 16° 10'. VEREA, in Botany, for so it ought to be written, not Vereia, was thus named by Mr. Andrews, in com- piment to James Vere, esq. F.L.S. of Kensington Gore, whose garden has long been celebrated among the richest, and best cultivated, in the neighbourhood of London.—Andr. Repos. t. 2 . Willd. v. 2. 471.- We regret that this memorial of our amiable and libe- rai friend cannot be preserved. This supposed genus is merely a Cotyledon with four-cleft octandrous flow- ers, of which several are known, (see CotyLEDoN,) nor can they, on any sound principle, be separated therefrom. The Werew cremata is Cotyledon cremata, Venten. Malmais. t. 49. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. l l O. Leaves crossing each other in pairs, ovate, obtuse, crenate, fleshy. Flowers four-cleft, erect, in cymose panicles.— Native of Sierra Leone ; kept in the dry stove or tan- bed, where it flowers in summer and autumn. The stem is shrubby. Leaves green, large and handsome, very juicy. Flowers an inch long, yellow, with a green tube and orange mouth. * VERELIUS, Olof, in Biography, a Swedish anti- quary and librarian in the academy of Upsal, was the son of a clergyman of East Gothiand, where he was born in the year 1618. Having commenced his edu- cation in the gymnasium at Linkoeping, he pursued it for five years at the academy of Dorpt, and in 1638 re- moved to Upsal. Soon after he became tutor to some young Swedish gentlemen, whom he accompanied in their travels through various parts of Europe, and on his return in 1650, he was, by favour of the queen, ap- pointed professor of eloquence at Dorpt in 1651, and in 1653 became treasurer to the academy of Upsal. In 1662 he was appointed professor of the antiquities of his native country, and in 1666 antiquary of the kingdom. He was in the same year nominated asses- sor in the college of antiquities, and died at Upsal in 1682. He was a good Latin scholar, and well skilled in Swedish antiquities, so that some of his countrymen honoured him with the appellation of “Parens Elo- quentiae, et Filum Ariadnaeum Antiquitatum Patriae.” He was a zealous advocate for the ancient origin of the Swedes, insomuch as to contend that the Goths who took Rome issued from Sweden, and to assert, “ that those who deny their antiquity ought to have their brains knocked out with Runic stones.” His dispute with professor Schaeffer, concerning the former situa- tion and name of the town and temple of Upsal, pro- duced a number of publications. Among his other principal works are, “Gothrici et Rolfi, Vestro-Gothiae Regum, Historia lingua antiqua Gothica conscripta, quam é Manuscripto vetustissimo edidit, Versione et Notis illustravit,” Upsal 1664, 8vo. and several pub- lications relating to Gothic literature and Swedish his- tory. Gen. Biog, VERELLA, CAPE, in Geography, a cape on the E. coast of Cochinchina. N. lat. 12° 55'. E. long. 109 o 18’. VERELLA, Cafe, False, a cape on the S.E. coast of Cochinchina. N. lat. 11° 45'. E. long. 109° 4'. VERELST, SIMON, in Biography, was born at Ant- werp in 1604, and became an admirable painter of fruit and flowers. He came to England in the time of Charles II, and obtained very considerable practice ; and not only in those matters for which his talents ad- mirably qualified him, but also in portraits for which he was not qualified. . His vanity was at least equal to his abilities as an artist, and having been employed and laughed at till he was 47 years of age, death then kindly removed him from any further opportunity of exposing himself. VERERIA, in Geography, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow ; 5.5 miles W.S.W. of Mos- cow. N. lat. 55° 18'. E. long. 35° 50'. VERES, a town of Russia, in the government of Archangel ; 80 miles N.N.W. of Kola. VERESMAN, a town of Hungary; 12 miles E. of Munkacz. VERETUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Italy, in Messapia, on the confines of the country of the Selen- tini, according to Strabo, who says that it was ancient- ly calied Baris. VERFEIL, in Geograhhy, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne; 1 1 miles E.N.E. of Toulouse. - VERGA, CAPE, a cape on the W. coast of Africa. N. lat. 10° 4'. W. long. 13° 40'. VERGADELLE, in Ichthyology, the name of a fish of the mullet kind, called by others the chelon, re- markable for the thickness of its lips. VERGAF, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Brutium. VERGANTINAS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 20 miles S.W. of Corunna. VERGARA, or VARGARA, a town of Spain, in Gui- uscoa; 7 miles S. of Tolosa. VERGAVILLE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Meurte; 4 miles N.W. of Dieuze. VERGE, VIRGA, a rod, switch, or yard; particu- larly a stick or wand, which persons are admitted ten- ants by holding in their hand, and swearing fealty to the lord of the manor. On this account, they are called tenants by the verge. VERGE, among Gardeners, generally denotes the edge or outside of a border; but more particularly, is used for a slip of grass adjoining to gravel-walks, and dividing them from the borders in the parterre-garden. VERGE, Dented. See DENTED. VERGE is also used for the compass or extent of the king's court; within which is bounded the jurisdiction of the lord steward of the king’s household. It is thus called, from the verge or staff which the marshal bears. It was anciently denominated far regis, or the king’s peace. tº The lord steward, by virtue of his office, without any commission, judges of all transgressions, as trea- sons, murders, felonies, bloodshed, , &c. committed in the court, or within the verge of it; which extends, every way, by 19 Ric, II. stat. 1. cap. 3. (in affirmance of the common law) for twelve miles round the king’s place of residence; only London, by charter, being exempted. VERGE, Court of See Court. VERGE of Land, Virga Terrae. See YARD-Land. VERGELLUS, in Anci, mt Geografthy, a torrent or river of Italy, in Apulia, near the place in which was fought the battle of Cannae. This river was rendered famous by a bridge made here for the passage of the 3.1°IſlW. VERGENNES, in Geography, a post-town of Ame- rica, and one of the most floºrishing commercial towns of Vermont, in Addison county, on Otter creek, about - 5*. V E. R. V E R six miles from its mouth in lake Champlain. It con- tains a congregational church and a gaol, and 835 in- habitants. In its vicinity are several mills; 1 15 miles N. of Bennington, and 519 from Washington. VERGENTUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Spain, in Boetica. VERGER DE HAURANE, John DU, abbot of St. Cy- ran, in Biography, was the descendant of a noble fa- mily, and born at Bayonne in 1581. After having en- joyed some inferior preferments he removed to Paris, and in 1620 became abbot of St. Cyran. He was dis- tinguished as a zealous defender and propagator of Jansenism ; and under this character gained a great number of partisans. But being suspected of holding several erroneous doctrines, and of contemning the authority of the church, he was denounced as a dan- gerous person to cardinal Richelieu, who caused him to be imprisoned at Vincennes in 1638, in which state of confinement he remained till the death of the car- dinal; and soon after his liberation, he died at Paris in 1643, aged sixty-two. As a champion in the cause of the Jansenists against the Jesuits, the abbot wrote seve- ral works, which were evidences of his zeal and dili- gence rather than of his judgment and ability. Although these works were held at the time of their publication in high estimation, they are now forgotten, as well as the controversy that occasioned most of them ; and it is therefore needless to enumerate them. Moreri. VERGERIO, PIER-PAolo, the elder, a reviver of literature, was born about the year 1349 at Justinopo- lis, now Capo d’Istria. Having studied at Padua and Florence, he passed some years in different towns of Italy, particularly at Padua, where he officiated as pro- fessor of dialectics; and he studied Greek at Venice, under the celebrated Emanuel Chrysoloras At Padua he took the degree of doctor of laws in 1404, till which mature period of his life his condition bordered on that of indigence. From Padua, where he was attached to the interests of the princes of Carrara, he removed to Venice, and afterwards accompanied his friend Zaba- rella, when he became cardinal, to the council of Con- stance. Having lost this patron in 1417, he is said to have sunk into a state of mental derangement, and to have died in Hungary, about the time of the council of Basil, which commenced in 1431. His works caused him to be ranked among the most successful cultiva- tors of literature at that period. His “ History of the Princes of the House of Carrara, from its Origin to the Year 1855,” composed in Latin that was deemed ele- gant in that age, has been published in Muratori’s Col- lection of Italian Historians. His treatise “De ingenuis Moribus et liberalibus Adolescentiae studiis,” addressed to one of the princes of Carrara, was very popular at the time of its publication. He also wrote “A Life of Petrarch,” published in the “Petrarcha Redivivus” of Tommasini, and a eulogy of St. Jerom , and he left several manuscripts. Moreri. VERGERIo, PIER-PAOLO, the younger, one of the few prelates converted from popery, belonging to the same family with the subject of the preceding article, was born about the beginning of the 16th century at Capo d’Istria; and having studied the law at Padua, and gra- duated, he became, in 1522, professor of the notary’s art in that university. At Padua and at Venice he maintained the character of an able orator, as well as that of a man of good morals. The charges brought against him by an enemy, and particularly that of poi- soning his wife, have been sufficiently refuted. From Venice, where he resided in 1530, he went to Rome, and being introduced to pope Clement VII., was sent by him as nuncio to Ferdinand, king of the Romans, probably about the close of the year 1532. On this occasion he used all his efforts in support of the papal see, and for the purpose of restraining the progress of Lutheranism. Paul III. recalled him from this em- bassy, but afterwards deputed him on the same mission, which gave him an opportunity of holding several con- ferences with Protestant princes, and of an interview with Luther himself at Wittemberg. In 1536 he was sent by the same pope to Charles V. in Naples, and for his services to the church he was made a bishop of his native city. From thence he returned to Ger- many, and was one of the commissioners who drew up the indiction of the council. At the close of the year 1540 he attended the conference at Worms, as a deputy from the king of France. However, before this time he was suspected by the court at Rome of a secret at- tachment to Lutheranism, but he still contrived to keep up appearances. Upon his subsequent retirement to his diocess, whilst, as it is said, he was preparing a con- futation of the German Separatists, he became con- vinced that they were right; and having communica- ted his sentiments to his brother, bishop of Pola, he adopted the same opinions; and they both resolved to propagate them in their respective diocesses. The monks were alarmed, and reported them to the inqui- sition. Vergerio, after having in vain sought an asylum, determined in 1546 to justify himself before the coun- cil of Trent. The council referred his cause to the nuncio and patriarch of Venice. But the considera- tion of it being protracted to the year 1548, he was ordered not to return to his church ; and he soon after withdrew to the country of the Grisons, where, as well as in the Valteline, he for some years exercised his ministry. His brother died before he left Italy. The younger Vergerio, having received an invitation to Tubingen from the duke of Wirtemberg, died there in 1565. His works, written in the Italian language, were numerous; and their principal object was to expose the impostures and absurdities of popery. Its advo- cates were of course much incensed, and circulated against the author many malignant, and probably un- founded, reports. Some Protestant writers have re- presented him as unsteady, and little acquainted with theological subjects. Bayle. - VERGERS, VIRGATOREs, Servientes, are officers who carry white wands before the justices of either bench; called also, ſhorters of the verge. ~- VERGERS of cathedral or collegiate Churches, are in- ferior officers, who go before the bishop, dean, &c. with a verge, or rod tipped with silver. VERGES, in Geografhy, a town of Spain, in Cata- lonia; 10 miles E. of Gerona. VERGIER, JAMEs, in Biography, a French poet, was born at Lyons in 1657, and educated at Paris with a view to the ecclesiastical profession; but he soon laid aside the clerical habit and became a man of the world. He recommended himself to those whose society he frequented by his gaiety and polished manner, and in 1690 he obtained the post of secretary of marine, and afterwards that of president of the council of commerce at Dunkirk. But his love of pleasure, combined with indolence, prevented his acquiring the character of a man of business. His career of pleasure was termi- nated at Paris in 1720, by the pistol of a robber, at the age of 63. Rousseau characterises him as a fiſhilosa- fiher V E. R. V E R jiher, formed for society, without any mixture of gall or misanthropy, and extols the noble and elegant simplici- ty of his convivial songs, which entitles him to the ap- pellation of the French Anacreon. In his other pro- ductions, such as odes, madrigals, Sonnets, epigrams, tales, fables, epistles, &c. it is acknowledged that his style is negligent, and occasionally prosaic. “Vergier,” says Voltaire, “is with regard to La Fontaine, what Campistron is with regard to Racine, a feeble but na- tural imitator.” His poems were collected in 2 vols. 12mo. 1750. Moreri. Gen. Biog. VERGILIA, MURCIA, in Ancient Geografi.hy, a town in the S. W. part of Hispania Citerior. VERGILIAE, a constellation, whose appearance de- notes the approach of the spring. According to the poets, the Vergiliae were the daugh- ters of Atlas; and by the Greeks, were called Pleiades: but the Romans named them Vergiliae. VERGILIO, Polydoro, in Biograft.hy, a historian, was born at Urbino in the 15th century, and became first known to the learned by a Latin collection of pro- verbs, preceding that of Erasmus and the occasion of some bickering between them. It was first printed in 1498, and frequently republished. In the following year appeared his work “De Rerum Inventoribus,” a very learned performance, but destitute of sound criti- cism, and exhibiting many evidences of the credulity of the author. About the commencement of the follow- ing century, pope Alexander VI. deputed him on a commission to England, for the purpose of collecting the papal tribute called Peter-pence. As he was ad- mired in this country for his learning and Latin style, he was promoted to the archdeaconry of Wells, and en- gaged by Henry VII. to write a history of England. This work was begun in 1505, and printed at Basil in 1548, with a dedication to Henry VIII. Enjoying in this country the preferments of prebend and archdea- con, he wished to continue in it, notwithstanding the changes of religion that had occurred, and the cessation of his office as collector of a tax that no longer subsist- ed; more especially as he evinced himself, by his ap- probation of the marriage of the clergy and his con- demnation of the worship of images, to be no strict Catholic. He had likewise introduced into his treatise « De Inventoribus,” some passages which the Inquisi- tion expunged, and reflected on the pride of the clergy, by suggesting that St. Peter would not suffer Cornelius the centurion to kiss his feet. He ventured, however, in 1550, being in advanced life, to return to his own country for the benefit of a warmer climate. His Eng- lish benefices were continued till his death, which hap- pened at Urbino about the year 1555. Of his history of England, contained in twenty-six books, and extend- ing to the reign of Henry VIII, it is sufficient to ob- serve, that its style is clear and elegant, but that the matter of it has been censured by various writers. Sir Henry Savile says, that as Polydore was an Italian, lit- tle acquainted with public business, possessing no great degree of genius or judgment, and for the most part taking falsehood instead of truth, he has left us a his- tory full of errors, as well as poorly and jejunely writ- ten. Our antiquaries also have severely treated him, on account of the contempt which he has expressed for the fables of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and other legen- dary narrations. He has been represented on the one hand as a columniator of our country and an enemy to its glory; whilst, on the other hand, the French and Scotch have accused him of partiality to England in those instances with regard to which their transactions have been blended with its history. Besides, it is said that he destroyed many MSS. with which he was in- trusted, in order to prevent a detection of his errors; but Tiraboschi considers this as a tale which no man of sense can credit. By others it has been reported, that he sent off a whole ship-load of MSS. to Rome. Both these stories are destitute of proof. Polydore also pub- lished, in 1526, a book “De Prodigiis,” in which he strongly contends against the divinations of the ancients. Vossius. Tiraboschi. Nicolson’s Hist. Lib. Gen. Biog. VERGINE, in Geography, a mountain of Naples, in Lavora; 7 miles E. of Nola. - VERGIVIUS Oceanus, in Ancient Geography, a name given by Ptolemy to that part of the sea which bathed the southern coast of Hibernia, and the western provinces of the isle of Albion. It is now called St. George’s channel and the Irish sea. VERGNE, Louis-EL1zABETH Dr. LA, Comte de Tres- san, in Biografthy, a French miscellaneous writer, was born of a noble family at Mans in 1705. Introduced at Paris, when young, to an acquaintance with Fontenelle, Voltaire, and others, he imbibed a taste for polite litera- ture. But devoted also to military service in common with other persons of his rank, he attended Louis XIV. in the campaigns of Flanders, on occasion of the war in 1741, and became his aid-de-camp at the battle of Fon- tenoy. Having risen to the rank of lieutenant-general, he withdrew upon the peace to the court of king Stanis- laus at Luneville, which he contributed to adorn and en- liven by his agreeable and sprightly talents. The king’s Jesuit-confessor, dreading his influence, accused him of the crime of philosophy. When Stanislaus preferred this charge against him, he replied, “I request your majesty to recollect, that there were 3000 monks at the procession of the League, and not one philosopher.” After the death of Stanislaus, the count lived in soli- tude, and employed himself as an author. In his youth he had penned some epigrans, which are thought to have prevented his obtaining admission into the French academy till his 75th year, an honour of which he was ambitious, and which gratified him much, though he did not long live to enjoy it; for he died of the gout, to which he had been much addicted, in the year 1782, at the age of 77. His love and talent for poetry were re- tained to the close of life. Several of his works, which were numerous, are romances, or compositions of that class, either original or altered from those of other au- thors. A posthumous work of different character is en- titled “An Essay on the Electric Fluid, considered as a Universal Agent,” in 2 vols. 8vo. A collection of his works was published in 1731, in 12 vols. 8vo. Nouv. Dict. Hist. VERGOBRETS, a name given to magistrates in certain provinces of Gaul, who were like the archons of Athens, but only with an annual power. VERGORAZ, in Geografthy, a town of Dalmatia, situated at the foot of some mountains which separate the dominions of Venice (now Italy) from those of the grand signior. It was formerly rich and flourishing, but is now a poor place; 20 miles E. of Narenta. VERGUNNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of the Maritime Alps, S of the Veamini. * VERGUTTUM, in Geography, a town of Hindoos- tan, in the circar of Cicacole; 20 miles N. N. W. of Cicacole. ‘,- VERGY, a town of France, in the department of the Côte d’Or; 10 miles S. S. W. of Dijon. VERHEYEN, V E R V E R VERHEYEN, PHILIP, in Biography, an eminent anatomist and physician, was born in 1648 at Vesbrouck, in the country of Waes, and having been noticed by the rector of the parish, was instructed by him in the rudi- ments, of Latin, and in his 24th year, sent to commence a course of classical education at Louvain. His diligence amply compensated for loss of time; and having as- sumed the clerical habit, he devoted himself to the stu- dy of theology. But his views were changed by an am- putation of his leg, occasioned by an inflammation; and he substituted medical pursuits for those of divinity. These he followed at Louvain and Leyden, and taking his degrees at the former place, he there fixed his resi- dence. In 1689 he was nominated professor of anatomy in the university, to which was annexed that of Surgery in 1693. His application was indefatigable, so that he attained to distinguished eminetice, and attached to his school a great number of disciples. His celebrity was principally the result of a work, entitled “Anatomia Corporis Humani,” published in 1693, frequently re- printed with corrections and additions, and enlarged in 1710 with a supplement, forming a second book. As a classical compendium of the science, it succeeded, for general use, that of Bartholine. Notwithstanding its imperfections and errors, it was entitled to the reputation which it acquired. Verheyen was also the author of a Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Medicine; of a Treatise on Fevers; and of the History of a miracu- lous Cure of a Jesuit by the Intercession of St. Francis Xavier, which latter work sufficiently evinces the super- stitious credulity of the Netherland Catholics. Haller. Eloy. VERIA, or BERIA, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in Grenada, anciently Baria, near the coast of the Medi- terranean ; 16 miles E. of Motril. VERIA, or Cara Veria, a town of European Turkey, in Macedonia; 4.8 miles W. of Salonichi. N. lat. 40° 43'. E. long. 21° 58'. VERIFICATION, the act of proving, or making a thing appear true. In the French law, verifying is used for the recording of the king’s edicts and decrees by the parliament. VERIFICATIONE RELICTA. See RELICTA. VERIMUNGALUM, in Geography, a town of Hin- doostan, in the province of Tineveily; 20 miles S.S.E. of Palamcotta. VERIN, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 20 miles S.E. of Orense. VERISA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Asia, in the Lesser Armenia; situated on the route from Tavia to Sebesta, between Sebastapolis and Phiarasis. Anton. Itin. VERISIMILITUDE. See PROBABILITY. VERITH, in Ichthyology, a name given by Isidore to the fish commonly called by authors thrissa ; by us, the shad, or the mother of the herrings. VERJUICE, a juice or liquor drawn from sour grapes, or wild apples, unfit for wine, or cyder; or from sweet ones, while yet acid, or unripe. Its chief use is in sauces, ragouts, &c. though it is al- so an ingredient in some medicinal compositions; and is used by the wax-chandlers to purify their wax. It is also very useful for forming poultices with, which are used in the swellings of animals, or for bathing the bruised and other parts of them with in different cases. It has its name from a large sort of grape, called ver- jus, or bourdelas ; which is said never to grow perfect- Iy ripe; or rather, which in its utmost maturity is too austere and sour to be used in wine; whence it is com- monly turned into verjuice; though in France all unripe grapes are denominated verjus. There is also tolerable verjuice made of crabs, gath- ered, and laid in an heap to sweat, the stalks, &c. sepa- rated; they are then stamped, or ground, and the crab mash put in a hair bag; the juice squeezed in a press, then barrelled up close, and set in a warm place to work for ten or twelve days, , Verjuice made for sale shall pay the same duty as cy- der or perry. VERIXA, in Geography, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the government of Mosul ; 15 miles N.W. of Nausa. VERKENS VIsch, in Ichthyology, the Dutch name of a fish caught in the East Indies. It is about seven inches long, of a blackish-green colour, with fins and tail wholly black, and with yellow irises to the eyes. It is caught in fresh waters in the East Indies, and is a very delicate fish. It is very nearly related to the capriscus, or goat-fish, if not the same species. VERLUCIO, in Ancient Geography, a place of Bri- tain, in the fourteenth route of Antonine, between Aquae Solis or Bath, and Cunelio or Marlborough It is placed by Dr. Gale at Westbury, and by Dr. Stukeley at Hedington; but Mr. Horsley, following the route of the military way from Bath to Marlborough, and the distances from both these places, thinks it more proba- ble that it was situated near Leckham, or at Silverfield near Lacock, where great quantities of Roman money have been found. VERMAND, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Aisne. Before the revolution, the capital of a district in Picardy, called Vermandois; 6 miles W. of St Quentin. VERMANTES, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire; 6 miles N.W. of Bourgeuil. VERMANTON, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Yonne; 12 miles N.W. of Avalon. VERMANTREE, one of the smaller Shetland islands. N. lat. 60° 27'. W, long. 19 55'. VERMEJO, or RIo GRAND, a river of South Ame- rica, which rises near Casabindo, in the province of Tu- cuman, and runs into the Parama, near its union with the Paraguay, opposite Corrientes. VERMEJo. See BERMEJo VERMELHO, in Ichthyology, the name of an Ame- rican fish, more usually known by the name of the hu- diano. VERMES, in Anatomy and Physiology. We have explained, under CLASSIFICATION, the objections to which the Linnaean class of Vermes is liable, consider- ed as one of the great divisions of the animal king- dom; and we have proposed, in place of it, an arrange- ment grounded on the distinctions of anatomical struc; ture, and therefore better suited to the purposes of com- parative anatomy, as well as more conformable to natu- ral method. As the anatomical description of the MolluscA (which order includes most of the Linnaean vermes) could not be prepared in time to appear under that word, it has been deferred to the present article, which will include also an account of the classes VERMEs and ZooPHYTA. In his “Handbuch der Na- turgeschichte,” Blumenbach retains the Linnaean term VERMEs, dividing the class into, I. Intestina; II. Mol- lusca: III. Testacea; IV. Crustacea (Echino-dermata, Cuvier); V. Corallia (Zoophytes of most naturalists); and VI. Zoophyta (chiefly microscopic animals and the animalcula infusoria.) In the V E R M E S. In the following article we shall employ the terms MoLLuscA, VERMES, and ZooPHYTA, not in the accep- tation in which they are used by Linnaeus or Blumen- bach, but as they are explained in the article CLAsslf1- cATIon;—the same sense in which they are used by the French naturalists generally, and by Cuvier par- ticularly, in his most valuable and useful works, the “Tableau èlémentaire” and “Leçons d’Antomie com- parée.” When, in descending along the scale of living beings, we arrive, after the class of fishes, at the invertebral an- imals, or such as have no vertebral column, we enter on an immense series of various creatures, the most nu- merous, and at the same time the most curious and in- teresting in respect to the difference of their organiza- tion and faculties. - - At this point in the scale, the vertebral column is an- nihilated: as this column is the basis of the skeleton, the latter no longer exists; and consequently the mo- ving parts no longer have their points of action on in- ternal organs. Moreover, no invertebral animal breathes by means of cellular lungs: none have any vocal organ, nor conse- quently voice. They appear, at least for the most part, not to have true blood; that is, not to have a fluid undergoing a true circulation, and possessing, as one of its essential characters, the red colour. It would be an abuse of words to call the colourless fluid, which moves slowly in the cellular substance of polypes, blood. We might as well give that name to the sap of vegetables. This constant and striking difference of colour in the nutritive fluids has been adopted, by some zoologists, as the basis of their first great division of the animal kingdom. The primary division into red-blooded and white-blooded corresponds with that into vertebral and invertebral animals. - - - The eye has no iris in invertebral animals. have no kidney. In the vertebral classes, and particularly in the first, or that of the most complicated and perfect organiza- tion, all the essential organs are insulated, occupying distinct and separate situations; in the invertebral, they are all brought together. In his “ Tableau Élémentaire,” Cuvier introduces us to the Zoophytes as the last or most simple of the ani- mal kingdom in their organization and faculties. The Mollusca possess nearly the same apparatus of organs for digestion, circulation, respiration, and sensation as red-blooded animals; and they even come very near in these points to fish. Insects, occupying a lower rank in the scale, have no distinct circulation, and respire by tracheae. Yet they possess a spinal marrow, nerves, and organs of sense. In most vermes we recognise analogous parts, and they probably exist in all. But, in the zoophytes, we no longer discern these organic apparatuses: there are, in a few, barely digestive visce- ra, and some indications of respiration. They have no circulation, no nerves, no centre of sensation; each part of the body seems to imbibe immediately the ma- terials of its nutrition, and to possess, within itself, the power of sensation. - Hence most of these animals have very strong re- Productive powers, quickly restoring injured or lost parts. . Some of them indeed are multiplied by a sim- ple division, like plants. There are however different degrees in this simplicity, which is common to all, 'We pass successively from beings, which have feet, tentacula, hard and soft parts, and distinct viscera (viz. VOL. XXXVIII. They the Echino-dermata), to others, whose whole body is a gelatinous mass variously shaped (Medusae), or, when examined with the most powerful microscope, presents an apparently indivisible atom (Infusoria.) Stagnant water, infusions of vegetable substances, the recent seminal fluids of animals, &c. teem with anima- ted points, round, oval, or of other figures, with or without a small appendix forming a tail, only visible, for the most part, by means ofstrong magnifying powers. In the arrangement of Lamarck these creatures form a distinct class, with the name of Infusoria. As they are merely microscopic objects, we can only say of them, that they are minute, gelatinous, semitransparent points, in some of which more opaque spots are visible, homogeneous, irritable throughout, and contracting in every direction; consequently changing their form fre- quently, but generally assuming, when at rest, a deter- minate figure in each species. We consider that these little bodies, which are mere animated points, and constitute, if we may use such an expression, the ultimate term of organization (ultimate at least to our means of research), are nourished by ab- sorption from their whole surface, and are probably excited by the surrounding influences of caloric, elec- tricity, &c. Thus they resemble vegetables, which live by absorption, executing no digestion, and perform- ing organic motions in consequence of external excita- tion. But the infusoria are irritable and contractile, and execute sudden motions, which they can repeat : this characterizes their animal nature. The genus Monas of Cuvier, or Chaos of Blumen- bach includes the simplest known animals. The lat- ter author divides his Chaos into aquatile, infusiorum, and spermaticum, according as the animals are found in water, in vegetable infusions, or in animal semen. For a description of the latter, we refer to the article. GENERATION ; some of the former are noticed under ANIMALCULE. The Volvox is a round, yellowish or greenish, gelatinous, and nearly transparent animalcule, which swims round and round, and moves about with- out any visible organs of motion. It (volvox globator) abounds in summer in the water of marshes, and then has a reddish colour. In its interior we can distin- guish globes similar to itself, which come out of its body, move about in the same way, and are seen to contain other smaller ones so that the animal may be said to be pregnant at once with several successive generations. The volvox conflictor is ſound in the wa- - ter of dunghills, and moves by turning alternately to the right and left. It contains internally round mole- cules, which moye about also. - The appearance of these animalcules, their motions, and the multiplication of some species, lead us to ascribe them to the animal kingdom ; but doubts are entertained on the subject. In that sense, at least, we understand the remark of Cuvier, “On seroit même tenté de croire que plusieurs deces animaux microsco- piques ne se forment que de la décomposition des ma- tière soumises à l’infusion.” Tab. Element. p. 663. They who believe them to be animals, are again di- vided in opinion respecting the mode of their produc- tion; some arguing from analogy that they are produced by generation of some kind, while others admit of a spontaneous origin, or what has been commonly called equivocal generation. Spallanzani made several expe- riments to determine this point. Long boiling accele- rated the production of the animalcules; which were also produced from the infusion of vegetable seeds 3 Q burnt V E R M E S. burnt with the blowpipe. When boiling infusions were put into glass tubes, and these immediately hermetical- ly sealed, no animalcules were produced, Electricity, tobacco-smoke, oleaginous, spirituous, and corrosive li- quors destroy them. They will live a month in vacuo; but are not produced in that situation. Spallanzani's Tracts on Animals and Vegetables. Respecting this doctrine of equivocal generation, we may observe, that the only argument in its favour is the indirect and unsatisfactory one arising from its op- posers being unable to show that the creatures in ques- tion are produced by a process of generation. The analogy of all nature, down to the minutest insects, which our microscopes enable us to investigate, affords a very strong presumptive proof against it, and leads us to conclude, that if our means of examination were more perfect, we should find that these creatures are produced and multiplied like all other animated beings. There are numerous other species named after dif- ferences of form, or according, to the circumstances under which they are produced. The Proteus has the singular property of changing its form, almost in- cessantly, into every possible modification of figure. The small animals found in vinegar and paste (Vibrio aceti et glutinis), generaliy called eels from their elon- gated figure, are almost large enough to be distin- guished by the naked eye. Freezing does not destroy them ; but evaporation does, unless they are protected by a little dust from the contact of the air. It is said that they change their skin, that they have different sexes, and produce young ones alive in spring, then lay eggs till autumn. The genera just enumerated, viz. Monas, Volvox, Proteus, Vibrio, together with two others, Bursaria and Kolpoda, make up the order infusoria nuda of Ilamarck; that is, such as have no external appendices. He has a second order of infusoria appendiculata, in- cluding such infusion animalcules as exhibit any pro- minent part like hairs or tail, &c. The seminal ver- miculi, as they have been termed, (cercariae, Lamarck,) belong to this order, for they have a tail. It includes also the genus or family of the tricho- cercae and trichodac. We come next to animalcules a little more com- plicated in their structure: they possess stellated or- ans, consisting of fine ciliated processes surrounding 5 an opening, and susceptible of motion, with the Sup- posed object of drawing their prey towards the aper- ture. The following animals are formed by Lamarck into an order which he calls Polypi, and which we deem a very natural one. They are gemmiparous, or multiply by shoots. They have a small elongated body, homo- geneous, gelatinous, very irritable, possessing wonder- ful reproductive powers, provided at its upper end with a mouth, which is surrounded by rotatory organs, or ra- diated tentacula, and serves as the entrance of an ali- mentary cavity which has no other opening. This cavity is the only organ they possess; it is usually an elongated bag, seldom folded on itself, or possessing any appendages. Such is the idea of a polype : when several of these little bodies are connected together, and participate a common life, they compose the ani- mals of Zoophytes. The idea, which some have entertained, that the brain and nerves, the muscular system, &c. of which no trace can be discovered in the polypi, nevertheless exist, but are expanded and as it were melted down in- to the general mass of the body, so that every point is capable of sensation, muscular motion, &c. is a perfect- ly gratuitous, and improbable supposition. On this view, it would follow that a fresh-water polype (hydra) has all the organs of a perfect animal in every part of its body, and consequently sees, hears, smells, &c. at all points. Thus it would be a more perfect animal than man, as each molecule would be equivalent, in the complement of its organization and faculties, to an entire individual of the human species. If we allow this to the polype, how can we refuse it to the monas, to vegetables? The study of nature teaches us in all cases, that when an organ ceases to exist, the faculty is no fünger found. The polypi are very irritable, and are acted on by external influences. Light attracts them towards the quarter whence it comes, as it does the branches, flow- ers, and leaves of plants. No polype pursues its prey; but when a foreign body touches its tentacula, they stop and convey it to the mouth; it is swallowed with- out distinction, digested if susceptible of that process, otherwise rejected. Lamarck objects to the term zoophytes, or animal plants, because these are truly animals, and have no- thing of vegetable nature. The only relations between polypi and plants are in the simplicity of their struc- ture, in the connection of several polypi wth each other, so as to communicate by their alimentary canal, and form compound animals; and in the external form of the masses which these united polypi compose, a form which for a long time caused them to be taken for true vegetables, since they are often ramified nearly in the same manner. Whether polypi have one or more mouths, we must always bear in mind that they lead to an alimentary cavity, that is, to an organ of diges- tion which does not exist in any vegetable. The wheel animal of Spallanzani is a remarkable species of this kind (rotifer redivivus; vorticella rota- toria, Gmel.) It is found in stagnant water, and in the sand of sewers and tiles. It has a tail, and is forked in front; each portion bearing a kind of toothed wheel, which can be drawn in at pleasure. Internally an or- gan is perceptible with a slow and irregular motion, supposed to be a stomach. The name of redivivus was given to this creature from its remarkable property, pointed out by Spallan- zani, of recovering life after being long dried. This resuscitation will take place at the end of some years; but Spallanzani says, that the animal must be kept in the sand in which it is found. (See his Tracts.) Baker (on the Microscope) makes a similar representation with respect to the eels of blighted corn. The vorticellae of Cuvier, polypes à bouquet, (Bra- chionus, Blumenbach,) have small organs, like fine hairs, coming out of their anterior extremities, turning about rapidly and incessantly; their nature and use are unknown. Some have a tail; others a thread-like peduncle. The latter are united in an arborescent manner. They inhabit stagnant waters, and are so minute, that a mass of them appears only as a spot of film. They multiply by simple division, one of the small bodies splitting and each half becoming an en- tire One. The botrylli, corinae, and cristatellae, or polypes à plumet of Cuvier, are allied to the latter; they pos- sess tentacula or ciliated organs; and are either single or collected into arborescent masses. In the fresh-water polypes (hydra), the organiza- tion V E R M E S. tion is rather more complicated, and the size of the animal increases, so that it is visible with the naked eye. They are gelatinous, semi-transparent, and therefore not easily recognised by a person unaccustomed to look for them. Their body is elongated, small at one end, by which it is attached to some aquatic plant, tes- taceous animal, &c. and larger at the other. It con- sists of a cavity terminating at the large end by a round orifice, surrounded by long tentacula. The animal in- deed may be regarded as a stomach, provided with instruments for catching its food : the latter is the use of the tentacula. The substance of the body appears, under the strongest magnifying powers, a mere jelly, with more opaque portions interspersed. Blumenbach compares it to boiled sago. They live on naiades, mo- noculi, and other small aquatic animals, which they seize with their tentacula, and convey into the stomach, where they are digested, and from which the refuse is rejected by the same opening. * . They perform locomotion, and seem very sensible to light, although nothing like muscle or nerve can be discerned in them. Neither have any vessels been seen in them : they are said indeed to receive a tint from the food they take, so that it must pass immediately from the stomach into the organs. The most surprising circumstances, however, in these animals, are their mode of multiplication and their ex- tensive power of reproduction. They propagate by buds from their own body. If cut into six or more pieces, each becomes a perfect animal: they may be inverted, and the external and internal surfaces will be changed and assume each other's functions. When they are partially divided in the longitudinal direction, the separated parts heal so as to form two heads or tails, &c. See the article PolyPE; also, Trembley Mem, pour servir à l’Histoire d’un Genre de Polypes d’Eau douce, &c.; Leid. 1744, 4to. Baker’s Natural History of the Polype; Lond. 1743. 8vo. Rösel His- torie der Polypen; in the third volume of his Insecten- belustigungen. Schäffer Armpolypen in den Süssen Wassern um Regensburg, 1754, 4to. - * From the fresh-water polypes, there is an easy tran- sition to the animal of the West-India islands described by Ellis, in the Phil. Trans. vol. lvii. tab. 19. fig. 1, and in his Natural History of Zoophytes, tab. 1. fig. 1, un- der the name of actinia sociata, or cluster animal flower. It is the zoanthe ā drageons of Cuvier hydra sociata of Gmelin. It is of a tender fleshy substance, consisting of many distinct tubular bodies, each of which Swells above into a small bulb : at the top of this bulb is the mouth, surrounded by one or two rows of tentacula, which can be extended or withdrawn at pleasure : in the latter state they look like circles of beads. These bodies are connected below to a firm fleshy wrinkled tube, sticking fast to the rocks, and sending forth other fleshy tubes, which creep along them in various direc- tions, and give origin to similar bodies rising up irregu- larly in groups. Knobs are observed on the adhering tube, from its insinuating itself into the inequalities of the coral rock. When the animal is dissected length- wise, a large cavity is exposed, into which a tube opens from the mouth. From this tube eight small cords arise, continued to the lower part of the animal, where they seem to be lost in the fleshy basis. The small polypi will appear to us more wonderful and will more powerfully engage our attention, when we find that they produce all those marine substances, formerly called zoophytes, from a notion that they par- extended or withdrawn. took both of the animal and vegetable natures, and including corals, corallines, madrepores, millepores, sponges, &c. &c. So active are these minute creatures in some parts of the ocean, that their constructions form the basis of new islands, constitute extensive and dan- gerous reefs, block up harbours, create shoals, &c. All which effects are produced by animals not greatly exceeding in bulk the fresh-water polype. It has been repeatedly found in the West Indies, that wrecks become covered universaily and thickly with madrepores and other corals within three-quarters of a year. The formerly excellent harbour of Bantam is now almost entirely occupied by Corals. Several vol- canic isles of the South-sea, and some cven of the West Indian, as for example Barbadoes, are coated over with . coral. The dangers to navigators from great coral banks rising out of the bottom of the Sea, in unknown tracts, may be illustrated from what Cook and Flinders experienced on the coasts of New Holland. These productions were formerly described with ve- getables, and they will be found so classed by Tourne- fort: their vegetable nature was even defended by Pallas. Our countryman Mr. Ellis has the lionour of demonstrating that they belong to the animai kingdom, and of shewing the animals by which they are formed. See his papers, accompanied by plates, in the 48th, 49th, 50th, 53d, 55th, and 57th vols. of the Phil. Trans. ; also his admirable works, “Natural History of Coral- lines,” &c. Lond 1755, 4to. ; “ Natural History of many curious and uncommon Zoophytes,” &c. 1786, 4to. See also Donati della storia Naturale Marina deli’ Adriatico; Venez. 1750, 4to. ; Cavolini Memorie per servire alla storia de Polipi Marini; Napol. 4to. The animals belonging to these substances may be called compound polypi. The fleshy masses, which are differently circumstanced in different cases, exhibit numerous projecting heads, each of which has a mouth with radiated tentacula. These heads may be either Thus all the polypi are con- nected into one mass, which is increased by shoots. In structure, these compound polypi do not differ from the simple ones, so far at least as our present know- ledge of them goes. - Some zoophytes consist of a horny tube, branching out variously, and hollow internally. The axis of these zoophytes is occupied by a stem of animal substance, and at each of its branches a polype projects. The horny covering probably grows as the shells of the testacea do: and we may suppose, that the tentaculated heads of the animal serve to procure it nourishment. The floscularia is of this kind: the animal is not very intimately connected to the tube. The tubularia occurs in fresh water as well as in the sea; there is a horny tube, sometimes simple, some- times ramified. The polype at the end exhibits tenta- cula, or a bundle of hairs like a pencil. The capsula- ria and sertularia are of the same kind. In other instances, each polype, instead of being con- nected to a common stem, is contained in a horny or calcareous cell, with thin sides. In these there is not the same direct communication as in the former genera. Each polype is insulated, or, if they communicate, it must be by very fine filaments, traversing the cells. In these and some other of the zoophytes, vesicles are occasionally seen, and have been supposed to be ovaries: the latter opinion, however, is inconsistent with the views entertained at present. Cellularia, flustra, and corallina, exemplify this: though, with respect to 3 Q 2 - the v E R M E S. the latter, it must be observed, that its animals have not yet been demonstrated, and its pores are so small, that they must be extremely minute. e The zoophytes which have an axis of solid substance, covered by a soft fleshy layer, with hollows, which con- tain tentaculated polypi, have been called cerato-phyta. The axis is sometimes ligneous or horny, or stony, and covered by a fleshy substance capable of contracting. . In this there are numerous hollow tubercles, from. which there are projected and withdrawn at will, heads, or rather tentaculated mouths formed like polypi, all belonging to the same animal, like the branches of a polype: that is, the soft substance covering the solid axis is to be regarded as the animal, of which these are so many mouths. It has the power of extending itself to form a basis of adherence to solid bodies. We also observe it extending over and forming a new stratum of coralline matter, enclosing foreign bodies that may be attached to the axis. That the coralline axis is formed by the fleshy covering cannot be doubted; we perceive in it concentric strata, indicating its successive depositions, and the surface is marked by longitudinal lines corresponding to the figure of the animal cover- ing. When the trunk of the coralline tree contains ligneous or vegetable matter, probably this is an ex- traneous body, on which the coral is deposited. The branches are produced by an elongation of the soft flesh, which forms them in its interior: but their strata are not continuous with those of the trunk, as in the case of treeS. Cuvier (Tableau Élémentaire, p. 671.) states that the nourishment taken by any of the polype heads is con- verted to the use of the whole animal ; to which, also, he ascribes a common will, as evidenced by its exten- sion for the purpose of adhering to surrounding objects. We know no facts concerning the structure of the animal covering, at all sufficient to warrant these state- ImentS. The gorgonia nobilis (isis nobilis), or red coral, is an example of this structure. The axis is the compact stony substance, of the hardness of marble, of which coral ornaments are made. The fleshy covering is of a bright red, containing calcareous molecules, which form a kind of incrustation when dried, and exhibiting numerous cavities in which polypi are lodged. Each of these has eight denticulated tentacula. The anti- pathes and isis belong to this division. See the excel- lent plates of Ellis in the Natural History of Zoophytes, exhibiting all the facts above enumerated; particularly tab. 3. fig. 1–5. for various views of the isis hippuris, or black and white coral : tab. 1 1. gorgonia flammea : tab. 12. figs. 1, 2. gorgonia ceratophyta : tab. 13. figs. 3, 4, gorgonia pectinata : tab. 14. figs. 1, 2. gorgonia briareus: fig. 3. gorgonia pinnata. The pennatula, or sea-feather, belongs also to this di- vision, and it is remarkable among the marine zoophytes, as being unattached, and possessing the power of loco- motion. All the others are fixed by their trunks or bases to some other object, as rocks, shells, sea-weed, &c. &c. - The pennatula resembles a feather, and consists of a shaft and barbs. The former is cartilaginous and cover- ed by a fleshy layer; from which, at its smaller half, forty, sixty, or more curved arms proceed on both sides, . like the barbs of a feather. Ten, twelve, or more smaller processes are continued from one edge of each of these primary barbs; and in each of these is contained a de- licate gelatinous polype, with eight tentacula. “The stem of the suckers of this animal,” says Mr. Ellis, “is of a cylindrical form : from the upper part proceed eight fine white filaments or claws to catch their food; when they retreat on the alarm of danger, they draw themselves into their cases, which are form- ed like the denticles in the corallines; but here each denticle is furnished with spiculae, which close together round the entrance of the denticle, and protect this tender part from external injuries.” Phil. Trans, vol. liii. p. 424. Thus, in a seapen of a span long, there are at least above 500 of these polypes. (See Ellis, Zoophytes, p. 6. et seq. tab., 8.) They swim about in the sea by a common motion produced by their numerous polypi; and are remarkable for possessing phosphoric proper- ties; hence one kind has been called pennatula phos- phorea, and Linnaeus says of it, “ habitat in oceano, fundum illuminans.” (Phil. Trans. vol. liii. tab. 19, fig. 1–5.) The pennatula rubra, or Italian seapen, is also strongly phosphoric. Dr. Shaw observes of it, that on the coast of Algiers it sends forth so great a light in the night, that the fishermen can distinguish the fish as they swim by it, so as to know where to cast their nets. See Phil. Trans. vol. liii. p. 21. figs. 1, 2. The soft covering of the stem of the seapens consists externally of a strong coriaceous membrane, and inter- nally of a thinner membrane : the cavity of the latter is occupied merely by the bone or cartilage. Between the two membranes are innumerable yellowish eggs, floating in a whitish liquor. The fins are also compo- sed of two skins; the outer strong and leathery, the in- ner thin and clear. The cylindrical part of the suck- ers is formed in the same way, except that their out- ward skins are softer. Both the fins and suckers are hollow ; so that the cavity of the suckers may com- municate with their fins, as their cavity does with the trunk. See an account of the seapen or pennatula phospho- rea of Linnaeus; likewise a description of a new spe- cies of seapen, found on the coast of South Carolina, with observations on seapens in general, by J. Ellis, in the Phil. Trans. vol. liii. with three plates representing various species, with magnified views of the fins and polypes. The lithophytes are zoophytes with an axis or basis of a stony substance, in which receptacles for polypi are excavated. The madrepores and millepores belong to this division. See Ellis’s Zoophytes, tab. 23. for views of the milleporatruncata, in which the polypes are seen magnified. They are so numerous in some seas, as to form entire islands: several of those in the South-sea are a mere congeries of madrepores. ' The last kind of zoophytes have a spongy friable or fibrous substance for their basis, covered by a fleshy in- crustation, which sometimes contains polypes. There are only two genera; viz alcyonium and spongia. The interior of the latter is light, friable when dry, com- posed of fine, diverging fibres. The animal covering is a soft incrustation, without calcareous particles, which becomes coriaceous by drying, and is pierced with cells from which the heads of polypes issue. See Ellis in the Phil. Trans. vol. liii. tab. 20. figs. 10. 1 1. and 13. - Whether the sponges are animals, is still doubted even by good naturalists: at all events, they possess the characters and faculties of animals in the lowest de- gree. They consist of a more or less dense and flexi- ble fibrous tissue, covered in its recent state by a º fluid V E. R. M. E. S. fluid and thin kind of animal jelly. Regularly formed round apertures are observed, sometimes pierced in slightly prominent papillae; but no polypes issue from these, nor has any thing of the kind ever been seen in them. The only circumstance mentioned about them, that can be deemed a sign of life, is a slight and hardly perceptible contraction or shrinking, when they are torn from their situation. After their death, the animal jelly dissolves and is removed, and the fibrous basis alone is left. See Ellis on the Nature and Formation of Sponges, Phil. Trans vol. lv. pl. 10 and l i. Next to the polypes, whether existing singly and un- covered, or connected with those constructions which constitute the zoophytes, we may place, in respect to simplicity of structure, the actiniae and medusae. The former possess a coriaceous body, with considerable power of contraction, which enables the animal to change its figure very remarkably, from a half sphere, when the mouth is shut, and the tentacula withdrawn, to a cylinder when it is open. It adheres by a circular disk to the sand, rocks, &c. The opposite end forms a mouth, surrounded by several rows of long, conical, and moveable tentacula, which can be withdrawn or extended at pleasure. The mouth is round, and leads straight into a cylindrical stomach, with rugous sides. They live on small crabs principally, which they sieze and envelop with their tentacula. The refuse is re- jected by the same passage. Between the parietes of the stomach and the skin there is a vast number of very fine intestines, interwoven with each other, of which the communications and uses have not been found out. The actiniae are famous for their reproductive pow- ers. When cut in two, each part becomes a perfect animal. The tentacula and other parts are easily re- stored. The young actiniae are born alive, either at the mouth or through the side of the parent; in the latter case the cicatrix soon closes. They move some- times on their basis, sometimes on the tentacula. Lamarck’s class of polypiterminates with the actiniae. It includes the following orders: I. Polypes rotiféres (wheel-bearing), having ciliated and rotatory organs round the mouth. Urceolariae. Brachioni. Vorticellae. II. Polypes à polypier-polypes connected with hard substances; having radiated tentacula about the mouth, and connected to a hard substance, which does not float loose in the water. - 1. With membranous or horny polypier, without any distinct cortex. Cristatella. Plumatella. Cel- lularia. Sertularia. Flustra. Cellepora. Botryla. 2. Polypier with a horny axis, covered by an incrus- tation. Acetabulum. Corallina. Spongia. Alcyonium. Antipathes, Gorgonia. 3. Polypier with an axis partly or entirely stony, and covered by a bark-like incrustation. Isis. Coral- HUIII]. 4. Polypier entirely stony, and without incrustation. Tubipora. Lunulite. Ovalite. Siderolite. Orba- lite. Alveolite. Ocellaria. Eschara. Retepora. Millepora, Agarica. Pavonia. Meandrina. Astrea. Madrepora. Caryophyllia. Turbinolia. Fongia. Cyclolite. Dactylopore. Virgularia. III. Polypes flottans; loose polypi. Polypier loose, floating in the water, having a horny or osseous axis, covered by a fleshy investment, to which all the polypi are connected : radiated tentacula round the mouth of the latter. Funiculina. Veretilla. Pennatula. Encrinus. Umbellularia. IV. Naked polypi; mouth with radiated tentacula, often multiplied; no polypier. Pedicellaria. Corina. Hydra. Zoanthus. Actinia. The substance of the medusae is transparent and gelatinous (whence their common name of sea-blubber), and almost entirely destroyed by evaporation or boiling. In the state of rest, their body represents the segment of a sphere, with the convexity smooth, and the oppo- site surface furnished with various tentacula. Coloured lines are observed in their interior, but nothing which indicates circulation. Towards their edges, however, numerous vessels are observed, communicating appa- rently with the alimentary cavity. They inhabit the ocean, swimming very well by rendering their body alternately more and less convex. When the tide ebbs, many of them are left on the shore motionless. Although these creatures are very numerous, and in some instances of great bulk, their structure and econo- my are hitherto but little known. Messrs. Péron and Le Sueur devoted their attentien to them very particu- larly in their voyage to the Southern islands; have de- lineated some species in their “Voyage aux Terres Australes;” and have announced a comprehensive work on the whole tribe, in which their natural history and structure are to be amply investigated. Perhaps this has even now appeared ; but we have not seen it. In the notice of this publication, given in the Annales du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, tom. xiv. p. 218. et seq. they observe, “that the substance of the medusae is resolved entirely, by a kind of instantaneous fusion, into a fluid analogous to sea-water; yet the most im- portant functions of life are exercised in these bodies, which seem to be merely coagulated water. Their numbers are prodigious, yet we have no certain know- ledge of their mode of generation : they are in some cases several feet in diameter, and weigh fifty or sixty pounds, yet their system of nutrition escapes us: they execute the most rapid and continued movements, yet we can discover no fibrous or muscular structure: their secretions are exceedingly abundant, yet we see nothing of the mechanism by which they are executed : they have respiration of a very active kind, but its seat is a mystery: they appear very feeble, yet fishes of some inches in length are their constant prey: their stomach seems incapable of any action on the latter animals, but they are digested immediately. Several of them contain air in their interior; we do not know how they can derive it either from the atmosphere or water, or develope it in their intestines. Several are phosphoric: they shine in the darkness of the night like so many globes of fire; yet the nature, the prin- ciple, and the agents of this striking property are so many problems. Some sting and benumb the hand which touches them : the cause of this phenomenon is equally unknown.” The latter property, being one of the most obvious, has influenced the name of these be- ings: they are called in all languages, sea-nettles. In the same volume of the Annales du Muséum, the authors quoted above have given a view of the generic and specific characters of the medusae, as they will be described in their great work. See p. 325, et seq. The echino-dermata of Cuvier are the most com- plicated in their structure among the zoophytes: they have a coriaceous or calcareous covering, a distinct internal respiratory organ, and often numerous retrac- tile feet. In many the skin is of a more or less crus- taceous nature; or it may even be a true shell. The feet, passing through apertures of this covering, admit of V E R M E S. of being extended or withdrawn: they are often ar- ranged with much regularity. There is a mouth, pro- vided generally with five teeth arranged in a circle, and leading into an alimentary cavity in the interior of the body : there are also ovaries; and a very exten- sive ramified organ, which seems to establish a perpe- tual circulation of water through the bodies of these ani- mals, and consequently a kind of respiration. Nothing is found like heart or brain. The holothuria (sea-cu- cumber), with its cylindrical body and thick leathery skin; the asterias, with its conical radiated processes and pliable calcareous integument; and the echinus (sea-hedgehog), with a complete calcareous shell, be- long to this division. The medusae, star-fish, echiii, &c. are formed by Lamarck into a distinct class, which he calls Radiaria, or radiated animals, because their bodies are distin- guished, in the arrangement both of their internal and external parts, by being formed into radii surrounding a centre; a formation of which the first sketch is seen in the polypes. Their mode of generation is not exactly known, but they possess considerable powers of reproduction: they contain organs that seem like ovaries. The mouth is placed downwards, or on the inferior surface of the body : they have no head, eyes, nor articulated limbs, probably no nerves; and no circulating system. This class comprehends two orders: I. Radiaria mollusca (soft radiant animals). Gela- tinous body, Soft transparent skin, without any articu- lated spines; no anus. Genera: Stephanomia. Lucer- naria. Physsophorus. Physalia. Velella. Porpita. Pyrosoma. Beroe. Eqliorea. Rhizostoma. Medusa. II. Radiaria echino-dermata. Opaque crustaceous or coriaceous skin, furnished with retractile tubercles, or spines articulated upon tubercles, and perforated by rows of holes. 1. Stellerida. Skin not irritable, but moveable ; no anus. Genera: Ophiurus. Asterias. 2. Echinida. Skin not irritable, nor moveable; an anus. Genera: Clypeastrus. Cassidites. Spatanguis. Ananchites. Galerites. Nucleolites. Echinus. 3. Fistulida. Body elongated; skin irritable and moveable ; an anus. Genera : Holothuria. Sipun- culus. º The vermes of Cuvier approach very much to the larvae of insects. Perfect insects are distinguished, among all the white-blooded classes, by the perfection of their organs of motion, their members having dis- tinct articulations, and the component parts being so- lid. The larvae in some cases enjoy the same advan- tage : those of the orthoptera and hemiptera have as perfect legs as the perfect insects; in the larvae of the lepidoptera and coleoptera, the members are generally very short, and not capable of prompt motion. The limbs disappear entirely in the larvae of the diptera, and many of the hymenoptera, their place being supplied by hairs, bristles, or merely by the rings and transverse wrinkles of the trunk. The vermes resemble the last mentioned larvae ; but they undergo no change of form. The largest have the body divided into distinct rings: a knotted nervous cord is found in their interior. Those which live in water, breathe by membranous or tufted branchiae, like many aquatic larvae. Others have along the sides of their body stigmata precisely similar to the openings of the tracheae in insects. The organs of motion, in several instances, are stiff bristles or spines. Others crawl by successively wrinkling or con- tracting the different parts of the body. Some have even antennae. In short, we cannot assign any general character, drawn either from external form or internal structure, which would be sufficient, in all cases, to distinguish worfms from the larvae of insects. Most worms inhabit the interior of other animals, as the larvae of some insects do: others live in the earth or water. Some of the latter construct solid habita- tions, either by agglutinating foreign substances, or by pouring out a calcareous matter, like that of the testa- ceous mollusca. But the shells of worms may always be distinguished from those of the mollusca, because they are always either straight or tortuous tubes, never regularly spiral, or an expanded cone, and more par- ticularly because the animal is never attached, which it is almost invariably in the case of the mollusca. This class of vermes has been divided by Lamarck into two; namely, worms, and annular animals (annelides). His class of worms contains the intestinal worms, and some others, whose organization is equally imperfect. The animals included in this class have a soft body more or less elongated,without head, eyes, or articulated limbs. They have no circulating vessels. No organ of fecun- dation has been hitherto discovered; so that sexual ge- neration does not seem to exist in them. The parts supposed in some to be ovaries seem to be mere col- lections of reproductive molecules, which require no fecundation. Their intestinal canal is complete, or possesses two openings; and the mouth consists of one or more apparatuses for sucking. The class is divided into three orders; viz. cylindri- cal, vesicular, and flattened worms, according to the form of the body. The class of annelides or annulosa has a soft elonga- ted body, covered by transverse rings, and no articu- lated limbs: seldom a head or eyes. They have a knotted spinal marrow ; arteries and veins containing a fluid, which is generally red. They breathe by bran- chiae, which are sometimes external and prominent, sometimes concealed. The class consists of two orders: I. Annulosa crypto-branchia (having concealed bran- chiae). Genera : Planaria. Hirudo. Lernaea. Clavala. Naias. Lumbricus. Thalassema. II. Gymno branchia (having external branchiae). Genera: Arenicola. Amphinomia. Nereis. Tere- bella. Amphitrite. Sabellaria. Serpula. Spirorbis. Siliquaria. Dentalium. * The mollusca have a muscular heart, to which the nutritive fluid is brought by the veins, and from which it is carried out by the arteries; they have organs near- ly resembling the gills of fish, in which the fluid is ex- posed to the influence of the surrounding element, and glands which pour different secretions into the alimen- tary canal. They have a brain, nerves, and some or- gans of sense;.. but in the latter there is more variety than in the other points. Their body, or at least their limbs have no bone in the interior; but several of them are enclosed in very firm, even strong cases, which are called shells (testae), whence the animals themselves have been denominated testacea or shell-fish in Com- mon language. These are comprehended, together with the entirely naked ones, under the name mollusca. They have white and very irritable muscles. They are extremely tenacious of life; moving after being cut into several pieces, and reproducing very considerable portions of their body when destroyed in any way, Their V E R M E S. Their skin is always soft, and generally lubricated by a viscous secretion : it is very sensible, and possesses or- gans, called tentacula, capable of elongation, for the purpose of touching. None have organs of smelling, but there are eyes in several, and ears in some. The body is generally enveloped, or at least covered in great part by a membranous investment, called in French zmanteau, which we shall term the mantle. Several have moreover a hard covering named a shell, compo- sed of one or more pieces, cailed valves, and produced by calcareous matter transuding from the mantle. To this the body is fixed by means of muscles. Most mollusca inhabit the sea; some dwell in fresh water, and others live in the earth. Lamarck removes four genera from the mollusca, to constitute a distinct class, which he calls cirrhipèdes: these genera are tubicinella, coronula, balanus, anatifa, Their principal distinguishing characters are articulated arms covered by a kºrny skin; two pairs of mandibles to the mouth ; a knotted nervous cord. - It appears from the preceding review, if we join to it the consideration of the structure of insects, that the animals with white blood, as they have been called, have not so many common characters as the red-blooded. Their chief distinctions are of the negative kind, as the absence of a vertebral column, and of an interior arti- culated skeleton, &c. - - “Thus,” says Lamarck, “when we consider succes- sively the various organic systems of animals, from the most compound to the most simple, we shali observe a degradation of the organization commencing even in the ciass which comprehends the most perfect animals, proceeding from class to class, thougi, with anomalies caused by various circumstances, and terminating at last in the infusovia. The latter are the most imper- fect, and most simply organized ; the degradation in them has reacized its term, the organization being re- duced to a simple, komogeneous, gelatinous body, al- most without consistence, possessing no distinct organs, and simply formed of a very delicate tissue, which seems to be affected by the surrounding subtile fluids. “We have seen each organ, even the most essential, gradually degenerate, become less distinct, and at last entirely disappear iong before we had reached the ex- tremity of the series: and we may observe, that it is principally in the invertebral animals that the special organs are observed to be annihilated. “Before we quit the division of vertebral animals, great changes are perceived in the perfection of the orr gans, and even some of them, as the urinary bladder, the organ of the voice, the eye-lids, &c. disappear en- tirely. The lung, which is the most perfect apparatus for breathing, degenerates in reptiles, ceases to exist in fishes, and is not found in any invertebral animal. The skeleton itself, which furnishes the basis of the four limbs possessed by most vertebral animals, begins to ºne, particularly in reptiles, and ends altogether in sh. - “But in the invertebral animals, we see the most important parts annihilated, one after the other : the heart, the brain, the branchiae, conglomerate glands, circulating vessels, the organ of hearing and of sight, those of sexual generation, and even those of sensation and motion. We should seek in vain among the po- lypes for the slightest trace of nerves or muscles: ir- ritability alone supplies the place of sensation and vo- luntary motion. All the motions of a polype are the result of external excitation. Put a fresh-water polype (hydra) in a glass of water, and place this glass in a chamber, which receives light from one quarter only. It will slowly move itself towards the part on which the light falls, and will remain there. Vegetables turn themselves towards the light in an analogous manner. “Undoubtedly, wherever a particular organ no longer exists, the faculty which it exercised ceases also: the latter is also more obscure in proportion to the deterio- ration of the organization. Insects are the last, in the scale of animated nature, possessing eyes; we have reason to suppose that they see very obscurely, and make but little use of their eyes. ‘This degeneration may be observed, even in the nature and consistence of the essential fluids, and of the flesh of animals. The blood and muscles of the mam- malia and birds are the most compound and animalized. of animal productions. After fish, these substances are progressively changed to such a degree, that in the soft radiant animals, in the polypi, and particularly in the infusoria, the nutritive fluid has merely the colour and consistence of water, and the flesh is a soft jelly, scarce- ly animalized.” Philosophie Zoologique, tom. i. p. 212, et seq. The following Table, cztracted from the same work of Lamarck, p. 277, et seq. exhibits the invertebral animals, arranged according to their structure, with their principal characters, in a progressive series, from the most simple upwards. * ...Animals without Vertebrae. - Classes. I. INFUsorLA. II. PolyPI. Generation by splitting of the body, or by shoots; body gela-Y tinous, transparent, homogeneous, contractile, and micro- scopic: no radiated tentacula nor rotatory appendices; no special organ, not even for digestion. Generate by shoots; body gelatinous, with great powers of regeneration; no internal organ, except an alimentary ca- vity with a single opening. Mouth at one end surround- Degrees. 1st. No nerves; no ves- sels; no internal and special organ, but for digestion. ed by radiated tentacula, or by ciliated and rotatory organs. They compose, for the most part, compound animals. III. RADIARIA. mouth placed below. 'IV. VERMEs. Suboviparous; great powers of reproduction; no head, eyes, nor articulated limbs; the form of the body radiated ; Suboviparous; body soft, and highly reproductive; undergo no metamorphosis; no eyes, nor articulated limbs, nor ra- diated disposition of internal organs. 2d. No knotted medulla- ry cord; no circulating: vessels; some internal organs besides those of digestion. Classes. V E R M E S. .4mimals without Vertebrae. Classes. Oviparous; undergo metamorphosis; possess, in their per- fect state, eyes in their head; six articulated limbs; tra- cheae extending over the whole body; a single fecunda- V. INSECTA. tion in the course of life. ſOviparous; undergo no metamorphosis, but possess always } articulated limbs, and eyes in their head. Tracheae con- fined to certain parts; an attempt at circulation; several fecundations in the course of life. VI. **t Oviparous; body and limbs articulated; skin crustaceous; eyes on the head; and generally four antennae ; respire by branchiae; a longitudinal knotted medullary cord. Oviparous; body elongated and annulated; no articulated limbs; seldom eyes; respire by branchiae; knotted nervous VII. CRUSFACEA. VIII. ANNELIDA. cord. IX. CIRRHIPEDA. º X. MolluscA. < | nerves ending in a brain. Structure and Formation of the hard Parts, which suffily the Place of the Skeleton in the lower Orders.- The want of an internal articulated skeleton is the most striking character of the second great division of the animal kingdom, or the invertebral animals. Insects and crustacea have a species of external skeleton; they possess hard parts, which are at once instruments of motion, and means of support and protection for the included softer organs. (See INSECTs, in Anatomy.) The shells of the mollusca are to be regarded rather as provisions for defence, as habitations of the soft animals which they enclose, than like the skeleton of the verte- bral animals, or the hard external covering of crustacea and insects, as instruments of motion. Shells are composed, like bones, of a calcareous mat- ter, intimately connected with a gelatinous substance, from which it may be separated by means of acids. It is not disposed in laminae, or in fibres, but is distributed uniformly throughout the whole body of the shell. It is only in some species that we find strata easily separated, and as it were agglutinated to each other, like the leaves of paper in the formation of pasteboard. We know from observation that these strata do not all exist in young animals; they have only the external, which are at the same time the smallest. In propor- tion as the animal increases in age, it forms a new stra- tum on the internal surface of the shell, which extends beyond the edges of all the preceding strata; so that each operation of this kind adds to the size of the shell in length, breadth, and thickness. These are certain facts: to prove them, it is only necessary to compare some shells of the same species that have belonged to individuals of different ages; the fewest strata will al- ways be found in the shells of the young. Muscles, which may be observed when they are very young, and even before they quit the body of the mother, have at that period one stratum only; but the shell is not there- fore soft and gelatinous; it possesses the same firmness as the adult, shell, and its greater fragility is merely owing to its thinness. | It has been a question among physiologists, whether Oviparous; possess a mantle and articulated arms, with horny skin; no eyes; respire by branchiae; knotted nervous cord. I’l ſCviparous; body soft, with its parts not articulated; mantle variable ; respire by branchiae, varying in form and situa- tion; no spinal marrow, nor knotted longitudinal cord, but Degrees. 3d. Nerves ending in a longitudinal, knotted, S- medulary cord; respira- tion by tracheae, which convey air; circulation imperfect, or none. * 4th. Nerves ending in a brain, or a knotted me- dullary cord; respira- º by branchiae; arte- and veins for circu- lation. > * these shells grow by developement or intussusception, or by simple juxtaposition ? That is, whether the shell, like our bones, contains nutritive vessels capable of in- creasing, diminishing or variously modifying it; or whether the gelatinous and calcareous component ele- ments of the shell are simply deposited from the sur- face of the animal’s body, and attached to the pre-ex- isting mass? We conceive that the latter mode of formation has been incontrovertibly established ; that the substance of the shell is inorganic, and consequently possesses no power in itself of increase, diminution, or any vital change. This point was first investigated by Reaumur, whose researches are so clear and satisfactory, that they have left very little to be added by his successors. They are detailed in the Memoires de l'Academie des Sciences for 1709, under the title “De la Formation et de l’Ac- croissement des Coquilles des Animaux tant terrestres qu'aquatiques, soit de Mer, soit de Terre.” He fol- lowed up the subject, in answer to some objections, in the Memoirs for 1716, p. 303: under the title “ Eclair- cissemens de quelques Difficultés sur la Formation et l’Accroissement des Coquilles.” “When (says the author) the animal, which filled its shell exactly, increases in size, and the shell is consequent- ly insufficient to cover it entirely, a part of the surface must be exposed. This is the part nearest to the open- ing, for the animal’s body can be augmented only in that direction. The inhabitants of a spiral shell, as snails, grow only in the direction of the head, or towards the opening of the shell; while those which occupy bi- valve shells, as muscles, can increase in their whole cir- cumference. In both cases it is the uncovered portion of the body that produces the shell.” Mem. de 1709, p. 367. “That the animal really grows before its shell, in the way just pointed out, may be easily seen in the garden- snails at their season of increase. We observe that the shell is too small. The animal fixes itself against a wall, or remains at rest, and a part of its body manifest. ly extends beyond the shell all round.” Ibid. p. sº € V E R M E S. He illustrates the natural growth by the process em- ployed for repairing injuries. “After breaking away a portion of the shell, which can be easily done without injuring the animal, as it adheres only at one point, we observe the creature Soon attach itself to the sides of the vessel in which it is piaced. A fine pellic.e, which may be compared to the web made by the house spider in the angles of walls, covers the body in twenty-four hours, and forms time first stratum of the new shell. In a few days this is thickened by several strata produced under it; and, at the end of about ten or twelve days, the new portion of she: i has nearly tile thickness of the original part.” P. 371. “If,” he observes, “the injury were repaired by means of mateli.ls furnished by the broken edge, as in the case of a fractured bone, we should observe a cal- Ius produced irom that margin, and extending gradu l- ly into the centre oi the aperture. But the edge, in fact, remains unaltered, and the matter deposited is on the surface of the body.” P. 373. That the body of the animal affords the materials by which the shell is formed, is rendered more evident by the following experim, nts. “I broke away a portion of the shell, and placed in the opening, between the animal’s body and the shell, a portion of lamb-skin leather, such as is used to make what are called chicken gloves. I fastened this to the internal surface of the shell, so that it completely shut up t.e opening inter- vening between the shell and the animal’s body. It is evident, that if the shell itself produced the materials of resto, ation, the new substance ought to be formed, in such circumstances, on the exterior surface of the leather. On the contrary, ii.owever, that side which was towards the animal’s body became lined with shell, and none was deposited on the exterior surface. “Again, I broke away a part of the shell at its open- ing, introduced a portion of the leather, and fastened it lo the inner surface; tızen tu, ned it dºwn, and fasten- ed it als, to the outer surface, so that the circumfer- ence of the opening, with its broken edge, was com- plete y covered. Now, if the shell grows by a princi- pie ºf vegetation, eit.der this covering should have pre- ve...ted tile growth, or the elongation of tae s.ſell should have pushed the leather forwards. On the contrary, the shell grew, and the leather remained where it was placed. being interposed between the old sixel and time new piece, to the formation of w.ich tile former con- Sequently could not have contii.uted.” P. 374. “It is a necessary consequence of the preceding facts, that the she is of snails increase in size, only by an addition to the number of their spiral turns, and that the length of a turn, when once formed, continues always the same. The trut, of this statement is easily slºwn. If the shell of a full-grown snail be reduced to the Same number of turns as that of a young one of tric same species, the two shells are then of the same size. This holds true, even with respect to the she is of snails just produced. A turn more or less makes a great difference in the size of the shell; for time diame- ter of each is nearly double that of the preceding, and about one-half of the following: hence half, or even a fourth of a turn more increases considerably the size of the shelf.” P. 378. The same point has been attentively examined by Mr. Carlisle, whose conclusions codfirm in all respects those of Reaumur. “The most apposite illustrations, and the most posi- Vol. XXXVIII. tive instances of union between vital and extra-vital parts, are to be found in the testaceous tribe of animals. After a long-continued and careful investigation, I am fully convinced, that the shells of all the vermes of Linnaeus are extra-vascular from their commencement, and remain so during the whole of their connexion with the living creature. The first production and the growth of those shells always depend ºpon a deposit of material thrown out from the surface of the body of the li ing animal. The figure and colours of the several parts of those shells, in every species, depend upon the shape and tie colouring glands of the modelling organs. Fractures are repaired by spreading a crustaceous fluid over the inner edges, and inever by any exudation from the factured parts, since they retain always the squared broken surfaces after such repairs. Extraneous bodies are equally covered with shell, whether they are in con- tact with the parent shell or not. The first may be seen in the fiequent envelop, ment of nereises in the com- mon oyster; the latter has been often ascertained by the experiments made for the purpose of creating arti- ficial pearls, and which might, if skilfully practised, yet prove very successful. The borings of parasitical vermes into shells are never filed up, or the bored surface altered, unless such borings penetrate into the cavity where the living animal dwells, and then the apertures are invariably plugged up or smeared over with pearly matter. The water-worn external surfaces of old shells, and other external abrasions, are never repaired, which is to be seen in old living oysters exposed to the moving friction of currents or strong tides, in the worn-off spines of the polas dactylºs, and in the convex points of the two valves of old mytiii, especially the mytilus anati.us. I have sought in the most extensive collections of the metropolis for examples of fractures and other injuries which have occurred to the shells of living vermes, and I have collected many remarkable specimens. They all demonstrate the same results without any exception. I have mºde numerous experiments upon the garden- snail, (helix nemoralis,) by fracturing and breaking away the shell in various parts, and have always found the repairs to be effected from within by first smearing over an epidermoid varnish, and then by plaistering the inner surface of that film with successive calcareous laminae. I have in vain attempted to inject the shells of recent vermes from the vascular parts of their bodies; and am fully satisfied, that none of their albuminous or ge- latinous testaceous membranes were ever at any time traversed by vessels; indeed, they do not possess any of tile reticular texture or arborescent pores which are common to all vascular parts; but, microscopically ex- amned, they resemble the exuvial or epidermoid mem- b; anes. To these may be added the notorious circum- stance of the unchangeableness of the outer surfaces of testaceous shells during their growth, and the continued renewal of their other surfaces which admit of contact with the living inhabitant; next, the stains and coloured transudations which they often derive from meta.lic Salts, and other colouring materials placed in their vi- cinity; and lastly, that such occurrences do not affect the living animal.” See “Facts and Observations re- lative to the Connection between vascuiar and extra-vas. cular Parts, in the Structure of living organized Bo. dies.” Lond. Med. Repository for August, 1814. It is stated of some testaceous mollusca. that they quit their shei to form a new and larger one. Cuvier asserts this of the cypraeas, and it is also supposed to be the case with the balani. (See Annales du Muséum, 3 R - t. 1. p. 470.) V E R M E S. t. i. p. 470.) In these instances it is clear that the surface of the body must form the new shell. The inhabitant of the paper nautilus (argonauta ar- go) does not adhere to its shell at any point; the addi- tions to the shell cannot therefore possibly be made by the way of developement. It grows, in all probability, by a secretion formed by its two palmated arms. Nau- tili are met with where extensive fractures have taken place, and have been consolidated by deposition from within. Hist. des Molusques, par denys Montfort, t. iii. p. 284. The animal comes out of its egg with the shell rea- dy formed; it possesses one turn, and sometimes rather more, but is very thin. Leeuwenhoeck first ascertain- ed the fact respecting oysters. Lister made the same observation, and extended it to other testacea, both ter- restrial and aquatic. Marsigli, Rumphius, Swammer- dam, Reaumur, and Adanson, confirmed the discovery. The latter naturalist shewed that the viviparous testa- cea agree with the oviparous, in the circumstance of their young being covered by shells at the time of birth, and even before. Encycl. Method. t. vi. p. 549. “As the animal grows after birth, its body advances constantly towards the mouth of the shell; the poste- rior end quits the bottom of the first turn, to which it does not adhere, and when the size of the shell is com- plete, it occupies a situation very distant from its origin- alone. In some species of an elongated figure, as the bulime consolidé and decollé, and several others, where the end of the spire remains very thin and unsupported, it is liable to break : the animal stops the breach by a new calcareous exudation from the posterior end of its body. In other testaceous mollusca the end of the spire becomes solid, and presents a mass of laminated calca- reous matter, sometimes as hard as marble. The suc- cessive layers are distinctly visible when a section is made. I have now before me a splendid specimen of the trochus Niloticus, in which six turns of the spire are solid, and filled with a calcareous substance equal to the finest Carrara marble. I can demonstrate the same fact in other shells. “In some cases different phenomena are exhibited. The murex tritonis not only has the apex of its long spire consolidated, but, as the animal grows older, and abandons more rapidly the extremity of the spire, in- stead of filling up the whole tube, it forms only thick septa, which are constructed successively in the situations where the animal’s body rests for a while.” Hist. des Mollusques, par Denys Montfort, t. iii. p. 246, et seq. Some white-blooded animals have hard parts internal- ly; but they are not articulated so as to form the bases of moveable members, and their texture differs consi- derably from that of ordinary bones. The common cut- tle-fish (sepia officinalis) contains in the flesh of the back of an oval substance, convex before and behind, w! ite, solid, friable, and of a calcareous nature. This substance is not attached to the flesh, but has the ap- pearance of a foreign body introduced into it. There is no indication of any vessel or nerve entering it; nor is any tendon affixed to it. It is composed of thin pa- rallel lamellae, which are not in immediate contact with cach other. The intervals are occupied by an infinite number of small hollow columns, standing perpendicu- larly between one lamella and another, and arranged in very regular quincunces. As the superfices of the la- mellae are plane, and those of the bone itself convex, they necessarily intersect each other : the points of in- tersection are marked on the surfaces of the bone by regular curvilinear striae. These bones have a kind of wings, which are of a less opaque nature, less brittle, and have a greater resemblance to thin elastic horn, than the body of the bone. To this last substance the part called the sword of the calmar (sepia loligo) bears an analogy. It is trans- parent, elastic, and very brittle; its shape is sometimes that of a leaf, sometimes of a sword-blade. It bears the same relation to the soft parts, and occupies the same situation as the bone of the cuttie-fish. There is a gradation in structure from this sword of the calmar and bone of the cuttle-fish, which are com- plete:y internal to the external shells of the testacea. The bulla aperta (Linn.), bullaea (Lamarck), has a shell contained in its cloak or outer integument, and not visible on the exterior of the body. It is extreme- ly thin, and almost transparent; not attached to the bo- dy by any muscle, for it is so weak that the sligatest muscular force would break it. It is striated, so as to indicate successive depositions; and so placed in the body as to cover the principal viscera. (Cuvier, An- nales du Muséum, t. i. p. 159. pl. 12.) The dolabella, testacella, and parmacelia, have analogous shells, call- ed by Cuvier coquilles cachées. (Ibid. t. v.) There is a thin shell contained in the cloak of the pleuro-bran- chus. (Ibid. t. v. p. 270 ; pl. 18. B fig. 3.) There is a small and thin calcareous plate in the back of the slug, analagous to the common shells. The fleshy covering of the branchiae has a larger but thin, horny, transpa- rent and flexible plate in the aplysia. Ibid. t. ii. p. 297. The insulated bony or horny pieces just enumera- ted, particularly that of the cuttle-fish, strongly con- firm the representation which has been already given respecting the growth of shells. They must increase by strata successfully deposited ; and they may thus be called internal shells, The asterias and echinus have a kind of skeleton, the nature of which very much resembles that of the mol- lusca. In the echinus it is a solid calcareous envelope, frequently very hard. It has a number of little holes, through which pass membranous feet, furnished with tubercles and points analogous to the substance of the shell, which play freely on these tubercles. In the star-fish, the calcareous part forms a stalk, composed of a number of small alticulated vertebrae, which extend under the middle of each of the branch- es of the body, and to which is attached a kind of Osseous grating, which supports the remainder of the envelope of the branch to which it belongs, and which is render- ed remarkable, even externally, by its projection, and by the tubercles of different forms that cover the whole of its surface. Their osseous stalk cannot be regarded as complete- ly external, since it is covered outwardly by an epider- mis and other soft parts. This is, perhaps, the most striking exception to the general rule that white-blood- ed animals have no internal articulated skeleton. The mode of growth of the skeleton of the star-fish has not yet been sufficiently investigated : the skeleton of some holothuriae is exactly similar. - Corals, other zoophytes, and lithophytes, have hard parts, which are sometimes horny, sometimes calcareous, and sometimes spongy; but which grow by simple jux- taposition, or at least like shells by the addition of suc- cessive strata. In some their growth takes place ex- ternally, and the sensible substance envelopes the old strata by new ones, with which it again covers itself. Such V E R M E. S. Such is the case with the lithophyta and ceratophyta. In others, the parts which have once attained their pro- per hardness, no longer increase in thickness; but new shoots or branches are formed at their extremities. Such are all the jointed zoophytes. There are some minute observations on the texture, course of the fibres, &c. of shells, and similar substances, in a paper by Mr. Beudant, entitled “Memoire sur la Structure des Parties solides des Mollusques, Radiai- res, et Zoophytes.” See Annales du Muséum, t. xvi. . 66. p Chemical Composition of Shells, &c.—For our know- ledge of the chemical composition of these substances, we are indebted principally to the excellent papers of Mr. Hatchett in the Philosophical Transactions for 1799 and 1800. Shells, like bones, consist of calcareous salts united to a soft animal matter; but in the former the lime is united chiefly to carbonic acid, whereas in the latter it is united to phosphoric acid. The predominating in- gredient in shells is carbonate, in bones, phosphate of lime. This constitutes the characteristic difference in their composition. Mr. Hatchett divides shells into two classes. The first are usually of a compact texture, resemble porce- lain, and have an enamelied surface often finely varie- gated. The shells belonging to this class have been distinguished by the name of porcellaneous shells; they are exemplified in the voluta, cypraea, &c. Those of the second class are usually covered with a strong epi- dermis, below which lies the shell in layers, and com- posed of the substance known by the name of mother- of-pearl : these he calls mother-of-pearl shells. The fresh-water muscle, the halyotis iris, and the turbo olearius, are examples. In the first class there is a small, in the second a large proportion of animal mat- ter. Porcellaneous shells contain so little animal matter, that they emit no smoke nor smell, when exposed to a red heat, nor are they blackened ; and they dissolve with effervescence in acids, without leaving any residue. They consist, therefore, of carbonate of lime, cemented together by a small portion of animal matter, which is solubie in acids, and therefore resembles gelatine. Some patellae from Madeira, examined by Mr. Hatchett, consisted also of carbonate of lime, but they emitted a smell like horn, when exposed to a red heat, and left a semi-liquid gelatinous matter behind, when dissolved in acids. They contain, therefore, less car- bonate of lime, and more animal matter, which is also of a more viscid nature than that of porcellaneous shells. The mother-of-pearl shells, when exposed to a red heat, crackle, blacken, and emit a strong fetid odour. When immersed in acids, they effervesce at first strong- ly; but gradually more and more feebly, till at last the emission of air-bubbles is scarcely perceptible. The acids take up only iime, and leave a number of thin membranous substances, which still retain the form of the shell. From Mr. Hatchett’s experiments, we learn that these membranes have the properties of coagula- ted albumen. These shells, then, are composed of al- ternate layers of coagulated albumen and carbonate of line, beginning with the epidermis, and ending with the last formed membrane. The animals which in- habit these shells, increase their habitation by the addi- tion of a stratum of carbonate of lime, secured by a new membrane. Different shells vary considerably in the proportion of their constituents, and in the consistency of the al- buminous part. Some, as the common oyster-shell, approach nearly to the patellae, the albuminous por- tion being small, and its consistence nearly gelatinous; while in others, as the halyotis iris, the turbo olearius, the real mother-of-pearl, and a species of fresh-water muscle, the membranes are distinct, thin, compact, and semi-transparent. One hundred parts of mother-of- pearl contain sixty-six of carbonate of lime, and thirty- four of membrane. Merat-Guiliot in Ann. de Chimie, tom. xxxiv. p. 7 i. Pearls, or the concretions formed in these shells, re- semble them exactly in structure and composition. The substance consists of concentric and alternate coats of thin membrane and carbonate of lime. Hatchett, in Phil. Trans. 1799. he bone of the cuttle-fish was found by Mr. Hatchett to be exactly similar, in its composition, to mother-of- pearl shells. Mr. Hatchett compares the porcellaneous shells to enamel of teeth, (see CRANIUM.) and mother-of-pearl shells to the bone of teeth, or other bone. (See Bon E.) The only difference is, that in enamel and bone the earthy Salt is phosphate of lime, whereas in shells it is pure carbonate of lime. The shells of the echini, and the crusts of the asterias (star-fish,) are made of carbonate, with a small quanti- ty of phosphate of lime; and a greater or less propor- tion, according to their hardness or flexibility, of an ani- mal, gelatinous, or albuminous matter. Many of the substances which compose the basis, or hard part of zoophytes, have the hardness and appear- ance of shell or bone : others are soft, and belong rather to the class of membrane or horn. From Mr. Hatchett’s admirable dissertation in the Philosophical Transactions for 1800, and the experiments of Merat-Guillot in the Annales de Chimie, tom. xxxiv., our knowledge of the chemical constitution of these substances is derived. The hard zoophytes are composed chiefly of three ingredients; 1. An animal substance of the nature of coagulated albumen, varying in consistency, sometimes being gelatinous, and almost liquid, at others of the con- sistency of cartilage; 2. Carbonate of lime; 3. Phos- phate of lime. - In some zoophytes the animal matter is very scanty, and phosphate of lime wanting altogether; in others, the animal matter is abundant, and the earthy salt pure carbonate of iime : in some, there is much animal mat ter, with a mixture of carbonate and phosphate of lime; and a fourth class is almost entirely destitute of earthy salts. Thus we have four classes; of which the first resembles porcellaneous shells, the second mother-of- pearl shells, the third the crusts of the crustacea and echino-dermata, and the fourth horn. 1. When the madrepora virginea is immersed in di- luted nitric acid, it effervesces strongly, and is soon dis- solved. A few gelatinous particles float in the solution, which is otherwise colourless and transparent. Am- monia precipitates nothing, but its carbonate throws down abundance of carbonate of lime. It is composed, therefore, of carbonate of lime and a little animai mat- ter. The following zoophytes yield nearly the same re- sults; viz. madrepora muricata and labyrinthica; mil- lepora caerulea and alcicornis; and tubipora musica. 2. The madrepora ramea effervesces in weak nitric acid; but when all the soluble part is taken up, there remains a membrane, completely retaini.; the original shape of time madrepore. The substance taken up is 3 R 2 pure V E R M E. S. pure lime. Hence it is composed of carbonate of lime, and a membranaceous substance, which, as in mother- of-pearl shells, retains the figure of the madrepore. The following zoophytes yield nearly the same re- suits; viz. madrepora fascicularis; milepora cellulosa, fascialis, and truncata; and isis hippuris. Merat-Guiliot gives the following statement of the composition of three species, which must, according to this account, be referred to the present ciass. Articulated White Coral. Red C ral. Coralline. Carbonate of lime 50 53.5 49 Amimal matter 50 46.5 51 100 J OO.O | OO 3. Immersion in weak nitric acid does not affect the shape of the madrepora polymorpha: there remains a tough, opaque, membranaceºus sºbstance of a white co- jour, filled with a transparent jelly. The acid solution yields a slight precipitate of phosphate of lime, when jeated with ammonia, and carbonate of ammonia throws down a copious precipitate of carbonate of lime. It consists, therefore, of animal matter, partly in the state of jelly, partly in that of membrane, hardened by car- bonate, together with a little phosphate of lime. The flustra foliacea, corallina opuntia, and isis ochra- cea, gave the same results; except thºt in the two lat- ter, phosphate of lime could only be discovered in the solution of the burnt substance. The colouring matter of theisis ochracea falls down in a fine red powder in weak nitric or muriatic acid; whereas that of the tubipora musica, and of the gorgo- nia nobilis, or red coral, is destroyed by these acids: . After the red coral has been immersed in acid, it is scen to consist of two parts, viz. an external tubulated membrane of a yellow colour, enclosing a transparent gelatinous substance. The acid solution yields only carbonate of lime; but when the red coral is heated to redness, and then dissolved, the solution yields a little phosphate of lime also. Red coral then consists of an internal stem, composed of gelatinous matter and car- bonate of lime; and an external covering or cortex, consisting of membrane hardened by the calcareous salts; and both coloured by some unknown substance. The gorgonia ceratophyta and flabellum have a si- milar composition. The cortex of the gorgonia subero- sa contained a little phosphate and a large Portion of carbonate of lime. The stem contained scarcely any earthy salt. The gorgoniasetosa and pectinata exhibit- ed nearly the same phenomena. º 4. Gorgonia antipathes has a horny stem, but is les- titute of cortex. It gives out some gelatine to boiling water. When steeped in nitric acid, it becomes soft, and exhibits concentric coats of thin, opaque, brown membranes, of a ligneous aspect. With potash it forms an animal soap, and possesses nearly the properties of horn. The stems of the gorgonia umbraculum and verrucosa are similar; but they both possess a cortex, composed of membrane and carbonate of lime. Mr. Hatchett analysed many species of Sponges; but found them all similar in their composition. They consist of gelatine, which they gradually give out tº water, and a thin brittle membranous substance, which possesses the properties of coagulable albumen; The alcyoniums resemble very much in their coin- position that of the gorgonia suberosa. They yield a iittle gelatine to water. They are softened, and appear membranous in nitric acid, which takes up the carbo- nate of lime, and likewise a little phosphate, at least when the substance has been previously heated to red- IłęSS. - In the Annales du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, we have an account, by A. Laugier, of the earthy and sa- line matters contained in the liquor produced by the spontaneous decomposition of the medusae. This was procured by the melting of a blue medusa taken in the Channel. When left to spontaneous evaporation, a crystalline pellicle formed, and was removed, and so on successively, until no more crystals were formed. “The Salt thus obtained,” says the author, “was formed of carbonate and phosphate of lime; these salts existing in exactly the same proportions as in all the calcareous concretions, produced by the hardening juices of the mollusca, the polypes, and the crustacea, which I have examined, such as red coral, white coralline, oyster- shells, crab's-eyes, &c. viz. carbonate of lime 92, phos- phate of lime 7, animal matter uniting the molecules 1, in 00 parts. See p. 346. The remaining liquor, being evaporated to dryness, gave a saline residue, of which the component parts, similar to the salts of the sea, were, in 100, muriate of soda 79, muriate of lime 4, muriate of magnesia 3, mu- riate of iron 2, sulphate of lime 1, water and loss 1 1. P. 349. So complete, says Péron, is the spontaneous fusion of the medusae, that from an individual weighing several kilogrammes, hardly a few milligrammes of membra- nous residue remain in the filter. Ann. du Mus. t. xv. p. 43. Organs of motion.—In the cephalopodous mollusca. The mollusca, which have the head furnished with long appendages for progressive motion, are called ce- phalopoda; and have two orders of muscles, one be- longing to the body, the other to the feet or tentacula. The sac which composes the body of these animals, stripped of the external skin, presents a muscular tis- sue of very compact fibres. Those of the outer layer appear to have a longitudinal direction; the middle layer is transverse ; and the succeeding layers have dif- ferent obliquities. They can flatten, elongate, twist, and bend the sac ; but the action of each layer cannot be assigned in a positive manner, on account of their very complicated structure. In the back of these animals, under the skin, there is found a body more or less solid. In the cuttle-fish it is a species of bone composed of different thin paral- lel plates one above another, and separated by little co- lumns disposed in the form of quincunces. This bone is oval, thick towards the middle, and thin at the cir- cumference. In other species, its form v ºries much, but its substance is generally elastic, and transparent like glass. Its surface is sometimes marked with lon- gitudinal furrows. The sepia octopus wants it entirely Two strong muscles arise from the inner surface of the sac, on each side of this bone. They run towards the head, and on their arrival there, divide each into two branches; one branch is inserted into the head, the other mixes its fibres with those of the sac, at the edge of which it ends. The cephalopoda have eight conical feet, of different lengths, arranged in a circle at the top of the head, round the mouth. The animal can turn and bend them in every direction, and fasten itself to bodies by help of the cups or suckers with which they are furnished. The muscles, which per- - form V E R M E. S. form their motions, are very numerous: they may, however, be distinguished into those that are common to the whole foot, and those that are proper to the suckers. Below the skin we find a very thin muscle, the fibres of which are united by a loose cellular substance. It accompanies the skin in all its different shapes, and may, perhaps, be regarded as a musculus cutaneous employed to corrugate the skin, and give greater force to the muscle situated within it, upon which it acts like a girdle. Between the feet, and under the skin, which unites them at their base, two thin muscles are situated, one below the other, the fibres of which are transverse. One arises in the middle longitudinal line of the foot, on the side opposite to the suckers, and proceeds di- rectly to its insertion in the same line of the adjacent foot on either side. The other arises below the suck- ers themselves, goes over the lateral parts of the foot, and at last forms a muscular membrane with transverse fibres, which passes under the preceding muscle, and proceeds to its insertion in the other foot, exactly in the same manner as it took its origin. This double muscular membrane bears some analogy to that which unites the toes of web-footed birds, such as ducks, geese, &c. It produces a circular plate, which cecu- pies the intervals between each base of the feet. These two muscles probably serve to bring the feet nearer to each other; the second may besides separate the two rows of suckers. It reaches the whole length of the foot, but becomes thinner towards the extremity. Below these three layers of muscles (the two trans- verse and the cutaneous), we find another pretty large one, the conicle figure of which determines the shape of the foot. At the surface is seems entirely formed of transverse fibres; but on cutting it in different direc- tions we find that it has longitudinal fibres. These fibres are interwoven like those of the human lingual muscle towards its centre. In the centre of this muscle there is a vacant space, in which we find very large vessels and nerves. The suckers are fastened to the inferior surface of this muscle, and to a layer of fibres still more evidently longitudinal, by little fleshy bands, differing in direction according to the species. The suckers are formed by a muscular cup of radi- ated fibres, which, by their contraction, diminish its ca- pacity. But at its edge, and close to the plate under the cylindrical muscle, there is another layer of circu- lar fibres, like a sphincter, which renders the cup more convex. Finally, each sucker is retained and moved upon the foot by little muscular fasciculi interlaced to- gether, and uniting at last in the inferior transverse muscle of the foot. At least, this is the case in the Sepia octopus. In the calmar (sepia loligo), and the cuttle-fish (sepia officinalis), the suckers are attached by very small mus- cular peduncles. When an animal of this kind approaches any body with its suckers, in order to apply them more intimate- ly, it presents them in a flat or plane state ; and when the suckers are thus fixed, by the adaption of surfaces, the animal contracts the sphincter, and forms a cavity in the centre, which becomes a vacuum. By this con- trivance, the sucker adheres to the surface with a force proportioned to its area, and the weight of the column of air and water of which it forms the base. This force, multiplied by the number of suckers, gives that by which all or a part of the feet adhere to any body. breadth. The power of adhesion is such, that it is easier to tear off the feet than to Separate them from the substance to which the animal chooses to attach itself. In the cuttle-fish and the calmar, the mouth of the sucker is surrounded by a cartilaginous indented zone; in the octopus it is only a fleshy disk, flat, and perfora- ted in the middle. Besides the eight feet just described, which are all that are possessed by the octopus, the cuttle-fish and calmar have two others much longer and smaller, and without suckers, except at the extremity, which is en- larged. Their structure is in other respects the same as that of the other fect. - The organs of locomotion in the gasteropodus mol- lusca, reside principally in that inferior part of the body on which they drag themselves forwards, and which is called their foot. It is a fleshy mass, formed of fibres which cross each other in several directions, and are capable of giving it every possible shape. Most com- monly it has that of an oval, pointed behind ; but, by the various contractions of which these fibres are sus- ceptible, they extend or contract it in the whole or in part, so as to produce that slow progressive motion, which every body has remarked in the common snail or slug. The transverse fibres are easily seen in the foot of the slug, if it be opened by the back. They pro- ceed from the edges of the foot to two longitudinal middle tendinous lines. Below these we meet with others in a contrary direction ; but so interwoven, that it is difficult to trace the layers. In the scyllaea the foot is only a longitudinal furrow, impressed in the whole length of the belly of the ani- mal. By the help of this furrow it embraces the stalks of fucus, upon which it crawls. In other respects, the organization of its foot is nearly the same as that of the Slug. - In the limpet (patella), the inferior layer is composed of transverse fibres, which are interlaced at the edge with numerous circular ones. The superior layer con- sists of two rows of fibres, meeting at an acute angle on a middle line, which corresponds to the long diameter of the foot. There are also some circular fibres at its edge. The inferior layer, by its contractions, length- ens the ellipsis of the foot, while it lessens the breadth; and the inferior diminishes the length, but increases the This is the mechanism which produces the progression of these animals. Lastly, the circular fibres diminish the surface on all sides, and render it convex above, thereby producing a vacuum, which makes the animal adhere firmly to the surface that supports it. So powerful is this adhesion, that we cannot separate a limpet from the rock by means of the fingers. Reaumur tied a string round the limpet, called by the French oeil du bouc (patella Graeca), and suspend- ed a weight from it perpendicularly. Thirty pounds were necessary to separate the shell; and this weight was supported by the animal for a short time. Reau- mur conceives that the adhesion is not produced on the principle of forming a vacuum, but by a viscous fluid ; and states, that when the shell and animal were split vertically, the divided portions still adhered. (Mem. de l'Acad. des Sciences de Paris, 1711, p. 109, et seq.) In this representation we are satisfied that this able observer was mistaken. The gasteropodous mollusca, which are furnished with shells, possess, besides the muscles just described, others that enable them to retreat into the shell, and protrude V E R M E. S. protrude their body from it again. These shells, or moveable habitations, vary much in their form. They are generally made of one piece, of different shapes, simple, without twisting, in the limpet; in a flattened spire, as in the planorbis; in a globular and pyramidal spire, as in the shell of the snail, bulimus, dipper-snail, &c. The chiton is the only genus of gasteropoda which has a shell formed of several pieces. In the limpet the foot is fastened to the circumference of the shell by a ring of fibres attached all round the shell, and which, after piercing the outward covering or cloak, are inserted in the edges of the foot, and in- terlaced with its circular fibres. They leave a space in front, for the passage of the head. This muscle, by its contractions, brings the foot and the shell closer together, and compresses the body; on relaxing, it allows the shell to be raised up by the elasticity of the boy. In the garden-snail there are two strong muscles, which draw the foot and the whole body within the Shell. They arise from the columella or axis of the shell, and, having penetrated the body below its spiral part, they run forward under the stomach, and spread their fibres in several slips, which interlace with those of the muscles proper to the foot, the substance of which they enter. From these attachments, their mode of action may be easily understood. When the animal wishes to protrude itself from the shell, its head and foot are forced out by circular fibres, which surround the body immediately above the foot. The acephalous mollusca have the body enveloped by a membrane principally muscular, which is called the mantle or cloak. This integument is more or less complete in the different genera. It is generally cover- ed by valves or shells of various forms and proportions. Few of the genera want this solid covering; among those, however, are the ascidia and salpa. The valves of the shells are so disposed, that they can move one upon the other, by means of osseous pro- jections, which reciprocally receive each other, thus forming a real hinge. They are, besides, connected by an elastic ligament of a horny substance, which con- tinually tends to open them. “ This elastic substance,” says Mr. Carlisle, “is wedged in at the hinge: its spring is excited by compression; but it does not pos- sess the property of expansion beyond its passive state. When dried, it cracks into cubes. As the valves in- crease, this elastic ligament is augmented along the inner surface only, and must have been always deposit- ed during the expanded state of the valves, since the limits of its elastic condition are exactly adapted to that state. As the laminae of the shell increases, there is a gap at the outside of the hinge, filled with soft crumb- ling and decomposing worn-out elastic ligament: this gap presents two inclined planes meeting at an acute angle, and that space is kept free from pebbles and hard extraneous bodies by the presence of the decom- posing ligament; as such an accident would prove fatal, by preventing the opening of the valves.” Monthly Repository for August, 1815. - The hinge of the shells presents so many varieties, that naturalists have drawn from it the characteristics of the genera. The oyster, placuna, scallop, avicula, &c. have no tooth in their joint. The piddocks and the mya or gapers have it in one of the valves only; but it is not received into a fossa. The razor-shells have the hinge strengthened by a tooth in each shell, which projects inward. These two projections meet and move upon each other. The anomia, unio, chama, spondylus or thorny oyster, and several others, have one or two teeth on one valve only, which are received into corresponding cavities, in the opposite valve. The venus, cockle, and mactra, have teeth on each shell, which are mutually received. Lastly, the arca has a multitude of little teeth, which are closely indented with each other. These different conformations either facilitate the motion of the hinges, or strengthen the joint; or they permit a greater or less opening of the valves. The elastic ligament, which tends continually to open the valves, is not always situated at the same point of the shell. The muscles, for example, have it at one side of the valves. The placunae have a little osseous appendage, which forms a projection in the inside of each valve ; and from this arises the ligament that holds them together. The perna has in each valve several little cavities, opposite to each other in pairs, in which an equal number of small ligaments are lodged. The shells of the acephala present several other pc- culiarities. We find the valves immoveable, and sol- dered together at the angle, in the pinna. The terede or pipe-worm has the body enclosed in a calcareous tude, and is armed with two little moveable valves, which are used in penetrating wood. The terebratula has on the inner part of one of the valves two osseous appen- dages, which support the body. The contractile membrane which covers all the body of the acephalous mollusca, and is calied the mantle, is a real muscle, presenting many varieties. Sometimes, and indeed most commonly, it is open before, in the direction of the valves, as in the oyster, the muscle, &c.; in the shells that have two ends always open, as in the razor-shells, the gapers, the piddock, &c. it is perfora- ted at both extremities. Lastly, the cloak may envelope the whole body of the animal, and be open at one end only, as in the ascidia. The cloak of the oyster is composed of two pieces of the same form as the shell; they are fixed to the body posteriorly, or on the side of the hinge, and extended to the edges of the valves. Their substance is soft, semi-transparent, and furnished with a number of mus- cular bands: they are perforated by the muscle, which closes the shell. One of the edges is in folds, like a flounce, and festooned ; the other is furnished with small conical and contractile tentacula. The cloak of other acephala differs from this description in its gene- ral form ; in the tentacula on its edge ; in the tubes, which are prolongations of it; and, lastly, in the mus- cles which perforate it. The aperture which serves for the expulsion of the feces, and that which receives water and the different aliments, are sometimes prolonged into a kind of tube, which is a continuation of the cloak : this is called a proboscis (in French “trompe.”) The oyster, the muscle, the unio, the anodontites, have only one of these apertures, which is the anus. The water merely enters by the large slit in the cloak. In the cockle, each aperture is a few lines elongated : that which serves for respiration is longer and larger than the other. They are still more elongated and unequal in the venus, tellina, mactra, and some other genera. The razor-shell has likewise two ; but in the piddock, both tubes are enclosed in a very thick fleshy proboscis, through the whole length of which they pass without uniting. In the V E. R. M. E. S. In the acephala that have the cloak open before, the tentacula are placed at its edge, and in particular to- wards the anus; but in those which have tubes, they are situated at the orifice of the proboscis. In the edi- ble muscle (mytilus edulis, Linn.,) they are branched. The valves of shells having a continual tendency to open, in consequence of the action of the elastic liga- ment situated at the side of the hinge, it was necessary that the contained animal should have the power of closing them at pleasure. For this purpose they are furnished with muscles, passing between the valves at right angles. In the oyster there is only one muscle of this kind, situated near the centre of the shell, be- hind the liver, and in the middle of the cloak. It is equally inserted into both valves, passing in a straight line between them ; and bringing them together, by its contraction, with an astonishing force. In the mode- rate separation of the valves, we observe the operation of the elastic ligament, when the muscle is relaxed : if we touch the animal, the shell is instantly closed; and we can estimate the power with which this is ac- complished, by the amount of the force required for the forcible disruption of the valves. The same me- chanism is seen in the perna, avicula, and spondylus. There are two muscles for closing the shell in the mytilus, solen, venus, mactra, cardium, &c. They are always separate from each other towards the extremi- ties of long shells, and generally approximate at the edge on which the hinge is situated, in order that a very small relaxation may produce a large opening on the opposite side. The common oyster possesses its first pair of valves, consisting of single laminae, before it leaves the pa- rental organs; the muscle passes between the centre of the concavity of each shell, adhering to each, and it acts on the valves nearly at right angles. The ani- mal has no other continuity with the shell. As it grows it augments the margin of its shells, and thickens them by adding-new laminae on the Inside; the muscular ad- hesion glides forward, still keeping to the centre of the valves. Many of the testaceous mollusca have the power of removing themselves from one place to another, by means of a muscular appendix, which they can pro- trude or retract at pleasure, with which they fasten themselves to the sand and rocks, and thus drag them- selves along. This appendix is cailed the foot of the animal. - The common oyster, the spondylus or thorny oyster, Some species of the Scallop, the anomia, and in gene- ral all the mollusca that have shells with unequal valves, have no foot, and are, therefore, deprived of the means of voluntary locomotion. One of the most simple of these feet is that of the freshwater muscle (mytilus anatinus, Linn.; anodon- tites, Cuv.) It is situated before the body, towards the margin of the shells. Its form is a compressed oblong. We observe on each side externally a layer of fibres, proceeding from the bottom of the shell. There are also some internal fibres, which cross each other at right angles; and others unite the two external layers, to which they are attached in a circular manner. From this disposition it will easily be understood, that the an- imal may, when it pleases, change the three dimensions of the foot, or of one of its parts: by this means, it is enabled to place its shell flat on the ground, and to crawl along like the snail by the help of its foot, in all the other bivalves. find them immediately under the skin. The muscle may be observed to open its shell, to put forth the foot, and elongate it, to feel about with it. The animal fixes it to Some object, and drags the shell after it. The animal called by the French lavignon, also a bivalve, puts forth a broad flat foot, by which it makes its way into the sand or mud. It has two long tubes, which keep up its communication with the sur- face, for the purpose of respiration. The holes cor- responding to them shew where the animal is. See Reaumur, “ Du Mouvement progressif, et de quel- ques autres Mouvemens de diverses Espèces de Co- quillages, Orties, and Etoiles de Mer,” in the Acad. des Sciences, 17 10, with several figures, and detailed explanation of the subject, both so far as concerns the animals just mentioned, and some others. We find this simple foot in the piddock. Its form is almost spherical, and tunicated by a flat surface. The part which Linnaeus has observed in the razor-shells, and which he has compared to a glans in its prepuce, is the foot, by which the animal buries itself in the Sand, or rises to the surface. In these two genera, the foot is protruded at the aperture of the shell, which is opposite to that through which the tubes pass. See Reaumur in the Acad, des Sciences, 1712, with figures. The foot of the cardium or cockle is somewhat com- plex. It has a triangular appendix, which is capable of inflexion, of seizing with its point the glutinous mat- ter, and drawing it out into threads. But the foot of the sea-muscle (mytilus edulis) is the most remarka- ble in its organization. It resembles a small tongue, marked with a longitudinal furrow, susceptible of con- siderable elongation, and of being shortened into the form of a heart. This organ is moved by five muscles on each side. Two arise from the extremities of the shell, near those which close it; the other three come from the bottom of the shell, and the depression for the nates. They are all inserted into the foot, with the fibres of which they are interwoven, in the same man- ner as the external muscles of the human tongue join the lingual. The organ is completely enveloped in a sheath formed of transverse and circular fibres, of an obscure purple colour. This foot is employed both in spinning and crawling : the last office is performed as It accomplishes the first by seizing with its point the gluten supplied by a gland situated under its base, and drawing it out into threads, in the above-mentioned furrow. The gland that secretes this humour, of which the thread is formed, will be de- scribed hereafter. The organs of motion in worms are not so perfect as in the larvae of insects; having neither scaly nor membranous feet, several of them crawl or drag them- selves along by the help of stiff hairs or bristles, with which they are wholly or partly covered : of this de- scription are the genera aphrodita, terrebella, nercis, lumbricus, &c. Two kinds of muscles contribute to their motion. The one extends the whole length of their body, and forms four principal fasciculi, two of which belong to the belly, and two to the back. These four muscles may be said to constitute the mass of the body. We Their fibres are parallel ; but their length does not exceed that of the rings, being interrupted in the folds of each ring by a very compact cellular tissue. The structure of these muscles is, however, most distinctly observed in the inside. We there find that they are “pºº I’OJT, V E R M E S. from each other by a longitudinal line, and enveloped in a kind of sac of a close cellular substance, which corresponds to each ring of the body. These four muscles produce the principal motions. Where those of the back contract wholly or partially, they raise the portion of the body to which they belong : the same effect, but in the opposite direction, is produced by the construction of the ventral muscles. The second order of muscles is appropriated to the motions of the spines or bristles. Their number is equal to that of the tufts of hairs. The description of one of them will be sufficient to give us a know- ledge of the whole. The hairs, bristles, spines, &c. which project from the bodies of these animals, are manifestly moveable. They are retracted, and pushed out at pleasure. The muscles which produce these motions are visible only when the animal is laid open, the intestinal canal taken out, and the skin stripped off. We then observe that each tuft of hair is received in the concavity of a fleshy cone, the base of which is attached to the longitudinal muscles, and the apex to the internal extremity Cf the hairs. All the fibres which form this cone are longi- tudinal, but enveloped by a compact cellular substance. They move the hairs outwardly, and in the direction which their contraction may determine. This first class of the muscles, which belong to each branch of hairs, may be called the protractors of the spines. The spines are withdrawn within the body by anoth- r set of muscles, which may be called retractors. They have fewer fibres than the former; their action therefore is feeble. They are situated under the inter- nal surface of the long muscles, at a short distance from the holes with which the latter are perforated for the passage of the hairs. They are inserted into the tufts of spines, nearly on a level with the point, which these reach, when completely retracted. It may be conceived that the protractors, when they act, push the retractor outwards; but the latter, when contracting in its turn, tends to recover the parallel situation of its fibres, and thus draws the spines inwards. It is by the help of these muscies, and of the spines on which they act, that the imperfect locomotion of these worms is effected. The e are other worms, destitute both of spines and bristics; and therefore possessing a different muscular organization. Their mºnieſ of crawling differs con- siderably from that of the former. Their prog ession is accomplished by means of the two extremities of their bodies, which they apply alternately to the surface on which they crawl. They are fitted for this kind of motion by a peculiar structure. We may divide them into two orders. The first, as the leeches, and several intestinal worms, have the head and the tail terminated by a kind of con- tractile fleshy disk, somewhat resembling those of the arms of the cuttle-fish. The structure of these two disks, which perform the office of suckers, cannot be easily ascertained ; for when the skin which covers them is removed, we observe merely some very small fibres interwoven in different directions. Though the worms with sucket's possess a great power of contraction, it is extremely difficult to trace the muscles that move their bodies. Their whole skin may indeed be regarded as one muscle, or kind of fleshy sac, furnished with circular and longitudinal fibres, and containing the vessels, viscera, and glands. This muscular skin is thick, and lined with a very solid and compact cellular substance. • When the worm wishes to c..ange its place, the body is fixed at one of the extremities, by means of the sucker that terminates it; the circular muscles of the skin then act, which elongates the animal’s body by di- minishing its diameter: when the free extremity has in this manner reached the place to which the worm chooses it should be extended, it is applied and made fast to that spot by the sucker, and becomes the fixed point of a new motiºn: the animal having detached the sucker first made use of, draws it by the operation of the longitudinal fibres of the skin towards the se- cond sucker, and procecds in tº is manner to fix each ex- tremity alternately. This is the mechanism by w, ich pro- gression is effected in worms that have terminating disks. The second orde of worms, which move by fixing their extremities, includes the greater part of the in- testinal kind. These possess less contractile power than the leeches, and their motions are therefore less extensive. Their head, instead of being terminated by a disk, is sometimes provided with hooks, by means of which they fix themselves to the parts they suck. Such are the common taenia, the taenia solium, the hydatige- na, the haºruca, the echinorhynchus, the uncinaria, &c. &c. The disposition and number of the hooks, which vary considerably, have been described by naturalists. The Organs of Motion in Zooſhytes vary consider- ably in their nature, form, and action. It is necessary, therefore, in order to obtain a just notion of these or- gans, to take a particular and successive view of them in certain orders of those animals. The echino-dermata are distinguished by numerous retractile feet, and a covering more or less soiid. These feet are a kind of suckers, and have nearly the same organization in the three genera which compose this order. In their form, they resemble a globular phial or ampulla : they are filled with a fluid, and their pa- rietes are formed of circular fibres. The e'engated or tubular portion of the ampulla is the only part that ap- pears externally, when the feet are extended. It is terminated by a kind of disk, which is concave in the middle. The spierical pori n is situated within the body. From this constructiºn of the foot, the mechan- ism of its action will be easily understood. The liquor contained in the ampulla becomes, by a change of place, the cause of motion; when the foot is drawn into the body, the spherical portion of the ampulla is greatiy enlarged: w; en the foot protrudes, the parietes of the ampulla contract, and impel the contained fluid into the tubular part, which consequently increases both in length and circumference. In the retractile motion of the foot, the tunic of the tube is contracted, and the liquor thereby forced back into the body of the ampul- la. The number of these feet vary considerably in the different genera and species. The holothuriae are covered with a thick coriaceous skin, which the animal can lengthen or shorten at plea- sure. These two motions are produced by longitudi- nal muscular bands, varying in length and breadth in different species, and smaller transverse bands extend- ed over the whole internal surface of the body. The animals included in this genus have their feet disposed in different manners, and in some species they are even wanting. In others we find tiem either spread irregu- larly over the whole body, situated upon one side only, or placed in longitudinal rows. In the V E R M E S. In the asteriae, or sea-stars, the covering of the body has a close fibrous texture, the interstices of which are filled with grains of calcareous matter of various forms and dimensions. This kind of crustaceous skin is how- ever susceptible of a certain motion, which, though slow, is very remarkable. The body of the animal is commonly divided into five branches, to which the feet are attached. These last are ranged in several files throughout the whole length of the branches from the mouth. The branches are sometimes furnished with spines, their middle portion is frequently entirely cal- careous, but articulated at its origin, and moveable up- on the central part of the body. Reaumur counted 1520 legs in a star-fish; yet their motion is extremely slow. These legs can be extend- cd or withdrawn, or partly thrust out: when withdrawn, their extremity is visible. Mem. de l’Acad. des Sci- ences, 1710, p. 487. The echini, or sea-eggs, are encrusted by a complete calcareous shell, the surface of which is covered by tu- bercles disposed in a very regular manner. Moveable spines of various shapes and sizes are articulated to these tubercles. It is very difficult to discover the fibres by which the spines are moved at the will of the animal; for in their joints we observe only a solid liga- mentous substance, which cannot be easily cut. The feet are protruded through holes which perforate the shell with much regularity, and form uniform parallel lines called by naturalists ambulacra. They are very numerous, but produce, as in the asterias, only a very slow motion. The medusae swim, by displacing the water with al- ternate motions, rendering their bodies now flat, now convex. Reaumur has a figure of one ; Acad. des sº, 1710, p. 478, pl. 1 1. “Although,” says Péron, “the medusae are compo- sed of a homogenous jelly, without any appearance of fibres, they possess a truly surprising power of contrac- tion. Constantly active on the surface of the waters, we see them alternately contracted and developed. When the animal comes from below towards the surface, he strikes from above downwards, and thus raises himself in consequence of the resistance of the water to this motion of his umbella. In order to change the direction of his course, he is inclined, so that the umbella forms a more or less acute angle with the horizon; in this case the di- rection of the stroke, and consequently the resistance be- ing oblique, he is urged forwards in the same direction. When he has reached the surface, the vertical posi tion can have no other effect than that of retaining him in the same posture and place : to change it, he must again incline his body. In this way, all the medusae with gelatinous and orbicular bodies swim : the umbella remains parallel to the horizon only in the state of rest, or at least of relative repose. Descending in the wa- ter is accomplished very simply : their substance being specifically heavier than that of sea-water, it is only necessary that they should contract themselves power- fully, so as to contract their dimensions in every direc- tion, and they sink of themselves Sometimes in or- der to go down more quickly, they turn themselves over; so that the upper convex part of the umbella is downwards.” Annales du Muséum, tom. xv. p. 41. The coriaceous skin which covers the actiniae, pos- sesses so extraordinary a power of contraction, that these animals can assume at pleasure the most dissi- milar forms. Sometimes they are flattened into a disk; Vol. XXXVIII. -> sometimes elevated into a cone: sometimes lengthen- ed into a cylinder, &c. &c. “They can walk,” says Reaumer, “in two ways; first, by means of their basis, of which they can change the figure, dilating or contracting it in different direc- tions, so as to move forwards the body slowly.” Reau- mur describes this at great length; Acad. des Sciences, 1760. p. 470, et seq. “I have also,” says he, “ seen them walk upon their tentacula. They were the kind that live in holes of rocks, and possess long tentacula in proportion to their size. In this case the animal is inverted, the basis being upwards. The tentacula are very viscous, and even rough to the touch, so as to be well calculated for the purpose.” P. 475. He has re- presented them in the different forms which they can assume, in fig. 21—26. In fresh-water polypes (hydra), we observe movea- ble tentacula about the mouth, which seem principally destined to seize their prey. The animal has the pow- er of locomotion. The smallness and transparency of parts in the other genera do not allow of our discover- ing the mechanism by which motion is produced. The two foilowing memoirs of Reamur, in the Aca- .demy of Sciences, contain the best account of the mo- tions of these animals, and they are illustrated by seve- ral figures. “Du Mouvement progressif, et de quel- ques autres Mouvemens de diverses Espèces de Co- quillages, Orties, et Etoiles de Mer.” 1710, p. 439; “Observations sur le Mouvement progressif de quel- ques Coquillages de Mer, sur celui des Herissons de Mer, sur celui d'une Espèce d’Etoile,” 1712, p. 115. JVerôous System.—Animals without vertebrae are not formed on a common plan, either with respect to the nerves or muscles: they present disparities so great, and indeed are so deficient in common characters, that we are obliged, without making any general observa- tions, to consider the nervous system in the different classes and the principal genera. Brain and JVerves of the Cefihalofiodous Mollusca.- In the sepia octopus, the cuttle-fish, and the calmer, the nervous system appears to resemble in some re- spects thatof red-blooded animals. The brain is en- closed in a particular cavity of the cartilage of the head, which is pierced by a number of holes to give passage to the nerves. The cartilage of the head has the form of a hollow and irregular ring ; its posterior part is the thickest, and contains the brain; its anterior part con- tains the ears, and a semicircular canal which commu- nicates on each side with the cavity of the brain, and includes the meduliary collar. The oesophagus pas- ses through the centre of this cartilaginous ring, and is consequently, as in all white-blooded animals, sur- rounded by the medullary cord. The lateral parts of the cartilaginous ring have eminences which form a kind of orbit on each side. The brain is divided into two distinct parts; one next the oesophagus, the surface of which is smooth, and the other towards the back, which is round, and marked by longitudinal striae. The medullary collar arises from the lateral parts of both portions: in the octopus it is in the form of a lamina, the anterior part of which produces four large nerves, which, with the four cor- responding nerves, proceed forward into the eight feet, which crown the head. These laminae are joined in- feriorly, and thus surround the oesophagus. Two other principal pairs of nerves arise on each side, near the origin of the collar. The first or optic pair ex- 3 S. * tends V E R M E S. tends directly into the orbit, passes after a short Cou"sº through the sclerotic coat, and is there dilated into a ganglion larger than the brain, shaped like * kidney, with the concave side turned towards the brain. The substance of this ganglion appears to be the same * that of the brain : its convexity produces a multitude of small nerves, as fine as hairs, which pass through the choroides, by an equal number of small holes, to form the retina. The second pair belongs to the mus- cles of the sac; it originates a little above the Prece- ding pair. These nerves descend obliquely, and after leaving the cerebral cavity, pass between the muscles, which sustain the head, to the lateral part of the sac, near its superior edge, between the body and the bran- chiae. It then divides into two branches, one of which descends to the bottom of the sac, the other dilates into a roundish ganglion, which produces a multitude of nerves, disposed like radii. These are distributed to all the fleshy fibres of the sac and the fins. The anterior and inferior part of the collar gives origin to two pairs of nerves. The first or auditory are very short, as they only traverse a cartilaginous lamina to penetrate the ear, where they are distributed. The second pair issues from the cartilage by two holes placed near each other, and beneath the ears : the two nerves which compose it descend within the peritoneum to the bottom of the sac. When they arrive near the heart, they form a complicated plexus, from which all the nerves of the different viscera proceed. Each foot has a nerve, which passes from one ex- tremity to another, like an axis, and occupies a canal, which we have described in speaking of the muscles. This nerve is enlarged, at different spaces, by nume- rous ganglia, which have the appearance of tubercles, and from each of which ten or twelve nervous filaments proceed : these diverge and penetrate the muscles of the interior of the foot, to which they distribute bran- chiae; but the chief ramifications are spent on the suckers. - - This description is taken from the octopus: the other cephalopoda differ only in having a brain less distinctly divided, and presenting less conspicuous furrows. JVervous System of the Gasteroſiodous Mollusca. In the Snail (Helix Pomatia.)—The brain is situated upon the oesophagus, behind an oval mass of muscles, which envelope the mouth and the pharynx. Its shape. is nearly semilunar, with the concavity backwards. The angles of the crescent are prolonged on each side into a branch, by which the oesophagus is encompassed in a collar. The salivary glands, and the muscle which retracts the mouth and brain, pass also through this collar. The two cords produced by the brain unite below the oesophagus and muscle in a large round ganglion, which is more than one-half the size of the brain. All the nerves proceed from one or other of these two masses. Those furnished by the brain pro- ceed from the lateral parts of its convex side. There are, first, two nerves for the fleshy part of the mouth; next, one on each side for the Small horns; then two for each great horn, one of which proceeds to the base of that horn, and passes into its muscular substance; the other goes to the eye. The latter is folded con- siderably on itself, when the horn is drawn inward. There are besides some other filaments, which extend to the base of the parts of generation, and to the mus- cles which move the head. The large inferior ganglion produces at first three great nerves, one for the penis, another for the brain, and a third for the muscles, which draw the Whole animal into its shell. The inferior sur- face of this ganglion afterwards produces two great fasciculi, which proceed backward, and which, after passing between the two muscles before mentioned, are distributed to all the fleshy parts of the foot. Swammerdam's figure of the nerves of the snail ap- pears to have been taken from the slug. In the Slug (Limax Rufus.)—The brain is also situated behind the Oesophagus in this animal, but it has the form of a narrow ribbon lying crosswise. It enlarges a little at its lateral parts, each of which pro- duces a filament to encircle the oesophagus. The ganglion, which is formed by the union of these two filaments, is larger than the brain. Two principal trunks proceed, each on its respective side, in a straight line from this ganglion. They ex- tend along the lower part of the body, throughout its whole length, preserving nearly a parallel direction. On the external side they each detach a number of fila- ments, which penetrate into the fleshy substance of the skin. A great number of other filaments also proceed immediately from the inferior ganglion to the skin. Further, the inferior ganglion sends off two nerves on each side, which go to the viscera, and follow the dis- tribution of the arteries. With respect to the brain, properly so called, it fur- nishes in the first place a nerve on each side for the fleshy mass of the mouth; then two for each of the great horns, one of which extends to the eye, and be- comes the optic nerve. The nerves of the small horns arise more outwardly. -- In the Ahlysia.-This is a small marine animal, ve- ry like the slug, but respiring by means of branchiae, which form a kind of tuft on the back, and are covered by a particular operculum. The brain is situated as in the snail; but the branches, which surround the oesophagus, produce two ganglia, one on each side, which are conjoined by a small filament. The brain furnishes, at its anterior part, two slender filaments, which encircle the fleshy mass of the mouth, and unite under it in a small ganglion, whence the nerves of the lips are detached. The brain afterwards affords nerves to the horns and the eyes, which are in this animal situated between the horns, and to the parts of generation. The two lateral ganglia transmit a mul- titude of nerves to all the fleshy parts of the foot and skin; they also produce each a long cord, which unites to its corresponding cord on the acrta, near the part where it arises from the heart; there they form a ganglion, from which all the nerves of the viscera pro- ceed. In the Clio Borealis.-This small animal has no foot, and can only swim. It respires by two branchiae, in the form of wings, situated on the neck; but in other respects it very much resembles the slug. Its nervous system is analogous to that of the aplysia. Its brain is formed of two roundish lobes: it furnishes immediately nerves to the tentacula, and gives origin to a double collar. The anterior extends, as in the aplysia, under the mouth, to form a small ganglion. The posterior has a ganglion on each side, which fur- nishes nerves to the muscular'skin that surrounds the body; each ef these produces one or two other ganglia, which send nerves to the viscera. In the Doris.-This is also a small marine animal similar to the slug, but it respires by external branchiae disposed like stars round the anus. The brain is very large * V E R M E S. large in proportion to the rest of the body, and par- ticulary in comparison with that of other gasteropoda. It is elongated transversey, and of a square form. It is situated immediately above the origin of the oesopha- gus, behind the orbicular mass of muscles, which form the parietes of the mouth. --- Six nerves proceed from the brain on each side; one pair is destined for the muscles of the mouth, another for the tentacula. The third is a cord, which passes below the oesophagus, and is lost in the muscles of the foot, where it may be very distinctly observed on the lateral parts of the internal surface. The fourth and the fifth are directed above the mass of intestines, and proceed to the skin of the back. Lastly, the sixth terminates in the parts of generation. In the Scyllaea.—This is another marine animal simi- lar to the slug, but respiring by branchiae in the form of wings arranged by pairs on the back : it crawls on a furrow in its belly. The collar surrounding the oesophagus is a simple cord, and does not enlarge into a ganglion as it proceeds downward. The brain, which is above it, is of an oval form; it sends nerves to the mouth and to the horns, but there are no optic nerves, as this animal has no eyes. The nerves of the viscera arise from the inferior part of the collar, and those of the muscles from its sides. .* In the Sea-Ear (Halyotis Tuberculata.)—This ani- mal has no ganglion above the oesophagus to supply the place of the brain. We find merely a nervous filament, situated transversely above the oesophagus, behind the mouth. Four small ramifications proceed from the middle and anterior part of this filament, two On each side, and are lost in the parietes of the mouth. At each extremity of the transverse nervous filament there is a very large flat ganglion, from the circum- ference of which a number of nerves are detached to the adjacent parts. Three filaments pass off on each side from the external surface of this ganglion : one is sent to the setiform tentaculum, situated above the mouth, the other two proceed to the flat tentaculum, like a buckler, placed more posteriorly and on the sides. The most posterior appears to be intended for the eye : it is the thickest, the other seems lost in the muscular parts. - - A very remarkable filament is detached from the superior parts:, it proceeds above the oesophagus, and joins the corresponding one on the other side. There is a small enlargement at the point of union, from which four nerves proceed, two on each side of the middle line. The most external is lost in the muscles of the tongue; the other pursues the middle line of the oesophagus, and is ramified over the intestines. Several small branches are detached inferiorly, and terminate in the fan-like muscies that sustain the tongue. - Lastly, the ganglion is prolonged posteriorly into a thick nervous cord, situated on the sides and below the Oesophagus, which becomes flat, as it proceeds back- ward: it describes a semilunar curve, so that the two nerves of the opposite sides are approximated, and fi- naily touch each other at the basis of the tongue, and below the anterior part of the large muscle which at- taches the animal to its shell. The union of these two nerves produces a ganglion, from which two very re- markable trunks, intended for the intestines, proceed; they can be followed to above the stomach, and we can perceive that some of their ramifications enter the liver. After the formation of the ganglion, which furnishes nerves to the viscera, the two trunks penetrate by two different holes into the substance of the muscle of the foot. These two holes are the origin of two ca- nals, which run throughout the whole length of the foot, on the sides of another middle canal, which appears destined to distribute the blood of the animal. The two nerves, lodged in the lateral canal, are distributed by a great number of lateral holes into the substance of the fleshy muscles of the foot, and of the shell, where they may be followed with facility. In the Helix Stagnalis and Helic Cornea (Planorbis Cornea), the brain consists of two lateral masses, sepa- rated by a contraction. In the living animal they are of a lively red colour. The distribution of the nerves differs very little from what we observe in the common snail. - JWervous System of the Aceñhalous Mollusca.-It is formed on a plan far more uniform than that of the gas- teropoda. In all the testaceous acephala, from the oyster to the pholas, and the teredo, there appears no essential difference : it consists always of two ganglia, one on the mouth representing the brain, and another towards the opposite part. These two ganglia are uni- ted by two long nervous cords, which take the place of the usual collar, but which occupy a much greater space at the foot where it exists, and the stomach and liver al- ways pass in the interval between them. All the nerves arise from the two ganglia. In the Anodontites, or Fresh-water Muscles, in Cock- les, in the Venus, Mactra, and Mya.—In these, and ge- nerally in all the bivalves which have two cylindrical muscles, one at each extremity of their valves, for the purpose of bringing them together; the mouth is placed near one of those muscles, and the anus near the other. The foot appears about the middle of the shell ; and the tubes for the excrements and respiration, when they exist, go out at the end of the shell opposite to that in which the mouth is situated. The brain is placed at the anterior edge of the mouth ; it is oblong transverse- ly; it sends off two cords anteriorly, which go to the adjacent muscles, and turning towards each side, pene- trate the lobes of the cloak, passing through the whole extent of their edge. The brain furnishes also, on each side, some filaments to the membranous tentacula, which surround the mouth, and detaches, from its pos- terior edge, the two cords analogous to the medullary collar in other invertebral animals. These cords pro- ceed, each on its side, under the muscular stratum which envelopes the liver and the other viscera, and which becomes thicker as it is continued to form the foot, which is frequently constructed for spinning. When arrived at the posterior muscle which closes the valves, these cords approach each other, and enlarge as they unite to form the second ganglion. This ganglion has the form of two lobes. It is at least as large as the brain ganglion, and always much more easily distin- guished. It detaches two principal nerves on each side, and the four together represent a kind of cross. The two anterior nerves, as they ascend, proceed a little to- wards the side of the mouth, and after having described an arc, penetrate into the branchiae. The other two pass on the posterior muscle, precisely in the same manner as those of the brain on the anterior. After detaching some filaments they proceed into the cloak, the edge of which they follow until they join those of the brain; they thus form a con inued circle. We do not yet know the origin of the visceral nerves in these animals. - 3 S 2 The V E R M E. S. The testaceous acephala, in which the foot is pro- truded by an extremity of the shell, that always remains open, and the tubes by the opposite extremities, that is to say, in razor-fish and piddocks, the mouth, and consequently the brain, is always near one extremity. The nerves which proceed from the brain, take there- fore a longer course before they diverge to join the cloak. The cords of the collar, however, have a much shorter distance to pass before they unite. There is a considerable space, particularly in the razor-fish, be- tween the mass of the viscera situated in the base of the foot, and the posterior muscle. The second ganglion is situated in the middle of this space, between the branchiae of each side: it is round, and much more dis- tinct than in the other species; the nerves it produces are however exactly similar. In the oyster, which has no mouth at the anterior part, the brain and mouth are situated under the kind of hood which the cloak forms towards the hinge. The nerves go directly into the cloak itself. The ganglion is situated on the anterior surface of the single muscle, immediately behind the mass of viscera. The nerves it produces are the same as in the preceding genera. In the Ascidia.-These small marine animals are en- veloped in an immoveable coriaceous or gelatinous case, which has two apertures; one for the expulsion of the excrement, the other for the admission of water to the branchiae. The branchiae are in the form of a large sac, and are enclosed as well as the other viscera, in another membranous bag, of the same form as the ex- ternal case, but smaller, and completely adhering to that case at the two apertures only. The inferior ganglion is situated on this membranous sac ; its position is be- tween the two apertures, but nearest that which corres- ponds to the anus; it produces four principal, nerves: two ascend towards the superior or respiring aperture, the other two descend towards that of the excrements, There are smaller nerves dispersed through all the membranous sac. We have not yet discovered those produced by the brain, nor the brain itself, which is doubtless situated as usual on the mouth. The mouth is in the bottom of the branchial sac. In the Tritons of Linnaeus, which inhabit the anati- ferous and balanite Shells, (Leftas, Linn.)—These ani- mals approach perhaps nearer to the crustacea, and particularly to the monoculi, than to the mollusca. Their nervous system is a sort of middle kind between that of the mollusca, and that of the crustacea and in- SectS. The brain is placed across the mouth, which is itself situated in the part of the body corresponding to the liga- ment, and at the bottom of the shell. It produces four nerves to the muscles situated in that place, and to the stomach, and two others which embrace the oesophagus, and proceed into that elongated portion of the body which bears the numerous articulated and ciliated horny tentacula which the animal protrudes from its shell. These two filaments approach, and form a gang- lion, and then proceed close to each other among these tentacula, furnishing a corresponding pair of nerves for each pair of tentacula; but there are no apparent gang- łia at the origin of these nerves. The general result from the preceding statements is, that the nervous system of the mollusca consists in a brain placed on the oesophagus, and in a variable num- ber of ganglia, sometimes approximated to the brain, and sometimes dispersed in the different cavities, or placed under the muscular envelopes of the body : that .…" the second ganglion. the ganglia are always connected to the brain and to each other by nervous cords, which establish a general communication between these different medullary masses: that the nerves all arise either from the brain or the ganglia; and lastly, that there is no part which can be compared to the medulla oblongata and medul- la spinalis. - - JVervous System of Worms.-Some genera present a very distinct nervous system, organized nearly like that of the crustacea and insects. In others, however, that system becomes so obscure, that we can scarcely recognise its existence. Thus the class of worms, which in several of its genera ranks above insects, with respect to the organs of circulation, is reduced almost. to a level with the zoophytes, when considered with re- gard to the organs of sensation. The Afthrodite aculeata has a very distinct nervous system. Immediately behind the tentacula, situated above the mouth, we observe a large nervous ganglion, which is the brain; it has the form of a heart, the broad- est and bilobed part of which is directed backwards. The pointed anterior portion produces two small fila- ments for the tentacula, and the lateral parts some oth- er filaments, which are still more slender, for the pa- rietes of the mouth. This ganglion is situated imme- diately above the origin of the oesophagus. The two cords which arise from the brain, and from the collar, are very long and delicate ; they gradually increase in thickness as they approach the point of their union. Each then produces a large filament, which we shall call the recurrent nerve; these nerves are very dis- tinct: they are directed forward towards the part where the oesophagus, which is very short, joins the stomach. They may be easily followed by the naked eye to the lateral parts of that viscous, which is very long and mus- cular; before they reach the intestines that follow the stomach, they swell into a ganglion, which produces a great number of nervous fibrils. The two curves of the collar produce a very large ganglion at their union; it is bifurcated anteriorly, and situated immediately behind the mouth, and above the oesophagus; it is the anterior extremity of the chief nervous cord. We do not observe any filaments pro- ceeding from it. To this first ganglion another suc- ceeds, which is distinguished from it only by a small contraction; the latter produces two nervous filaments, which go forwards into the muscles of the abdomen. A series of ganglia, the spaces between which are con- siderably greater, afterwards succeed; each of these sends off six nerves, three on a side, which are lost in the muscles. These ganglia are twelve in number. The nervous cord, which succeeds, and which occupies the posterior third of the body, no longer exhibits any apparent enlargement; but pairs of nerves are still de- tached at certain spaces. Finally, this cord may be fol- lowed to the extremity of the body. In the Leech, the nervous system is a longitudinal cord, composed of twenty-three ganglia. The first is situated above the oesophagus; it is small and rounded; anteriorly it produces two slender filaments, which pro- ceed above the disk of the mouth. The lateraſ parts furnish a thick pair of nerves, that form a collar round the oesophagus, as they proceed downward, and unite at This ganglion is of a triangular figure, and appears to be formed by the union of two tu- bercles. Two of these angles are anterior and iateral; they receive the nerves that proceed from the first ganglion. The other is posterior; it is prolonged into a Ile IVC V E R M-E S. a nerve rather more than half a line long, which pro- duces the third ganglion : the anterior part of the trian- gular ganglion which we describe, detaches two small nerves that are lost on the Oesophagus, around the mouth. The nine succeeding ganglia are precisely of the same form, and produce each two pair of nerves; they differ only in the greater or less distance at which they are placed from each other. The third, as we have ob- served, is very near the second. The three following are at the distance of nearly a line and a half: but those which succeed, from the seventh to the twentieth, are at the distance of three or four lines: finally, the three last are very close together. All these ganglia are situated longitudinally below the intestinal canal, to which they furnish, from their su- perior surface, a number of nervous filaments; they produce on each side two nerves, which pass into the longitudinal and transverse muscles, in the substance of which they are lost. These nerves run in opposite di- rections, so that they represent the figure of an X. The coat of these nerves is black, and very solid, so that be- fore the parts have been immersed in alcohol, they ap- pear like a system of vessels. The nervous cord of the Earth-worm derives its origin from a ganglion situated above the oesophagus; this ganglion is formed of two close, but very distinct tu- bercles. It produces a pair of small nerves proceeding to the parietes of the mouth, and two large cords, which embrace the oesophagus in the form of a collar: these unite to form the nervous cord, the origin of which there- fore appears bifurcated. Three pair of small nerves are detached at this place : one from the cord itself, and the others from its lateral parts. They all proceed in- to the muscles of the mouth. The nervous trunk is continued to the anus, along the inferior part of the in- testine ; its size is not sensibly diminished, and the con- tractions are not very remarkable: there are, therefore, no real ganglia. A pair of nerves arises between each of the rings of the body; these nerves pass under the longitudinal muscles, and disappear between them and the skin. When the nervous cord reaches the anus, it terminates by forming a plexus, which is lost on the parietes of that aperture. In the Gordius argillaceus, there is only a single nervous cord, similar to that of the earth-worm, but its contractions are still less apparent. The JVereis and Terebella have, within the skin of the belly, a longitudinal cord, which may be regarded as nervous: it has as many contractions as there are rings in the body. No nervous filament has been observed proceeding from this cord. In the Sea-worm (Lumbricus Marinus, Linn.), which in its external characters approaches nearer to the nereis than to the lumbricus, the nervous system is the same as in the nereids, but the cord gradually increases in thickness towards the middle of the body, where it is much more distinct. In the Ascaris Lumbricoides of Man and the Horse.- This animal appears to have two nervous cords; they are observable throughout the whole length of the bo- dy, on the lateral parts of the abdomen They unite above the oesophagus, exactly at its origin on the mouth; they are very slender, and produce no remarkable gang- lion: they are smaller at their origin than towards their extremity, that is to say, towards the anus : but they are equal, and precisely similar to each other with respect to their different parts. We observe at first some small granular points, which enlarge in proportion as the nerve descends. When it has reached the middle of the body longitudinally, it forms square ganglia, at a short dis- tance from each other. Lastly, towards the termina- tion, for the length of nearly six lines, the nerve be- comes more and more slender, and ends in a very small filament, which unites with that of the other side. Thus we find an evident analogy in the organization of the nervous system of crustacea, insects, and worms, no less striking than that which prevails in the external forms, in the disposition of the muscles, and the singu- lar division, into a series of rings or segments, which we observe in these animals. This analogy prevents us from establishing between these three classes limits equally distinct with those which subsist between them and the mollusca. The uniform distribution of nearly equal ganglia upon a cord, extending throughout the whole length of the body, seems designed to furnish each segment with a brain peculiar to itself. Thus we are gradually conducted to that general diffusion of the medullary substance, which seems to take place in zoo- phytes. .Animals in which no distinct JVervous System has been get discovered.—We do not, says Cuvier, include in this division the animals of the class of worms, or the mollusca, in which the minuteness or softness of the parts have not yet permitted us to trace the nervous system. Analogy will not allow us to doubt its exist- ence, when the parts which accompany it uniformly exist. Thus the flukes (fasciola) having vessels, or liver, &c. must be supposed to have nerves also, though we have hitherto been unable to demonstrate them. We even doubt not the existence of a nervous system in several intestinal worms, particularly those which have a cylindrical form, which we suppose to have a medulla nearly similar to that described in the large ascarides. It is found in the gordius; why should it not exist in the echinorhynchus, strongylus, &c. &c. : But there are animals, in which analogy affords us no assistance, to whom we cannot ascribe a nervous system, unless we distinctly observe it: there are some intestinal worms, very different in form from those we have mentioned, and the greater part of zoophytes. The asterias has parts very similar to nerves ; but Galvanic experiments ought to be made on living indi- viduals, to prove completely their nature. Round the oesophagus we observe a girth of a soft whitish sub- stance, which produces ten filaments, two to each of the branches, which form the body of the star. The two filaments belonging to each branch having arrived at the base of the osseous and articulated stalk, which serves for the principai support of the animal, unite to form a short cord, which extends directly from one to the other: they afterwards both continue along the stalk to the extremity of the branch, diminishing always in thickness. At the place where they are united, each produces a fasciculus of filaments, which are distributed to the stomach, which, in these animals, is situated in the midst of the body, between the five branches The appearance of all these filaments is rather tendinous than nervous, and that circumstance chiefly has hither- to prevented us from forming a decided opinion of their nature. In the Holothuria, properly so called, among which we do not include either the thalia, or the holothuria physeter of Linnaeus, we find somcthing similar to what We V E R M E S. we have described in the asterias; but the appearance of the cord is much more nervous, and this is a strong confirmation of our conjectures. The parts we allude to are seen most distinctly in the species of holothuria which have five longitudinal pairs of muscles, as the priapus and pentacta. Between the two muscles, which compose each pair, there is ex- tended a white cord, slightly serpentine, and marked by transverse rings, like common nerves. The five cords enlarge as they proceed towards the Oesophagus, where they seem to unite and surround the canal. The Sihunculus is more similar to the holothuria than to any other animal, though naturalists have hitherto placed them next the lumbricus. They have only a single whitish cord, but it completely resembles those of the holothuria, and it proceeds, in the same manner, to embrace the oesophagus by its anterior ex- tremity. If the parts now mentioned are real nerves, it will be necessary to separate the echino-dermata from the other zoophytes, and establish them as a distinct class. In the Sea Urchins (Echinus,) nothing similar to nerves has been observed: the same remark may be extended to the actiniae and medusae. With respect to the polypes, both the fresh-water kind and those which belong to the corals, &c. we have already observed that their bodies exhibit only a gela- tinous and homogeneous pulp, in which no particular arrangement of organs can be discerned. All these animals have, however, distinct sensations: their sense of touch is very delicate; they not only perceive the motions which agitate the water in which they live, but they completely feel the degrees of heat and light. The expansion of the actiniae corresponds precisely to the serenity of the atmosphere. very distinctly the presence of light; prefers it and constantly turns towards it. The microscopic animals appear to approach in some measure the nature of polypi, by their uniform and gelatinous structure. There are some, however, in which we observe a more com- plicated organization, and several kinds of internal vis- cera; but it will be obvious, that we have no means of ascertaining whether they possess a nervous system. Organs of Sense.-The eye. The cephalopodous mollusca have two eyes situated at the sides of the head, under the tentaculated arms. Most of the gasteropoda have also two eyes, but very small, and placed either on a level with the head, or on some of the fleshy and moveable tentacula. In some they are situated at the base of these tentacula; in others at the middle, or the point. In all this order, only the clio, Scyllea, and lernea, want eyes. No eyes are found in the acephalous mollusca. Among the articulated worms there are sometimes found small tubercles, which have been regarded as simple eyes, in consequence of their resemblance to those of insects. Some leeches have two, four, six, or eight: in some of the nereids we find two or four : in Some naiades only two, &c. No parts that can be compa- red to eyes have hitherto been observed in any zoophyte. The cephalopodous mollusca, particularly the cal- mar, have very large eyes; on the contrary, in such of the gasteropoda as possess eyes, they are scarcely visible. The eye of the cuttle-fish has no cornea, nor aqueous humour: the anterior aperture of the sclerotic is not filled ap, and the crystalline projects across it. Under the The hydra perceives conjunctiva, however, a particular membrane is ob- served, dry, fine, and transparent, enveloping the scle- rotica itself, and supplying, by its anterior part, the place of the cornea. This conjunctiva is easily sepa- rable from the eye, as in serpents. The crystalline is spherical, as in animals which see in water; and liard in consistence. The structure of the sclerotic is sin- gular, being much removed posteriorly from the globe of the eye. The large ganglion of the optic nerve, and several other glanduiar parts, are situated between them. The sclerotica, therefore, forms posteriorly a truncated cone, the pointed part of which is directed to the bottom of the orbit: to this portion the muscles are attached. The anterior part nearly shuts the globe of the eye. It is very soft and viscous; easily separated, and presents a coarse felt-like texture, which becomes firmer in spirits of wine. In some species it has a metallic briiliancy. As there is no cornea, the sclerotic is wanting opposite to the crystalline; but the hole is not sufficiently large, to admit a view of the iris without dissection. * The internal surface of the choroid is of a purple-red colour. The use of the ciliary processes, in retaining the crystalline, is no where so distinctly seen as in the eye of the cuttle-fish. They form a large zone or dia- phragm, in the aperture of which the crystalline is tru- ly encased. A deep circular furrow passes completely round the crystalline, and divides it into two unequal hemispheres. The ciliary processes penetrate into this furrow, where they are so firmly fixed, that they can- not be removed without being torn. The process is not formed of projecting laminae, but of a continued mem- brane, the two surfaces of which are marked by a cir- cle, consisting of a vast number of fine radiated striae, which present a very agreeable spectacle. The sepiae have glandular bodies between the scle- rotica and the choroid; but none between the latter and the tunica Ruyschiana. The separation of these two membranes is even sometimes difficult; the choroides is more thick, soft, and vascular, the Ruyschiana thin and dry. There is no tapetum, all the eye being lined internally by a deep purple pigment. The pupil is shaped like a kidney. After the numerous optic filaments have perforated the choroid, they are confounded in a single membrane, the retina. The crystalline divides easily into two hemispheres, the limits of which are marked externally by a deep furrow : each hemisphere consists of a number of con- centric cups, composed of radiated fibres. As the conical sclerotic of the sepiac is attached to the bottom of the orbit, the glandular bodies, which serve to support the globe, are situated, not between it and the orbit, but between it and the choroid. The part fixed to the edge of the optic hole is pointed ; it preserves therefore some degree of mobility. There are only two small muscles, one superior and an ante- rior, the head being supposed upwards. The sepiac and other mollusca, which have not the eyes at the extremity of their tentacula, have no eye- lid ; the skin covers the eye, as in serpents and eels. But the slugs, snails, &c. have an organization, which is far more complicated, and much better calculated for the protection of their eye. This organ is situated at the extremity of a fleshy tube, called a horn or ten- taculum, which may be drawn completely within the head, and protruded by a motion similar to the evolu- tion of V E R M E. S. tion of the finger of a glove. We have already descri- bed the muscles that draw the Snail into its shell. The particular muscle of the eye is attached at the external edge of each of these muscles; this muscle penetrates to the inside of the horn, to the extremity of which it is fixed. When it contracts, therefore, but still more when assisted by the contraction of the great muscle of the body, it draws the extremity of the horn inwardly, in a manner which resembles the turning in of a stock- ing. The annular fibres, which encircle the horn throughout the whole of its length, unfold the internal part by successive contractions, and thus bring back the eye to its external position. In the slug, the retractors of the eyes are simply attached to the fleshy mass which forms the foot. In the inferior horns or tentacula, which have no eyes, the mechanism is also the same. The gasteropodous mollusca are the only order, among the animals we are now considering, that pos- sesses an organ of hearing. No animals placed below these in the scale of being are known to possess such an organ, although there are proofs of the faculty in many. The ear of the sepiae is very simple ; it is en- tirely concealed in the body of the annular cartilage, which serves as the base of the great tentacula, or feet of these animals. Towards the back of the head there is an eminence of the cartilaginous ring, unperforated, and covered by the thick integument of the animal. The membrane of the labyrinth contained in this part is a simple purse of an oval or roundish form, contain- ing a clear fluid. In the common cuttle-fish (sepia offi- cinalis), it has internally several conical eminences, dis- posed in an irregular manner: these eminences are wanting in the other species. In the pulp which fills the membrane there is a small body suspended, which is osseous in the cuttle-fish properly so called, and like starch in the octopus. In the sepia officinalis it resembles a small shell. See Scarpa de Auditu et Olfactu. Organ of Touch.-We do not easily distinguish all the parts which compose the integuments of vertebral animals, in those that have no vertebrae : some of the strata are more distinct, others less so : there are also Some species in which we do not find the whole of them. Of the animals we are now considering differ- ent orders dwell in different situations, and are exposed to very different external circumstances: there are corresponding variations in their outward coverings. Some live in the intestines of other animals, the mucous fluids of which sufficiently protect them; others are en- closed in calcareous or stony habitations, necessary to ensure them from the agitations of the waves, and from the surrounding hard bodies. Others have a hard inte- gument, covered sometimes with spines. - There is an epidermis in invertebral animals: those which live in water have it commonly mucous; it is of a very different thickness in the several species. It is nearly the same in the cephalopoda as in fishes. In the naked gasteropoda it very much resembles that of sala- manders and frogs. There is an epidermis on the shells of most testacea. In the land kind, as the snails, it is a dry pellicle, very easily detached, when the shell is, after the death of the animal, exposed to the action of the atmosphere, or plunged into boiling water. In the muscles, both of fresh and salt water, and in other bivalves, we ob- serve a similar epidermis, which envelopes the shell externally. This epidermis is always wanting on the surface of the projecting parts, on which the animal draws its shell along the Sand, because it is there wori, off. In some species of shells, the epidermis is thick and viscous, and on this account it has been named sea- cloth. This is very remarkable in several species of the genus arca of Linnaeus ; and to express this pecu- liarity, he has called one of them pilosa. In all the testacea, the epidermis which envelopes the shell is continued to produe the pellicle, which covers the animal, and it produces the same change as that which is prolonged within the body of the vertebral animals. It is thin and mucous on all the parts which are not exposed to the action of the ambient fluid. In the species of gasteropoda, however, whose shell is con- cealed under the skin, and does not serve for defence, the epidermis does not change its nature. We have examples of this in some species of aplysia and scyllea, as well as in the animal which produces the shell, called by Linnaeus helix halyotoidea (sigaret of Lamarck). Worms have a distinct cuticle, which is easily sepa- rated from the skin in the earth-worm, when it has been immersed for a few hours in spirits of wine, or macera- ted some days in water : it is a pretty soiid pellicle, which may be removed in a single piece. In the sipun- culus saccatus this epidermis is even entirely separated from the body, which is unconnected and floating within it, as if it were enclosed in a sac. Leeches and some other worms have the cuticle mucous, like that of the gasteropodous mollusca. It is very difficult to ascertain the nature of the epi- dermis in zoophytes, or even to discover whether it ex- ists in some of them. The sea-stars (asterias), the ur- chines (echinus), and the actiniae, appear to possess it. The medusae are covered with a pellicle, but so thin and transparent that it cannot be supposed to consist of strata. The other zoophytes, as the polypes, &c. have a mucous surface, the softness of which prevents us from distinguishing any membrane. Most mollusca have a rete mucosum below the epi- dermis. In the cephalopoda it is most commonly of a blue or red colour; but it forms a very thin layer. That of the gasteropoda varies considerably, as we may observe particularly in the slug. It is thick and vis- cous; but dissolves completely in water. In situation, the shell is analogous to rete mucosum. It is found immediately under the epidermis, and, when Some of the calcareous part is removed, it is a kind of crust without any apparent organization, and not a mem- brane. It is produced by successive strata. Finally, it is coloured, and its shades are infinitely various. The rete mucosum is to be found in a small number only of zoophytes: and it cannot even be separated from the skin, as in the asteriae and actinia?. It appears to be confounded with the calcareous shell, which forms the habitation of several other gene- ra. This may be observed in some species of echini and corallines; and in the ceratophytes, and a number of lithophytes. Nothing at all approaching to the appearance of ner- vous papillae can be seen in white-blooded animals. In the cephalopodous mollusca some nervous filaments may be seen in the small globules, which seem glan- dular, and which cover the skin. In other mollusca, some nervous filaments may be traced into the sub- stance of the skin; but they cannot be seen to form papillae. No real cutis is to be observed in the invertebral ani- mals,excepting the cuttle-fish and the other cephalopoda. It is V E R M E S. It is applied almost immediately to the muscles, by means of a very dense cellular substance : it is of a cery coriaceous nature, and not easily lacerated. Its fibres are very slender. In the other invertebral animals, there is no part which can be compared to the cutis. There is, indeed, a pellicle under the shell of the crustacea, but it is fine, transparent, and has very little consistence. The skin cast off by the larvae of insects in moulting, is of the same nature and thickness as that below it, and which is destined to succeed it. Even the envelope of certain chrysalides, as those of the lepidoptera, and dip- tera, cannot be regarded as cutis: it is rather a kind of horny epidermis. In the perfect state, there is no part of the teguments of insects that can be compared to the cutis. The same observation applies to the worms and zoophytes. In the invertebral animals, that have soft bodies, al- most all the muscles may be considered as cutaneous; for the greater number are attached to the skin. But as they are also employed in progression, they are de- scribed among the organs of motion. Besides the skin in general, which is a universal or- gan of touch in man, and the red-blooded classes, there are particular organs possessing a much more acute power of discerning the tangible properties of bodies, and at the same time so constructed as to admit of ea- sier application to their surface. The fingers exempli- fy this. It may be doubted whether the invertebral classes have any parts calculated to perform such an office ; and we rather think that they have not. Some, however, regard the tentacula as organs of touch, and consider them analogous to the antennae of insects, or to the fingers of man and the quadrumana. We have already described the tentacula of the ce- phalopodous mollusca, under the head of Organs of Motion. They obviously serve for seizing their prey; but whether they enjoy any sense of touch is extreme- ly doubtful. - The horns of the snail have been described in the account of the eye. Those of the other genera among the gastercpoda do not differ, except that they are in- capable of that motion by which the former are re- tracted and protruded like the finger of a glove. They have muscular fibres, which may be contracted or re- laxed. e Tentacula are found in many invertebral animals; but they are not so universal as the antennae among in- sects. They are situated on the head; often at the opening of the mouth, as in the doris; above it, as in the slug; or round it, as in the terebella. Several spe- cies have similar appendices round the cloak. Such are the limpets, the genus halyotis, &c. Among the acephala, the greater part are provided with these appendices, and some have them in great numbers. In the species which have the cloak completely open they are placed around it, and particularly towards the anus: this may be observed in oysters, muscles, &c. In those in which the cloak opens by a tube only, the appendices are attached to the circumference of its ori- fice. Such are the genera venus, cardium, &c. The tube itself furnishes these animals with an excellent instrument of touch. The fleshy and ciliated arms of the genera lingula and terebratula are equally proper for this employment; but those of the anatifa are very inferior, in consequence of their horny substance. Cirri are found in several species of worms; and they sometimes appear to be formed of different arti- culations, iike the antennae of insects. Nerves proceed into those of the aphrodita and nereis. There are none in the lumbricus and leech; but their place is suppli- ed in the latter by the two disks which terminate their bodies. Their number varies: generally there are two, the slug has four, the cuttle-fish eight, the penna- tula forty to sixty or more. Many varieties of form are also observed, and described by writers in natural history. The tentacula of the polypes are said to be hollow, and to communicate with the stomach. Fine hairs are observed in them, by means of the micros- cope; they also possess numerous knots, which proba- bly are of service in fixing them on animals which they seize for prey. Throughout the invertebral classes, we find these in- struments chiefly used for seizing the creatures on which the animal lives. The tubularia, hydra, bra- chyonus, vorticella, &c. throw the water into motion by means of their arms. When any thing on which they can prey comes near, they instantly seize and con- vey it to the mouth. Trembley observed, that the tu- bularia Sultana (polypes à bouquet) gave a rotatory motion to the water, and thus conducted the prey to their arms. Olivi observed, that the actiniae and polypes (hydra) perceived their prey at a distance, put the water in motion, and thus brought it within the sphere of their arms. Speaking of these organs, Cuvier says, “the anus, the tufts and the flowers of several zoophytes (polypi, Lamarck); the innumerable tentacula of the sea-stars, urchins and actiniae, and the complicated branches of the medusae, are excellent organs of touch.” Of the insensible parts, covering the skin, very little remains to be said ; we have already described the for- mation of the shell, and have made some further re- marks on it in speaking of the skin. Many of the vermes class have the body furnished with bunches of hairs, which are sometimes stiff and retractile, and serve for feet, as we have pointed out in the genera nereis, terebella, lumbricus, &c. In the aphrodita, there are, besides these bristles employed in progression, an infinite number of other hairs, which are long, flexible, and of a changeable sea-grecm co- lour; there is also a tomentous felt-like substance, co- vering the branchiae, through which the water is strain- ed. - Organ of Smelling.—The faculty of smell is con- nected in all animals, in which it has been hitherto dis- covered, with the respiratory apparatus; the air which enters the latter loaded with odorous effluvia acting on the olfactory nerves in its passage. This analogy would lead us to look for the nose in similar situations in in- vertebral animals. No such organ, however, has yet been discovered in this great division of the animal kingdom; although in some instances there are strong proofs that such a sense exists. (Sce INSECTs, in Anat- omy.) In mollusca and worms we have stili fewer di- rect arguments for the existence of the sense, than in insects. We should not perhaps expect it in intestinal worms, as it could answer no purpose; nor in such tes- taceous animals and corals, &c. as have no power of locomotion. Organ of Taste.—The sepiae, snails, and most gaste- ropodous mollusca, have a cartilaginous tongue, the singular structure of which will be spoken of in de- scribing the organs of mastication, &c. It has no motions V E R M E. S. motions except such as are connected with deglutition. Its anterior part is fixed below the mouth ; and it is in- capable of embracing sapid bodies. The acephalous mollusca do not appear to have any tongue; perhaps they exercise the sense of taste by those tentacula, so similar to papillae, with which their cloaks are furnish- ed at the parts, where the water, which is the vehicle of their aliments, enters. There is no tongue, properly speaking, in worms; though some have given that name to the proboscis of the thalassema, echinorhynchus, &c. The zoophytes have also no tongue; but the tentacula, which surround their mouth, are frequently so fine, and of so delicate a substance, as to be very well calculated for the seat of tàSte. Organs of Digestion. Organs of Mastication in the Mollusca.-As this class hardly possesses in any instance an osseous or at all solid head, their jaws, when they have any, cannot be articu- lated with, or rest upon the head. Although the cepha- lopoda possess a kind of cranium, they do not constitute an exception to this rule ; the parts composing their mouth are suspended in the ring formed by this cra- Ill U11 Il. The jaws of the mollusca consist of horny, or some- times stony substance, fixed in an oval fleshy mass, en- veloping the mouth, and composed of the muscles of the jaws, and of those concerned in deglutition. The muscular fibres belonging to this mass are not very dis- tinct, although we perceive in them different directions, by which they are calculated to approximate or sepa- rate the jaws. The latter differ considerably in form. All the cephalopoda possess two, which resemble ex- actly the horny mandibles of a bird. They are convex, hooked, and very sharp-pointed. They consist of a double plate of a thick hard horn, of a deep-brown colour, of which the edges, opposed to each other at the triturating part, become very thin, while they are hidden at their basis in the fleshy mass already mention- ed. This instrument is employed to break the crabs and other testaceous animals which are used for food. The form and number of the jaws are not so con- stant in the gasteropoda. The common slugs and snails have only one, which corresponds to the upper; it is crescent-shaped, and the concave edge is denticu- lated. In the tritonia, the jaws may be best compared to the shears employed in shearing sheep. Instead, however, of playing on a common spring, the two plates move by a joint; and they are slightly curved, instead of being plane. These jaws are lateral, and move from right to left ; the cutting-edge of one slides over that of the other, and they are very sharp. We see nothing in the aplysia but a thin horny plate, of no great strength, covering the interior of each side of the mouth. Even this slight induration is not observ- ed in the onchidium. The gasteropodous mollusca, possessing a long or short proboscis, have no jaws at all; this is the case with the buccinum, murex, voluta, bullaea, &c.; and among the naked gasteropoda, with the doris, scyllaea, &c. We merely find in some cases, that the sides of the bottom of the proboscis are covered with cartilagi; hous plates; there are such in the doris. The oscabrio has no masticating organ : neither have the pteropoda, as the hyalaea, clio, pneumodermon, &c. None 9f the acephalous mollusca have jaws, nor any VOL. XXXVIII. thing subservient to mastication properly so called. The teredos employ, for piercing wood, the valves of their shells, which Some naturalists have called their teeth; but about the true nature of which it is impossi- ble to doubt, when the teredo is compared to the pholas, the genus most analogous to it. The valves of the former seem merely a miniature representation of those belonging to the latter; as Adanson observed long ago. The naked acephala, as the Salpa (biphore), ascidia, &c. have no apparatus for dividing their food. The cirropoda, as the balanus and lepas, have vestiges of jaws, disposed in pairs. The lepas, for example, has two denticulated pairs, and a thin one simply rounded. Organs of Mastication in the Vermis.--Some of this class have lateral jaws as strong as those of any insect or crustaceous animal, and even very siniilar to them in form. In a large species of nereis, for example, the opening of the oesophagus is furnished with eight cal- careous pieces, which seem to supply the place of man- dibles, jaws, and lower lip. The two upper are flattened, arched, and pointed hooks, disposed like the branches of a pair of forceps, united behind, and articulated upon a horny, elastic, semilunar plate situated above the oeso- phagus. The two following are broader, but not so iong; they have six denticuli directed backwards; they are articulated towards the posterior third and below the hooks, which rest upon them in their whole length. The third jaw on each side is placed below and exteri- orly; it is shorter and embraces the first jaws, as in the bowl of a spoon. It is found, on attentive examination, -to be composed of three small pieces placed near together; the internal has its edge denticulated with twelve small triangular points, like the teeth of a saw : the middle is placed forwards, and forms the posterior edge of a prominent rounded eminence, situated at the opening of the mouth; the last is external, and termina- ted by a single point. The two lower pieces, which seem to serve for a lower lip, are the longest, flattened horizontally, softer at their edge, which consists of a horny and rather flexible substance. All the parts Just specified are surrounded by a stratum of muscular fibres destined to move them. In other small species of nereis, the opening of the oesophagus is very muscular, covered with wrinkles and points of a horny firm texture, arranged in a circu- lar manner, and on several lines, which are capable of rubbing on each other. Two principal rugae, situated towards the upper part, support two larger horny pieces of a round form. At the lower and back part are two arched hooks, which come together like the branches of forceps. In other species we also observe two hooks; but the horny points are not arranged in the same man- ner. They are collected in six groups in muscular eminences, of which three are anterior and three pos- terior. It appears that the animal has the power of inverting this part of the oesophagus, so as to bring out the two hooks, which seize the food like a pair of forceps. When it is seized, they drag it in, and the muscular part of the oesophagus, acting on it by its con- tractions, and by means of the horny papillae, divides and triturates it, and thus prepares it for the action of the intestinal canal. The other marine vermes, arranged near the nereids, such as the arenicolae, the amphinomiae, amphitrite, terebellae, and serpulaº, have neither jaws nor teeth. At least we can hardly give that name to the pectina- ted processes of the amphitrite. They are scaly point- ed pieces, of a brilliant golden colour, arranged in two 3 T TOWS, V E R M E. S. rows, which represent two combs, but situated out of the mouth, on the surface of the head, and enabling the animal to fix itself, or to hook in various substances, but not to masticate or divide the food. The aphroditae have four small teeth at the bottom of a proboscis, which they can extend or withdraw at will. Leeches have three small semi-circular prominences in the interior of the mouth : the edge is cutting, and finely denticulated, like a saw. With this instrument they pierce the skin. The lumbricus has no jaws. Organs of Mastication in the Echino-dermata.— Amongst the invertebral animals, the echini are those which have the most surprising apparatus of this kind. Their external covering, which is bony and consists of a single piece, bresents a large round hole, in which the mass of the mouth, is suspended, attached indeed by ligaments and muscles, but moveable to a certain point. The bony part of this mass has some resem- blance to a lantern with six divisions: the comparison was made as long ago as the time of Aristotle. The object of the apparatus is to support and move five teeth, which encircle the small round aperture, by which the food enters. These teeth are worn away by mastication, and are constructed on the same principle as the incisors of the rodentia; viz. very long, soft be- hind, and hardening towards the front, in which direc- tion they advance in proportion to the effect of the at- trition. They rest in an apparatus consisting of fixed and moveable pieces. The fixed pieces adhere within the shell, all round the hole: they consist of five bony arches, whose convexities are turned towards the cavi- ty of the shell, or downwards; while their concavities are towards the edge of the circular opening, or up- wards. The principal moveable pieces are five trian- gular pyramids, forming the principal body of the mass of the mouth, and dividing the great pyramid or pen- tagonal lantern of the mouth. Two faces of each pyra- mid correspond to those of the neighbouring pyramids: they are marked by five transverse striae. Their inner edges do not touch each other, but are separated by a small interval The dorsal or external face of each pyramid is convex, thick, and perforated towards its base by a triangular or circular opening, differing in size according to the species. Its inner edge has a groove, in which the body of the teeth passes and can move longitudinally, but in no other direction. Its ex- tremity passes out at the point of the pyramid; and the five points being approximated about the opening of the mouth, the five teeth end there also. The pyramids are hollow, and their faces do not exectly touch those of the neighbouring pyramids; but they are united by a fleshy mass, which can approxi- mate them. Its effect is that of bringing the five teeth together, and thus contracting the opening of the mouth. The canal of the oesophagus passes between the five pyramids: the sides of their bases, by which they touch each other, are united, two by two, by five bony pieces disposed like radii, and approximating towards the Oesophagus as their centre. Each of these pieces unites the adjacent sides of the bases of two pyramids, being articulated to them in a loose manner. The third side of the basis of each pyramid, that which con- stitutes the basis of its dorsal or external surface, forms one of the planes of the general pyramid or pentagon. In the natural position these sides correspond to the in- tervals of the fixed bony arches, which consequently answer to the angles of the pentagonal pyramid. Twenty muscles act from the fixed bony arches on this pentagonal pyramid, and can either move it en- tirely, or move on each other the five triangular pyra- mids which compose it. Ten of these muscles pass from the intervals of the arches to the external bases of the five pyramids. When they act all together, while at the same time the muscles joining the pyra- mids together contract, the whole mass of the mouth is carried forwards, or towards the outside of the body. If they act separately, they incline the mass and ren- der its axis oblique, making the internal extremity of the axis converge towards the side of the muscles which act. If one acts alone, while the particular muscles joining its pyramid to the two neighbouring ones relaxed, it carries the tooth of that pyramid fur- ther inwards than the others. The ten other muscles go from the convexities of the arches like radii, to terminate at the points of the pyramids; so that each point receives the muscles of the two neighbouring arches. As the arches project inwardly, these muscles are inclined towards the outer surface of the shell; consequently their effect, when they act together, is that of making the mass of the mouth pass a little inwards. When they act separate- ly, while the muscles uniting the pyramids are con- tracted, they incline the mass of the mouth, by ma- king the external extremity of its axis couverge towards the side of the muscle which acts. When the muscles joining the pyramid to its neighbours are relaxed, the effect of the muscles we are now describing is to draw back the tooth corresponding to that pyramid, and move it away from the aperture of the mouth. Thus, in these three relations, the muscles coming from the arches are antagonists of those which come from their intervals. If both sets act together, they become common an- tagonists of those which join the pyramids, and their operation will then be to separate the latter from each other, and to enlarge, not only the entrance of the mouth, but the whole of the passage left for the oeso- phagus through the axis of the great pentagonal py- ramid. Besides the twenty-five muscles, which act imme- diately on the pentagonal pyramid and its parts, there are ten others, which act on it through the interven- tion of five ossicula, which we must now describe. They are slender, and rather semi-circular or arched; and are placed each on the same level with one of the five bony radii which have been described. One extremity of each arc is articulated to the in- ternal extremity of the corresponding radiated piece : the other passes above and on the outside of its exter- nal extremity, and is bifurcated like the letter Y. A pentagonal membrane unites and strengthens their ex- tremities towards the centre. Each of the two branches of the Y receives a muscle coming from the middle of the nearest interval of the fixed bony arches; so that each of the five intervals gives a muscle to the two nearest Ys. The effect of the muscles, acting by such levers, in inclining the mass of the mouth in every direction can be easily conceived. Each tooth may be considered as a long triangular prism ; of which the two posterior faces make re-en- trant angles. The part which comes out of the point of the pyramid.is very hard; but it becomes gradually softer V E R M E S. softer behind, and forms a long flexible tail. This soft part has a silky, or even metallic lustre, and is torn by the slighest effort. The form of teeth just described, is that which we find in the echinus esculentus. In other species, as the echinus cidaris, instead of being prismatic, they are like half tubes, and their extremity, which is worn away obliquely, forms the bowl of the spoon. All the echini, properly so called, and apparently all the subgenera, which have the body spherical and the mouth central, have a mouth constructed in the manner just described. Such as have the mouth cen- tral, and the body flattened (clypeaster, Lamarck; echinus rosaceus), have an oval mass composed of five osseous pieces, each supporting a tooth : but this mass is quite flattened, like a circular cake divided into five sectors. The faces, by which the sectors touch each other, are not striated. Although there are fibres to unite them, they are merely perforated by fine and re- gular pores. The surface opposite to the opening is elevated at the sides into fine and prominent laminae; the other surface is sometimes like this. Their teeth do not slide in grooves, but are fixed, and have the shape of a compressed cylinder, worn obliquely at the end which is in action. The opposite end is soft, as in the preceding instance, but not prolonged into a flexi- ble tail. The external muscles which act on this ap- paratus are very trifling. Such echini as have the mouth oblique, and furnished with a plate of the shell advancing under it, as the spa- tanguis and cassidula of Lamarck, have neither teeth nor osseous mass to support them. There is merely round the opening of the mouth a skin furnished with small scaly pieces, similar to those of the shell, but not so closely set as to render this part inflexible ; it can, on the contrary, be extended and retractec to a certain point, at the will of the animal, like a proboscis. The asteriae have no teeth : their mouth is a round membranous aperture, leading to the stomach by a ve- ry short Oesophagus, which is sometimes capable of be- ing everted, particularly when the animal is hungry. Those spines of the external surface, which are nearest to the mouth, may serve, when inclined towards that opening, to retain the prey: but they cannot be regard- ed as teeth in the proper sense of the word. The opening of the mouth in the holothuriae is sur- rounded by a ring composed of ten semi-Osseous pieces; but they serve merely as points of support for the lon- gitudinal muscles of the body and the tentacula. They are covered by the Internal integument of the mouth, support no teeth, and are not concerned in the business of mastication. The sipunculi have no hard parts in the mouth, nor elsewhere: neither have any of the zoophytes, which come next in the scale. Salivary Organs. In the Mollusca.-They are very large in the cepha- lopoda and gasteropoda; more considerable indeed than in any other animals. In the former there are two pairs. The first and smallest is situated on the fleshy mass of the mouth : each gland has a short ex- cretory duct, penetrating the mass laterally, a little in front of the origin of the oesophagus. The other pair is much larger, situated under the neck, behind the liver, and opposite the cross. The excretory ducts of the two glands unite into one tube, which ascends behind the oesophagus, and penetrates the mass of the mouth towards, the posterior point of the small carti- lage, which supplies the place of a tongue. These glands are whitish, flattened, and but little granulated. They are lobulated, and have an angular outline; and they receive large branches from the principal artery. In general, the gasteropoda have only a single pair of these glands. In the common snail (helix pomatia), they are oblong, placed close to the origin of the oeso- phagus, and produce two long canals, which increase in size as they are inserted in the mass of the mouth above. In the red slug they are less, and merely form a collar round the origin of the stomach. In the aplysia, the salivary glands are two long, nar- row, ribbon-like bodies, floating at the sides of the osophagus. They are inserted in the mouth, near the origin of the stomach, without having any part of their excretory duct uncovered. Their posterior extremity is fixed to the second stomach by means of branches received from the stomachic artery. The doris has salivary glands shaped like a long nar- row ribbon, attached behind to the stomach. They are so slender in some species, that they might be taken for nerves, when they have passed through the nervous collar of the brain. Animals of the genus bullaea, though very similar to the aplysiae, have merely two short slender glands; but in the clio borealis they are nearly the same as in the aplysia. In the pneumodermon they are elongated, and con- tracted where they pass under the brain: for in all these animals, without exception, either the gland, or at least its excretory canal, passes with the Oesophagus through the cerebral ring. In the tritonia they are very large and lobulated, situated at the sides of the oesophagus, and tolerably wide in their middle. The structure is similar in the onchidium. They are generally considerable in the aquatic univalves, as in the genera bulimus, murex, and buccinum, which is remarkable, inasmuch as in aquatic vertebral animals they are either small or en- tirely deficient. They are small in the halyotis. In the Echimo-dermata.-The holothuriae have all round their mouth oblong blind pouches, which ter- minate in that cavity, and must be supposed to pour into it some liquor analogous to saliva. There are twenty of different lengths in the holothuria tremula. The pentactes has only two, much larger. Nothing of the kind has been discovered in the echini and asteriae. The medusae and other radiaria, and the zoophytes properly so called, exhibit no salivary apparatus. Organs of Deglutition. In the Mollusca.--We must distinguish the exter- nal organs or lips from the internal or tongue. The former are again divided into two kinds; viz. short or proper lips, and tubular lips elongated into a pro- boscis. 1. Proper lips. In the cephalopoda, the opening of the mouth is surrounded by a fleshy and deniculated circle, which covers and entirely conceals, when the animal chooses, the two mandibles of the bill. In the gasteropoda, which have no proboscis, the mouth is generally a longitudinal slit, whose fleshy margins hold the place of lips. Sometimes, as in the tritonia and onchidium, these lids have the form of thin plates, often divided into shreds, as in the trit. Ilia ar- 3 T 2 borescens : V E R M E S. borescens; the inferior tentacula of the aplysia may al- so be considered as folds of its lips. All the common bivalves have round their mouth four membranous folds, usually triangular, and more or less elongated, serving apparently by their motion to convey the food towards the mouth. One of their surfaces is, moreover, so vascular, that it probably has Some connection with the business of respiration. Sometimes these folds are united, two by two, in part of their length, as in the pinna. In other instances, the proper opening of the mouth is surrounded by a circle of fleshy fimbriae, more or less divided, as in the spondylus. The naked acephala, as the biphorae, thaliae, ascidiae, &c. have neither folds nor fringes. The mouth of the biphorae has merely a circular and fleshy edge. In the branchiopoda (terebratulae and lingulae) lips do not exist; but their place is advantageously supplied by two long ciliated arms. 2. Proboscis. Several naked mollusca, as the doris, and probably most of the testacea, as the buccinum, murex, voluta, &c. have a fleshy cylindrical or conical proboscis, which they employ for seizing their food at a distance. The motions of this instrument are not confined to flexion and a limited elongation, as in the trunk of the elephant; but it is capable of being with- drawn into the body by folding inwards within itself, and of being extended again, like the finger of a glove, the horns of a snail, or many other parts of mollusca. It may be represented as a cylinder folded inwards within itself, or as two cylinders, of which one includes the other, and the two superior edges are continuous, so that in drawing outwards the inner cylinder, it is elongated at the expense of the other, and in pushing it back again it is shortened, while the exterior is elonga- fed. The latter effect takes place at the inside, because this outer cylinder has its inferior edge fixed to the pa- vietes of the head. There are several longitudinal muscles divided into many shreds at their two extremities. They are fixed on one side to the parietes of the body; and on the other to the internal parietes of the inner cylinder in its whole length, and to its very end. It is obvious that they will have the effect of drawing inwards this cylin- der, and the whole proboscis. When it is thus retract- ed, a large part of the inner surface of the internal cy- linder comes to form part of the outer surface of the external cylinder : and the contrary takes place when the proboscis is elongated or extended. The insertions of the muscles undergo corresponding variations. The elongation of the internal cylinder, by the un- folding of the external, is effected by the proper annu- lar muscles of the proboscis. They surround its whole length; and by their successive contractions thrust it outwards. There is one stronger than the others where the external cylinder is attached to the parietes of the head. When the proboscis is elongated, its retractor muscles, by acting partially, can bend it to one side or the other; and the various portions in this way antago- mise each other. This description may serve also for the murex trito- nis; but the proboscis is much shorter than in the buc- cinum. In those mollusca which have a proboscis, the oeso- phagus is very long, and loosely folded, that it may fol- low all the motions of that instrument: it forms in a manner a third cylinder concentric to the two others. None of the cephalopodous, pteropodous, or acepha- lous classes have a proboscis: the part which has been so named in the cirrhopoda (the anatifae and balani) is the rectum. The supposed proboscis which some au- thors speak of in several bivalves, is the canal for the conveyance of water into the shell; it is placed opposite to the true mouth, and is an organ of respiration, not of deglutition. The Tºngue.—It is very singular in the cephalopoda and gasteropoda ; and has nothing paralleſ in the ani- mal kingdom. It is a membrane covered with promi- nent spines or ridges directed backwards, and capable of exercising a kind of peristaltic motion, in which the spines are alternately raised and depressed, so as gradu- ally to propel the alimentary substances into the oeso- phagus. The tongue of the cephalopoda is placed between the two mandibles: it is behind the jaws in such gasteropo- da as have those organs. This is particularly observa- ble in the tritonia, when the tongue immediately receives whatever passes the cutting edge of the jaws. Others have it near the opening of the mouth; and those which have a proboscis, have their tongue at the anterior ex- tremity of that organ. In that case it serves, in some degree, as an organ of mastication; as it can cut the food more or less by means of its hooks. The tongue varies much in length; and there are spe- cies in which we are at a loss to assign an explanation for its considerable extent. In the halyotis, for exam- ple, it is half as long as the body; in the patella and turbo pica it is nearly quite as long, and folded like the intestines; and, what is remarkable, these genera have no proboscis. In those which have one the tongue is short. The arrangement of the organ makes it impos- sible for the animal to employ more than the anterior part : but probably it may resemble some kinds of teeth, the posterior part coming forwards, and succeeding to the other in proportion as it is worn away in front. This conjecture receives confirmation from the soft and near- ly gelatinous state of the posterior part: we may sup- pose that it becomes firm when it comes into use, as the teeth of quadrupeds which are to succeed. All this posterior part is rolled up longitudinally, like a horn. In the cephalopoda the tongue is oblong, and pro- longed posteriorly into a long horn. In the aplysia it is very broad, heart-shaped, and placed on two rounded eminences separated by a groove. In the bullaea it forms a small tubercle at the bottom of the mouth. The hard covering of this tongue is disposed in a re- gular and constant manner in each species. It consists, in the cephalopoda, of hooked spines of equal length, arranged in two lateral rows, and of a middle series of scales with five points. In the Oscabrio, there is on each side a series of hook- ed scales, with three points, and of long, sharp, and hooked, but simple spines. In the middle there are small tubercles. The turbo pica has transverse, cutting, and denticu- lated laminae. The tongue of the aplysia is covered all over with small hooked spines, disposed in the quincunx order. In the onchidium there are very fine transverse grooves, themselves marked with stili finer striae of an opposite direction. The arrangement is nearly the same in the doris. A similar structure occurs in the snail and slug, but it is so minute that a strong glass is necessary to perceive it. The acephala have no proper tongue; but there is a circular V E R M E. S. circular valve at the entrance of their opsophagus, di- rected towards the stomach, and capable of contributing powerfully to deglutition. It is very plain in the oyster. Generally these are mere transverse folds, which direct the food by their peristaltic motion. The Mlimentary Canal and its Aſhfiendages.—The alimentary canal of invertebral animals is composed of the same essential parts as in those which have vertebrae. There is an internal mucous surface, which in some in- stances assumes a callous nature, and sometimes be- comes villous, or has a papillary texture; a cellular stratum external to this, analogous to what some have called the nervous coat of the mammalia; and a mus- cular covering of variable thickness. A leading dif- ference is, that often the serous or mesenteric coat, and the mesentery itself, are wanting. There secns to be none in Several mollusca, and in time class of insects, and we only meet with it again in the echino-dermata. Another difference is, that the cellular stratum is not always vascular: it is so only in the mollusca, worms, and Some echino-dermata. In no case have insects any thing more than tracheae ramified in the parietes of their intestines, and most zoophytes have nothing at all. A third, but less general difference is, that the membranes of the stomach are often armed with hard parts, either simply in the form of plates, as in the bul- laca ; or of teeth, as in the crustacea; or of scales, as in the grylli; or hooks, as in the aplysia. This is a new analogy between the intestinal membranes and the skin; for we know, that in these animals, the shells and scales which cover them, are often produced by the induration sof their rete mucosum. In its relative length, in the size of its different parts, in the number and form of its dilatations, and particular- !y of the stomachs and caeca, and in its internal folds, the alimentary canal of invertebral animals exhibits va- rieties altegether analogous to those observed in the ver- tebral classes. Thus, for exampie, such as are carnivo- rous, have a simple and shoºt canal, &c. *There is more variety in the position of the anus. The zoophytes, some echino-dermata excepted, have none at all, but void their excrement by the mouth. In- Sects. Worms, and crustacea, always have an anus at the extremity of the body opposite to the mouth, and be- low. In the mollusca its position seems subject to no rule. In the doris we find it backwards and upwards; backwards and downwards in the onchidium. It is on the right side in the slug, snail, aplysia, and bullaea; in the head, in the patella; in front of the neck, in the cut- tle-fish ; on the side of the neck, in the clio : in the ace- phaia it is usually found opposite to the mouth. -Alim'rntary Canal of the Mollusca.-Locomotion is performed in all the cephalopoda with the head down- wards: as the mouth is in the centre of the feet, the food must ascend into the abdomen : the rectum descends and opens into a cartilaginous cloaca, or funnel, placed in front of the neck, and serving as a common recepta- cle for the Semen, the eggs, and the inky fluid. The oesºphagus passes behind the liver, or towards the back; and the rectun, in front, or towards the abdomen: the rest of the canal is in the bottom of the sac or abdomen. In the middle of the Oesophagus of the sepia octopus, there is a considerable dilotation, of which the parietes, though thin, are manifestly glandular: this is a true crop, analogous to that of birds; but they have nothing simi- lar to the bulbus glandulosus of birds. The stomach is a gizzard in its general arrangement: the parietes are covered by two muscles nearly as strong as those of the gizzard of the gallinaceous birds: its internal mem- brane is equally thick, cartilaginous, and easily separa- ted. The pylorus is near the cardia, and leads into a species of caecum, or, if that name should be preferred, a third stomach which is a little bent on itself in a spiral form. Here the hepatic canals terminate. The second, or true pylorus, is near the other, and also near the car- dia. A smooth canal lies along the concavity of the third stomach : the rest of its internal surface is plaited transversely, and exhibits the orifices of an infinite num- ber of small mucous follicles. The intestine itself has thin sides : it is large, and nearly of uniform diameter throughout. In the Octopus it makes two nearly trans- verse convolutions, and a large longitudinal turn before it proceeds straight to the infundibulum. In the calmar it goes straight, without any convolution. The alimentary canal presents numerous varieties in the gasterofloda. It is most simple in the snail and slug. The oesophagus, after being a little dilated to form a kind of crop, ends at the stomach, which is itself mere- ly an oblong membranous bag, with a large hepatic ca- nal opening in it. The pylorus is near the same part: the intestine is cylindrical, and of uniform size ; it makes two turns, and then goes forwards and to the right, to open close to the orifice of the lung, after having passed along the parietes of that cavity, and furnished numerous branches to the venous vessels which are distributed over those parietes. The same relation is observed in the other gasteropoda between the intestine and the pulmonary organ : hence the anus is always near the branchiae, when the latter are of limited extent. The parmacella differs only in having the anus, as well as the pulmonary opening further back; and the testacella, in having them quite at the posterior ex- tremity. - There is a simple membranous stomach in the doris; it is an oval sac, into the bottom of which the bile is poured from numerous orifices. The pylorus is placed forwards, near the cardia ; and the intestinal canal, which is large and short, goes directly backwards, al- most without any turn, to open in the centre of the branchial circle, placed at the posterior part of the back. In the tritonia and phyllidia, the stomach is as in the doris; but the intestine goes forwards to the right, where the anus ends under the edge of the cloak. The pylorus is nearer to the cardia, and the anus more an- terior, and nearer to the generative orifice, in the phyl- lidia: it is separate, and placed further back, in the tritonia. The halyotis has merely a membranous sac at the back of the body. The canal is uniform throughout, and runs twice and a half the length of the body, nearly in three straight lines. It opens by a fleshy tube in the cavity of the branchiae, on the left of the body. In the buccinum the oesophagus is long and slender, has a small lateral crop, and soon after ends in a round- ed stomach. The intestine is very short. When it has reached the right side of the branchial cavity, it is dilated into a large tube with thick sides, of which the internal surface is plaited longitudinally: it contracts suddenly before opening at the anus. The stomach of the murex is a slight membranous dilatation. The rectum is not dilated, but situated as in the buccinum. The intestine is short. The stomach of the pateiiae is a scarcely scnsible di- latation; the bile enters by numerous pores. In the oscabrio it is a rounded sac. The intestinal canal in both. V E R M E S. both these genera is slender and long; and makes ma- ny convolutions. In the helix stagnalis the stomach begins to be more complicated. It is furnished with two muscles united by common tendons, and radiated exactly as in the giz- zard of birds. Immediately before entering it, the oeso- phagus is dilated into a kind of crop. The onchidium also has a thick gizzard, preceded by a crop. Two hepatic canals open into the latter, and a third into the former. The gizzard is followed by two membranous but thick stomachs; one is pyramidal, with the broad part turned towards the gizzard, and parietes deeply plaited into longitudinal ridges: the other is narrower, cylindrical, and more delicately plaited. There is some analogy between the stomach of the pleuro-branchus and that of the onchidium: but the or- gan is weaker in the former. There is at first a mem- branous crop, which is a mere dilatation of the oesopha- gus, receiving, close to the opening of the second sto- mach, the biliary fluid : then comes a small gizzard, with muscular but weak parietes; this is followed by a third stomach, which resembles, by the thin longitudi- nal laminae of its inner surface, the third stomach (ma- nyplus, fueillet, Fr.) of the ruminantia. Lastly, there is a fourth stomach, simply membranous like the first, but smaller. We observe in the gizzard a narrow groove, leading directly from the first stomach into the third, and probably subservient to something like ru- mination. The intestine is short and uniform. The aliment is moulded, in the third stomach, into long whitish cords. The aplysia has a still more curious stomach: it is also four-fold. The oesophagus, at first narrow, dilates sud- denly to form the first stomach or crop, which is a large thin membranous bag, making a nearly spiral turn, and having no glandular appearance. Then follows a short cylindrical gizzard, with muscular and very strong parie- tes: they are covered internally with a very extraordi- nary kind of armour, to which there is nothing exactly similar, although the osseous pieces belonging to the stomach of the bullaea bear some analogy to it. Let us conceive pyramids with rhomboidal bases, whose irre- gular faces are united into an apex divided into two or three obtuse points. Their substance is semicartilagi- nous, and composed of strata parallel to the basis. There are about twelve large ones, arranged in quincunces on three rows, and some smaller, placed at the upper edge of the gizzard. These pyramids adhere so slightly to the mucous surface, that the slightest contact displaces them, no trace of membrane, or any other union, being perceptible. The places to which they adhered are, however, marked by smooth prominent surfaces, while the intervals are slightly hollowed and striated. The apices of these pyramids come together in the middle of the gizzard, and they must consequently comminute the food which passes along the space between them. The third stomach is broad, but not so long as the former, and has an equally singular covering, consisting of small pointed hooks attached to one side of the cavity, almost as slightly as the pyramids are to the preceding stomach. Their points are turned towards the gizzard, and no other use can be assigned to them but that of stopping the passage of the aliment when insufficiently triturat- ed: here, indeed, the form of the alimentary substances is no longer recognizable. Near the pylorus are two smail prominent membranous cristae, between which the orifice of the fourth stomach is seen, and that of the hepatic vessels. The former, as in the cuttle-fish, might be called a caecum. This caecum is as long as the third stomach ; its diameter is small, its sides simple, without any interval projections, and it is absolutely hid in the liver. The intestinal canal is of uniform diame- ter, with thin transparent sides, more so than those of the third stomach, and distinguished from it by this cir- cumstance: it makes two great convolutions enveloped in the lopes of the liver, and terminates at the anus, in the middle of the right side of the body, by a rectum which passes transversely. Its internal surface exhibits neither papillae nor valves; it has no sensible contriction nor dilatations. The most strongly armed of all known stomachs is that of the bulla lignaria and aperta; there are three flat stony pieces; two of similar form, triangular, broader and lateral, one narrower, rhomboidal and middle, uni- ted by muscular fibres, which have the power of approxi- mating them. These hard substances are larger in the bulla lignaria, and rather differently made. Draparnaud found that this apparatus had been considered as a shell, and had given rise to the establishment of the genus tricla or gioënia. In the Pteropoda.-Two of the small genera which compose this order, viz. the clio and pneumodermon, have stomachs of the same kind : they are simple mem- branous bags, surrounded by the liver, and receiving bile from numerous orifices. The third genus, hyalaea, has a dilatation of the oesophagus, followed by a short cylindrical gizzard: both have internal longitudinal plates. The two first genera have a short straight in- testine: the hyalaea has three convolutions included in the liver. In the Acehhala.—We generally find in this family a membranous stomach, following a very short obsopha- gus, surrounded on all sides by the liver, which adheres to it intimately, and in which it appears to be excavated. Its parietes are very irregular, forming several small cul-de-sacs, at the bottom of which the bile is received : for in all the order that fluid enters the stomach imme- diately. The biliary apertures have somewhat valvular edges, to prevent the food from entering the ducts. The intestine makes several convolutions, chiefly out of the liver, and most frequently in the substance of the mus- cles of the foot, in which it is in a manner incased. To- wards its origin, in some species, the intestinal canal has dilatations, which might be taken for second stomachs. In others there is a true second stomach, which is a kind of caecum near the pylorus. The greatest singularity, which is also absolutely peculiar to some acephala, is a part long ago described by Willis, Swammerdam, and others, but more particularly by Poli, under the name of the crystalline stilette. It is probably transparent and cartilaginous; elongated, pointed at one end, and obtuse at the other. It is composed of laminae, included one in the other, and contained in a sheath closely applied to the commencement of the intestine, but open towards the stomach, so as to allow the point of the stilette to penetrate that cavity. On this point is articulated a body of similar texture, divided into some conical emi- nences, and occupying the entrance of the stomach; it is difficult to assign the use of such an organ. The solen has a second stomach, long and slender, and occupying half the length of the foot, into which it penetrates: the intestine begins at the side of the origin of the latter, and proceeds parallel to it. The oyster has also a second stomach, situated between the branckiae and the muscle that closes the shell : the intestine rises from V E R M E. S. from it near its commencement, and proceeds in an op- posite direction. According to Poli, the intestinal canal is shorter in the genera fixed to one spot, as the oyster and spondylus, than in those which are capable of locomotion, as the cardium and venus. Yet the fresh-water muscle has it short; it makes a single fold in the foot, and returns backwards to descend to the anus. The same arrange- ment is found in the mya pictorum. On leaving the second stomach, in the oyster, the intestine ascends sur- rounds the liver, and then goes backwards. It is nearly the same in the spondylus. In the eatable muscle (mytilus esculentus), it descends along the back, ascends again, goes round the liver, and then descends to the anus. It is very short, making only two slight curves, in the venus decussata; but in the cardium edule (com- mon cockle) it makes seven or eight spiral turns in the foot, and is more than five times the length of the body. It is equally long, but rather differently arranged, in the mactra piperata, where its commencement is very large, and might easily pass for a second stomach. It is the same in some of the genus venus, and in the orbicular tellinae: the common tellinae have moreover a kind of caºcum at the end of this dilatation. In most of the acephala the rectum passes through the middle of the heart, but the oyster in an exception. There are some remarkable varieties respecting the anus. In those which have no tubes to the cloak, and which walk or spin like the fresh-water and sea muscles, it opens by a fleshy disk or sphincter, between the two edges of the cloak. In those which have these tubes, the anus itself makes another situated more internally, projecting into the cavity of the cloak, behind one of the muscles which close the shells. Such is the case in the Solen, pholas, &c. The naked acephala have a simple stomach and short intestine. In the ascidia, the latter makes only two convolutions; in the biphori (salpa), it turns twice round the liver, near which the anus is found. There is only one species (thalia) in which the canal is prolonged further, even to the opposite extremity of the body. The heart in this family is never traversed by the 1’ectum. The brachiopoda (terebratulae and lingulae) have a simple uniform canal. In the lingula it comes from the mouth, which is between the two arms, and makes two turns before reaching the anus, which is at the side. It is nearly twice as long as the body. .4limentary Canal of Worms.--It is in general straight, without any considerable inequalities, extend- ing from one end of the body to the other, and occupy- ing nearly its whole capacity. In the common sea-mouse (aphrodite aculeata), there is a fleshy part in front, holding the place of a proboscis, and capable of being extended out of the body: a mis- take has been committed in considering this as astomach. A cylindrical intestine follows, of small diameter, but giving origin on each side to twenty long blind processes, becoming larger towards their blind end, which is at- tached between the muscles of the feet and the lateral vessels. This organization is the more remarkable, as nothing like it is met with in the neighbouring genera. The amphinomia capillata and tetraedra (terebella flava and rostrata) have first a fleshy mass of the mouth or a proboscis, rounder and shorter than that of the aphrodite, then a small opsophagus, and an enormously dilated stomach, with cellular parieties, like those of a colon, the folds of which are fixed by a tendinous line ter throughout, with thin and corrugated sides. placed on the ventral side. It occupies two-thirds of the length of the body, and ends in a large short intes- tine. -- The arenicola, or worm used as a bait by fishermen (lumbricus marinus, Linn.) has no fleshy proboscis; the Oesophagus occupies one-eighth of its length; the stomach, which is more dilated, occupies a third. It is of a fine yellow, with the surface divided into lozenge- shaped sacculi, the separations of which are marked by vessels of a beautiful red. The rest of the canal is Small, smooth, and straight. In the leech of fresh water (hirudo sanguisuga), an Oesophagus equal to one-eighth of the animal is follow- ed by a stomach occupying one-half of its length: this organ is capacious, with thin sides, and divided by nu- merous membranous diaphragms, which contract it considerably, leaving only an opening in the middle. The intestine is narrower, and its internal membrane, which is opaque, exhibits an infinite number of small plaits; it enlarges towards the anus, which is very small, so that its existence has been erroneonsly denied by Some anatomists. Two caeca arise from the pylorus, proceed parallel to the principal canal, and are nearly as long. In the sea-leech (hirudo tuberculata), the alimentary canal may be said to enlarge from the mouth to the opposite end; the existence of a stomach is marked merely by its septa, which are wanting in the intestine. - The common earth-worm has only a long canal, divided by numerous transverse septa, which are even strengthened by membranes attaching them to the ex- terior covering of the body. Some dilatations in front may represent a kind of stomach. The canal of the nereis is equally simple, straight, and constricted at intervals: nothing more can be observed in the amphitrite, terebellae, and serpulac. The tail which terminates the body of the genus amphi- trite, contains the rectum. Cuvier has, however, ob- served in one species of amphitrite, which lives com- monly on the oysters, a very thick and hard globular gizzard. In the lumbricus, thalassema, and echinus, the canal is five or six times longer than the body, of equal diame- The posterior part is filled with excrement, moulded into small short cylinders. Among the intestinal worms, the ascaris has a very simple canal with thin sides, of nearly uniform diame- ter, and scarcely longer than the body. .Alimentary Canal and Sac of Zoofiñytes.—In this class we meet with allmentary canals possessing both mouth and anus, and others like a simple sac, more or less complicated. The first are even supported by a . true mesentery, which is not found in insects, mollusca, or worms. Such a structure is seen in the echinus and holothuria. The canal of the holothuria tubulosa is four times the length of the body, in which it makes a double convo- lution, resembling the figure 8. It commences at the mouth by a slight contraction, then retains nearly the same diameter throughout. Its parietes are slender: the anus opens into the great cloaca situated at the back of the body, and separated from the cavity of the abdomen only by a valve : this circumstance will be further considered in speaking of the respiratory organs. A membranous mesentery attaches this whole cana, to the external coverings of the body. A similar arrange- ment is observed in the holothuria pentactes. T The V E R M E. S. The sipunculus has a small uniform canal, going first straight from one extremity of the body to the other; then returning in a spiral manner round this straight part, to terminate at a lateral anus very near the mouth. It is six or eight times as long as the body. An alimentary cavity, constituting a complicated bag, is observed in the asterias. It is a membranous sac, much ſolded when empty, placed in the common centre of the rays, and having no other opening but the mouth, so that the excrement is rejected by the passage which admits the food. This bag has ten blind appendices or intestines, minutely subdivided into branches and ramifications, which form a very beautiful object. These are lodged in the rays or branches of the body, two in each : when there are more than five branches, there are also more than ten of the ramified caeca. These trees, or kind of bunches of grapes, are fixed rays in their place by membranous mesenteries. The asteriae, whose rays have no feet, but resemble the tails of serpents (ophiuri, Lamarck), have no such caeca. Their stomach is a simple bag, occupying merely the central disk of the animal : its membrane, however, exhibits in all parts an infinite number of Small Sacculi. Probably the same structure exists in the kind called caput medusae. The alimentary canal of the medusae is as complica- ted as that of the asteriae ; but, instead of being suspend- ed in the great cavity of the body, it seems to be exca- vated in its substance. The stomach, which is very large, fills the basis of what is called the pedicle or disk of the animal : tubes proceed from it in a radiated man- ner towards the edges of the superior broad part of the body, which has the shape of a segment of a sphere. These vessels communicate together by lateral branches, and both furnish an infinite number of small ramifications, which form a very complicated net-work over the whole body, conveying the nutritive fluid to all parts, as blood-vessels do in other animals. This plexus is particularly discernible towards the edge of the um- bella, where it resembles a species of lace. The medusae differ most widely in the manher by which the aliment enters the stomach. Some have a single mouth, a large round opening : others, instead of a mouth, have numerous branched tentacula, each perforated by a small opening. Each opening gives origin to a small canal, which joins the neighbouring one, and so on : in this way four large trunks are form- ed, which end in the stomach, and convey to it the matters absorbed by the small apertures of the tenta- cuſa. The number of the latter sometimes exceeds eight hundred. It is from this structure, which is hitherto unique in the animal kingdom, that Cuvier has established the genus rhizostoma, from two Greek words (pué, and gaux) signifying root and mouth. The rhizostoma, in fact, may be said to derive its nourishment from a kind of roots; and in it, as well as in all the medusae, the stomach supplies the place of a heart. The alimentary apparatus of the actinia consists of a simple bag, with a circular opening, serving both for mouth and anus. The aperture is placed in the centre of the superior surface of the animal, and is surrounded by the tentacula, which can seize the prey, and con- vey it immediately to the mouth. The animal has the power of contracting or dilating this orifice. The ali- mentary sac is suspended in the general cavity of the animal by a kind of membranous attachment. No in- testine nor any vessel is known to proceed from this stomach. See Memoire pour servir à l’Hist, de l’A5- terie rºuge, &c. par Dr. Spix, Annales du Muséum, tom. xiii. pl. 33. - “It is surprising (says Reaumur), that a soft animal like this, not provided with claws, or any thing equiva- lent, should be able to devour others apparently well defended by their shells, such as muscles and other bivalves, and various species of univalves. It is how- ever certain, that the actiniae live on the flesh of these animals, though, as they swallow them whole, and then contract the entrance of the stomach over them, it is not easy to find out how they extract the animal from its shelly coverings. We can only see that after a cer- tain time they expel the empty shells by the same ori- fice through which they had swallowed the whole ani- mal. I have seen in this way the largest muscle-shells thrown out empty by moderate-sized actiniae : while in some cases they are rejected without the animal hav- ing been extracted. In the same way I have seen them throw up entire buccina. I once saw a large muscle expelled entire through the basis of the actinia, where there is no natural opening. In getting rid of the shells, particularly when they are large, the animal not only dilates its mouth to the greatest extent, but absolutely inverts the whole cavity, as you would a stocking.” See fig. 25. Reaumur, Acad. des Sciences, 1710. p. 475. In the common polypes (hydra), the whole body ap- pears to be a stomach; and the nutritive matter is im- bibed apparently directly from the surface of the cavity into the substance of the animal. The most curious fact in relation to this stomach is, that if the animal be inverted, the external surface performs the office of stomach just as well as the original stomach did. The pyrosoma, a large species of marine polypus, without arms, brought to France by Péron, seems, like our fresh-water polypes, to be a mere stomach. The polypes, which form by their aggregation com- pound animals, such as those which produce the Vari- ous lithophytes, have a nutritive system nearly related to those of the common polype and medusa. Cuvier has examined this in the veretillae (pennatula cynomo- rium), whose large and soft body, and transparent polypes, are more favourable to such researches than most other animals of this class. In the body of each polype, a small stomach with brownish parietes is ob- served, from which proceed five tubes similar to those of the medusae, that is, executing the functions both of intestines and vessels. These intestines are at first yel- lowish and undulated; having traversed two-thirds of the length of the polype, they become straight and smaller, and thus penetrate the general body or stem which supports all the polypes. They then separate to join corresponding vessels from the neighbouring polypi, and form with them a net-work occupying the whole mass of the stem. By means of this communi- cation, the food taken by one polype is enjoyed by the whole animal, which may be considered as a single one with several mouths and stomachs. The alcyonium exos exhibits an analogous structure. See Dr. Spix, in the Annales du Muséum, tom.8m. P. 451, et seq. pl. 33; and it is probable that a similar or- ganization prevails through the whole class. Afthendages to the Alimentary Canal. Liver—All the mollusca have a liver, which is genc- rally very large, but never possesses a gall-bladder. It does not receive, as in the vertebral animals, the blood which V E R M E S. which has circulated through the intestines, and thus acquired a venous nature; but it derives from the aorta the necessary supply for its own nutrition, and the se- cretion of its peculiar liquor; and it returns this blood to the vena cava, which is the same with the pulmonary artery in these animals. In this arrangement we may perhaps find a reason for their having no spleen. The liver of the cephalopoda is a large oval mass of a yellowish-brown, situated towards the back near the head, partly filling the interval behind the funnel, and partly descending into the abdomen. It may be divi- ded into two lobes, between which the trunk of the aorta passes, giving to each a considerable branch. The bag, which produces the inky fluid peculiar to these ani- mals, is enclosed between these two lobes; and in the calmar (sepia loligo), it is attached in front of them. Monro considered it to be a gall-bladder; he thought the ink was merely bile, consequently that that fluid was excrementitious in these animals. This is a gross error. In the common cuttle-fish the ink-bag is found in the bottom of the abdomen, far from the liver; and in those species, where the two organs are nearest to- gether, they are not organically united. The bag con- tains its secreting apparatus in its own cavity, and the liver pours the bile into the alimentary canal. There are two excretory tubes, one for each lobe, penetrating together the third stomach, near its middle. Air im- pelled into the hepatic vein passes easily into these two canals; and they speedily inflate the third stomach. The bile which they pour out is of an orange-yellow : it remains for a considerable time mixed with the chyme, in the lateral and tortuous reservoir of the third stomach, where it can slowly exert its action. All the gasteropoda have a large liver, divided into numerous lobes and lobules, and sometimes into several masses, each of which has a particular excretory canal. These lobes are interwoven with the intestinal convo- lutions, enveloping them, or being enveloped by them, and united by a cellular texture. The distribution of the artery and vein is easily seen, and even that of the proper vessels, which are distributed into the smallest lobules, the liver resembling a bunch of grapes more than a homogeneous parenchymatous mass, and ex- tending usually through nearly the whole length of the body. In the aplysia, it pours out its secretion by seve- ral openings near the orifice of the caecum, or foulth stomach; that is, nearly as in the cephalopoda. In the picurobranchus and onchidium, which have several stomachs, there are differences. The bile is poured into the first stomach of the pleurobranchus. The onchidium has its liver divided into three distinct masses, of which the excretory ducts are not even united. The two first terminate in the first stomach by distinct ori- fices; the third opens into the bottom of the gizzard or second stomach. In the testacella the liver is divided into two inde- pendent masses : their ducts are inserted opposite each other, in the beginning of the intestine, not in the stomach. - The doris and phyllidia, which have a simple mem- branous stomach, receive the bile in it by several open- ings. The liver of the former is remarkable, inas- much as it gives rise to a second excretory vessel, ter- minating on the outside of the body, near the anus. The object of this structure is not known. The snail and slug have enormous livers, divided in- to many lobes and lobules, all which pour their liquor by a common canal into the bottom of the cul-de-sac Vol. XXXVIII. formed by the stomach behind the pylorus. The ap- pearance of the liver is remarkable, particularly in the slug, from the contrast of its black surface with the fine opaque white of the blood-vessels. The testace- ous gasteropoda have an equally voluminous liver, filling, together with the generative organs, the greatest part of the convolutions of the shell. The liver of the acephala generally envelopes the stomach, like an incrustation on its surface : it pours the bile into that cavity by numerous orifices. The patella among the gasteropoda, and the clio and pneu- modermon among the pteropoda, have the same struc- ture; but the hyala, which belongs also to the latter order, has its liver placed as in the common gastero- poda, that is, interwoven with the intestine. Even in the acephala, the intestine, after leaving the stomach, often returns to penetrate again the substance of the liver. This form and disposition of the liver are found in the naked acephala (ascidiae and biphori), as well as in the others. In the brachiopoda (lingula and terebra- tulae), the liver is distinct, connected with the convo- lutions of the intestine, and even with the muscles. In all the mollusca, as in the red-blooded animals, the bile is of a greenish-yellow, more or less strongly marked. Nothing analogous to a liver is found in the worms, unless we consider the yellow substance in the parietes of the stomach of the arenicola as such. The echino- dermata and zoophytes have nothing which can be com- pared to this gland. The liver then seems to end with the mollusca, and some crustacea; insects have a kind of substitute for it, and zoophytes have nothing like it. In proportion as the function of respiration is less con- fined, and extends to more parts in the body, the liver ceases more completely. - Coverings and Sufforts of the intestinal Canal. In the Mollusca.—We may assert in general, that the alimentary canal of the mollusca is not enveloped nor supported by a mesentery. The different con- volutions are joined together, and to the lobes of the liver, by cellular tissue, blood-vessels, and nerves, but not fixed to a membrane. Yet all the viscera are con- tained in a true peritoneum, which even forms a dis- tinct cavity for the heart, and also envelopes the ſung, when the latter is not entirely exterior; but this peri- toneum is not folded inwards to cover the intestine. The peritoneum of the gasteropoda nearly lines the whole external integument of the body : the latter is thick and muscular, and, therefore, protects it effectu- ally. In those which have a shell, the part of the body constantly covered by it is not surrounded by muscies; it is covered only by peritoneum and a thin layer of skin, and might almost be regarded as a natural hernia, formed by parts which have protruded from the mus- cular portion of the animal. In the cephalopoda the peritoneum is a bag contain- ed in another bag, namely, that which properly con- stitutes the body. But the latter does not entirely en- close the former; its opening leaves the peritoneum uncovered in front, where it is protected only by a thin continuation of the skin. The peritoneum of the cephalopoda is further remarkable from the circum- stance, of its being perforated by two openings, wirich communicate externally. There is no other example of such a structure, except in the rays. As the cepha- lopoda have a head, separated from the body by a neck, 3 U. and V E R M ES, and a true cartilaginous cranium, their peritoneum, which does not reach beyond the neck, does not cover the brain, nor the mass of the mouth, as in the other mollusca. In consequence of the form of the body, the peri- toneum of the acephala occupies a smaller space than that of the other mollusca. It is surrounded by the muscles, which go to the foot; and when there is no foot, it is simply covered by the skin. Nothing like an omentum has been seen in any animal of this class. Some worms, as the arenicola, have their alimentary canal supported merely by blood-vessels; others, as the earth-worm, have Small transverse membranes connecting the canal to the exterior covering of the body; but a mesentery, properly so called, exists in none. A thin membrane, forming an internal lining to the exterior integuments, may be regarded as a peritoneum. In the echino-dermata we again meet with a perfect mesentery, and even sometimes with a kind of omen- tum. The mesentery of the echini is fixed to the shell, and makes turns exactly corresponding to those of the intestine, which it covers. In the star-fish there are as many mesenteries as ramified caeca in the branches of the body. They adhere also to the internal surface of the general covering, parallel to the axis of the branch. In the holothuria tremula, the mesentery is attached to the intestine from the mouth; it accom- panies the tube to the other extremity of the body, fol- lowing one of the longitudinal muscles; it then cros- ses, and returns to the mouth, following a second ; cros- ses again, and redescends to the anus along a third. Let it, however, be remarked, that the numerous vessels of this animal are not found in the mesentery, but on the opposite surface of the canal. The interweaving of these vessels with each other, and with the respira- tory organs, forms a singular species of omentum, con- cerned in the business of respiration. The alimentary sac of the actiniae is supported by several vertical membranes, which surround it like radii, and are fixed on the opposite side to the cover- ing of the body. The medusae have no occasion for mesentery, their alimentary cavity being merely excavated in the gela- tinous mass of their body; the fresh-water and other polypes still less so, inasmuch as their intestine and body are one and the same thing, that is, simply a bag formed of a gelatinous membrane. Organs of Absorſhtion.—No absorbing vessels can be discovered in the lower classes of animals now un- der our consideration. Cuvier thinks that the veins absorb in them; and he supports his sentiments by the following statement. We are first, says he, led to this notion by observing that the blood of these animals does not differ from what is called lymph in the red-blooded classes: and also by the fact, that no anatomical method has hitherto enabled us to demonstrate the existence in these ani- mals of any but blood-vessels. We have already ob- served that the parts, called by Poli lymphatic vessels, belong to the nervous system. There are, besides, Some positive reasons; of which the principal is the na- tural communications of the great cavities of the body, in which there is always much fluid to be absorbed, with the trunks of the great veins. These communications are particularly obvious in the cephalopoda, where the principal branches of the vena cava are furnished with a multitude of bodies resembling ramified glands, and floating loosely in the abdomen. They have tubes manifestly ending in the trunk of the vein. Fluids injected into the vein pene- trate like a dew the extremities of these ramifications, and passinto the abdominal cavity. Sometimes air will pass in the same way. There must equally be a passage in the opposite direction. Among the gasteropoda, the aplysia exhibits a com- munication no less free between its veins and the great cavities of the body. If we impel air from the lung into the venae cavae, which are continuous in these animals with the pulmonary artery, the abdomen will be distended. The orifices, through which the air escapes, are visible to the naked eye : they must admit liquids from the abdomen, as they allow air to pass from the vessels into that cavity. The passage of the rectum through the heart in the acephala is another point deserving attention. We can- not see what end this arrangement can serve, if the nu- tritive fluid does not find its way through the intestine into the heart, where it will be mingled with the blood, and set in motion. This manner of viewing the subject coincides ex- tremely well with the gradation of the organic systems, in the different classes of animals. Insects most proba- bly have no vessel at all (see INSECTs, in Anatomy): it is, therefore, natural to find before them, in the scale, animals which have vessels of one kind only, and which, therefore, may be arranged between the vertebral divi- sion possessing the two kinds, viz. lymphatic and san- guineous, and the insects which have none; unless at least we regard the secretory tubes as a third order, the most essential, because common to all. The mollusca, vermes, and crustacea, seem destined to hold this inter- mediate rank. The echino-dermata, and particularly the holothuriae, are of a doubtful kind: their place cannot be yet assigned. In the zoophytes, properly so called, the substance of their body forming the sides of the alimentary cavity is immediately impregnated with the nutritive fluid. The medusae do not differ in this respect from the sim- plest polypes, except that their cavity has numerous tubular prolongations. If these intestinal tubes are to be considered as vessels, the stomach will perform, with respect to them, the functions, of a heart. Organs of Circulation and Resſhiration.—As both these kinds of organs exist together in all the vertebral classes, there can be no variety, in their combinations; but one or the other may be wanting in invertebral animals, so that we may establish between them in this respect relations, which are very constant in the classes, in which these organs are perfectly understood. Thus, in the mollusca, the worms with red blood, and the crustacea, which have a complete circulation, we find circumscribed branchiae. Insects have the body nour- ished by a fluid, which stagnates instead of circulating; and in them respiration is effected by means of tracheae, which are distributed over the whole body. True zoo- phytes, medusae, and polypes, in which the body itself forms the sides of the intestinal canal, and directly absorbs its nourishment, have no particular organ for respiration. Probably the whole body respires. . The mollusca have a double circulation; that is, all their blood, after circulating through the body, passes through the lungs before it is fit to be circulated again, The cephalopoda have three hearts, two composed of a ventricle and an auricle, and one of a ventricle only : the gasteropoda have one, consisting of a ventricle and all V E R M E. S. an auricle; the acephala one, of a ventricle with two auricles; and the brachiopoda two, of a ventricle with- out an auricle. This class alone, in fact, exhibits nearly as many modifications of the circulating organs, as all the four classes of vertebral animals: these modifica- tions, however, have reference to the number and posi- tion of the auricles and ventricles, not to the course of the circulation, which is always double. The cephalopodous mollusca have the most compli- cated system of circulating organs of all animals, pos- sessing three distinct hearts, two pulmonary and one aOrtle. The descending vena cava, formed by the union of branches which return the blood from the head and arms, passes from the neck, along the front of the liver, toward the bottom of the abdominal sac: it receives the hepatic vein in its course, and immediately afterwards, that is about the middle of the abdomen, it is bifurca- ted, each branch going transversely to one of the lateral hearts; but before they arrive, they receive various branches from other parts. Thus, directly after their origin from the common trunk, each receives a vein from the intestines and back of the body; and at the very point of entering the hearts, each receives another from the lower parts. All these veins are extremely thin and transparent: they are much more capacious and extensile than the arteries; no valve can be seen in them, except at the entrance of the hepatic vein. The two great transverse branches, which end in the lateral hearts, and all the veins immediately ending in them, are perforated by openings leading into very sin- gular appendices of a ramified or glandular appearance, such as are found in the nervous system of no other animal. They are numerous, large, and of an opaque yellow- ish-white: only two offices can be ascribed to them ; either that of secreting some fluid from the arterial blood, or of absorbing the liquids of the abdomen and conveying them into the veins. The small number of their arterial ramifications favours the latter idea: it is sufficient for their nutrition, but not for a secretion pro- portioned to their volume. The two lateral hearts are placed at the root of the branchiae; they are more or less rounded, with thick, muscular, though rather soft parietes, and large fleshy columns, intercepting numerous spaces of different size. In the sepia octopus they are of a very deep brown red, as in a red-blooded animal, while all the other viscera, the muscles, and the aortic heart, are whitish. The entrance of the vein into each lateral heart is furnished with two membranous rectangular valves, fixed at their bases and extremities, and loose only at the inner edge: they allow the blood to pass in, but prevent its return. The pulmonary artery goes out at the extremity of the heart opposite to the entrance of the vein. There is no valve at its origin in the octopus, but in the cuttle-fish and calmar there are four, shaped like small fleshy tubercles, surrounding the orifice of the artery, and preventing the return of the blood. They are a little beyond the origin, and in the very trunk of the artery. The latter runs along the external and posterior edge of the gill, producing as many lateral branches, perpendicular to its trunk, as there are plates of the gilſ. Their ramifications and distribution will be described in the article on respiration. A branchial vein is foun' on the opposite or internal and anterior edge of the gill, from which it collects the blood. Reaching the lower end of the gill, the vein quits it, and runs transversely towards the middle of the body, "decussating in all directions. a little below and behind the part where the vena cava bifurcates. Here it ends in the third, aortic, or inter- mediate heart. This heart receives then two pulmo- nary veins, one from each gill, which end each on its own side, reaching the heart directly, and without any previous division. Their cardiac orifices are furnished with two membranous rectangular valves, analogous to those of the venæ cavae in the pulmonary hearts. The aortic heart is white, and of a firmer tissue than the two pulmonary hearts. Its form is oval in the lon- gitudinal direction in the calmar; transversely in the Octopus; and like the trefoil leaf in the officinalis. Its internal parietes exhibit numerous muscular columns, In the octopus it pro- duces two principal arteries and some smaller ones, all arising immediately from the cavity, and not from a common trunk. The superior ascends nearly parallel to the vena cava, giving branches to it, as well as to the surrounding parts. The inferior is the largest artery, and indeed analogous to the aorta: having given branches to the lower part of the sac, it turns upwards behind the viscera to the head, and sends ramifications to the intestines, liver, oesophagus, then terminates, near the fleshy mass of the mouth, by a circle which sur- rounds the oesophagus, and supplies the crop, the Sali- vary glands, the mouth and feet. Gasteroſiodous Mollusca.—In all these, without ex- ception, the pulmonary system is exactly inverse of that of fishes: that is, the heart is composed of an auricle and a ventricle, and it receives the blood from the lung to distribute it over the body; while the heart of fishes sends the blood from the body to the lung. In other words, the gasteropoda possess always a simple aortic heart. All the veins of the body end in one or two venae cavae, which, as soon as they reach the respira- tory organ, are changed into pulmonary arteries, with- out this change being marked by a ventricle, nor even by valves. It is exactly the same as the change of the trunk of the intestinal veins into that of the vena porta- rum. The position and direction of these veins are de- termined by that of the pulmonary organ, which latter is usually found in the neighbourhood of the rectum, that they may receive more readily the veins of the in- testines, which probably bring the chyle with them. Large trunks also come from the liver. Thus, in the doris, where the branchiae form a circle round the anus, the vena cava having collected the blood from the whole body, and traversed the liver, arrives above the rectum, and divides into branches, which separate like radii to enter the bases of the bran- chial tufts. These branchiae return the blood, which has undergone their action, by vessels corresponding to those which brought it. The auricle, which is shaped like a pyramid with a very broad basis, has this basis disposed in a circular manner, and receives the blood from the pulmonary veins. It conveys this blood im: mediately into the heart, which is round, flat, and placed on the back of the liver. The heart has valves at its entrance and exit: the latter is the origin of a large artery divided immediately into four branches. One is turned back, and soon lost in the liver; two others also enter this gland; the fourth, which is the continua- tion of the trunk, goes directly forwards, giving branches to the intestine, stomach, salivary glands, organs of gene- ration and mouth, and is lost ultimately in the fleshy mass of the foot. The tritoniae and phyllidiae have the lungs at the two sides of the body, and the heart consequently in the middle 3 U 2 V E R M E. S. middle, towards the back. The auricle, placed at the back of the heart, extends transversely from one side to the other. It receives the blood from two or rather four pulmonary veins, which extend on the two sides of the body, from one end to the other, in the substance of the fleshy covering, and receive the blood from all the branchial tufts. The latter had received it from two arteries reaching in the same way along the side of the body, and placed parallel to the veins. These pul- monary arteries collect the blood from the body by six large veins, three on each side, coming principally from the liver and intestines. The veins of the muscular covering end in these trunks without quitting its sub- stance. Having thus received from the lung the blood, which has circulated through that organ, the heart dis- tributes it over the body by three large arteries, one of which goes backwards into the ovary, another down- wards to the liver and intestines, and the third forwards to the male organs of generation, the mouth, and the fleshy mass of the foot. The Onchidium has some resemblance to the tritonia. Two vessels are formed in the same manner in the fleshy covering on the two sides, and they convey the blood of the body into the lung; but by their extremity only, since the lung itself is excavated in the back of the body. These vessels receive the blood from the viscera by many small veins entering separately, and that of the fleshy covering by others excavated in its thickness. The heart is near the lung behind on the right side. Its auricle is very large, and furnished, with fleshy columns. The heart produces one great trunk, which first gives a branch to the liver and viscera, then a long retrograde one to the rectum and organs of gene- ration, which are situated behind and on the right. It afterwards passes in the collar of the oesophagus, and gives two large branches to the general covering. The right sends an artery to the salivary gland of its side ; the left does the same, and moreover one to the male organ of generation: the trunk is then lost in the mass of the mouth. The aplysia possesses one of the most curious circu- lating systems. There is excavated on each side, in the fleshy covering, a large vessel surrounded by muscular bands decussating in every direction ; these vessels re- ceive the blood by ordinary veins from certain parts. Two come from the gland which surrounds the shell, and produces the purple liquor: but it is very clear that they communicate immediately with the abdominal cavity by several large holes. Are the latter shut du- ring life by muscular contraction, or by any fine mem- brane : We do not hitherto know. However this may be, the two large vessels unite behind, and thus pro- duce a third, which is the pulmonary artery. This is also very large, and runs forwards along one side of the membranous triangle which supports the branchiae on its two surfaces. It distributes the blood to all the bran- chial plates by a corresponding number of branches: this blood returns by corresponding vessels into the pul- monary vein, situated also in the branchial triangle, and terminating in the auricle. The heart is situated cross- wise, along the middle of the body, a little towards the left, enclosed in a pericardium. The auricle is large, thin transparent, and strengthened by muscular fasci- culi, which intercept lozenge-shaped spaces. The ven- tricle is oval and thick, and has strong muscular co- lumns: it has valves only at its entrance, they are rec- tangular. The artery is divided at its exit into three principal trunks, The first goes to the left, for the lumns. liver and intestines; the second forwards to the stomach; the third and longest remains longer in the pericardi- um, inclining towards the right. It possesses in this Situation a Very extraordinary apparatus of unknown use 3 namely, a double crista filled internally with ra- mifications, arising from the artery itself, and filled by injecting the artery. They appear to have blind termi- nations; and the liquid they contain appears to pass back simply into the vessel, without entering any veins. After quitting the pericardium, this artery gives a branch for the corresponding part of the muscular covering, then goes directly forwards under the oeso- phagus. Arriving at the crop, it sends a retrograde branch to the general covering ; under the nervous collar of the oesophagus it produces a second, which goes backwards to the left in this covering ; then im- mediately afterwards a third, which goes to the right for the penis. The trunk is then bifurcated, and lost in and about the mouth. The lung lies on the front of the body in the slug, and the heart is placed immediately under it. The in- numerable ramifications spread over the internal surface of the lung all end in the auricle, and the latter in the ventricle placed under it, and producing behind two large arteries. One suddenly turns forwards to the mouth, the generative organs and the general covering; the other goes directly backwards, and is distributed to all the viscera. The circulation of the pleurobranchus much resem- bles that of the aplysia. But, as the heart is placed more forwards, the posterior artery is the largest of the three, since it has more parts to nourish. In the testaceous gasteropoda, the heart and its auri- cle are situated in the bottom of the great pulmonary cavity, which occupies the upper part of the front of the body, towards the edge of the shell. The lung, whatever may be its form, receives the blood of the body, and a particularly large portion from the last part of the intestine, which runs close on the surface of the pulmonary cavity, opening sometimes within it, sometimes at its edge. Having passed through the lung, the blood enters the auricle, goes thence into the ventricle, from which it is sent over the whole body by arteries, which vary according to the general form of the animal. The branchiae form a series all round the body, under the cloak, in the patella. The pulmonary vein is also disposed in a circular manner, collects the blood from all the branchial plates by many small veins, and carries it to the heart, which is situated above the head, and distributes it over the whole body. .Acehhalous Mollusca.-In such of these as have the heart in the back, and trasversed by the rectum, it is perfectly symmetrical, oval, broader behind, and ac- companied by an auricle on each side. Their branchiae from four parallel plates: each auricle receives the blood from the two branchiae of its own side, and trans- mits it to the heart. These auricles are triangular, broad towards the branchiae, and pointed towards the heart: sometimes they have a kind of cristae, suscepti- ble of dilatation. Their sides are transparent, and pos- sess few projecting threads. Their openings into the ventricle are furnished with valves, which allow the blood to pass only from the auricle to the ventricle. The latter is much stronger than the auricle : its sides are opaque, and furnished with numerous fleshy co- The blood goes from it by two arteries situa- ted at its two extremities; these follow the rectum, Oile V E. R. M. E. S. one ascending towards the head, the other descending to the anus. Such is the heart of the anodontites, or fresh-water muscle, of the venus, mactra, cardium, solen, pholas, mya, and apparently of all the equivalve bivalves. But the bivalves with unequal shells, at least the oysters and the pectens, have the heart differently placed ; it occupies a cavity between the mass of the liver and the muscle that closes the shell; and is di- rected from behind forwards, or from the back to the branchiae, and not, as in other bivalves, from above downwards, or from the anus to the head. In this case the auricles or rather the single bilobed auricle is situated before the heart, and not at the side. This is remarkable in the oyster on account of its thickness, and deep red colour. It receives the blood from the branchiae, and the heart distributes it to the body by two vessels which pass out at the extremity opposite to the auricle, and go, one upwards to the liver, the other downwards to the muscle. Each branchia has an infinite number of small, straight, parallel vessels, terminating perpendicularly in a larger one at the back of the branchia: these dor- Sal trunks convey the blood to the auricle. But each branchia has at the same time another series of small vessels, similar and parallel to the first, and pouring the venous blood into their extremities. This blood is brought by another vessel at the back of each branchia, which vessel receives the veins of the body. The circulation is carried on in the fiterofloda, as in the gasteropoda, by a simple heart, with one auricle, which receives the blood from the lung, and transmits it to the body. These things may be seen in the hyalaea and pneumodermon. Cuvier states, that he has dissected only one genus of brachiopoda, and found two distinct hearts, both aortic, that is to say, receiving blood from the lung, and sending it to the body. Thus we find that the whole class of mollusca pos- sesses a circulation as complete as any vertebral ani- mal; and that this circulation is double. When there is only one ventricle, it is aortic, and not pulmonary ; when more than one, they are separate, and form so many distinct hearts. The passage from the arteries to the veins, in the little as well as in the great circu- lation, is as evident as in animals of the higher classes. Blood and Circulation of Worms.-The blood is trans- parent, or at most a little blueish, in mollusca and cru- stacea. The supposed red blood of some of the first class is merely a secretion. But the entire class of ar- ticulated worms, both marine and terrestrial, has the blood more or less red, and often of as deep a tint as in any vertebral animal. It may be seen in the genera lumbricus, hirudo, naias, nereis, aphrodite, amphinomia, amphitrite, terebella, and serpula. But the lumbricus marinus (arenicola) exhibits most plainly, not merely the colour of the nutritive fluid, but also its course and direction : the yellow colour of the intestine and the grey colour of the parietes of the body allowing all the vessels to be perfectly distinguished. A large vessel, diminishing in size at the two ends, lies along the back, between the branchiae. It sends forward the blood by its anterior origin, and receives fifteen lateral vessels on each side, one from each bran- chia. They bring the blood from those organs, and are to be regarded as pulmonary veins: when the branchiae contract, the large vessel is distended. The blood is carried back to the branchiae by vessels similar in number to the preceding, but not all arising from a single trunk. The nine first proceed from a large vessel situated upon the intestinal canal immediately under the one first described. The others come from the back part of a vessel parallel to the two first, but situated under the intestinal canal. These two great longitudinal trunks send all their blood to the branchiae : they represent both venæ cavae and pulmonary arteries; for those branches which do not go to the lungs are veins returning the blood from the various organs. These branches of the vena cava in the lumbricus ma- rinus are spread over the yellow surface of the intesti- nal canal with an admirable regularity; and the beauty of the arrangement is heightened by the splendour of their purple colour. All these branches arise, in the first instance, from two vessels, which proceed along the sides of the in- testinal canal, and perform the office of an aorta. They ascend as far as the lower part of the oesophagus, and then are bent to communicate with the great pulmo- nary vein, with which the description began. At this communication there is a swelling, which exhibits to the naked eye more marked contractions and dilatations than any other part of the system : although their pa- rietes are no thicker than those of the other vessels, their enlargements may be called hearts; but as they are not found in all worms, it would be more exact to say that the circulation is carried on in these animals by the vessels only, without a heart. If, however, the existence of a heart be admitted, at least in the lumbri- cus marinus, it must be considered as double, and, like that of the two preceding classes, aortic. The aphrodite, amphinomiae, and nereids, differ from the lumbricus marinus, only in having a greater num- ber of pulmonary vessels corresponding to the greater number of branchiae. But in the species which have their branchiae on the neck, as the amphitrite, the pul- monary vessels form four trunks, two arterial and two venous, coming from the trunks, which extend the whole length of the body, upon the intestine, and similar to those which have been described in the lum- bricus marinus. The colour of the blood is more difficultly perceived in the leech, because it is paler and less contrasted with the ground of the body; yet the vessels may be easily distinguished, and injected with mercury. There is a large longitudinal vessel on each side, communi- cating together, both towards the belly and back, by transverse branches, the ramifications of which, distri- buted in the skin, probably serve for respiration, as no other organ can be found out. Along the back we observe a middle and slender vessel, not so immediate- ly connected to the two others, as they are to each other, and producing branchiae on each side. This probably belongs to the arterial, and the two others to the venous system; but their connection has not been hitherto discovered. Longitudinal vessels, producing ramifications filled with a fine red blood, may be seen in the earth-worm. Movements of systole and diastole are very manifest, and quickly performed in all these red-blooded worms. Echimo-dermata.-I have not, says Cuvier, been able hitherto to arrive at any clear notions concerning the arrangement of the vascular system in this order; but the following is the result of my researches. The intestinal canal of the holothuria tubulosa is twice folded, and consequently forms three portions. The middle of these has a vessel at its side, diminish- ing towards V E R M E S. ing towards the two ends. It receives numerous short vessels from another tube, which will be described last ; and it produces from the opposite surface others, which are much subdivided, and whose branches are at last united into an equal number of small vessels to end in a second trunk, which will be described. The net- work produced by this subdivision of the branches of the first vessel, before they end in the second, is inti- mately interwoven with the small branches of a hollow ramified organ ending in the cloaca, and probably con- cerned in respiration. This organ can be distended witſ, water, or emptied at the will of the animal, and thus probably admits of the blood being acted on by the air. The first vessel, then, would be a pulmonary artery, and receive the blood from the body to transmit it to the lung. We have seen the branches, by which it receives blood from the intestine : that of the rest of the body comes from a vessel, which will be described third in order, having been brought by veins which are perceived over the whole mesentery. The second great trunk is divided into four great branches, united by a transverse one : two receive the blood fºom the lung, and run parallel to the first trunk, but at a distance suited to the subdivisions of branches which go from one to the other. These two branches are a kind of pulmonary veins: they convey the blood, which has undergone the action of the lung, into the two other branches by the transverse canal, and by their extremities; for there is a visible communication be- tween them. These other branches, which consequent- ly perform the office of aorta, run along the first por- tion of intestine, sending blood to it by an infinity of small, but rather long arteries, which seem to terminate immediately in the body of the intestine. The superior branch, arriving at a certain height, is bifurcated, and its two ramifications are joined so as to form a circle round the oesophagus, from which five arteries go off to the mass of the mouth and the general covering of the body. The blood returns from this covering by veins, which fill the mesenteries: but there is also a general trunk, which seems to form a kind of vena cava. It is made up of four principal branches, united by a transverse one. Two of these branches, which run along the first portion of intestine, receive the blood from it; and the two others transmit it to the pulmonary vessel by the Small branches already men- tioned at the beginning of the description. According to this representation, the arrangement would very closely resemble that of worms. In the asteriae and echini the same approximation is observed between the vascular and digestive systems. The principal véin and artery equally run along the intestinal canal in the latter; and they are multiplied in the former to follow the caeca. Nothing like biood-vessels can be seen in the me- dusae. “The substance of these zoophytes,” says Péron, “presents at first view the appearance of a kind of jelly, more or less diaphanous, consistent, and agreeably co- loured according to the species. Excepting the lines, lamellae, and vessels of the lower surface of the umbella, their substance appears homogeneous, even when ex- amined with the most powerful magnifiers. However it may be torn or cut, the appearance is the same, and no trace of internal vessels can be discovered. Such indeed are the density and homogeneousness of this matter, that we can hardly conceive it to be penetrated and nourished by vessels.” Annales du Muséum, t. xv. p. 42. - Organs of Respiration.—Cuvier observes that these exhibit, in invertebral animals, the same relations to the organs of motion, and particularly to the force which animates those organs, as in the vertebral classes, and thus confirm the theory which assigns the degree of motive power as a measure of the quantity of respira- tion. Thus, the only class in this division of the animal kingdom, in which most of the individuals have the power of flying, is that in which respiration takes place at all points of the body, in which the tracheae convey air to all parts; in short, insects. In some of those which have no wings, and therefore do not fly, the power of the muscles is evinced by the rapidity of their other motions. Let any one observe the centi- pede running, or the flea jumping, and he will acknow- ledge that they belong to a class possessing great mus- cular power, as he would judge of the ostrich and cas- sowary, although they are birds without wings. The mollusca, superior to insects in their circulating organs, and particularly in the central parts of their nervous system, have a circumscribed respiration; they breathe Only by the lungs, and no portion of air is ad- mitted into the rest of the body. It is therefore only necessary to compare the slowness of their motions, with their rapidity in insects, to estimate the effects of those differences in organization. Invertebral animals possess either lungs more or less analogous to those of reptiles; branchiae, sometimes similar to those of fishes, sometimes to those of tad- poles; or lastly, tracheae, a kind of organ not known in the vertebral division. The latter is peculiar to insects; the former to a small number of mollusca; the second is the most common, and is found in most mollusca, in worms, and crustacea. The mode of respiration is not well known in the echino-dermata, so that their organs cannot be classed with certainty. The effect of respiration cannot be estimated by the colour of the blood, except in red-blooded worms, where it is very obvious : it may be seen without liga- ture or incision in the branchiae of the ſumbricus ma- rinus. But the effect of this function on the respired air may be easily judged : the researches of Vauquelin and other naturalists have shewn that invertebral ani- mals consume oxygen like others, and infect the residue with carbonic acid. See RESPIRATION. Resſhiratory Organs of the Mollusca.—We meet in this class with lungs, with uncovered branchiae, and with branchiae contained in a cavity. In the cephalopo- da and acephala they are always of the latter kind: the gasteropoda have all three sorts. A lung is found in the terrestrial gasteropoda, and in those aquatic kinds which are obliged to come to the surface of the water in order to take in air. The principal genera that have it are the snail (helix), slug (limax), the testacella and parmacella, among the terrestrial ; in the onchidium, bulimus of pools (helix stagnalis), and planorbis, among the aquatic. This lung is a larger or smaller cavity, communicating externally by a narrow aperture, which can be opened or closed voluntarily, while the cavity, contracting or dilating at the same time, expels or ad- mits air. As the parietes are muscular, and there is no bony structure, there is no other mechanism than mus- cular contraction. The parietes of the ravity are fur- nished with an almost infinite net-work of blood-vessels, ramified in a rather spongy substance. The cavity it- self is placed on the neck, and opens at the right side of the chest, in the snail, slug, bulimus, and planorbis; on the back, and opens on the right side of the body, in the V E R M E S. the parmacella; on the back, and opens backwards, in the testacella; on the posterior part of the body, and opens behind, under the edge of the cloak, in the onchi- dium. The branchiae projecting externally, sometimes re- present tufts or trees, as in the tritoniae, where they form a kind of hedge all round the body, and in the doris, where they have a circular arrangement round the anus, at the posterior part of the back; sometimes in small laminae or scales, as in the eolides, where they are disposed like tiles on the back, in the phyllidiae, the oscabrio, the patellae, where they form a cordon all round the body, under the edge of the cloak. In the scyllea they are pencils of filaments, dispersed over fleshy plates, or a kind of wings placed on the back. In the glaucus they resemble fins, radiated like a fan; in the pleurobranchus they are small plates, arranged in transverse rows on the two surfaces of a prominent plate at the right side of the body. Testaceous gasteropoda have prominent branchiae, but situated in a cavity concealed under the edge of the shell. The opening is generally very free, and occu- pies all the upper part of the animal's neck. Often also a part of the fleshy edge of the cloak is prolonged into a small canal, lodged in a corresponding canal of the shell, and calculated to conduct the surrounding element into the branchial cavity, even while the ani- mal is entirely enclosed in its calcareous habitation. These canals are found in all the genera made out of those united together by Linnaeus under the names buc- cinum, murex, and strombus. In most of the genera the branchiae form one or two long series of transverse plates, occupying the whole length of the cavity, but a part only of its breadth, and representing, sometimes a prism, sometimes a kind of pen fixed by the whole length of its stem. There is a single series in the murex tri- tonis; a large and a small one in the buccinum unda- tum; two large ones in the halyotis. Some genera however deviate from this general rule : the patella Hungarica, which seems so much like the other patellae, has its branchiae arranged in small long plates, placed within a cavity above the neck, but form- ing a transverse series round the edge of the cavity. The course of the blood, however, is the same, what- ever form the branchiae may possess in the gasteropo- da : each division and subdivision receives a pulmonary arterial branch from the vena cava, and sends a venous branch into the pulmonary vein, which terminates in the heart. The position of the branchiae regulates that of the heart, as well as the course of the large vessels. The branchiae of the acephala are formed into plates, each composed of a double leaf: they have a double series of vessels, very regularly and closely arranged, like the teeth of a fine comb, the striae being at right angles to the length of the plate. An artery and a vein run along the basis of the plate. The testaceous ace- phala have four of these plates, enclosed between the two lobes of the cloak, and allowing the foot to pass be- tween them when there is one. The internal surface of the four triangular plates surrounding the mouth, and occupying the place of lips or tentacula, is also striated with vessels similar to those of the branchiae, and may probably assist in respiration. Poli speaks of small air-vessels, commencing in the Small tentacula, usually situated at the posterior edge of the cloak, or round the orifice of the branchial tube: he supposes that they penetrate to a certain reservoir, whence the air passes into the interior of the branchiae. Cuvier has not found this structure, and thinks that respiration is carried on in the acephala, as in other mollusca and fishes, by the simple afflux of water over the external surface of the branchiae. Some genera bring this water to the branchiae by simply opening the shell and the anterior edges of the cloak It is expelled by again shutting the shell. In the muscle, which has the widest opening of the shell behind, the water passes in and out at this part. When the animal is placed in water, a slight motion of the fluid is perceived in this situation, produced by the process of respiration. In the genera which have the cloak prolonged behind into one or two tubes, the water en- ters, and is discharged by the tube farthest from the back, or by the analogous canal, when there is only one tube : for it is then divided into two canals. The car- dium, venus, mactra, tellina, &c. &c. have two tubes; the pholas, solen, teredo, mya, &c. have only one. They can partly withdraw the tubes into the shell by means of two flat, fan-shaped, retractor muscles, attached to the lobes of the cloak : but they do not extend them simply by muscular action; for they may be seen to encrease in length and breadth both at the same time in the pholades. In the ascidiae, which are naked acephala, the branchiae do not form four plates, but a single large sac, with an extremely fine vascular net-work. This bag is filled with water as often as the animal dilates it: the mouth is at its bottom. In the biphori, or Salpa: ; and the thalia, they form only a narrow ribbon, obli- quely traversing the interior of the body : the water, in passing through this from before backwards, neces- sarily goes over this ribbon. - The cephalopoda also have their branchiae enclosed in a cavity, that is, in the bag forming their body. They are separated from the other viscera by the peritoneum, and their cavity communicates externally by the funnel under the neck. The water is admitted and expelled by the dilatation and contraction of the muscular pa- rietes of the bag : thus it is renewed in the branchiae. The latter are two large pyramids, placed at the side of the peritoneum, with their base towards the bottom of the sac, and the apex towards the infundibulum. Each is attached by a membranous ligament to a mus- cular column which adheres to the Sac, and sends a pro- cess to each of the plates of which the pyramid is com- posed. The pulmonary artery, arising from the lateral heart of its own side, ascends along the external edge of the branchia, giving two arteries to each plate. The pulmonary vein, which terminates in the intermediate heart, descends along the internal side of the branchia, receiving two veins from each plate. The plates them- selves are arranged one over the other, parallel to the basis of the pyramid: their figure is triangular, and the two surfaces exhibit rows of pencils, filaments, or mi- nute ramifications, which are the ultimate divisions of the pulmonary vessels. Each branchial pyramid of the calmar has as many as sixty of these plates, while we find only nine in the octopus; but in the latter the rows of filaments are more minutely ramified, and form much thicker strata. Respiration must be effected by the admission of wa- ter to the branchia, and by its penetration among all the fine processes of their surfaces; in the same way, in short, as in other instances. Instead of branchiae, the brachiopoda have a circle of small triangular plates attached to each lobe of the cloak. Among V E R M E S. Among the pteropoda, the hyalaea has them conceal- ed in the two folds of the cloak ; they represent vascu- lar ramifications on the wings of the clio : and in the pneumodermon they are small plates, forming various lines on the surface of the abdomen. In the singular animals called anatifa and balani, there are found, on each side, at the basis of the arms or tentacula, conical plates, equal in number to that of the arms, but having a contrary direction, namely, towards the back, and lying against the body under the cloak. Their relation to the vascular system has not yet been determined. Thus we find, in all the mollusca, as complete an ap- paratus for respiration as for circulation. An extraor- dinary additional or secondary office of the branchiae is that, which they perform in some acephala, of affording a receptacle, for a certain time, for the ova, and even for the young when hatched. Organs of Res/iration in Worms.—Leeches and earth-worms, as well as the thalassema, have no other apparatus for breathing but the skin and its vascular net-work: but in other genera there are ridges or tufts, in which the vessels are ramified. Those which swim freely in the water have the organs equally arranged on the two sides, along a more or less considerable portion of the back. Such as live in tubes have them usually placed on the head, that they may be more easily ex- posed to the water. In the aphrodite aculeata they are small fleshy cristae, slightly resembling that of the cock, situated above each of the tubercles, which support bristles. There are forty pairs. In the scaly aphrodite they are small bun- dles of filaments. - In the nereids there are small fleshy cones, amounting to two or three on each side of a ring : the blood-ves- sels are ramified in them with wonderful delicacy. Sometimes, instead of these small cones, there are true filaments grouped into pencils, of three, or seven, or even in the form of tufts. Sometimes there are small thin plates. In the terebella flava the branchiae represent bipin- nated leaves, and have a beautiful rose-colour. There are thirty pairs. In the tetraedra and carunculata there are merely large fasciculi of filaments. Their number in all these genera is the same as that of the rings of the body. The arenicola (lumbricus marinus) has only fourteen pairs occupying the middle of the back, and resembling Small close bushes, of the finest carmine when distend- ed with blood, and becoming pale again when empty. The terebella have branchiae in the form of small close trees; there are only three pairs, situated in the back, near the head. In the amphitrite there are two pairs in the same si- tuation, but shaped like feathers, very thick. They form, in the Serpulaº, at the sides of the mouth, two beautiful fan-like processes, with feathery branches, having long stems and short barbs, and exhibiting the finest colours. The number of feathery processes, as well as the general curvature of the fan, varies accord- ing to the species. The sabellae (amphitrite ventilabrum, Linn., &c.) have fan-like branchiae, as well as the serpulae. Some- times the fan has a spiral turn. te In these animals each branchia has a vascular, arte- rial and venous system, as in the higher classes. But we come to an end here of respiration by expansion of the vascular system. Resfiration of the Echino-dermata.-Monro regard- ed the feet, or those cylindrical and extensile tentacula, by means of which the echini, asteriae, and holothuria: walk, as organs for absorption of the surrounding fluid, at least in the first of these genera. Cuvier assigns this function, in the two first named genera, to organs much smaller and more numerous, which may be seen in a living asterias observed in water. Besides the great tentacula of the lower surface, the whole integument bristles with small fleshy tubes, which are withdrawn into small openings as soon as the animal is taken out of water. They form a beautiful spectacle in the large species, coming out at all points: the very spines pro- duce them by small apertures along their stems; and while the minute tubes are extended, they resemble small leaves of trees connected to their branches. There are species in which they form tufts, &c. round these spines. Those tubes which are situated on the sides of the feet, are generally longer than the others. It can hardly be doubted, that they have the office of convey- ing water into the interior of the body. The holothuriae, at least the tubulosa, have no tubes projecting externally, but they have an internal organ, which must be subservient, according to all appearance, to respiration. It is one or more membranous and hol- low trees, of which the trunk opens into the same re- ceptacle (cloaca) as the anus. It enters the body, di- viding and subdividing until it ends at last in small co- nical productions. The branches swell at intervals into vesicles, which are generally found more or less dis- tended with water. The holothuria tubulosa has a single trunk, divided from its origin into two principal branches, of which one proceeds along the general covering, adhering to it by a kind of mesentery; the other runs among the intes- tines, interweaving its branches with the vessels already noticed. This connection is so intimate, that it cannot be detached without laceration: probably there is a communication at this point between the nutritive fluid and the surrounding element. The holothuria pentactes has two distinct trunks, deeply divided into large branches; other species have only one, which is not divided. - All animals situated below these in the scale, are des- titute apparently of respiratory apparatus. The genera medusa and rhizostoma, whose nume- rous vessels are expanded in the thin edge of their disk, may probably respire by this part; but the zoophytes, properly so called, beginning with the armed polypes (hydra), breathe, if at all, by their whole surface. If, as some have conjectured, the vibrating organs of the vorticellae and rotifers are an apparatus for breathing, these animals ought to occupy a higher rank in the scale of being than they do now. Their ex- treme minuteness must oppose great obstacles to our acquiring any exact knowledge about them. - Physiology of Respiration.—The changes produced in the air by the respiration of the mollusca, &c. have been already spoken of in the article RESPIRATION, toº wards the end, under the head of Resfiration of Jāni- mals. We have only to notice here the facts that have been ascertained respecting their temperature. “Spallanzani observes,” says Mr. Ellis, “that when a snail or slug is insulated in a jar of atmospherit air, a thermometer placed in the jar will continue stationa- ry; but when several are confined together, the mer. cury rises one-tenth, one-severth, and even one-fifth of a degree, and in oxygen gas, one-third of a des: TOII? V E R M E S. from which he concludes, that snails and slugs, in de- composing oxygen gas, give out caloric enough to be sensible to the thermometer. (Memoirs on Respira- tion, p. 255. 258.) This experiment we repeated, by confining several snails in a pint jar of air, from the top of which a small thermometer was suspended, and at the bottom a glass of lime-water was placed. A film of carbonate of lime soon overspread the lime- water, the inside of the jar was dimmed by moisture, and the mercury in the thermometer rose at the same time nearly one degree. Dr. Martine says, that from the result of several trials which he made, snails were about two degrees warmer than the air. (On Ther- mometers, p. 14.1.) Mr. Hunter found the lungs of snails 38°, when the atmosphere was 34° ; and, in other instances, snails were six and seven degrees above the atmosphere, when it was so low as 30°. Earth-worms he found 58.95, when the atmosphere was 56°; and, in other trials, the worms exceeded by four, leeches by three, and slugs by four degrees the temperature of the ambient air. (Treatise on the Blood, p. 298, et, seq.) The temperature of a snail, which was 44°, sank, on exposure to a cold mixture, down to 31°, and then froze; and several leeches froze iikewise when reduced to 31°. (Observations on the Animal Economy, p. 105.) In all these experiments, the animals, when thawed, were found to be dead ; but Mr. Carlisle says, that the garden-snail may be frozen, during its state of. dormancy, without destroying its muscular irritability. Philos. Trans. 1805, p. 18.” Inquiry into the Changes, &c. p. 3 15. Generative Organs. Generative Organs of the Mollusca.—Four com- binations are met with in this class: viz. 1. Separate sexes with copulation; in several gasteropoda, as the buccinum. 2. Separate sexes without copulation; in the cephalopoda. 3. The sexes united with reciprocal copulation ; in the Snail, and most gasteropoda. 4. The sexes united, and fecundating each other in the same individual, or perfect hermaphrodism ; in the ace- phala. The Cefthalofioda ; Male Organs.—The testicle is a large, waitish, and rather soft gland, found in the bottom of the abdominal Sac ; its structure is remarka- ble, and easily developed. It is enclosed in a mem- branous capsule, united to it only by vessels passing between them, and that at one point only ; it has a thin proper cellular tunic. Its surface exhibits an infinite number of small areoiae, which are the commencement of white, opaque, soft filaments, lying close together and composing the whoſe substance of the gland. In the cuttle-fish these filaments are small and numerous, so that tise areolaº are mere points. In the octopus the filaments are larger, and like ribbons. Tiley unite successively to fºrm trunks, which terminate in the cuttie-fish, in vast Humbers, in three or four large ex- cretory canals passieg through the gland in various directions. and ending ultimately in a large common circular opening, furnished with a valve which pre- vents the return of the fluid. In the octopus, which has fewer filamen's, the large common canals do not exist, but the filajäents end immediately at the com- mon opening. These filaments are themselves small excretory vessels, surrounded by glandular parenchyma, and connected by blood-vessels, nerves, and cellular substance. The flºid they secrete is poured out through the opening into the membranous capsule, Vol. XXXVIII. from which it is conveyed by a canal representing the epididymis, and tortuous, like that tube in the human subject. It ends in a larger canal, of which the interior has at first several projecting and ramified columns and ridges, and afterwards a single one extending through its whole length, and dividing it into two half canals. This canal, much shorter and less tortuous than that of the epididymis, contracts towards its end, and penetrates a tolerably large cylindrical glandular body, possessing a large excretory duct, which receives the termination of the canal just mentioned. This body is large and solid in the octopus, much less and nearly membranous in the cuttle-fish. It is regarded as a kind of prostate. Its canal joins one of the two belonging to the cavity which contains the springing tubes, which will be spoken of presently. This cavity or bursa, which is large and much folded, is capable of considerable extension, and contains the celebrated tubes, first imperfectly described in the cut- tle-fish by Swammerdam, then more in detail by Need- ham in the calmar, and rendered famous by Buffon, who derived from them the principal support of his system, On the nature of the 'spermatic animalcules. The octo- pus has them larger than the two other species. The bursa, which contains them mixed up with a viscid liquor, is composed of two compartments communica- ting together, but each possessing a distinct orifice. One of these orifices is the commencement of a slender canal, which ends on the exterior of the penis at the side : the other also produces a canal, which, after hav- ing become still smaller, opens externally near the base of the penis. The penis is a hollow, cylindrical, fleshy body, per-. forated at its point, and having a cul-de-sac behind the place where the canal just mentioned opens. Its cavi- ty possesses fleshy columns internally. The excretory canal of the prostate, which is to trans- mit also the Seminal fluid of the testicle, communi- cates more particularly with that compartment of the bursa, whose duct opens externally on the penis. The communication indeed is very near its orifice. It is the other compartment of the bursa, whose duct opens in the penis. The name of penis is given to this part, because it projects externally, and has a cylindrical form : it does not seem, however, to be an organ of copulation, although it certainly is one of ejaculation. All the canals now described, from the testicle to the penis, are situated on the ieft Side of the abdomen, and the penis projects within the lef branchia; but as the funnel placed under the neck closes the fleshy bag, it seems impossible for the penis to approach the part which gives issue to the oviduct of the female, so as to produce copulation. The seminal fluid thrown out by the penis must traverse the funnel, as the ova, the ink, and the excrements do. Swammerdam and Needham took the bursa of the springing tubes for the testicle, from which it is con- siderably distant. They have been followed in this er- ror even by modern authors. The tubes themselves are membranous bodies like worms, terminated by a filament thiºner than their bo- dy, six lines or more in length. While they remain in their viscous liquid, or if placed in spirits or oil, they continue at rest; but if they are put in water, they be- come agitated, twist about, and throw out at one ex- tremity an opaque matter. By means of a giass we can see in their interior an opaque whitish body, spiral like a cork-screw, terminating behind in a spongy mº 3 X all v E R M Es. and before in a similar smaller one. It seems that this body is elastic, and retained by the external membrane of the tube; that water, by softening and dissolving the extremity of the tube, allows the spiral or spongy bo- dy to exert its natural elasticity; and that the twisting of the tube arises from the effort which the spiral body thus makes to escape. However the matters may be explained, the motion certainly is not a vital one, and may be seen in the tubes of a cuttle-fish, which has been preserved for years in spirits of wine, as soon as they are put in water. But what purpose is served by these tubes : Are they, like the pollen of plants, capsules containing a seminal aura, and not giving way to allow its escape, until they are in a proper situation ? They seem to be developed only in the bursa, which contains them, and they are not found at all seasons. Are the ordinary spermatic animalcules to be considered analogous to these tubes, according to the notions of Buffon : Female Organs.—They are more simple. The ovary occupies a situation analogous to that of the testicle, and is in the same manner enveloped by a membranous capsule, to which it is connected at one point only by vessels. The capsule is simple in the octopus, divi- ded into two by a septum in the cuttle-fish. The ovary has thousands of ramifications, and re- sembles the most complicated and beautiful tree. The ova enlarge unequally: at the end of a certain time we find them large, pressed together, and angular. Two tubes go from the capsule in the octopus, and the cal- mar Sagittatum of Lamarck. In the former, when empty, they are small, and plaited internally. They end at the sides of the anus. At one-third of their length is a knot, which is a gland traversed by the ova, and furnishing them with their external covering. It is divided, like an orange, by longitudinal septa. In the calmar Sagittatum there are similar glands, much larger in proportion, oval, situated at the very end of the oviducts, and divided by very numerous, thin, transverse septa. The oviduct enters at the side, and contracts considerably before going out. The cuttle-fish and common calmar have a single oviduct terminated by a gland of the same kind. The duct of the latter is larger, and makes two convolu- iIOnS. f The ducts of the calmar sagittatum end at the inner side of the branchiae : the single tube of the cuttle-fish and common calmar terminates near the left branchia, in the same situation as the penis of the male. These three species have also three enormous oval glands, divided, like that of the oviduct, by transverse septa, and opening at the sides of the anus. Their use is unknown. The eggs of the octopus and calmar are united by a gelatinous substance into small masses, while those of the cuttle-fish are united by a ductile matter into bunches, like those of grapes. The uniting medium is probably furnished by the glands which terminate the ovidict: perhaps the three glands just mentioned may also be concerned in furnishing it. Hermafi.hrodite Gasteropoda.-They must be ar- ranged in two sections; those in which the organs of the two sexes have a common issue, as the snail; and those in which their issues are separate, or even distant, as the aplysia. Under the first are included the snail, slug, testacella, Parmacella, doris, tritonia, and many tunivalves. The slug may be described first, as being the most 'gans. external. simply organized : it has only the organs common to the Whole class; viz. an ovary, oviduct, testicle, vas deferens, penis and bladder with a long neck. The ovary is situated towards the back part of the body, between the lobes of the liver and the intestines. It forms a very complicated congeries, like a bunch of small grapes of which each grain is an ovum, while the pedicles are tubes uniting together, and ending at last in the oviduct. The latter forms many zigzags, and adheres so closely to the testicle, that it may easily be supposed to penetrate its substance, and receive the secreted fluid; but this is not the case. Having ſol- lowed the whole length of the testicle, become obvi- ously larger, and even during the season of copulation swollen and plaited, the oviduct terminates in the bot- tom of the common cavity of generation. - The testicle is a white oblong gland, very large, par- ticularly at the season of propagation. It may be di- vided into two parts: the posterior, behind the junction of the oviduct is oval, and swells most at the time just mentioned. The anterior is oblong. Its stucture does not so much consist of filaments, like that of the cuttle- fish, as of grains. It produces an excretory canal, which opens at the bottom of the penis. The latter is a cylindrical fleshy bag, possessing in- ternally a prominent ridge in its whole length, and opening into the common cavity of the generative or- It can be everted like the finger of a glove, and be extended by means of its own fibres, and withdrawn to its original position by a retractor muscle arising from the back of the animal, and inserted in the point of the bag, near the vas deferens. When this bag is unfolded, and is protruded externally, it forms a pro- jecting penis, the internal ridge being unfolded so as to make the internal surface sufficiently broad to become The orifice of the was deferens is now found on the very point of the penis, having been before at the bottom of the bag. The bladder with the long neck, making the third principal organ, was called by Swammerdam the re- servoir of the purple, believing that the murex formed in an analogous part the celebrated colouring matter of the ancients. This is not the case ; though the real use of the part in question is not known. It sometimes contains, both in the slug and snail, a concrete reddish- grey substance: at other times merely a liquid. It is found in all gasteropoda, and may possibly be concern- ed in producing a fluid to cover the eggs. • The common cavity of generation is a fleshy sac, in which the three preceding organs terminate, and which has an external opening under the right superior horn. When snails copulate, they evert this sac, which then presents three openings; viz. of the oviduct, blad- der, and penis. The latter quickly comes out of its opening, and enters the oviduct of the other individual. In this way copulation is effected; the laying takes place some days after. The intimate connection between part of the oviduct and part of the testis and was deferens, deceived Swam- merdam concerning the nature of these organs. He first conceived the testicle to be the ovary: having af- terwards found the true ovary, he called the testis the bag of glue. The large part of the oviduct adhering to the testis he called the uterus; and not seeing that the was deferens belongs exclusively to the testis, and has only an external attachment to the oviduct, he ad- mitted a communication between the uterus and penis. The V E R M E S. The size of the penis varies in the different species of snails: some have it longer than the body, when ex- tended. These organs in the testacella do not differ remark- ably from those of the snail. The ovary of the tritonia is more voluminous, the oviduct larger, in proportion, and the testicle irregu- larly lobed and shaped like a ball. In the doris, the oviduct, after joining the testis, ap- pears to unite with the canal of the bladder, and to form with it a common canal. In the dorissoiea, from the Indian seas, it seems even to enter the bladder it- self; which would confirm the notion of this part being designed to furnish a covering for the ova. The testi- cle is rounded, and touches the common cavity. A Small accessory bladder is connected to the canal of the bladder. In the bulimus stagnalis (helix, Linn.) the connection between the oviduct and testicle is not so close. The was deferens can be distinguished throughout, at first large and expanded into a reservoir much plaited, and capable of containing a large quantity of fluid. At passing out, the canal is small, enters the flesh near the end of the oviduct, then comes out again to end in the bottom of the sac of the penis, which is organized as in the slug. The ovary and testicle of the snail are arranged as in the slug. The neck of the bladder is much longer, and connected to the broad portion of the oviduct, as far as the point of its union with the testicle. The lower part of its neck is broad, and receives the orifice of the oviduct. It moreover receives the apertures of two parts, which do not exist in the slug; viz. two ramified organs, each of which terminates in fifteen or twenty small caeca, containing a white milky liquor. This might be considered as seminal fluid, and the organs as vesiculae seminales, but they have no imme- diate connection with the vas deferens. The latter terminates in the side of the penis, near its entry into the common cavity. The penis therefore is not perfo- rated at its bottom, as in the slug: it is also much longer; but probably it cannot be unfolded in its whole length, perhaps only as far as the point at which the vas deferens enters: this would then become its ex- ternal extremity. The snail has another remarkable part, not found in the slug; viz. the sac of the dart. It is oblong, with thick muscular parietes: at the bottom there is a pa- pilla, from which proceeds a pointed dagger-shaped dart, with four cutting edges. The substance of this singular part is calcareous: it is renewed when lost. Snails prick each other with it, at any part of the skin indifferently, when they are about to copulate. They seem too to dread it; for as soon as one perceives the other's dart, he withdraws immediately into the shell. The object of such a proceeding cannot be conjectu- red. Copulation does not take place, until after both individuals have brought out their darts: it resembles that of the slug. The length of the penis protruded in copulation, and the number of caeca, vary in the different species of snails. The parmacella has the same organs as the snails. Its vesiculae are oval and undivided, and terminate di- rectly in the common cavity. The sac of the dart is nearer to the prepuce of the penis; and the was de- ferens opens in the bottom of the latter. The second section of hermaphrodite gasteropoda includes those, in whom the penis passes out at some point of the body distant from the oviduct. The vas deferens is still united to the Oviduct, and communi- cates with the penis only by the intervention of a groove excavated in the external surface of the body. This groove is on the right side of the neck in the aplysia; under the right edge of the cloak in the onchidium, &c. The ovary of the aplysia in an oval mass, occupying all the posterior part of the abdomen, and in is ordina- ry state of a whitish colour. The oviduct arises from it by several vessels, coming from the different parts of the mass, like the excretory tubes of a gland, and uniting into one canal. The latter, having run along the right side of the testicle, suddenly becomes smaller, turns round the apex of that gland, and forms a canal which, having been closely joined for some time to the was deferens, terminates by opening in it, after receiv- ing a small blind intestine, apparently analogous to the ramified organs of the snail. The testicle is of a beautiful yellow, and resembles an elliptic spheroid surrounded by a spiral band. Its middle is tolerably compact, and seems nearly homo- geneous. The spiral band is itself divided into a prin- cipal finely striated band, of which the striae are pro- bably so many vessels, and two smooth borders, which are excretory tubes. The superior is the was deferens common to the whole testicle, serving to convey the seminal fluid. The common cord going to the exterior of the body is at first divided into two canals. That which comes from the testis is formed of a thin membrane much plaited: the other, from the oviduct, has thicker pa- rietes. From the first third of their length they com- municate freely by means of a slit.: yet the distinction between them is marked by a projecting membranous septum. The oval bladder opens, towards the second thread, by a small particular duct. Beyond this orifice, the double canal forms a prominence, visible external- ly, on the right side of the body : its opening is conti- nuous with a deep groove formed in the right side of the neck, and continued into the body of the penis. Does this groove conduct the seminal fluid of one aplysia into the body of another ? The solution of the mode of fecundation in these animals depends on the answer to that question. The onchidium resembles the aplysia in the separa- tion of the organs. The oviduct, after being joined to the testicle, is united to the canal of the bladder, near its neck; and the common canal goes out at the same point as the vas deferens. From their orifice a groove extends, on the right side, along the under part of the cloak, to that of the penis situated at the right side of the head. The latter communicates first with a cavity having two cul-de-sacs. In the bottom of one of them a cylindrical tube enters, which traverses an elliptical muscular enlargement, and extends beyond it to a length more than five times that of the body. Near its entrance into the cavity, this tube conceals a sharp horny point. The other cul-de-sac receives the end of a tube shorter and much slenderer than the preceding, without any enlargement This has also a small horny point in the corresponding situation. The use of these organs is not known. The oviduct is distinct throughout from the testicle and the canal of the bladder in the bullaea, although the three organs have their issue at the same point. There is also an accessory vesicula, coming out with them, and a smaller one ending in the oviduct. The 3 X 3 penis V E R M E S. penis forms a tube nearly as long as that of the onchi- dium, but without any enlargement or accessory tube. The openings of the sexual organs are remote from each other in the hyalaea and pneumodermon, although united in the same individual; but the animals are too small for a detailed description. Gasterofloda with señarate Seares.—This separation certainly exists in the buccinum undatum. The male is recognized, even externally, by a fleshy penis as large as a finger, compressed, broader at the end, and termi- nated by a small tubercle, which is perforated by the orifice of the vas deferens. It adheres to the right side of the neck, and folds back into the pulmonary cavity, but the animal often extends it, without any in- tention of copulating. The was deferens traverses its whole length, making several folds and zigzags; it enters the right side of that part of the body which fills the shell, makes a large packet of tortuous turns, be- comes gradually smaller, and ends at the testicle, a yel- lowish, soft, glandular mass, occupying with the liver the highest turns of the shell. - Nothing similar to this penis is found in the female; the neck is smooth, but on the right side of the pulmo- nary cavity, between the body and the rectum, a large canal is seen, the extremity of the oviduct. The orifice is small : on opening it we find a large tube with thick glandular parietes, calculated no doubt to furnish an exterior covering for the ova. It opens a little within the edge of the pulmonary cavity by a small aperture. In the murex tritonis, there is a similar separation of sexes, and a penis equally fleshy and prominent. In- stead, however, of having a complete was deferens in its interior, there is a simple groove on the surface, con- tinued on the body, as far as the portion which fills the shell. The penis is proportionally shorter and thinner than in the buccinum. The female has an oviduct si- milar to that of the female buccinum. The strombus has a mere tubercle projecting slight- ly at the right side of its very smail foot. The seminal fluid is conveyed to it also by a groove. The penis of the voluta is fleshy, conical, always pro- jecting, but not perforated : the semen arrives by a groove, which however ends at its basis, without going to the point. ` In those genera with separate sexes, the oviduct is wanting when there is a penis with its groove ; this groove occupying the place of the oviduct. There is a hermaphrodite species ; but it seems formed rather on the model of those just described, than on that of the species in the former division. It is the helix vivipara of fresh water. It has an oviduct and a groove, placed side by side, and ending respectively at the ovary and testicle. The latter is closely joined to the oviduct: its groove terminates externally at the very edge of the foot, under the right horn; and there is no penis but the prominence which this edge may form when extended. The oviduct is of great size and length when filled with small living individuals. This animal is ovo-viviparous. In the upper part of its oviduct we find eggs not hatched, resembling smail globules of a whitish giairy matter, in which with a glass the animal can be seen covered by its shell. In these ova the small pedicle may be still seen, by which they were attached to the ovary. The acehhala are all hermaphrodites, and impreg- nate themselves without any copulation. We discover no other generative organs but an ovary, extending over the two sides of the body, immediately under the skin, penetrating between the tendons of the muscles, and sometimes between the two membranes ºf the cloak. The size and colour vary according as the ani- mai is more or less advanced in gestation. At a certain period a milky liquor is seen in it, which is probably a seminal fluid designed to fecundate the ova. When the latter are advanced, they pºss into the spaces be- tween the two vascular laminae, composing each of the four plates of the branchiae, and sometimes distend them in an extraordinary manner, for the number is truly prodigious in some species. The eggs ºf the ovo-viviparous species, as the fresh-water muscle, are hatched in the branchiae. When we observe the little muscles with a glass, we see them open and shut their valves with great activity. No orifice has yet been discovered, by which they could pass out; probably they escape by lacerating the tissue at the edges of the branchiae between their pul- monary vessels. The organs of generation in the naked acephala, as the bipitoti and ascidiae, and in the branchiopoda, as the terebratulae and lingulae, have not been carefully in- vestigated. The cirropoda, or balani and anatifae, differ very much from the acephala, and approach in their male organs, as in several others, to the crustacea. On each side of their intestinal canal there is a white serpentine tube, supposed to be the tesicle, and ending towards the basis of the rectum. Yet these animals are her- maphrodites, and their ovaries are two masses placed between the trunk and the cloak, and connected in their situation only by vessels and cellular tissue. Generative Organs of Worms.—This class exhibits the three combinations, which are found in the mollus- ca; some have the sexes separate; others united, so that they fecundate themselves in an insulated manner; in a third division they are united, but there is a reci- procal copulation. The leech exemplifies the latter modification; it has a very considerable penis, composed of a thick and long muscular tube, hollow internally, which can be protruded like the penis of the snail, while it is pro- longed backwards into a slender and merely membra- nous tube. There are two testicles, each composed of numerous convolusions of a single, soft, whitish canal, with glandular sides, and of a short, straight, and mus- cular was deferens. These two tubes appear to termi- nate at the basis of the muscular part of the penis, and the seminal fluid probably flows alºng the grooves of its surface, when it is unrolled. Near it is a cavity opening externally, and serving apparently to receive the penis of the other individual The orifices of these parts are near each other, and near the anterior extre- mity of the body. The earth-worm exhibits two orifices on its under surface, near the anterior extremity, and not, as some have described, at the swelling in the middle of the body. They correspond internally to two or three soft, oval, glandular cavities. There are several smailer ones around them. These seem to be organs of gene- rations; but we cannot point out their functions. Wil- lis mentions that the large cavities are sometimes filed with eggs; but we see true ovaries, in the form of small intestines, arranged in three or four pairs, and swelled by ova, so as to resemble rows of beads. No external or internal organ of copulation can be found; yet it is popularly known that earth-worms remain closely embraced for the purpose of fecundation. In the V E R M E S. In the anterior part of the body of the lumbricus marinus there are five greyish Sacculi on each side, suspended by vessels and cellular substance, and ap- pearing analogous to those of the earth-worm. The ova must escape from the Sacculi in these animals, for we sometimes find the whole body filled with them. The same thing is seen in the aphrodite, where the sexes are separate ; in small individuals the body is filled with a whitish milt, while the large ones have it full of Small ova in all the intervals of the viscera. If, as it seems probabie, there are particular organs for the preparation of these substances, they have not yet been discovered or described. The same observation may be extended to the genera nereis, surpula, and other red-blooded worms. It is doubtful, whether or no there are distinct sexes in the intestinal worms. In the ascaris lumbricoides, the orifice of generation is found in the anterior third of the body: a small short vessel soon ends in two larger ones, which gradually diminishing extend to four or five times the length of the body, and are collected in irre- gular bundles, which may be easily developed. These tubes, which must be regarded as ovaries contain a milky fluid, and an infinite number of small ova. All the echino-dermata seem to be hermaphrodites, and to possess the power of fecundating themselves: their ovaries fill a large part of the body, when they are swollen in the season of laying. They are sometimes seen bathed as it were in a milky liquor, which seems to bold the place of seminal fluid : this may be observ- ed in the common star-fish, where the ovaries form five large branches, one for each division of the body: the eggs are round and reddish. The echini, properly so called, have from five to ten considerable ovaries, reddish, lying near the surface of the shell, and ending at the circumference of the anus. They form the eatable portion of the echini. In the holothuriae, a collection of numerous ramified small tubes is seen near the mouth, amazingly develop- ed at particular seasons, when they are filled with a reddish powdery matter, sometimes collected in glo- bules. These parts seem to be the ovaries; but we See also, near the anus, numerous whitish filaments, re- sembling worms, and each formed of a slender elastic thread, turned spirally, and capable of being unfolded. Tie-mode of generation in the actiniae has been des- cribed by Reaumur : he states that “in producing its young, the actinia inverts its body as it does in reject- ing the shells of animals, which it has swallowed for food. I have observed that these animals are viviparous, and have seen them come out, perfectly formed, from the body of the mother, as they are represented in fig. 25. It is necessary that the cavity should be turned in- side out, as we have already described in speaking of the digestive process: the young ones then come out of a large transverse fissure. Although the parent may contain sometimes more than twelve (and this opening is large enough to allow several to pass at once), they come out one by one, and indifferently at all parts of the fissure. These little actiniae, before their birth, are placed in the basis of the parent; and lodged in ſolds of the membrane.” Reaumur, Acad. des Sciences, i 710, p. 477. The process and the organs concerned in it have been described more in detail by Dr. Spix, in the Annales du Muséum d’Hist. Naturelle, tom. xiii. “ The space left between the alimentary cavity and the external en- velope of the animal is divided,” he says, “into longi- tudinal cavities by folds of a membrane which lines it, and is analogous to peritoneum. Each longitudinal cavity contains an ovary, and communicates with two or three tentacula. Each ovary is composed of three or four cylindrical and united tubes, joining together at their basis into a common canal, and becoming slenderer towards the apex in proportion as the eggs become smaller, of which each ovary cºntains about sixty. The common tubes of two neighbouring ovaries join into one, and this latter again joins the common tube of the two next ovaries. The oviduct thus formed belongs there- fore to four ovaries, and terminates in the bottom of the stomach. This is the only point at which the young can come forth : hence all observers have found them in the stomach, without knowing irow they came there. The eggs are round, yellow, and similar to grains of sand. The actiniae are viviparous, according to the observa- tions of Reaumur, Ellis, and Dicquemarre, with which my own agree. I have often seen the young come out of the mouth, of a form perfectly similar to that of the mother. An actinia, which I have in spirits of wine, contains a great number of eggs marked with an opaque point, and apparently containing the embryo animal. I have even an individual about the size of a hempseed, which seems to quit its eovering with dif- ficulty, and whose mouth and tentacula are not yet distinct.” P. 448. pl. 33. The multiplication of polypes and zoophytes by buds or shoots is well known : this seems to preclude the existence of a particular organ of generation. Yet the author just quoted, has described and figured parts which he considers as generative organs in a species of alcyonium. See his Memoir and plate as above. Peculiar Secretions.—The inky fluid of the sepiae is produced in a membranous bag, expressly destined to that office. The secreting organ is a villous surface, with fine and long processes, adhering to one of the sides of the bag. The secretion is a very thick black substance; but its particles are so minute, that it admits almost of infinite dilution, and a small quantity will tinge a vast volume of water. This matter, when removed and dried, forms the colour named sepia by the painters; that of the common cuttle-fish is a black-brown. The octopus has it blacker; and the Indian ink which comes from China is certainly nothing more than the produce of some sepia of that country, so that it is useless to attempt imitating it by artificial mixtures. Chymical analysis has discovered in it a very minutely divided carbonaceous matter, mixed with animal gluten. The ink-bag of the octopus is enveloped by the lobes of the liver, which has given rise to the erroneous idea of some moderns, that this partis analogous to the gall- bladder, and that the fluid is a biliary secretion. It is in front of the liver in the calmar, but free, and not enclosed in its substance. In the cuttle-fish it is much more deeply placed, before the intestines and the inter mediate heart. In all cases, its excretory duct terminates near the anus, pouring its liquor into the funnel, which is the general receptacle for all the excretions. The hurhle matter, so celebrated among the ancients, is produced by several different gasteropoda : possibly, however, some species may furnish it of a more beauti- ful or durable kind. It transudes in some of the genus murex from the edges of the cloak ; so that it is no doubt produced in them as in the aplysia, of which the organ V E R M E S. organ will be described. Swammerdam suspected that the sac, adhering to the organs of generation, and des- cribed by the indefinite term of bladder, was the re- servoir of the purple; but this suspicion does not seem well founded. In the aplysia the operculum of the branchiae is analo- gous to the cloak of other univalves, and differs from it only because the shell does not entirely fill it. The edge is occupied, in all parts to which the shell does not extend, by a spongy substance, of which all the pores are distended by the purple matter. This is so thick, that when it is expressed without being diluted, its colour is a black violet; but it gives water the tint of claret wine. A single aplysia is capable of colouring in this way several buckets of water. In spirits of wine this liquor becomes of a deep green. Some naturalists represent that the colouring liquor of certain animals of the genus murex comes out of the body green, and changes to purple by the action of light. But it may be squeezed out of the murux brandaris of a perfect violet colour. Shinning Organs (Filières) of acefiſhalous Mollusca. —The muscles of salt-water (mytilus), the limae (ostrea lima, Linn.), pernaº (ostrea, Linn.), aviculae, and pec- tines, are fixed to rocks by means of threads, which they make themselves. Those of the pinna are the most celebrated, for they have been actually employed in manufactures. The matter, of which the threads are formed is pro- duced by a conglomerate gland, concealed in the body under the base of the foot. The latter, which has more or less resemblance to a tongue, with a groove along its under surface, seizes the viscous matter at the orifice of the excretory tube, draws it out, and models it in the groove. It fixes the end, still soft, to a rock, and returns to the orifice, to find the materials of another. Reau- mur has minutely described the process, in the Me- moirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1710, from which we have taken the following particulars. “From the root of this kind of tongue, or the part where it is attached to the body of the animal, several threads are observed to proceed to some neighbouring fixed object, and thus attach the animal in its situation. They are about equal in size to a pig’s bristle; vary in length from one to two inches, and pass out of the shell at the part where it naturally opens. Stones, fragments of shells, and very frequently the shells of other muscles, are the objects to which they are fixed: hence we often find large assemblages of these animals adhering toge- ther. I have sometimes reckoned more than 150 threads employed in fastening a single muscle: as they take different directions, we may regard them as so many cables keeping the animal firmly anchored. “Having detached several, I enclosed them in boxes, and put them in the sea : in a few days, they were at- tached to the sides of the vessel, and to each other. I placed others in vessels of sea-water, and observed their proceedings. In a short time they opened their shell, and thrust out the part already described, which I have compared to a tongue. They elongated and then short- ened it, and thus stretched it out farther: they would at last extend it to two inches in length, and then feel about with its extremity, as if to reconnoitre the ground. After these preludes, they fixed it for a time in one spot, and then withdrew it quickly, carrying it back completely into the shell. I now discovered that they were fixed to the spot by a thread. The repetition of this ma- noeuvre multiplied the threads, until they were suffici- ently numerous to fasten the animal. The new threads thus formed were whiter and more transparent than those which had existed for some time.” P. l 14, et seq. When a thread has been formed, the animal seems to try its strength, and sometimes it gives way. They will fix themselves to the surface of glass. They do not form more than four or five threads in a day. P. 122. M. Reaumur could not discover whether they have the power of detaching themselves, after being once fixed. The youngest muscles spin these threads, such even as are smaller than millet seeds. The threads give way in time, either from the repeated shocks to which they are exposed, or from an alteration in their texture by time. P. 123. The pinnae are very large animals, the valves of their shells measuring one or two feet, attached to rocks, &c. in a manner similar to that of the muscles, except that the threads are longer and more numerous. They almost equal, in fineness and beauty, the silk spun by the silkworm: hence the French name of coquille porte-soie, and the ancient name of barba byssina appli- ed to this production, which has been generally called the beard of the animal. It has actually been manu- factured in Sicily, and other parts of the Mediterranean, into gloves and other articles, which exactly resembled silk. As the individual threads are so fine, their num- ber is immense. Ibid. In the Memoirs for 1717, Reaumur speaks at greater length of the pinna or jambonneau, and the silk threads which attach the animal to surrounding objects. These animals are fished in the Mediterranean, in from fifteen to thirty feet of water. The tuft of silk is attached, as in the muscle, immediately to the animal’s body, and passes between the two valves, at four or five inches from the small end of the shell, in large pinnae. As they are torn up with an iron hook, you cannot be sure of seeing the whole length of the fastening; but Reau- mur has found it seven or eight inches long, and weigh- ing three ounces. The spinning organ is about two inches long in the dead animal, and must admit of ex- tension to six or seven inches in the living, to form threads of the length we meet with. The end of the silk passes into a conical bag, which contains four mem- branous plates, and an equal number between them of thin silk plates, made of fine silk intricately interwoven. The silk fastening of the animal is secured to the latter. Observations sur le Coquillage appellé Pinne marine, ou Nacre de Perle, &c. On the subject of the remarkable power, possessed by many animals of the lower orders, particularly in the genus medusa, of producing light, see the article LIGHT. The source of that singular property, which many medusae possess, of imparting a burning sensation to the skin, like that produced by the common nettle, (whence their names of urtica marina, sea-nettles, &c.) is not known. It may be in some fluid secreted by the animal. We may observe, in general, of all the secretions in the lower orders, including the purple matter and silk, the biliary fluids, the luminous and stinging particles, the calcareous matter of shells, &c. that they are pro- duced in structures much less complicated, and in animals much less perfectly organized, than the analo- gous products of the vertebral division, W 'V 6). V E R M E. S. We cannot pretend to give a complete enumeration of the works, from which information may be derived on the subject of the preceding article; but we shall mention a few of the most important. On the anatomy of the lower orders, science is most deeply indebted to the learned, acute, and indefatiga- ble Cuvier, who has contributed more than all others together to our accurate knowledge of these classes. His “Leçons d’Anatomie comparée” contain the re- sults of most of his labours; and the greater part of our descriptions is derived from that work. He has also published numerous excellent papers, accompanied with very beautiful and valuable engravings, on the anatomy of several genera of mollusca, in the Memoires du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. They are as follow : Memoire sur l’Animal de la Lingule (Lingula anatina, Lamarck); tom. i. p. 69. Memoire sur la Bullaea aperta (Lamarck), Bulla aperta (Linn.); tom. i. p. 156. Memoire sur le Clio borealis; tom. i. p. 242. Memoire sur le Genre Tritonie, avec la Description et l’Anatomie d’une nouvelle Espèce, Tritonia Hom- bergii; tom. i. p. 480. Memoire sur le Genre Aplysia, vulgairement nom- mé Lievre marin, sur son Anatomie, et sur quelques unes de ses Espèces; tom. ii. p. 287. Memoire concernant l’Animal de l’Hyale, un nou- veau Genre de Mollusques, intermediaire entre l’Hyale et le Clio, et l’Etablissement d’un nouvel Ordre dans la Classe des Mollusques; tom. iv. p. 223. Memoire sur les Thalides (Thalia, Brown), et sur les Biphores (Salpa, Forskaohl); tom. iv. p. 360. Memoire sur le Genre Doris; tom. iv. p. 447. Memoire sur le Limace (Limax, Linn.), et le Coli- maçon (Helix, ejusd.); tom. vii. p. 140. Memoire sur le Limnée (Helix stagnalis, Linn.), et le Planorbe (Helix cornea, Linn.); tom. vii. p. 185. Memoire sur l'Onchidie, Genre de Mollusques nus Voisins des Limnées, et sur une Espèce nouvelle, Onchidium Peronii; tom. v. p. 37. Memoire sur la Phyllidie et sur le Pleurobranche, deux nouveaux Genres de Mollusques de la Famille des Gastéropodes, et Voisins des Patelles et des Osca- brions, dont l’un est nu, et dont l'autre porte une Co- quille cachée ; tom. v. p. 266. Memoire sur la Dolabelle, sur la Testacelle, et Sur un nouveau Genre de Mollusques à Coquille cachée, nommé Parmacelle ; tom. V. p. 435. Memoire sur la Scyllée, l’Eolide et la Glaucus, avec des Additions au Memoire sur la Tritonie; tom. vi. p. 416. Memoire sur l’Ianthine et la Phasianelle de M. La- marck; tom. xi. p. 121. Memoire sur la Vivipare d’Eau douce (Cyclostoma viviparum, Draparnaud; Helix vivipara, Linn.), sur quelques Espèces voisines, et Idée générale sur la Tri- bu des Gastéropodes pectinés à Coquille entière ; tom. xi. p. 170. Memoire sur le grand Buccin de nos Côtes) Bucci- num undatum, Linn.), ainsi que sur les Buccins, les Murex, les Strombes, eten général Sur les Gastéropodes pectinés à Syphon; tom. xi. p. 447. Memoire sur le Genre Tethys, et Son Anatomie ; tom. xii. p. 257. Memoire sur les Acéres, ou Gastéropodes sans Ten- 1acules apparens; tom. xvi. p. 1. <-- tº, Sur les Ascidies, ct sur leur Anatomie, Memoires du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle; tom. ii. p. 10. Sur les Animaux des Anatifés et des Balanes, La- marck (Lepas, Linn.), et sur leur Anatomie ; ibid. p. 85. We may refer also to Péron, sur le nouveau Genre Pyrosoma, Ann. du Mus. tom. iv. p. 437. Péron et Le Sueur sur les Meduses du Genre Equo- rée, tom. xv. p. 41 ; et Histoire déla Famille des Mol- lusques Pteropodes, p. 57. Spix Memoire pour servir à l’Histoire de l'Asterie rouge (Asteries rubens, Linn.), de l’Actinie coriacée (Actinia coriacea, Cuv.), et de l’Alcyon exos; Ann. du Mus. tom. xiii. p. 438. Mery, Remarques sur la Moule des Etangs; Mem. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1710. Reaumur, De la Formation et de l’Accroissement des Coquilles des Animaux tant terrestres qu'aquati- ques, soit de Mer, soit de Rivière; ibid. 1709. Reaumur, Du Mouvement progressif, et de quelques autres Mouvemens de diverses Espèces de Coquillages, Orties, et Etoiles de Mer; ibid. 1710. Reaumur, Des différentes Manières dont plusieurs Espèces d’Animaux Ge Mer s'attachent au Sable, aux Pierres, et les uns aux autres, 1711. Reaumur, Observations sur le Mouvement progres- sif de quelques Coquillages de Mer, sur celui des Herissons de Mer, et sur celui d'une Espèce d’Etoile; ibid. 1712. Reaumur, Eclaircissement de quelques Difficultés sur la Formation et l’Accroissement des Coquilles; ibid. 17 6. Lamarck, Système des Animaux sans Vertebres. Bosc, Histoire Naturelle des Vers. Bohadsch, De quibusdam Animalibus marinis, 1761, 4to. Pet. Forskaohl, Icones Rerum naturalium, quas in Itinere orientali depingi curavit. Edidit C. Niebuhr, Havniae, 1776, fol. J. C. Poli, Testacea utriusque Siciliae, eorumque Historia et Anatome. Parmae, 1791, 2 vols. fol. Goeze, Versuch einer Naturgeschichte der Einge- weidewiirmer thierischer Korper, 1782, 4to. Werner, Vermium Intestinalium praesertim Taeniae humana brevis Expositio, 1782, 8vo.; with three con- tinuations, 1782, et seq. Rudolphi Entozoorum Historia, 2 vols. 8vo. Müller, Zoologia Danica, fol. Müller, Von wirmern siissen und Salzigen Wassers, 4to. Pallas, Miscellanea Zoologica et spicilegia Zoolo- giae. Swammerdam, Biblia Naturae. Lister, Exercitationes Anatomica?. Since this article was finished, new and valuable sources of information on the subjects comprehended in it have been opened to the public. Under this head we may enumerate Cuvier Histoire et Anatomie des Mollusques, 4to. 1817, containing all the memoirs specified above, and some new ones, particularly one on the cephalopoda. Cuvier, Regne Animal, 4 tom. 8vo. Savigny, Sur les Animaux sans Vertebres, part 2. Lamarck, Sur les Animaux sans Vertebres, 2d edi- tion, greatly enlarged. Blainville, various memoirs on the Mollusca, pub- lished in the Bulleten des Sciences, 1814–1817. Tiedemann. V E. R. V E R Tiedemann, Anat, der Holothuria, des Seesterns, et des See-igels; fol. Landshut. VERMICELLI, or VERMICHELLI, a kind of mixture, prepared of flour, cheese, yolks of eggs, sugar, and saffron; and reduced into little long pieces, or threads, like worms, by forcing it with a piston through a num- ber of little holes in the end of a pipe made for the pur- pose. - The word, in the original Italian, signifies little worms : they also call it tagliarini, and milléfanti. It was first brougnt to us from Italy, where it is in great vogue. In effect, it is the great regale of the Italians. Other nations are not easily brought to relish the taste of it. It is chiefly used in soups and pottages, to warm, provoke venery, &c. VERMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing that bears a relation or resemblance to worms, vermiculi. Anatomists particularly apply it to the motion of the intestines and certain muscles of the body. The vermicular, or fieristaltic, motion of the intestines is performed by the contraction of the fibres thereof from above downward; as the unnatural, or antiperist- altic motion, is by their contraction from below up- wards. The contraction happening in the peristaltic, which others call the vermicular motion, as resembling the motion of worms, does not affect all the parts of the intestines at once; but one part after another. VERMICULAR, or Vermiculated Work, Ohus vermicu- latum, in Sculpture ; a sort of ornament, consisting of frets, or knots, in Mosaic pavements, winding, and re- presenting, in some sort, the tracks made by worms : “ Quam lepide lexeis compositae, uttesserulae omnes Arte pavimento, atque emblemate vermiculato.” Cic. de. Orat. lib. iii. VERMICULARIA, in Botany, from vermiculus a little worm, so named by Tode, on account of the ar- rangement of the seeds.--Tode Fung. Mecklenb. v. 1. 31. Pers. Syn. Fung. I 10.—Class and order, Cryto- gamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi. * Ess. Ch. Capsule globose, sessile, filled with ver- micular bodies, covered with seeds. This genus appears to have been seen only by the lynx-eyed author of the Fungi Mecklenbergenses. Per- Soon has adopted it from him. Three species are all that we find described. 1. V. fiseudoshharia. Black Granulated Vermicu- laria. Tode n. 1. t. 6. f. 46. Pers. n. 1–Globose, ag- gregate. Capsule, granulated, black Seed-bearing filaments loose, naked, white.—On rotten oak-bark in March, found but once. The capsule is not larger than a grain of sand, slightly compressed, tender, not brittle as in Shharia ; full of short, flexible, crowded fibres, covered all over with extremely minute white seeds. Afterwards the fibres turn orange coloured. 2. V. fºubescens. Downy Vermicularia. Tode n. 2. t. 6. f. 47. Pers. n. 2–Globose, scattered Cap- sule downy, two-coloured. Seed-bearing filaments loose, naked, hoary.—Found in rainy weather, in July, on dry stalks, or dead branches. The size of cabbage- Seed, of a deep orange-colour, covered with white cot- tony down. Fibres very slender, crowded together. 3. V. his/hida. Hispid Vermicularia. Tode n. 3. t. 6. f. 48. Pers. n. 3.-Cushion-like, scattered. Cap- Sule black, beset with bristles, which disappear from its summit. Seed-bearing filaments whitish, loosely im- mersed in meally pulp.–Found but once, on rotten elder-wood, in April. This is no larger than the first species. The capsule is orbicular, depressed; when young bristly all over ; but at length the centre shows itself quite bare, very smooth, never bursting, slighty wrinkled as it advances in age. The fibres, though un- connected with any other part, are imbedded in rather soft pulp, which is peculiar to the present species. VERMICULARIS. See AscARIs. VERMICULARIS Crusta, a term used by some anato- mical writers to express the internal hairy and corru- gated coat of the intestines. VERMICULI SPERMATICI. See GENERATION. VERMICULUM, a word used by some chemists to express a tincture or elixir. VERMICULUS MARINUs, the Sea-worm, in JVatu- ral History, the name of a genus of shell-fish. These shells are called vermiculi, Sea-worms, from the fish contained in them, which is always a sort of worm. They usually are found in great clusters together, interwoven oddly with one another. Bonani calls them sea-serpents, enclosed in shells, from the various twisted forms in which they adhere to ships and rocks. The author establishes them among the multivalves, because they are never found single, but always in these clusters. In this sense he looks upon the whole cluster as the shell-fish under conside- ration, not any one of the single tubes; though he acknowledges that each of these tubes is a perfect shell, independent of the rest, and has its proper inhabitant. Strictness in natural history, therefore would not bear him out, in arranging them among muftivalves; for they are certainly a univalve shell, though many of them happen always to be found together. Care must be had not to confound these with the dentalia and entalia; for these last are always found single; and the vermiculi, of the kind here treated of, are always found together in great numbers, forming clusters of ten inches, and often much more in diameter. Of the vermiculi, which are straight, we have eight species; of the crooked kind, we have four species; and of those which are disposed in a sort of circles, we have nine species. Hist. Nat. Eclair. p. 354. According to Da Costa’s arrangement, the vermi- culi or worm-shells constitute the third family of uni- valve shells: and he defines them to be tubular cylindric shells, singie, in masses together, or adherent to other shells or bodies; variously sinuous, by winding or twisting to and fro in a very irregular manner. Of these vermiculi he reckons two genera, viz. those which have no fixed or regular form, as the common vermiculi, of which, though they are found in great abundance, there are not many different species; and the penecilli or worm-shells, which, in the whole, or any particular part, have a determinate regular shape or structure. There are few species of this genus ; the watering-pot from the East Indies is the chief kind, and, when perfect, is nauch valued. There are also vermiculi which have concamerations, or are divided into chambers by a few or many transverse plates; but they are seldom regular, or set at equidistant intervals, and not pierced by a pipe or siphunculus, communica- ting from chamber to chamber, so as to permit the fish to penetrate more than one chamber or enclosure at a time; in which respect they differ from the concame- rated shells, as the nautili, &c. The vermiculi are frequently found in the fossile state; but there is no Species, V E R V E. R. species, that is not known recent, or from the sea. Da Costa’s Conchol. p. 148. See CONCHOLOGY. VERMIFORMIS Aſifiendix Caeci, in Anatomy, a small blind process connected with the caecum. See INTESTINE. VERMIForMIS Processus, of the cerebellum. See BRAIN. VERMIFUGE SUBSTANCEs, in the diseases of ani- mals, are all such as are found capable of destroying or expelling insects or worms from their bodies.— They are of many different sorts, as those of savin chopped fine, antimony, calomel, and many others. See WoRMs. - VERMIFUGUS, the same with anthelmintic. WoRM-Seed, and Worm-Powd ERs. VERMILION, a bright, beautiful red colour; in great esteem among the ancients, under the denomina- tion of minium. There are two kinds of vermilion ; the one natural, the other factitious. The natural is found in some silver mines in form of a ruddy sand : which they prepare and purify by several lotions and coctions. When this is used as a colour, no other preparation is necessary than a careful levigation with water on a stone. The factitious or common is made of artificial cinna- bar ground up, as some say, with white wine, and after- wards with the white of eggs: in this state it is made into cakes, and left to dry. And to fit it for use, they grind it up a second time with water, and whites of eggs. To purify and heighten its colour, some grind it up with urine, or spirits of wine, to which a little saffron is added. Some also pretend to make vermilion of lead, burnt and washed ; or of ceruss, rubified by fire. But these are not properly denominated vermilion, but red lead. See MINIUM. It is this last, however, that scens to be the artificial minium, or vermilion of the ancients; and, accordingly, apothecaries and painters still give it that name. The ancient Greek and Latin authors have given divers fabulous accounts of their minium ; and several of the moderns have adopted their dreams; the most rational accounts are, that Theophrastus attributes the first invention of making it to Callias the Athenian ; who hit upon it in endeavouring to draw gold, by fire, out ºf a red sand, found in the silver mines, in the year of Rome 249. But Vitruvius says, it was discovered in the Cilbian fields; where it was drawn from a red stone, called by the Greeks anthraac. We have two kinds of vermilion from Holland ; the one of a deep red, the other paie ; but both are in reality the same matter, the difference of colour only proceeding from the cinnabar’s being more or less ground ; when fine ground, the vermilion is pale; and this is preferred to the coarser and redder, It is of considerable use among the painters in oil, and in miniature ; and likewise among the ladies, as a fucus, or paint, to heighten the complexion of such as are too pale. VERMILION is sometimes also, though improperly, used for what we otherwise call kermes, or scarlet grain. \ ERMILLION LAKE, in Geography, a lake of North America, which extends 6 or 7 miles N.N.W., and by a narrow strait communicates with lake Na- maycan, that takes its name from a particular place at VOL. XXXVIII. See the foot of a fall, where the natives spear sturgeon. N. lat. 48° 40'. W. long. 93° 26'. VERMILLION Point, or Cafe Townsend, a peninsula in lake Michigan, which separates Green bay from the other part of the lake; 23 leagues long, and from 1 to 3 broad. VERMILLION River, one of the principal rivers of Louisiana, in that part of the state which is called Atta- capas, and which is bounded S. by the gulf of Mexico, N.W. by Opelousas, N.E. by the Atchafalaya, and on the E. by the Atchasalaya and the lakes belonging to that river. This district forms a scalene triangle, whose area amounts to 5100 square miles: the actual popu- lation, ascertained by the census of 1810, amounts to less than two persons to the square mile. The Ver- million river, like the Teche (which see), has its source in Opelousas, and enters Attacapas or Attakapas at the mouth of Carrion Crow ; it then runs south about 16 miles, then winds to the west, and receives from the south the bayou (creek) Tortua, continues west eight miles, passes the ridge of hills, (a ramification of which winds along each bank to Some distance,) and assumes a south-west course, which it maintains 25 miles. When it enters the hills, its magnitude justifies the title of river, though it has that appellation below the Car- rion Crow. The tide in autumn is perceivable thus high, the current of the river being at all times rather gentle. When it has completed its south-west course, it winds south-east by south 20 miles: the whole length of its comparative course in Attacapas being 69 or 70 miles; but the distance, pursuing the windings of the stream, must exceed 100 miles. The two large prairies, known by the names of Opelousas and Attacapas, ex- tend on each side of the Vermillion, from its entrance into Attacapas to its egress into the gulf of Mexico. Wood abounds more on the Vermillion than on the Teche ; and though the soil may be less fertile, it is nevertheless excellent, and the quantity greater on àn equal length of river. There are 80 miles on the banks of the Vermillion, which have an extension backwards of two miles, that afford 320 superficial miles, or 204,800 acres Some of the most beautiful settlements yet made in the Attacapas are upon this river. From the diversity of soil, and elevation, none can err in giving the preference, with regard to beauty of appearance, to the banks of the Vermillion, before any other river in Louisiana, south of bayou Boeuf. The lower part of the Vermillion will, without doubt, suit the culture of the sugar-cane ; whilst the whole extent of its banks is well adapted to cotton and corn. The Vermillion, by its union with the gulf, forms the natural communication of its inhabitants with the sea. At present the depth of water through the inlet into the Vermillion will not admit vessels of very considerable !eirthen. Darby's Geog. Description of the State of Louisiana, Philad. 18 16. VERMILLION River, a river of America, which runs into the Wabash, N. lat. 40° 5'. W. long. 87° 40'.- Also a river of America, which runs into the Theakiki, N. lat. 41° 10'. W. long. 88° 40'.-Also, a river of America, which runs into lake Erie, N. lat. 41° 45'. W. long. 82°12'. VERMILLION Sea. See CALIFoRNIA. VERMIN, in Agriculture, a collective term which includes all the various sorts of Small animals, that are injurious to the corn, fruit, and other produce of the farmer. The vermin, rats and mice, stand foremost among those which are the most prejudicial. It has º r 3 Y been V E R M I N. been stated, that one of the former eats and destroys more than a quart of corn, on the average, in the cºurse of the week; which amounts to the vast quantity of upwards of twenty quarters in the year, for, the Sup- port of a hundred of them ; and this is probably fewer than the number to be met with, in most cases of large corn-farms; so that the real damage is perhaps con- siderably more. The injury sustained from the latter is, in all probability, nearly equal to that from the former. The losses, on a moderate calculation, cannot be less than forty pounds in the year to every large farmer, and half that amount to those of the smaller class. In the field, the barn, and the dairy, these small ver- min are equally disagreeable, troublesome, and destruc- tive, and are supposed to be more mischievous than moles. Much care is bestowed, it is said, on the de- struction of moles; and it might be worth while to endeavour to lessen the number of field vermin of this sort, which are in their nature, it is contended, more injurious to the farmer than moles are. . In the rick- yard, the barn, the dwelling-house, and some other places too, their mischievousness is too obvious not to be noticed. In the dairy they not unfrequently commit great injuries, by spoiling and destroying the different products; and in the harness rooms, and places where such articles are kept, they are not less destructive, by eating into and gnawing the different articles. The barn and the stack-yard are, it is said, usually put under the care of the cat; but to set a trap for this vermin, in a barn full of corn, has perhaps been con- sidered as a thing so unlikely to be effective, that it has seldom been tried. The success of traps, where they have been used, has been sufficient to recommend them; for although a total extirpation of the vermin, in cases where they have been tried, did not take place, an annual saving of some quarters of corn has been the consequence. It is remarked, that while the number of these ver- min is great, almost any kind of trap may be used, pro- vided it be properly baited ; but that for taking a re- maining artful few, a common shaped round steel trap, suited to the size of the vermin, has been found to be the most effectual. In order to the complete extirpation of these and other vermin, the author of a late Calendar of Husbandry has, however, advised that every farm should be well provided with a competent number offerrets, and of true vermin-bred dogs, such as are usually kept for the pur- pose; and that an hour or two should be spared week- ly, and reserved for executing the business in all ac- cessible places. The holes and haunts of the vermin, in and about the premises, are to be diligently sought out and discovered; trifling rewards being given for the purpose, as an encouragement, by the master.— Nothing of a respite is to be allowed to the delinquentº, but a war of extermination is to be constantly kept up and carried on throughout the whole year. In aid of these means, others too may be adopted, when necessa- ry; as those of the trap kind, which should be of the cage sort, and not such as to endanger the cats, a most useful sort of domestics, which are fully entitled to care and kindness; the qualifications of which in this situa- tion are, that they do not touch young poultry, and hunt for mere sport, rather than from the impulse of hunger ; as eating their prey injures them, and lessens their exertions. The ferrets in this view are, it is thought, best kept in huts, in the same manner as the rabbits: their food is well known to be any sort of offał of the flesh kind, with occasionally a little milk and bread boiled. The same means of extirpation and removal apply equally, it is supposed, to the field vermin, polecats, weasels, and their different varieties; which, unless they be checked, commit such frequent considerable nightly depredations in and about farm-yards, as to be- come highly injurious, taking away various kinds of poultry in different states, and sometimes even young pigs. But it is believed that neither these nor the fox would be heard of near such premises, if they were well furnished and guarded by vermin dogs. A good method of trapping field vermin has been proposed by the author of the Rural Economy of the County of Kent, which is this : a wooden box, resem- bling a dog-kennel, divided in the middle by an open wire partition, running from end to end, and reaching from the ridge of the roof of it to the floor; one side of which partition is again divided into two parts or cages, one of them for a rabbit, and the other for a live fowl to be put into, to allure the vermin; the other half formed into a falling box-trap to take them in. But it is surely a most unnecessary piece of cruelty to expose a poor wretched fowl or rabbit to the sight and claws of their dreaded enemy. Kill the baits, and all is right; as the scent of the fresh blood is the greatest possible enticement to such vermin. In regard to vipers, efts, lizards, toads, and different others of any sort of poisonous vermin of the reptile. kind, which are troublesome and prejudicial to the farmer, it is suggested, that if country-people, who are engaged in this way, would be unanimous and steady in their endeavours, all these sorts of creeping little animals might in time be extinguished. Would a single parish but make the effort, it is said, of rooting out all such useless and dangerous vermin, they would soon find their account in it, and would undoubtedly be followed by their adjoining districts. The only mode is, it is thought, by the allowing of handsome premi- ums to those who shall produce the vermin, or who may discover their retreats, hiding-places, or their ova or eggs. In respect to the destructive vermin birds of prey, and those of other kinds, it may be noticed, that the former, such as carrion-crows, ravens, magpies, kites, hawks, and some others, chiefly endanger the poultry, sometimes even attack lambs, and are often injurious to diseased sheep, by picking them in different parts; while the latter, as jays, pigeons, rooks, and different sorts of small birds, are principally destructive of field produce. The first, as well as pies, bull-finches, and some others are greatly destructive of fruit, and the jay often commits much injury on bean-crops near harvest- time. Pigeons are particularly injurious at seed-time and harvest, by destroying large quantities of grain, tares, and seeds, and doing much hurt to the crops. Rooks are a sort of vermin which do great injury to various kinds of field-crops as they rise, and at other times; but they are thought by some to be useful in devouring the grub-worm and other insects. Small birds do much mischief by the destruction of grain which they cause at the time of sowing, and when the corn becomes nearly ripe; besides that which they, in Some cases, do to such buildings as are covered with thatch. In some places they quit the towns, villages, and single houses, and attack the corn-fields in flocks of thousands together, and would soon clear whole fields if not V E R M I N. if not kept off by proper means. Some sorts of these birds feed upon animal as well as vegetable food, and do good by lessening the number of grubs, caterpillars, and butterflies, and much harm by destroying blossoms, fruit, and corn in the fields. Great numbers of cater- pillars are said to have been found in the stomachs of some sorts of these small birds. The best and most effectual protection against their injuries and depreda- tions, in all these cases, is probably the gun, though other means, such as rattles, and different contrivances, may be had recourse to against such vermin. Vermin of the worm, grub, slug, and other similar kinds, are often very injurious to the farmer's crops. The earth-worm, the wire-worm, the grub of the cock- chaffer, the slug, the turnip-fly, the black canker cater- pillar, the black insect, which destroys beans, and the yellow maggot, which feeds on the ears of wheat, are of numerous families, and not less mischievous than any of the above vermin. They not unfrequently cut off turnip, clover, tare, and other such crops, and do great damage to those of the corn-kind. There is a whitish sort of slug that often prevails much in bean and pea-stubbles, in strong land when sown with wheat, and in wheat after clover and beans. It is very de- structive too to rye-crops in some districts and places. The destruction of these sorts of vermin may be at- tempted in different ways, as by having them devour- ed, in some cases, by the introduction of suitable birds for the purpose, and those of ducks and gulls in other cases. It has been stated that worms and slugs which feed on the new roots of corn, and other such matters, may mostly, perhaps, be destroyed by a clean fallow, continued so long as to occasion their death by want of food. It is probably a mistaken notion, it is said, that lime spread in such a quantity as to be beneficial to the soil, will destroy these reptile vermin. In Kent, near the chalk-hills, and even on a calcareous soil, they lime, it is said, frequently, and very liberally, without being at all relieved from the ravages of worms. The earth- worm feeds on herbs, and as its size is much larger, so it is probably more destructive than the wire-worm. See BLACK Canker, GRUB, SLUG, TURNIP-Fly, and WIRE- PWor?n. Vermin of the fly kind, such as hornets, wasps, and others, are often prejudicial to feeding and pasturing stock, and render team animals, in some instances, quite ungovernable; they and their nests should of course be as much destroyed as possible, in order to prevent such inconveniencies and accidents. See WASP. Game may be considered as a sort of vermin on farms, which feed upon the farmer’s crops, and induce and encourage sportsmen to commit much injury and de- struction on his property in the pursuit of such field- sport. This should be avoided and done away with whenever it can, as the damage is very considerable in many cases. See GAME. The able writer of the Corrected Report of the Agri- culture of the County of Middlesex has estimated, that the expences of guarding against, and the damage pro- duced by vermin and game, on a farm of two hundred acres, half arable and half grass, without sheep-walks, amount to fifty pounds in the year; which is nearly five shillings an acre on the whole quantity of land, which sum will perhaps, it is supposed, average the cultiva- ted corn and grass land farms of Britain; and that, as there are nearly forty millions of acres in this state, these depredations amount to ten millions the year. This is an amount which would hardly have been sus- pected by many, and which it is important in different points of view to prevent as much as possible. VERMIN, in Gardening, is a term applied to various small animals that are injurious to garden-crops in dif. ferent cases, and as destructive as in the farm-yard. Rats and mice are of this kind, and do much mis- chief in sheds and other places, where they frequently destroy beans, peas, and other seeds; they should therefore be extirpated as much as possible in all such CàSČS. And there are different modes of destroying them in these instances; as by traps, poison, &c. But Mr. Forsyth advises never to use arsenic, or corrosive sub- limate for that purpose, except under particular cir- cumstances, as they are deadly poison : nux vomica will, he thinks, generally answer the end as well, with- out the danger. He has suggested it as a very good plan to prevent accidents, to enclose the traps in cases, having holes in the ends of them large enough to admit rats, but small enough to exclude dogs, cats, &c. And the following is recommended as a bait for rat- traps in these cases: Take a pound of good flour, three ounces of treacle, and six drops of the oil of carraways: put them all in a dish, and rub them well together till they are properly mixed; then add a pound of crumb of bread. The traps baited with this mixture should be set as near their haunts as possible ; but, for two or three days, so as not to fall or strike on the rats going in, but letting them have free liberty to go in and out at pleasure, as this makes them fearless. Some of the bait should also be laid at the rat-holes, and a little of it scattered quite up to the traps, and so on to the bridge of each trap, where a handful may be placed. It may also, it is suggested, be proper to scent the traps with the following mixture, for the purpose of enticing the rats into them. - Take twenty drops of oil of rhodium, six or seven grains of musk, and half an ounce of oil of aniseed; put them in a small phial, and shake it well before using ; then dip a piece of twisted paper or rag in the mixture, and rub each end of the trap with it, if a box-trap, and put two or three drops on the bridge, leaving the pa- per or rag in the trap. Of whatever kind the trap is, it should be scented; but once in a twelvemonth will be sufficient. Then throw some chaff mixed with a little wheat about the bottom of the trap, in order to deceive the rats; for they are very sagacious, and will not enter a suspicious place. This will be necessary to be done only at the first time of setting the traps; for after some rats have been caught, and have watered and dunged in them, rats will enter boldly when they find others have been there before them : do not, there- fore, wash or clean out the trap, as some people do before they set it again, but let the dung and urine re- main in it. Keep the places where the traps are set as private as possible; and when they are set for catch- ing, mix no bread with the bait, as the rats will in that case be apt to carry it away. It is advised, that when the holes are found quiet, and that no rats use them, to stop them up with the following composition: Take a pint of common tar, half an ounce of pearl-ashes, an ounce of cil of vitriol, and a good handful of common salt, mix them all well together, in an old pan or pot. Take some pieces of paper, and lay some of the above mixture very thick on them ; then stop the holes well up with them, and build up the mouth of the H.oles with brick or stone, and mortar; if this be properly done, rats will, he asselts, 3 Y 2 Tho V E. R. V E R # no more approach these, while either smell or taste re- mains in the composition. In order to destroy the rats in places where traps cannot be set, he recommends us to take a quart of the above bait, then rasp into it three nuts of nux vomica, and a quarter of a pound of crumb of bread, if there was none before : mix them all well together, and lay it into the mouth of their holes, and in different places where they frequent; but first give them of the bait without the nux vomica, for three or four succeeding nights; and when they find it agrees with them, they will eat that mixed with the nut with greediness. It is further observed, that rats are frequently very troublesome in sewers and drains. In such cases, arsenic may be used with success, as follows: Take Some dead rats, and having put some white arsenic, finely powdered, into an old pepper-box, shake a quan- tity of it on the fore parts of the dead rats, and put them down the holes or avenues, by the sides of the sewers at which they come in ; this puts a stop to the live ones coming any further ; for when they perceive arsenic, they will, it is asserted, retire immediately : whereas, if they were put down without the arsenic, the live ones would eat them. We have, however, found that these animals take arsenic best when it is prepared, by being finely levi- gated and mixed up with very strong old cheese and oatmeal. In order to destroy mice, Mr. Forsyth ad- vises persons to take a quart of the bait for rats before there is any bread mixed with it; then to take four nuts of nux vomica, and rasp them very fine, other- wise the mice will pick out the food from it, on ac- count of its bitter taste ; rub them well together; lay Some of it upon a piece of paper, or, if without doors, on a piece of tile, removing all other food from the place, and it will kill all that eat of it. What is not eaten, should be taken away in the morning, and re- placed at night. If this be in a garden, shelter it with boards or tiles, that it may not get wet. Open traps should likewise be set, as mice are shy in entering close ones. And care should be taken not to convey these animals into gardens by the straw lit- ter, or other similar materials. Slugs are a sort of vermin that are frequently found harbouring about the foundations of walls, and about the roots of peas, lettuce, &c. They may, Mr Forsyth thinks, be picked off, and killed, by putting them into a pot in which is a little fine unslaked lime: or the ground where they are should be well watered with soap-Suds and urine, mixed with tobacco-water. When they are numerous on the surface of the ground, which frequently happens after rain, or in a dewy morning, fine unslaked lime thrown over the borders, &c. will he contends, destroy them. But he prefers the above mixture, which, if the ground be well watered with it, will bring them up out of their holes, when they very Soon die; it will also destroy their eggs, which they al- ways deposit in the earth. Snails, also, during the winter, the same writer as- sures us, gather themselves together in clusters; and in that season are frequently found in great numbers be- hind wall-trees, and in holes of the walls. They should be carefully picked off and crushed, which is the only effectual way of getting rid of them. If any should escape, they should be destroyed as they make their appearance in the spring. As they also deposit their eggs in the ground, the borders should be well watered in the above manner. Wasps and flies are highly destructive of all sorts of fruit; therefore, as soon as the wasp and large flesh- fly make their appearance, it is proper to get ready several bottles or phials; then mix up grounds of wine or beer, with sweepings of sugar, honey, or grounds of treacle, and with this mixture fill the bottles half or three-quarters full; then place some of them at the bottom of the wall, and hang a sufficient number up by a piece of yellow willow, or pack-thread, on the nails against the walls in different places, observing to emp- ty them frequently as they fill with flies and wasps; first pour the liquor into an empty bottle, and then shake out the dead insects, crushing them with your foot, that none of them may revive; then pour back the liquor into the bottles and phials as at first. In this manner a great many may be destroyed, it is sup- posed, before the fruit becomes ripe. If you begin to hang up the bottles as soon as you see the fly, which comes much earlier than the wasp, you will be able to destroy great numbers of them, and will have the bot- tles ready for the wasps when they make their appear- ance. The fly will be found as destructive as the wasp to grapes. And when the weather is hot, and the wasps are numerous, if they do not enter the bottles fast enough (which will happen when the fruit is very ripe), a little oil may be put in a cup, and with a feather dipped in it touch their backs, and they will instantly drop down; when you will find them turned black and green by the effects of the oil. See WASP. Birds attack fruit much when it begins to ripen. The best preventive in this case is, Mr. Forsyth supposes, to cover the trees with nets, or bunting, a sort of cloth of which ships’ colours are made. See VITIs. There are many other vermin of the insect tribe that are likewise highly destructive to fruits and garden- crops, but which are noticed under the articles which they are found to injure in most cases. In some they may be best destroyed, however, by gathering them by the hand as soon as they begin to appear in a small number, by plentiful steaming or watering; in others, by smoking and powdering with tobacco; and in others by different compositions, as those of soap-suds and sulphur, or lime-water, and other such matters. Some are best taken by artifice, as ear-wigs and others of the same kind, as in the cases of wasps and flies. See CATERPILLAR, APHIS, Coccus, THRIPs, &c. VERMIN, in Sheeſ, the different small animals which are troublesome and hurtful to them. The maggots produced from the ova or eggs of the flesh or sheep-fly, are a sort of vermin which are to be particularly guard- ed against in the later summer months, as they are then soon hatched in any wound, filth, or dirt, that may be in or hang about the skins of them, often producing great pain, uneasiness, and eating into the flesh and destroying the sheep, when not speedily removed. Consequently, when they are seen to be uneasy and disturbed, to frequent rubbing places, neglect their food, lie down frequently, and bite themselves with their teeth, they should be carefully examined; when, in some cases, large blisters may be discovered, under which the vermin are concealed: or the part is found of a dark colour, and quite wet; and even sometimes large holes are eaten into the bodies of the sheep. In all such cases the wool is to be carefully clipped off, the blisters, when present, opened, and the vermin picked out from the injured parts, which should then be gently washed, either with soap and water, with spirits and vinegar, with lime-water, with stale urine and V E R V E R and black soap, or with infusion of tobacco, being after- wards anointed with tar, or the same substance mixed with butter and sulphur or red precipitate. In this way the vermin are soon removed and destroyed, and the sheep restored. In order to prevent the vermin, whenever sheep are wounded by the sheers in clipping, by the bite of dogs, or in any other way, a little tar ointment is to be applied to the parts. Dirty layers or pastures are said to be liable to pro- duce this kind of vermin, which most commonly attack lambs, and often appear about the hips of such as are affected with looseness. There are other sorts of vermin which are very in- jurious to sheep. See TICK. The fox too is an artful and formidable enemy of sheep and poultry, as well as the wild cat, which is ex- tremely fierce and strong, and very destructive of lambs and fowls. The foumart is also very mischievous among weak lambs. Eagles are likewise frequent in the more northern districts, the strength and depre- dations of which are well known to sheep-farmers; but ravens are probably more destructive, being ready to attack sheep in all cases of distress, and exceedingly quick-sighted in discovering such instances. All these sorts of vermin should, consequently, be exterminated as much as possible, by offering premiums for their claws, skins, &c. and other proper means of different kinds. VERMINA. See VERMINE, and VERMINATION. VERMINATION, VERMINATIo, the act of breed- ing worms, and other vermin; particularly bots in cattle, &c. - VERMINATION is sometimes also used among phy- sicians, for a sort of tormina ventris, or wringing of the guts; in which the patient is affected, as if worms were gnawing his intestines. VERMINE, VERMINA, a collective name, including all kinds of little animals, or insects, which are hurtful or troublesome to men, beasts, fruits, &c. as worms, lice, fleas, bugs, caterpillars, ants, flies, &c. VERMIS, WoRM, in JWatural History. See VERMEs and WoFMs. VERMIs Aureus. See APHRODITA. VERMIs Caerulaeus. See CAERULEUs. VERMIs Cerebri, the worm in the brain, a name given by some writers to an epidemical fever in Hungary, attended with terrible deliriums. VERMIVOROUS ANIMALs are such as feed upon WOI’mS. VERMONETA, in Botany, Juss. Gen. 343, a ma- nuscript name of Commerson’s, for a supposed genus of his, referred by Jussieu to their own Blackwellia, which we are much disposed to unite with Hom ALIUM ; see the latter. VERMONT, in Geography, one of the United States of America, situated between 40°42' and 45° N. lat. and 3° 35' and 5° 27' E. long, from Washington; and bounded on the N. by Lower Canada, S. by Mas- sachusetts, E. by Connecticut river, which divides it from New Hampshire, and W. by New York. Its ex- tent from N. to S. is 152 miles, and its breadth from E. to W, 60 miles: its area is 8700 square miles, or 5,568,000 acres. It is divided into thirteen counties, containing the number of townships and inhabitants, together with the chief towns, exhibited in the fol- Jowing Toñograft.hical Table. Counties Townships. Population. Chief Towns. Addison 24 19,993 Middlebury 7 15 Bennington 16 15,893 Bennington 61 i Caledonia 23 18,730 Danville 77 1 Chittenden 24 18, 120 Burlington 804. Essex 14 3,087 Guildhall 685 Franklin 19 16,427 St. Albans 729 Grand Isle 5 3,445 North Hero 82 Jefferson* Montpelier. Orange 2O 25,247 Chelsea 745 Orleans 23 5,830 Craftsbury 832 Rutland 27 29,486 Rutland 658 Windham 24 26,760 Brattleborough 786 Windsor 23 34,879 Windsor 898 242 217,895 * Laid out since the census was taken. The number of inhabitants returned in the schedule of Mr. J. Willard, marshal, January 26th, A. D. 1811, is 217,913. In each township is a reserve of two portions of land, each of 350 acres, one for the support of public schools, and the other to be given in fee to the first minister who settled in the township. An extensive chain of high mountains runs through the middle of this state, nearly S. and N., between Connecticut river and lake Cham- plain. The natural produce of this chain of mountains is hemlock, pine, spruce, and other evergreens; and on this account, as it has always a green appearance, it is denominated “Ver Mons,” or “Green Mountain.” On some high parts of it the snow lies till May or June. The country, on the E. side of the mountain, is watered by Paupanhoosak, Quechey, Welds, White, Black, and West rivers; and on the W, side by the La Moille and Onion rivers, and Otter creek, which discharge them- selves by one mouth into lake Champlain, 20 or 30 miles S. of St. John’s. The adjacent lands are ex- cellent in quality, and annually enriched by the inunda- tion of the water, occasioned by the meiting of the Snow on the Green mountains. The general aspect of the country is hilly, but it has many rich valleys, which furnish very good pasturage for cattle, and which, con- trasted with the hills, afford beautiful scenery. Timber- trees of various kinds are abundant; wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian corn, are cultivated by the inhabitants: though the corn on high grounds is sometimes liable to be damaged by the frosts. Flax and hemp are raised in considerable quantities: and potatoes, pumpkins, to- gether with garden-roots and vegetables, are plentiful. The sugar-maple affords a large supply of excellent sugar. The metals and minerals of this country are iron, lead, copperas, flint, marbie, pipe-clay, and vitriol. The trade of Vermont is principally carried on with Boston, Portland, Hartford, and New York; whither the inhabitants export horses, beef, pork, butter, cheese, wheat, flour, iron, nails, pot and pearl ashes. The climate resembles that of New Hampshire, and is upon the whole very healthy : the winters, however, are long and severe, and the summers hot. The inhabitants are for the most part emigrants from Connecticut and Mas- sachusetts, and their descendants. The only foreigners are Scots, who have formed a settlement. As to the character, manners, customs, laws, policy, and religion of the V E. R. V E. R. of the people in Vermont, we need only say that they are New-Englandmen. º Before the revolutionary war, this tract of country was claimed both by New York and New Hampshire; but upon the commencement of hostilities between Great Britain and her colonies, the inhabitants consider- ed themselves as free from any legal jurisdiction, and associating together, formed for themselves a constitu- tional government; and before it was acknowledged by congress on the 4th of March, 1791, as the fourteenth state; they coinmenced their political independent exist- ence as a separate government in the year 1777. the 15th of December in this year, their representa- tives, in convention at Windsor, declared that the terri- tory called Vermont, was and of right ought to be a free and independent state; and for the purpose of main- taining regular government in the same, they made a solemn declaration of their rights, and ratified a con- stitution, of which the following is an abstract. Their declaration, which makes a part of their con- stitution, asserts that all men are born equally free— with equal rights, and ought to enjoy liberty of con- science—freedom of the press—trial by jury—power to form new states in vacant countries, and to regulate their own internal police: that all elections ought to be free : that all power is originally in the people: that government ought to be instituted for the common benefit of the community, and that the community have a right to reform or abolish government: that every member of society hath a right to protection of life, liberty, and property; and in return is bound to contri- bute his proportion of the expense of that protection, and yield his personal service when necessary : that he shall not be obliged to give evidence against himself: that the people have a right to bear arms, but no stand- ing armies shall be maintained in time of peace: that the people have a right to hold themselves, their houses, papers, and possessions free from search or seizure; and therefore warrants without oaths first made, afford- ing sufficient foundation for them, are contrary to that right, and ought not to be granted: that no person shall be liable to be transported out of this state for trial for any offence committed within this state, &c. By the frame of government, the supreme legislative power is vested in a house of representatives of the free- inen of the state of Vermont, to be chosen annually by the freemen on the first Tuesday in September, and to meet the second Thursday of the succeeding October: this body is vested with all the powers necessary for the legislature of a free state: two-thirds of the whole num- ber of representatives elected, make a quorum. Each inhabited town throughout the state has a right to send one representative to the assembly. The Supreme executive power is vested in a gover- nor, lieutenant-governor, and twelve counsellors, to be chosen annually in the same manner, and vested with the same powers as in Connecticut. Every person of the age of twenty-one years, who has resided in the state one whole year next before the election of representatives, and is of a quiet, peaceable behaviour, and will bind himself by his oath, to do what he shall in conscience judge to be most conducive to the best good of the state, shall be entitled to all the privileges of a freeman of this state. Each member of the house of representatives, before he takes his seat, must declare his belief in one God, in future rewards and punishments, and in the divinity On of the scriptures of the Old and New Testament, and must profess the Protestant religion. Courts of justice are to be established in every county throughout the state. The Supreme court, and the several courts of com- mon pleas of this state, besides the powers usually ex- ercised by such courts, have the powers of a court of chancery, so far as relates to perpetuating testimony, obtaining evidence from places not within the state, and the care of the persons and estates of those who are mon comflotes mentis, &c. All prosecutions are to be commenced in the name, and by the authority of the freemen of the state of Vermont. The legislature is to regulate entails so as to prevent perpetuities. All field and staff-officers, and commissioned officers of the army, and all general officers of the militia, shall be chosen by the general assembly, and be commission- ed by the governor. Common schools and academies are liberally en- couraged in Vermont; and in 1800 a college was incor- porated in Middleburg, which is now in a flourishing state. See College. Morse. Melish. VERN, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 10 miles S. of Perigueux,−Also, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire; 6 miles S. of Segré. VERN, or Vernde, or Werna, a town of Westphalia, in the bishopric of Paderborn; 2 miles W.N.W. of Salzkotten. VERNACIA, VENACIA, Veniatia, Vernatia, or Veni- anae, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Spain, upon the route from Bracara to Asturia, between Complutica and Petavonium. Anton. Itin. VERNACULAR is applied to any thing that is peculiar to some one country. Whence, diseases which reign most in any particular nation, province, or district, are sometimes called verna- cular diseases; though more frequently endemic dis- CaSCS. - Such are the filica Polonica, scorbutus, tarantism, &c. VERNAL, something belonging to the spring season. (See SPRING.) Hence, vernal leaves are those leaves of plants which come up in the spring, &c. VERNAL Signs and Equinox. See SIGN and Equi- NOX. VERNAL Grass, in Botany. See ANTHoxANTHUM, and SweeT-scented Vernal Grass. VERNAL, in Geografthy, a small island in the Pacific ocean, near the coast of Mexico. N. lat. 16° 35'. W. long. 95° 50'. VERNAMO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland; 35 miles N.W. of Wexio. VERNANTOIS, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Jura ; 3 miles S. of Lons le Saulnier. VERNASSA, a town of Genoa; 5 miles S.W. of Spezza. VERNE, a town of France, in the department of the Doubs; 3 miles N. of Beaume les Dames. - VERNET, Joseph, in Biography, the best landscape painter of the French school, was born at Avignon in 1712. He was educated in his native country, and after- wards sent to Rome, where he studied under Adrian Manglard, a painter of sea-pieces and landscapes of some note. He soon surpassed his instructor, and the style which he adopted was as close an imitation of nature as he knew how to make ; and his views of Rome and Naples, &c. will always please, from the freshness V E R V E R freshness and spirit with which they are painted. His colouring, however, is not exactly true; the hues are too positive and crude, and lack the softness and delicacy of Claude or Wilson; but his compositions are excel- lently arranged, and he gave great truth of action to water; he also adorned his pictures with groups of figures, arranged with taste and freely executed. He remained many years in Italy, till at length the re- putation he had acquired induced Louis XIV. to invite him to return to France, where he was engaged to paint a set of views of the sea-ports of that kingdom. Howe- ver correct these views may be, it is evident that Vernet did not labour con amºrè at them, as they by no means rival the pictures he painted of other subjects, where he was more free to follow his own taste. He was very much employed and honoured, and enjoyed the exer- cise of his talents till he arrived at the age of 77, when he died, in 1786. VERNET, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the de- partment of the East Pyrenées; 4 miles S. of Prades. VERNET le Bas, a town of France, in the department of the Allier; 13 miles N. of Digne. VERNEUIL, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Eure; 18 miles W. of Dreux. N. lat. 48° 43'. E. long. 1.-Also, a town of France, in the department of the Allier; 15 miles E. of Montmarault. VERNEY, GUICHARD-Joseph DU, in Biography, an eminent anatomist, was the son of a physician at Feurs in Forez, and born in 1648. From Avignon, where he studied medicine for five years, he removed to Paris in 1667, and there acquired high reputation, not only as an anatomical demonstrator, but as an eloquent lecturer, His manner was ardent and interesting, and this, toge- ther with his youth and agreeable person, rendered the study of anatomy fashionable. After his admission into the Academy of Sciences in 1676, he employed himself in an assiduous prosecution of the natural history of animals, and the result of his researches may be found in the Memoirs of the Academy. About this time he was engaged in communicating anatomical instruc- tion to the dauphin and his learned attendants; and in 1679 he was nominated professor of anatomy at the Royal Gardens, where his auditors were very numerous, many of whom were foreigners. In this and the follow- ing year he was occupied in Lower Brittany and on the coast of Bayonne in the dissection of fishes. His work entitled “Traité de l’Organe de l’Ouie, contenant le Structure, les Usages, et les Maladies de toutes les Par- ties de l'Oreille,” was published in 1683, and translated into various languages. In his anatomical researches he was indefatigable, and he made many discoveries, the honour of which has been claimed by others. Hav- ing absented himself for a long time from the meetings of the Academy, he returned to it again, in his 80th year, on the republication of his History of Animals, and entered into its business with his former vivacity. In advanced age he undertook a work on insects and reptiles ; and though he was afflicted with a pºlmonary complaint, he exposed himself to the injurious effects of the damp and night air, in order to observe the ac- tions of snails, with a view to the perfection of the work in which he was engaged. Although his health could not but be impaired by this prºctice, his life was pro- longed to his 82d year, as he died in September 1730. He bequeathed his valuable anatomical preparations to the Academy, leaving a character held in high estima- tion by contemporary anatomists and physiologists, and by all who had enjoyed the benefit of his instruction in their youth. After his death, Senac published from his MSS. “Traité des Maladies des Os,” in 2 vols. 12mo, ; and all his memoirs and posthumous papers were col- lected in his “CEuvres Anatomiques,” 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1761, published by Bertin, to whom his MS. remains were entrusted by Senac. Haller. Gen. Biog. VERNI, in Geography, a town of the republic of Lucca ; 12 miles N. of Lucca. VERYTA, in Ancient Geography, a name which Eustathius gives to one of the British isles, supposed by Ortelius to have been Hibernia. VERNICIA, in Botany, so called by Loureiro, from verniz, varnish, because the nuts of this tree afford by pressure a kind of oily varnish, either used by itself to protect wood from the weather, or employed to adulte- rate the true Chinese or Japan varnish.-Loureir. Cochinch. 586.-Class and order, Monoecia Monadel- fiſhia. Nat. Ord. Tricocca, Linn. Euphorbiae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth tubular, in two round- ed, erect segments. Cor. bell-shaped, of five oblong spreading petals, longer than the calyx. Stem. Fila- ments ten, combined at the base, the inner ones longest; anthers as many, arrow-shaped. Female flowers few, on the same branch, Cal. and Cor. unobserved. Pist. Germen superior, roundish, three-lobed ; style none ; stigma obtuse, three-cleft. Peric. Drupa roundish, watery. Seed. Nut bony, blunt- ly triangular, rugged, of three cells, with an ovate-ob- long kernel in each. . Ess. Ch. Male, Calyx two-lobed. Petals five. Sta- mens ten.—Female, Calyx . . . . Corolla . . . . Stigma obtuse, three-cleft. Drupa warty, with a triangular three celled nut. 1. V. montana. Cày déâu son, of the Cochinchinese. Tong xú, of the Chinese.—Native of mountainous woods in Cochinchina, as well as in China. A large tree, with ascending branches. Leaves scattered, stalked, slight- ly heart-shaped, pointed, entire, undulated, smooth, perforated with two glands at the insertion of the foot- stalk. Flower-stalks terminal, many-flowered, short. Flowers white. The wood is of little use for building. The nuts af. ford a copious expressed oil, which is yellow, viscid, transparent, moderately liquid, used as a sort of varnish for arrows, and any wood exposed to the weather. It also serves to increase the bulk of the far more valua- ble Chinese varnish, obtained from the Augiu of Lou- reiro ; as well as to render that substance more fluid and manageable. For lamps it is useless, because it burns too fiercely and consumes too speedily.—We have not been able to reduce this plant to any known genus. All our knowledge respecting it is derived from Loureiro. VERNIER, is a graduated index which subdivides the smallest divisions on any straight or circular scale, in the reading of which greater accuracy is required, than can be obtained by simple estimation of a fractional part, as indicated by a pointer, or fiducial edge. The vernier was first invented by Pierre Vernier of Franche Comté, and made known to the world at Bruxelles (or Brussels) in the year 1631, through the medium of a pamphlet entitled “La Construction, l'Usage, et les Proprietés du Quadrant nouveau de Mathematique,” &c. It soon gained the preference over the scale of Nonius, which was a circular diagonal scale, and which by some V E R N I E R. by some writers is yet confounded with a Vernier's index, though there is no greater resemblance between the two, than exists between the dial of a clock and the hand that points to it. The vernier is applicable to any straight or circular line, provided the divisions be equal; but the contrivance of Nonius was in the graduated line or scale itself, and required the aid of a fiducial edge as an index. We have given the representation of a vernier in several of our astronomical' plates, when we were describing CIRCLE, EQUATORIAL, QUADRANT, TRANSIT-Instrument, and THEoDoLITE, this?efore it will not be necessary to introduce any other figure for the purpose of illustration; particularly as the firinciple of its application can be made clearly intelligible by either arithmetical or algebraical notations. Let us sup- pose two lines, either straight or portions of circles, to be exactly alike in dimensions, one called A, and the other B, and let one of them be divided into more equal parts than the other by unity; then will the difference of any two of the equal parts of the two lines, or arcs respectively, be a fraction, the numerator of which is the common length of the equal lines, or arcs, and the denominator the product of the numbers of parts into which each is divided. For if we put A for the com- mon length of the equal lines, or arcs, with n and n + 1 for the equal parts into which each is divided re- spectively, the length of the divisions of each will be A A A A — and , and their difference — — = 7? n + 1 7? n–H 1 A m + 77 -- 1 To exemplify this principle in an arc of small radius, let each degree be divided by an engine into three parts, of each 20', and let it be required that the ver- nier shall read to the accuracy of one minute; in this case the short scale of the vernier must be divided into 20 parts, and the equal arc on the limb of the instru- ment either into 21 or 19 parts, so that the difference of the two equal arcs, in divisions, may be = 1 ; if 21, the former number, is adopted, the reading will be in a backward direction; but if the latter (viz. 19), it will be forward; let the arc on the limb be 6° 20', and let each degree be divided into three parts, of 20 each; also let 19 be the number of such parts or divisions; and let the equal arc on the vernier be divided into 20 equal parts; then m = 19, and n + 1 = 20 will make a difference between a single division of the limb, and 6° 20' 38O' one of the vernier = —— = — = 1’, as was 19 —– 20 38O required. This difference becomes the index for sub- dividing the smallest divided space of the limb, and it is ascertained how often it must be taken, by inspecting the place on the divided vernier, where a stroke on it exactly coincides with a dividing stroke on the divided limb of the instrument; for instance, if the zero, or stroke marked 0, be the coincident one, the reading may be had from the divisions of the limb only, without any addition from the vernier; but if the coincidence happens at any other place, say at stroke 5, stroke 8, or stroke 10, as numbered on the vernier, then 5', or 8', or 10, as the case may be, must be added, as the measure of a fractional part of a division, to the mea- sure read from the divisions only, that are contained between zero on the limb and zero on the vernier: the 3ifference, which we have said is == 1' when taken once, is 5' When taken five times, and 8' when taken eight. times; and as the point of coincidence can never be mistaken, wherever it may fall, it will always deter- mine how many minutes must be added for the frac- tional portion of a division, that zero of the vernier has advanced into an entire division; and as the eye will form a rough judgment at once, whether zero of the vernier is near +, +, +, #, or 3 of a Space on the limb, this notice will at once guide the observer to that part of the vernier's scale, where the coincidence will be immediately found; for as zero of the vernier advances in any division of the limb, by the slow motion of the tangent-screw of any instrument, the point of coinci- dence of the strokes of the two arcs advances with it; till the stroke at zero becomes itself coincident with a new dividing stroke of the arc on the limb, which coin- cidence denotes the addition of another 20', in our ex- ample, without reference to the vernier: but should there be any doubt about the exactitude of the coinci- dence, 20', 30", or 40", may be taken instead of the last minute, accordingly as the eye can best judge of the small quantity short of perfect coincidence; and ex- amining the places of the preceding and following strokes will greatly assist in forming this judgment. If we were to substitute 21 for 19 spaces on the limb, the result would be the same, with the inconvenience of reading backwards, and of subtracting instead of adding; 70 42O' for -- = — = 1', as before; but instruments 2 I X 20 420 of modern construction are exempt from this inconve- nience, by having always one more division on the scale of the vernier, than on the equal arc of the limb. In Troughton's snuff-box sextant, which is a very convenient instrument for the pocket, the radius of the divided arc is only about 1% inch, and the degree is di- vided, therefore, into two spaces only, so that 30' are necessarily indicated by the vernier; and as 29 spaces on the limb are taken equal to 30 on the vernier, the 1 4° 3O’ 87O' = — = l', as 29 × 3O 87O before; and the reading of the coincidences that indicate the last 30' is progressive, like the reading on the limb of the instrument. In the common ebony sextant, the degree is some- times divided into four parts, by reason of the in- creased length of the radius; consequently, when the reading is in a forward direction, fifteen divisions on the vernier occupy the same arc as fourteen on the limb ; and the smallest quantity indicated thereby is 3° 30' 21 O/ = = 1'; but the brass sextants made l 4 X 15 2 1 O and divided by the best makers, have the minute sub- divided into twenty, fifteen, ten, or even five seconds, according to the length of the radius, by means of a vernier with divisions and subdivisions, acting with di- visions and subdivisions on the limb, which is a refine- ment of the original invention, introduced by Trough- ton, in consequence of the Superior excellence of mo- dern dividing. We have now before us one of Rams- den's b-st brass sextants of 94 inches radius, on the limb of which the degree is divided into three parts, and 40 divisions on the arc of the vernier measure 39 divisions smallest quantity indicated is 30 780/ 468OO" on the limb; therefore = = --— = 30” 39 × 40 l. 560 ] 560 is the V E R N I E. R. is the smallest quantity that the vernier will indicate, and every alternate stroke thereon counts one minute as the coincidence advances. This mode of reading the vernier doubles its former accuracy. But on the limb of this same instrument, the late Mr. W. Walker prevailed on Mr. Troughton to divide a second arc, within the former, which by our measurement is only of nine inches radius: in this inner arc, which reads with the inner arc of the vernier, the degree is first di- vided into halves, and then each half is subdivided into five smaller divisions, by shorter strokes very delicately cut, so that the degree is divided into ten small spa- ces, of 6’ each, which are to be read before the ver- nier's subdivision of one of these spaces is examined. On the scale of the inner vernier are 72. small divi- sions, co-extensive with 71 on the limb; and as each of these is - 6', we have 71 × 6' = 426', or 25560'. for the whole arc of measurement: consequently 25560" 2556O'' = 5" is the smallest quantity that 7 1 × 72 5 l l 2 can be indicated by such a vernier, and accordingly we observe on the scale of the Vernier twelve small or sub- dividing spaces between each minute stroke ; i. e. eve- ry twelfth stroke is a long one, and they are number- ed 1, 2, 3, &c. up to 6, which is the value of one of the smallest divisions on the limb, and consequently the va- lue of each subdivision on the scale is ſº of l', or 5"; and yet, by the help of a high magnifier, placed in the centre of an illuminating reflector of plaister of Paris, this small quantity may be clearly discriminated. When Ramsden first saw this wonderful application of the powers of the dividing engine, he called his work- men together, to witness what he at first considered the folly of attempting greater accuracy than was prac- ticable; but a close examination of the divisions con- vinced him, that his preconceived opinion had stood in the way even of his own improvements. - - Sometimes a divided head or nut has been fixed on the end of the tangent-screw of slow motion, particular- ly by the older makers of pillar and mural astronomical quadrants, in order to subdivide the divisions of the ver- nier, as may be seen at Greenwich, Richmond, and other observatories; but when this apparatus has been in use some time, the parts become loose and inaccu- rate, even allowing that the measuring screw itself can be considered as perfect in all respects. On an ex- amination of some of Graham's, the Sissons’ and Bird’s quadrants, we find that though the accuracy of 1" is professed by the construction, yet very little dependence can be placed on such profession after the parts have been for years in use. Of this conclusion Ramsden was no doubt sensible, when he introduced into his larger instruments the microscopic readings, with a good screw at the focus of the eye-piece of a compound microscope, where there is not so much stress on the screw as at the periphery of the arc, where the screw forms also a part of the clamping apparatus. To this adoption of the use of a compound microscope, in con- junction with the subsequent improvemeiºts in the art of dividing, much of the claim to superior excellence in our English astronomical instruments is to be attri- buted, which claim is still further supported by the in- vention of the achromatic object-glass and improved eye-pieces of the telescopic portion. Hitherto we have considered the principle and ap- plication of a single vernier only, which is in itself a VOL. XXXVIII. useful and beautiful contrivance; and, as we have said, may be applied with advantage to subdivide a straight line; as, for instance, the scale of a barometer into hundreth parts of an inch, or the scale of Dollond’s di- vided object-glass micrometer into the five-hundredth parts, or more; but with an entire circle that is gra- duated all round, the accuracy of an observation is greatly augmented, nay ensured, by the use of different verniers reading at different parts of the limb at the same time. At first two diametrically opposite verniers were introduced, as has been asserted, by one of the Sissons, though, we understand, not with a view to reading at opposite sides of the circle, by way of correcting the observation by an average; seeing that the remote end of the vernier:bar had only a single stroke answering to zero of the other; but subsequently, in transit, and other instruments used with a spirit-level, the double vernier became a valuable appendage, particularly when the construction of the instrument admitted of in- version of the position of the axis, so as to procure a double observation; and thence the true zero of the graduation of the measuring limb. This useful pro- perty was extended, we believe, by Troughton, first by introducing four, and then, with equal advantage, three equidistant verniers of similar powers. We have shewn the great use of additional verniers, at considerable length, under our article CIRCLE, particularly with respect to the property that three possess of correcting for the excentricity as well as inequality of the divisions of a circular instrument; and that as great accuracy may be expected from one crossed observation with Troughton’s reflecting circle, or from a pair of reversed observations with a theodolite, with either circle, that has three verniers, as can be obtained by a repetition of observations on the repeating circle; for, by the mode in which Troughton's circular instruments are used, the readings will be had at six different points of the cir- cle, though very little time is expended in making the observations. It is hardly necessary to add here, that when an instrument is of the reflecting kind, its divisions are doubly numerous for the same radius, when com- pared with an instrument that measures only by direct vision; and that therefore the divisions on the vernier must be calculated to have their dimensions according- ly. In Troughton’s reflecting circle of five inches ra- dius, the degree is divided into three parts, and fifty- nine of these are commensurate with sixty on the scale of each ºf the three verniers; therefore the ex- cess of a space on the limb over one on the vernier is 1 99 40' 7O3OO!” . . . . . . —- = — = 20",which is the smallest quantity 59. X 60 3540 that a single vernier will indicate; but as there are six readings in the crossed observation, which observation annihilates the errors of zero, and of the darkening glasses when used, it is to be inferred that the result will be accurate to 20" . —, or little more than three seconds, if we disregard the probable errors of reading, and of taking contacts in the observation, common to all instruments. The figures of the vernier scales in this circle count both ways, from each end, because the figures read both to the right and left of zero on the limb, but there can be no mistake if the figures of the vernier are counted the same way that the limb of the circle reads. Formerly the zero of the vernier was placed at the middle of its scale; 3 Z and V E R V E. R. and when it read out at one end, it commenced at the other, and finished again in the middle; but this method, being liable to misapprehension, is now discontinued. In an eighteen-inch astronomical circle, by Trough- ton, at present under our examination, which has four verniers at equal distances, and turns in azimuth, the degree is divided by Engine into twelve divisions, of which 59 fill the same arc as 60 on the verniers respec- tively; hence we have 59 × 5 = 295', or 17700" for the numerator, and 59 × 60 = 3540 for the denomina- 177OO” tor, and 3540 vernier will indicate; and accordingly the space between zero and 1' on the vernier is subdivided in 12 smaller Spaces, so that each successive coincidence will mark out 5” on each separate vernier; but as there are four verniers, and as the circle will reverse in position by means of the azimuthal motion, there will be virtually eight readings from which to take an average of 5", so that the probable accuracy resulting from such average comes within the second, and would have done So if there had been only three verniers. Hence the advantage gained over the average of the verniers by microscopic readings, is probably not so great as is generally supposed. VERNIO, in Geography, a town of Etruria; 11 miles N.W. of Pistoya. - VERNIS MARTIN. See Cohal VARNISH. VERNISH. See VARNISH. VERNISSON, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Loing, near Montargis. VERNODUBRUM, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gallia Narbonnensis. Pliny. VERNOIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire; 14 miles S.E. of Baugé VERNON, in Biography an English singer, brought up at St. Paul’s under Savage, was selected from among the choristers of that cathedral, in 1750, to perform the part of Puck the fairy in Queen Mab. When his voice broke into a tolerable tenor, he was engaged at Drury- = 5", the smallest quantity that one lane theatre to supply the place of Lowe, who was de-. graded into a singer at Sadler's Wells and Cuper's Gardens. Vernon, with a voice much inferior to that of Lowe at his best, was a much better musician and actor, and had not only all Lowe’s parts assigned to him at Drury-lane, but succeeded him at Vaux-hall, where, and at the theatre, he continued to perform till the time of his death. Vernon was not only the professional successor to Lowe, but heir to his imprudence and debauchery. VERNON, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Eure, on the south side of the Seine; i5 miles E.N.E. of Evreux. VERNoN, formerly Hinsdale, a town of America, in Windham county and state of Vermont, on the W. bank of Connecticut river; containing 521 inhabitants.-Also, a town of Sussex county, in the state of New Jersey, 21 miles N.E. of Newtown; containing 1708 inhabit- ants.-Also, a town of Trumbull county, in the district of Ohio; containing 606 inhabitants. VERNON, Mount. See MoUNT Vernon. VERNONBURG, a town of the state of Georgia; 11 miles S. of Savanna. VERNONIA, in Botany, was so named by Schreber, jū memory of Mr. William Vernon, fellow of St. Peter's college, Cambridge, who towards the end of the seventeenth century made a voyage to Maryland, in company with Dr. David Kreig, a German physician, of which botany was the principal object. Their her- barium, consisting, it is said, of several hundred new plants, came into the possession of sir Hans Sloane, and contributed to enrich the supplement, or third volume, of Ray’s Historia Plantarum. A North Ame- rican genus therefore is peculiarly proper to comme- morate Mr. Vernon; whose merits as an accurate and industrious English botanist are, moreover, recorded by Ray in the preface to his Symoñsis, ed. 2d, and his name often occurs in the cryptogamic part of that work. We find no further mention of this gentleman, nor does he appear any where as an author.—Schreb. Gen. 541. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3, 1632. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 502. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2.94. Pursh 51 1.- Class and order, Syngenesia Polygamia- aequalis. Nat. Ord. Comfiositae caftitate, Linn. Cimaroceſs- hala, Juss. Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, imbricated, with nu- merous, ovato-lanceolate, pointed, coloured scales. Cor. compound, uniform, all the florets, tubular, equal and perfect, of one petal, funnel-shaped; the tube inflexed; limb with five recurved segments. Stam. Filaments five, capillary, very short; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. Pist. Germen oblong; style thread-shaped, the length of the stamens; stigmas two, reflexed. Peric. none, the calyx remaining unchanged. Seeds solitary, ovate. Down capillary, coloured, sessile, longer than the calyx, surrounded at its base with a very short crown, of many chaffy bristles. Recefit. naked, flat. Ess. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx ovate, imbri- cated. Florets tubular, five-cleft. Seed-down double; the outer chaffy, short; inner capillary. The species of this genus, as far as they were known to Linnaeus or Jusseu, were referred by both to SERRA- TULA; see that article and LIATRIs. These genera differ very clearly from Vermonia in their feathery seed-down, destitute of surrounding scales or bristles, and the first of them has, moreover, either a scaly or a villous receptacle. Seven species of Vermonia have been determined, all of them, except one, natives of North America, and all herbaceous and perennial, except that one, which is annual and of East Indian origin. 1. V. moveboracensis. Long-leaved Vernonia. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Pursh n. 5. Bigelow Bost. 187. (Ser- ratula noveboracensis; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1146. S. novebo- racensis maxima, foliis longis serratis; Dill. Elth. 355. t. 263. Pluk Phyt. t. 109. f. 3; see Dill.)—Leaves lanceolate, rough, finely serrated. Corymb level-top- ped. Calyx-scales with slender points.—By road-sides, and in old pastures, from Canada to Carolina, flowering from August to October. Pursh. Stem four or five feet high, erect, furrowed, purplish, clothed with abun- dance of scattered, nearly sessile, long and narrow leaves ; paler underneath. Flowers numerous, dark purple, turning nearly black in decay. Scales of the calyz ending each in a fine slender awn. Bigelow. 2. V. Praealta. Tall Vernonia. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Pursh n. 4. (Serratula praealta; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1146. Mill. Ic. t. 234. S. virginica, persicae folio, subtas incano; Dill. Elth. 356. t. 264. Eupatoria vir- giniana, serratulae noveboracensis lationibus foliis; Pluk. Almag. 141. Phyt. t. 280. f. 6.)—Leaves lanceolate- serrated; downy beneath. Corymb level-topped. Calyx, scales V E. R. V E R. scales ovate, pointed.--By road-sides and the borders of woods, from New England to Carolina, flowering from August to October –A tall rough-looking plant. Pursh. Flowers purple. Calyz-scales with shorter points than the last; and leaves more downy beneath. Lin- naeus did not well distinguish these two species, nor have we been able to compare authentic specimens. 3. V. Glauca. Glaucous-leaved Vernonia. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (Serratula glauca; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1146. S. marilandica, foliis glaucis, cirsii instar denticulatis; Dill. Elth. 354. t. 262.)—Leaves lanceolate, serrated ; glaucous beneath. Corymb repeatedly compound, level- topped. Calyx-Scales ovate, acute.—Native of North America. This is omitted by Pursh, nor have we seen any certain specimen. Dillenius represents it with broader leaves than either of the former. A garden specimen communicated by Sir Joseph Banks under this name, has smooth leaves, glaucous beneath; but the points of its calyx-scales are as long as in the first. Per- haps Willdenow's specific characters, almost entirely founded on the calyx, may be fallacious. The points of the scales appear variable in length, in all the speci- mens that have fallen in our way, all of which we should esteem one species, answering best, on the whole, to the characters of W. noveboracensis. The roughness of the leaves in any of them is but slight. 4. V. fasciculata. Tufted Vernonia. Michaux Boreal,-Amer. v. 2. 94. Pursh n. 3.-‘‘Leaves linear, elongated, sparingly serrated. Flowers corymbose, erect, crowded. Calyx ovate, smooth, with pointless scales.”—Native of meadows in the Illinois country. Michaux. In Virginia, flowering from August to Oc- tober, the flowers small. Pursh. This, at least, should seem to be a distinct species. 5. V. angustifolia. Narrow-leaved Vernonia. Mi- chaux ibid. Pursh n. 2. (Chrysocoma graminifolia; Walt. Carol. 196.)—Leaves crowded, linear, elonga- ted, nearly entire. Corymb somewhat umbellate. Calyx- scales with little rigid points.—In barren sandy woods from Virginia to Georgia flowering in August and Sep- tember. Flowers the size and figure of V. fraalta. Purgh. Considering how much some plants, nearly related to this, though of different genera, are liable to vary in the breadth of their foliage, we cannot but sus- pect this as a doubtful species, like some of the forego- II].9ſ. ‘. V. oligofibylla. Few-leaved Vernonia. Michaux ibid. Pursh n. 1. (Chrysocoma acaulis; Walt. Carol. 196.)—“Stem simple, nearly naked. Leaves serrated; radical ones oblong-ovate ; the rest lanceolate. Corymb panicled.”—Native of South Carolina. Flowers pur- ple, as in all the preceding. Pursh. Michaux distin- guishes two varieties; one denominated verma, in which both flowers (of two that we presume stand together) are stalked; the other autumnalis, in which one of these flowers is nearly sessile. 7. V. anthelmintica. Worm-seed Vernonia. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 4. (Conyza anthelmintica; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1207. Scabiosa conyzoides foliis latis, dentatis, semine amaro lumbricos enecante; Burm. Zeyl. 210. t. 95. Cattu-schiragam ; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 2. 39. t. 24.)—Leaves elliptical, Serrated, roughish, tapering at each end; most downy, beneath. Flowers terminal, about three together.—Native of various parts of the East Indies. The seeds were sent to Kew, in 1770, by M. Richard, and have been received since from time to time. This species, well removed hither by Willde- now from Conyza, is annual, or, in our stoves, biennial flowering, in summer. The stem is branched, several feet high, bushy, downy. Leaves stalked, coarsely serrated, two or three inches long, veiny, more or less downy on both sides. Flowers pale purple, larger, than any of the American species. Calyx-scales each tip- ped with a linear leafy point, very various in length. Seed-down exactly answering to the generic character, and well described by Burmann. The seeds powdered, and drank with warm water, are used in India to kill intestinal worms in children. - VERNOSOLA, in Ancient Geography, a place in Gallia Aquitannica; 15 miles from Aquae Siccae. An- ton. Itin. VERNOUX, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Ardèche: 14 miles S. of Tournon. - VERODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Belgic Gaul, on the route from Durocorvorum to Divo- durum, between Ad-Fines and Axuenna. Anton Itin. VEROFABULA, a town of Asia, in Phoenicia. VEROLAMUM, or VERULAMIUM, a town of Great Britain, mentioned in several routes of Antonine, situat- ed between Durocobrivae or Dunstable and Sullioniacae or Brockley Hills. Antiquaries have no dispute about the situation of this town, which was undoubtedly at Ve- rulam, near St. Albans. It was a very flourishing and populous city in the Roman times, and honoured with the title and privileges of a municipium or free city. Dion Cassius says that it was the capital of the Catu- ellani, whom Ptolemy calls Catycuchlani. VEROLI, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the Campagna di Roma, the see of a bishop, under the pope; it contains eight churches and three convents; 3 miles S. of Alatri. N. lat. 41°42'. E. long. 13° 20'. VEROMANDUI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Belgic Gaul, according to Caesar and Pliny. Their habitation was S. of the Nervii, N. of the Suessones, E. of the Ambiani, and W. of the forest of the Ardennes. They were able to furnish no more than 1000 men in a common war against the Romans. VEROMETUM, a town of Great Britain, in the sixth Iter of Antonine between Ratae or Leicester, and Margidunum, near East Bridgeford; placed near Wil- loughby. VERNON, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne; 5 miles S.S.E. of Sens. VERONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Venetia, towards the W., upon the Athesis. It was founded by the Eugenians, from whom it passed to the Cenomans, who driven from Brixia, settled here. Mar- tial says, that Verona was no less indebted to the birth of Catullus than Mantua to that of Virgil. Under the reign of Vitellius, the partisans of Vespasian made it a place of arms. Towards the year 249 A.D., the em- peror Philip was put to death in this city, or its environs, by order of Decius. Under the empire of Carus, in 284, Sabinus Julianus revolted and took possession of Verona, but he was defeated by the emperor near the walls of the city. It shut its gates against Constantine, when he took possession of the empire against Max- entius; but opened them after the defeat of the latter to the conqueror, who treated the inhabitants with mo- deration after his victory. In 568, Verona was trans- ferred to the Lombards. See the next article. VERONA, in Geografhy, a city of Italy, and capital of the Veronese, the see of a bishop, situated on the 3 Z 2 Adige. v E R V E R Adige. It is fortified in the ancient manner, and de- fended by three castles; two of which, namely, St. Felix and St. Pietro, stand on a hill; and the third, called, Il Castello, Vecchio, and a kind of citadel, lies in a plain along the river Adige, which runs through the city, and over which are four stone bridges, of which the principal, near the last-mentioned castle, is 348 feet long. The city makes a better appearance by its delightful outlets than within, most of the streets being narrow, crooked, and dirty, and the houses but mean. The number of its inhabitants is now compu- ted to amount to nearly 50,000, but formerly was much greater. The best street is that called the Corso, which is pretty long. The cathedral is an old build- ing. One of the finest churches is that of St. Georgio, belonging to the Benedictines. The palace in which the society, or academy, of Philharmonics assemble, as also the society of the Philati, in order to the revival and improvement of martial exercises, is remarkable, particularly on account of the great collection of all the ancient inscriptions and monuments in the Etrurian, Punic, Egyptian, Greek, and Latin languages, found or brought here for a great many years past. The largest square in the city is the Piazza d'Armi, in which is a marble statue. representing the city of Venice In the Palazzo deila Regione, or the Guildhall, are the statues of five illustrious natives of Verona, viz. Catullus, Marcus Émilius, Cornelius Nepos, the elder Pliny, and Vitruvius; but the most valuable piece of antiquity here is the celebrated Roman amphitheatre, (see AMPHITHEATRE,) which so far exceeds all others, the steps, or seats, on which the people sat, being still en- tire; though, in reality but little of it appears ancient, having been carefully repaired, from time to time, at the city’s expense. The learned count Maffei com- puted that it held 22,184 spectators: the outward wall and the upper story are wanting. Near this city is a delightful place, called Campus Martius, at present used for the annual fair; it is constructed in a quadran- gular form, with four gates, and in the centre, along the stands and booths, which are placed in a direct line, one may see all the four gates. The trade of this city is not improved as it might be, by supplying other countries with the medicinal plants growing on Monte Balbo, olives, oil, wine, and very good linen, sewing silk, and woollen stuffs. The Scaligeri were lords of this city for 170 years; and one of them, for his greater security, and to keep the city in awe, built the Castello Vecchio, and the large stone bridge. In 1387, Galeasso Maria, first duke of Milan, drove out the Scaligeri, and usurped the sovereignty of this city; but in the year 1409, the Venetians became masters of it. In 1796, Verona was taken by the French ; 60 miles W. of Venice. N. lat. 45° 37'. E. long. 8° 9'. VER ONESE, ALEssanDRo, called L’ Orbetto, in Biography, was born at Verona in 1582. He acquired the name of Orbetto, from having been, whilst a boy, the conductor of a blind beggar; from this condition he was rescued by Domenico Riccio, and instructed in the art of painting, for which he had exhibited con- siderable ability. After passing some years with Ric- cio, of whom he became the rival rather than the scholar, he went to Venice, and there studied under Carlo Cagliari, and acquired an excellent idea of co- touring. He then went to Rome, and drew attentively, and in the end composed a style of his own, in which he attempted to combine the excellencies of the two schools in which he had studied, and in a great degree succeeded. He had a ready imagination, so that frequently he proceeded to paint his smaller works without any pre- paratory sketch. We seldom see in this country any other than small productions of this celebrated master, and those generally painted upon marble, but it is not upon them that his fame is founded. Lanzi, speaking of a picture of his in the church of S. Stefano in Vero- na, called the Forty Martyrs, says, “it is a work which, in the impasto of colour, and the keeping, has the quality of the Lombard school; it partakes of the Ro- man in design and expression, and of the Venetian in colouring. It is the most studied, the most finished, the gayest, that he ever made, with a degree of beauty in the heads, almost rivalling those of Guido ; and with so much art in the composition, that ali is understood, even the multiplied circumstances which are introduced in the background of the picture.” There is also another fine picture by him at Verona, a Pietà, in the church of the Misericordia, which is esteemed one of the very finest in that city. He main- tained himself fully in competition with Andrea Sacchi and Pietro da Cortona, in the church of La Concessione; and he painted several other pictures for public build- ings in Rome. He died at Rome 1648. VERoNESE, PAOLO. See CAGLIARI. VERº NESE, in Geografhy, a province of Italy, so called from its capital, Verona, bounded on the north by the Trentin, on the east by the Vicentin, on the south and south-west by the Mantuan, and on the west by the lake of Garda; about 50 miles in length, and 25 in breadth. The soil is fertile, and produces plenty of silk, corn, wine, oil, and the most delicious fruits. The Veronese was anciently a Roman colony; afterwards it made a part of Lombardy. After divers revolutions, it became the property of the house of Este, from whence it fell to the dukes of Milan ; and in 1409, to the Venetians. VERONICA, a term abbreviated from vericonica, of vera-icon, q. d. true image, and applied to portraits, or representations of the face of our Saviour on hand- kerchiefs. Veronicas are imitations of that celebrated original one, preserved with great veneration at St. Peter's in Rome; and imagined by some to be the handkerchief laid over our Saviour’s face in the sepul- chre. The first mention we find of this famous relic is in a ceremonial compiled in I 143, dedicated to pope Celes- tine, by Benedict, a canon of St. Peter’s : but there is no mention made of the time when it was brought to Rome. A feast is kept in honour thereof in most churches. on the Tucsolay in Quinquagesima week. It is to be observed, that the name veronica is only given to such handkerchiefs as represent no more of our Saviour than his face; for such as represent his whole body, as that of Besancon, which shews his fore- part at length; and that of Turin, which represents both his fore and hind-part, as having covered him all over, were never called by this name. The painters sometimes represent the veronica as held up by an angel, but most commonly by a woman, which woman the common people imagine to be a saint, called St. Veronica; a person of that name having been supposed, about the ninth century, to have presented her handkerchief to our Saviour as he went to Calvary, to wipe his face, when the picture was miraculously impressed V E R O N I C A. impressed upon it. This woman, it was added, was the person troubled with the flux of blood mentioned in the Gospel; and accordingly, she was soon Joined with St. Fiacrius, and invoked together with him against the had morrhoids. And hence the establishment of feasts in honour of St. Veronica, in the churches dedi- cated to St. Fiacrius. The milliners have taken St. Veronica, or, as they call her, St. Venisse, or St. Venecia or Veniša for their tutelaly Saint. VERONICA, in Botany, an old, but not classical, La- tin name, whose derivation has occupied and perplex- ed etymologists as much as any upon record. Lin- naeus thought it a corruption of V tonica, which, as professor Martyn observes, confounds it with Betonica. The same learned writer gives us a Greek etymology, from Hoffmann, Øepoyuzº composed of 2 spa, to bear, and viz., victory, or distinction, as if we should say in En- glish, bearing the bell, on account of its beauty. But we doubt whether this be more than a pun. Its com- mon etymology is of a mule kind, between Greek and Latin, from verus, or rather vera, true, and sixay a ſi- gure ; and this, illiterate and barbarous as it is, has the sanction of the superstitious legend of St. Veronica, whose handkerchief is recorded to have received the impression of our Saviour’s face, as he used it, in bear- ing his cross to the place of his crucifixion. But we find nothing analogous in any of the herbs which has borne this name, nor any character, true or false, stamped upon them, except that of their own peculiar beauty. Ambrosinus says the word is German, and originated in the druggists’ shops of that country, though he favours the idea of its being corrupted from Petonica, our Betonica, or Betony. The chief object of this controversy is to learn the true pronunciation of the name in question. If there be any truth in its Greek origin, the i must be long; but if otherwise, the analcgy of Betonica may justify the usual practice, of throwing the accent on the o.—Linn. Gen. 12. Schreb. 15. Willd. Sp. Pi. v. 1.54. Vahl Enum. v. 1. 55. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 15. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. l. 5. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 26. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 434. Pursh 10. Tourn. t. 60. Juss. 99. Lamarck Dict. by Poiret, v. 8. 505. Illustr. t. 13. Gaertn. t. 54. (Hebe ; Juss. 105.)—Class and order, Diandria Monogymia. Nat. Ord. Per- somate, Linn. Pediculares, Juss. Scrofthularinae, Brown. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four, rarely five, deep, lanceolate, acute, sometimes obovate, permanent segments. Cor. of one petal, wheel-shaped; tube almost as long as the calyx; limb flat, in four deep, ovate, unequal segments, the lowermost nari owest, the opposite one broadest. Stam. Filaments two, inserted into the tube of the corolla, spreading, ascending, taper- ing downwards; anthers roundish-oblong. Pist. Ger- men superior, compressed; style thread-shaped, the length of the stamens, declining ; stigma simple, ob- tuse. Peric. Capsule inversely heart-shaped, or some- what elliptical, compressed in the upper part of two cells, and two, more or less cloven, valves. Seeds numerous, roundish. Ess. Ch. Corolla four-cleft, wheel-shaped; its lower segment narrowest. Capsule superior, of two cells. Obs. Linnaeus remarks, that the tube of the corolla, though in most instances very short, in some spiked species is of considerable length. Mr. Brown particu- lariy indicates V. virginica and sibirica, as having a tube longer than their five-cleft calyx, and hence be- longing to PAEDEROTA, if that genus, which moreover scarcely differs from WULFENIA, ought to be retained; see those articles. The calyac is five-cleft in some other species, as multifida, and several neighbouring ones, though others of the same tribe have a four-cleft calyx. Such a difference therefore furnishes merely, in this case, a specific, not a generic, distinction. Veronica is a very natural genus. The Stem, usually herbaceous, is in some few instances shrubby. Leaves opposite, simple, mostly undivided, sometimes many- cleft; in a few cases whorled ; those which accompany the flowers, whether true bracteas, or the proper foli- age of the plant, the flowers being axillary, are nearly all alternate, Partial flower-stalks alternate, single- flowered. , Calya more or less unequal. Corolla blue, rarely white or pale red, marked with simple, radia- ting lines, not reticulated. The species are very nu- merous, natives of the cold or temperate regions of Europe, America, New Holland, and New Zeeland. Seventeen are wild in Britain ; about twenty-five exotic ones are cultivated in the gardens, being mostly peren- nial and hardy. We have several to add to those of Linnaeus and Willdenow, and even to the more copi- ous catalogue of Vahl, amounting to sixty-eight species. The fourteenth edition of Linn. Syst. Veg. contains but forty. They are commodiously and naturally ar- ranged by their inflorescence. Sect. 1. Clusters terminal. twhorled. 1. V. sibirica. Siberian Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 12. Willd. n. 1. Vahl n. 1. Ait. m. l. (V. spicata altissima, foliis verticillatis; Am. Ruth. 20. t. 4.)— Cluster dense, with nearly sessile flowers. Tube of the corolla twice as long as the five-cleft calyx. Leaves from five to nine in a whorl, lanceolate, sessile.—Na- tive of Siberia; sent to Kew by professor Thunberg, in 1779. A hardy perennial, not rare in curious gardens, flowering in July and August, and rising to the height of five feet. The numerously whorled, finely serrated, Smooth leaves, and the long, dense, upright shikes, rather than clusters, of innumerable pale blue, often white, tubular flowers, with long, projecting, capillary stamens and style, well mark this fine species. Ileaves more or less 2. V. virginica. Virginian Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. Willd. n. 2. Vahl n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Pursh n. 1. “Hoffm. in Comm. Goett. v. : 5. 1 12. t. i.” (V. virginiana procerior, foliis ternis, quaternis, &c.; Pluk. Phyt. t. 70. f. 2.)—Clusters obscurely whorled, with nearly sessile flowers Tube of the corolla twice as long as the five-cleft calyx. Ileaves four or five in a whorl, elliptic-lanceolate, stalked.—On calcareous hills of North America, in sunny exposures, flowering from July to September. Perennial. Shikes long; white or blush-coloured. On the mountains of Vir- ginia, I observed a very tall-growing variety, with pur- pie flowers, extremely beautiful. Pursh. This is usu- ally of more humble stature than the preceding, and more frequent in gardens. The leaves are fewer in a whorle, broader, and, in our specimens, downy beneath. Clusters, or shikes, several at the top of the stem. 3. V. foliosa. Leafy Hungarian Speedwell. Vahi n. 3. “Waidst. et Kitaib. Hung. v. 2. 106. t. 102.”— Leaves three in a whorl, ovate, doubly serrated. Calyx four-cleft. Native of Hungary. Stem about two feet high, erect, simple, hairy below Leaves on short stalks, acute, veiny beneath; the lower ones downy, especially the rib and margin; uppermost rather lanceolate and smooth. Lower clusters three together; upper V E R O N I C A. upper ones opposite or alternate. Bracteas linear. Corolla of a violet-blue. Capsule inversely heart-shaped. Wahl. tº 4. V. maritima. Sea-side Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. FI. Lapp. ed. 2.5. Vahl n. 4. Willd, n. 4. Fl. Dan. t. 374?'(V. mas surrecta elatior; Barrel. Ic. t. 891. V. spuria; Poit. et Turp. Paris, 19. t. 18. Ly- simachia caeruleo flore; Clus. Hist. v. 2. 52. L. cae- rulea hortensis; Lob. Ic. 344. Ger. Em, 477. f. 9.)— Clusters terminal, with nearly sessile flowers. Leaves stalked, three in a whorl, unequally and sharply Serra- ted.—Native of barren dry ground, near the sea-coast, in the north of Europe. Linnaeus observed it frequent- ly on the confines of the Lapland Alps, near the North sea, though no where more abundantly than on the sea- coast near Tornea. We must take his plant as a fixed point, by which to determine this much-confused spe- cies; which, though often seen in gardens, flowering in the early part of summer, does not find a place in the Hort. Kew. The old wooden cut, which is the ve- ry same in all the old authors above cited, represents the Linnaean plant most perfectly, even better than the plate of F. Dam., whose leaves are too broad, and too finely serrated. The root of V. maritima is perennial, and somewhat creeping. Stems two feet high, erect, simple, leafy, round below, quadrangular above, finely downy, though occasionally smooth in a garden, the an- gles being the first part that becomes so. Leaves three or four in a whorl, on elongated rather slender stalks, spreading and rather dependent, linear-lanceolate, point- ed, two and a half or three inches long, copiously, deep- ly, unequally, and very sharply serrated, either finely downy, or quite smooth, on both sides; accompanied by axillary tufts of a few linear, or awlshaped, small, serrated leaves. Flowers blue, in one large, Central, dense spike, accompanied by several surrounding small- er ones, from the bosoms of the uppermost leaves, sometimes terminating small branches. Calyx unequal- ly four-cleft, narrow, longer than the tube of the corol- ła.—A singular variety, as it is supposed, of this is de- scribed in Linn. Amoen. Acad. v. 3. 35. t. 2, by the name of V. shuria, and preserved in the Linnaean her- barium. The leaves are deeply and variously pinnati- fid and jagged; flowers smaller than usual in V. mari- tima, and always barren. Linnaeus conceived it to be a mule, from the pollen of Werbena officinalis, which grew near the Veronica maritima in his garden. We can neither confirm nor disprove this opinion. The plant must not be confounded with V. Shuria, hereafter described. Three dried specimens from Ehrhart's Herba are before us, W. glabra, n. 11; mitida, n. 2 l ; and elation, n. 31. The first is considered by Willdenow as the identical V. maritima, and indeed agrees well with V. recta carulea, Besl. Eyst vern. ord. 5. t. 10. f. 2. cited by C. Bauhin as the same with our maritima ; but the leaves are shorter and more ovate, with far less taper serratures than the Linnaean specimen, or the authentic old wooden cuts; being more of the shape of Fl. Dan. t. 374, though with much broader serratures. The stem and leaves are very smooth; partial flower-stalks elon- gated and slender, nearly smooth; tube of the corolla about twice as long as the calyx, which last seems an important distinction, should it prove constant.— V. mi- tida, Ehrh.. n. 21, is the top of a large luxuriant plant, whose very smooth leaves are opposite, or aggregate, not distinctly whorled, though its lower ones perhaps might; their form broad-ovate, strongly and sharply serrated, their length one and a half or two inches. Clusters numerous and long; the partial flower-stalks a little downy, longer than the calyx, which is full as long as the tube of the corolla. If these characters may be depended on, as in other plants, the two specimens in question must be distinct from each other and from maritima. ...}... elation, n. 31, most unaccountably re- ferred by Willdenow to longifolia, is more near mariti- ma. than either of the others, having merely broader, and less deeply Serrated, leaves, and agreeing as nearly with Fl. Dan tº 374, as a cultivated specimen usually does with a wild one. Its inflorescence and flowers pre- cisely resemble those of the Linnaean specimen of ma- ritima. This is surely P. spicata of Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 97. 5. V. crenulata. Notch-flowered Speedwell. “Hoffm. Phytogr. Blätt. fasc. l. 95.” Vahl n. 5–4. Leaves three in a whorl, or opposite, oblong-lanceolate, serra- ted, downy like the stem. Corolla finely crenate.”— A garden plant, perennial, two feet high, with scatter- ed branches in the upper part of the stem. Lower leaves stalked, opposite, rarely three together; upper nearly sessile, alternate, pretty equally and acutely ser- rated. Clusters hardly six inches long. Bracteas lanceo- late. Calyx four-cleft, hairy at the edge. Corolla. deep blue, hairy in the throat; its segments waved, minutely crenate. Cañsule roundish-ovate, smooth, of four valves. . Hoffmann, Wahl. We know nothing of this species, having seen no specimen answering to its name or character. 6. V. shuria. Spurious Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 13. Willd. n. 3. Vahl n. 6. Gmel. It. v. 1. 169. t. 39. (V. Spicata angustifolia; Bauh. Pin. 246, Herb. Sherard. V. recta vulgaris major ; Clus. Hist. v. 1. 347. V. recta herbariorum; Lob. Ic. 473. V. assur- gens sive spicata; Ger. Em. 628, according to C. Bau- hin; but the same cut is in Clusius, v. 1.346, who pro- bably has the same species twice.)—Leaves three in a whorl, or opposite, on short stalks, lanceolate, equally serrated, somewhat downy ; contracted at each end. Clusters lax.-Native of Siberia and the south of Eu- rope. About the stature of the last, but the stem is round to the top; leaves shorter, equally, though strong- ly serrated, on much shorter stalks ; never more than three in a whorl, often opposite only. Calyx the length of the tube. Vahl records an opinion of our learned friend Dr. A. Afzelius, that this may be a three-leaved variety of P. longifolia. Some botanists of the south of Europe, from whom we have specimens, have con- ceived the same idea. But the real longifolia is totally distinct, as we shall hereafter shew. 7. V. flamiculata. Panicled Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 18. Willd... n. 45. Vahl n. 7, Ait. n. 31. (“V. dentata; Schmidt Bohem. v. 1. 31.” V. angustifolia, floribus paniculatis; Amm. Ruth. 24.)—Leaves stalk- ed, three in a whorl, lanceolate, equally serrated, smooth. Stem ascending, panicled with numerous sim- ple clusters.-Native of Siberia, Tartary, and Bohemia. A hardy perennial in this country, introduced by Mr. Hunnemann, in 1797, yet it has never been figured. The herbage is smooth. Stem round, not quite erect. Leaves an inch or more in length, narrow, acute, rather distantly serrated, on shortish stalks. Clusters lax, ma- ny-flowered, smooth, on long, axillary, partly leafy, stalks, making a handsome terminal panicle Flowers blue. Vahl is certainly right in removing this species to the present section, near its most natural allies. It is, however, very distinct from the last. 8. V. 60th- V E R O N I C A. 8. V. complicata. Folded-leaved Speedwell. “Hoffm. Phytogr. Blätt. fasc. 1. 98.” Vahl n. 8.-" Leaves whorled, or opposite, linear-lanceolate, folded, toothed; teeth thickened.”—Native of Europe. Perennial. Stem two feet high, erect, slightly zigzag, round, downy in the upper part; the flowering branches nearly opposite. Leaves mostly opposite, rarely three in a whorl, spread- ing, reflexed ; the radical ones elliptical, somewhat hoary, unequally toothed. Bracteas linear-lanceolate. Calyx four-cleft, downy. Corolla blue, hairy in the throat. Cañsule inversely heart-shaped, smooth, with four valves. Hoffm. Vahl. 9. V. brevifolia. Short-leaved Speedwell. “Waldst. et Kitaib. Hung. t.—.” Marsch a Bieberst. Taur.- Caucas. v. 1. 6.-‘‘Leaves three in a whorl, broadly lanceolate, downy, sharply and finely serrated. Calyx and bracteas very short.”—Native of stony hills of Cau- casus, flowering in May and June. Perennial. Whole herb clothed with fine, rather glaucous, pubescence. Akin to V. shuria in flowers and inflorescence, but the leaves are much shorter and broader, with sharper more copious Serratures. Marsch. Sect. 2. Clusters or shikes terminal. Site. 10. V. longifolia. Long-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 13. Fl. Suec. ed. 2.4. Willd. n.5, excluding Ehrhart's synonym. Vahl n. 9. Ait. n. 62 “Schrad. Veron. 26. t. 2. f. 17” (V. spicata latifolia; Bauh. Pin. 246. Ger. Em. 628. V. prima erection latifolia; Clus. Hist. v. 1. 346. V. major latifolia, foliis splen- dentibus et non splendentibus; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 283.)— Leaves opposite, ovate, pointed, doubly and sharply ser- rated, smooth, on very short stalks. Clusters aggregate, Orect. rolla.—Native of Sweden, Tartary and Austria. Pe- rennial. Stems erect, two feet high, leafy, round, either smooth, or finely downy, with minute recurved hairs. Leaves two and a half inches long, and nearly one broad, with extremely numerous and sharp, unequal, and often double, serratures. Footstalks broad and ve- ry short; to the upper leaves scarcely any. Clusters rather dense, all erect and crowded, forming a sort of pyramidal panicle. Partial flower-stalks slightly downy, for the most part longer than the calyx, whose four segments are broad, ovate, and nearly equal. Tube of the corolla about twice as long as the calyx, and equal to the limb.-Such is the real V. longifolia, the Swe- dish plant of Linnaeus, for which, if we do not greatly err, authors have mistaken the maritima of Fl. Dan. t. 374. This latter is actually quoted for longifolia, by Mr. Dryander in Hort. Kew. on the authority, we pre- sume, of Schrader, whose work is not within our reach, and therefore we refer to his plate with hesitation. That the above-mentioned plant of Fl. Dan. may be a distinct species from maritima, we are readily disposed to allow. But that both of them are perfectly different from our true longifolia, and essentially distinguished from it by the much narrower, and more unequal, seg- ments of their calyx, to say nothing of the leaves and foots talks, is certain. A good figure of the longifolia is wanting, John Bauhin's being the best that we can find; as the others are very defective in their foliage. Vahl's description answers better to the so often men- tioned maritima of Fl. Dan. than to the real longifolia. His variety g, V. shicata urtica folio, Amm. Ruth. 26, though cited likewise as a variety by Linnaeus, appears to be the true plant, the description agreeing precisely, except the “solitary spike.” Leaves offio- Calyx ovate, shorter than the tube of the co- 11. V. incana. Hoary Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. Willd. n. 6. Vahl n. 10. Ait. n. 3. “Hoffm. in Comm. Goett. v. 15. 123. t. 6.” Marsch. Taur- Caucas. v. l. 7. (V. spicatalanuginosa et incana, flo- ribus caeruleis; Amm. Ruth. 21.) 9. V. neglecta; Vahl n. 11. Hoary and densely downy. Spike terminal, mostly solitary. Leaves opposite; lower ones stalked, crenate or serrated; uppermost entire, sessile, tapering at the base.—Native of the rocky summits of mountains in Siberia and Tauria, flowering in June. An elegant plant, a foot high, its white pubescence being strikingly, contrasted with the dense shike, rather than cluster, ol dark blue flowers. Calya, cottony, with four oblong unequal segments. The leaves certainly vary in acute- ness, as well as in the strength of their serratures, and we gladly profit of the hint given by the learned author of the Flora Taurico-Caucasica, to consider Vahl’s W. neglecta, which is frequent in gardens, as a mere variety. Still we do not concur with the same great authority in thinking the pubescence alone distinguishes this spe- cies from V. shicata ; even though specimens of luxu- riant shicata, as they appear to us, are pinned by Lin- naeus in his herbarium to the genuine wild incana. 12. V. shicata. Spiked Speedwell. 1 inn. Sp. Pl. 14. Willd. n. 7. Vahl n. 12. Fl. Brit. m. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 2. Poit. et Turp. Paris. 19. t. 19. FI. Dan...t. 52. (V. spicata minor; Bauh. Pin. 247. Vaill. Paris. t. 33. f. 4. V. recta minima; Clus. Hist. v. l. 347. Ger. Em. 627. V. spicata recta minor; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 282.) g. V. altera erecta angustifolia: Clus. Hist. v. 1. 346. (V. spicata recta major; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 282. V. assurgens, five spicata; Ger. Em, 628.) º Spike terminal, mostly solitary. Leaves opposite, stalked, bluntish, with shallow serratures, somewhat downy; the extremity entire. ... Stem ascending, un- branched.—Native of open, chalky, mountainous, or al- pine pastures, throughout most parts of Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering from July to September. The root is creeping, perennial, a little Woody. Stems from three to ten or fourteen inches high, each bearing usually a single dense spike of dark-blue flowers ; but the luxuriant variety g has several shikes. The lower flowers are not sessile. The segments of the calya are oblong and downy. The whole herb is more or less downy, or finely hairy, but by no means cottony, or hoary, in the manner of the last. The leaves vary in breadth, and are sometimes almost entire. 13. V. hybrida. Welsh Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. Willd. n. 8. Vahl n. 13. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 673. (V: spicata cambrobritannica, bugulae subhirsuto folio; Raii Syn. ed. 3. 278. t. 1 1.)—Spikes terminal. Leaves opposite, elliptical, obtuse, roughish, unequally and bluntly serrated. Stem nearly erect.— Native of several parts of Europe, but rare. It is found in the Welsh county of Montgomery, as well as in Lan- cashire. Linnaeus suspected this might be a mule be- tween V. officinalis and Sficata, though surely without authority. It is most akin to the last, but twice as large in every part, with rougher leaves and stem, nor does it alter by culture. The shikes, or rather clusters, are very long and dense, seldom solitary, and consist of in- numerable blue flowers. 14. V. incisa. Cut-leaved Speedwell. Ait. ed. } v. 1. 19. ed. 2. n. 9. Willd. n. 1 1. Vahl n. 14. “Schrad. Veron. 33.”—Clusters terminal. Bracteas as long as the calyx and flower-stalk. Segments of theºlº ‘Ihéâ1'- V E R O N IC A. linear-lanceolate, longer than the tube of the corolla. Leaves lanceolate, deeply pinnatifid, smooth.--Native of Siberia. The whole habit of this species is vely slender. Stem branched, about two feet high, leafy, round, slightly downy. Leaves linear-lanceolate, or variously pinnatifid and cut, very narrow, with axillary tufts of still narrower and much smaller ones. Clusters Solitary at the ends of the branches, lax, many-flowered. Partial stalks capillary, a little downy, shorter than the calyx, which is four-cleft, unequal, smooth. Bracteas linear, channelled, Smooth, various in length, but, in the lower part of the cluster at least, extending beyond the points of the calyx. Corolla blue, with acute segments. 15. V. laciniata. Jagged-leaved Speedwell. Ait. ed. 1. v. l. 19. ed. 2. n. 8. Willd. n. 10. Vahl n. 15. “Schrad. Veron. 32.” (“V. spuria; Junghans Ic. Rar. cent. 1. fig. 2, excluding the synonyms.” Wil/d.) —Clusters terminal. Bracteas as long as the flower- stalk. Segments of the calyx ovato-lanceolate, as long as the tube of the corolla. Leaves linear, pinnatifid.— Native of Siberia. Akin to the last, but the shorter Tmore ovate Segments of the calya afford a clear dis- tinction. The clusters are very long, and their lower bracteas, much longer than the upper, partake of the nature of leaves. - 16. V. finnata. Wing-leaved Speedwell, Linn. Mant. 24. Willd, n. 9. Vahl n. 16. Ait. n. 7. “Schrad. Veron. 32. Laxmann in Act. Petrop. ann. 1770. 553. t. 29. f. 1. Hoffm. in Comm. Goett. v. 15 13.O. t. 10.”— Clusters terminal. Segments of the calyx lanceolate. Leaves pinnatifid, with linear, acute, divaricated, entire or toothed, segments.-Found by Laxmann in Siberia, and by Dr. Sibthorp on mount Athos.-Like the two last, this is a hardy perennial in the gardens, flowering in June and July; but though they have been introdu- ced about forty years, they are not become common. The foliage of the present species abounds with copious, narrow, often capillary, segments. Clusters numerous, from a span to a foot long, consisting of a profusion of handsome sky-blue fowers, whose calya is smooth, almost equally four-cleft. Bracteas linear, various in length. Caftsule inversely heart-shaped, a little longer than the permanent calyx, tumid, with four valves. 17. V. bellidioides. Daisy-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 15. Mant. 3 16. Willd. n. 21. Vahl n. 17. Ait. n. 12. (V. n. 543. t. 15. f. 1 ; Hall. Hist v. 1. 235. V. alpina, bellidis folio, hirsuta ; Bauh. Prodr. l 16.)— Cluster corymbose, terminal, hairy, of few flowers. Leaves obovate, crenate. Stem simple, ascending. Capsule elliptical, abrupt, emarginate.—Native of the Alps and Pyrenées, flowering in June and July. This is one of those numerous alpine plants, which were first introduced to the knowledge of British cultivators by Dr. Pitcairn and Dr. Fothergiil, who in 1775 sent a skilful gardener abroad for that purpose. V. bellidioides is perennial, with a creeping stem, throwing up per- fectly simple flowering-branches, a finger’s length, bear- ing two or three pair of opposite spatulate leaves, smaller than the more numerous radical ones. The whole of the herbage is more or less hairy. Flowers pale greyish-blue, from five to eight in a terminal viscid corymb; afterwards elongated and racemose. 18. V. g. mtianoides. Gentian-leaved Speedwell. Vahl n. 18. Symb. v. 1. 1. Willd. n. 22. Ait n. 3. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 194. FI. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 5. t. 5. Curt. Mag. t. 1002. Venten. Malmais. t 86. (V. Orientalis erecta, gentianellae foliis; Tourn. Cor. 7. V., erceta, blattaliae facie; Buxb. Cent. I. 23. t. 35.) Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 5. t. 6. Prodr. n. leaves, tapering down into short footstalks. —Cluster corymbose, terminal, hairy. Radical leaves lanceolate, somewhat crenate, smooth.-Native of Cap- padocia, and the mountains of Taurida and Caucasus, as well as of the Bithynian Olympus. Hardy, perennial, and not uncommon in gardens, flowering in May and June. But this little alpine plant, originally four or five inches high, by culture rises to the height of two feet, with a lax habit, and long cluster of numerous flowers. It may always be known by its thick, smooth, acute leaves, with a pale cartilaginous edge, resembling the foliage of Gentiana acaulis. The corolla is large, beautifully streaked; purplish-blue in a wild state; blueish-white in gardens. * * 19 V. thymifolia. Thyme-leaved Speedwell. Sm. 19.-Cluster terminal, corymbose. Leaves revolute, hoary. Stems somewhat shrubby, diffuse. Lobes of the capsule diva- ricated.—Discovered by Dr. Sibthorp on the summits of mountains in Crete, flowering on the first melting of the snow. A shrubby little plant, whose stems are only three or four inches high, slightly branched, clothed with thyme-like, opposite, hoary, elliptical, entire, revolute A'lowers blue, very pretty, in clusters not an inch long. Cañsule hairy, inversely heart-shaped, with distant lobes. 20. V. fruticulosa. Flesh-coloured Shrubby Speed- well. Linn. Sp Pl. 15. Mant. 316. Willd. n. 24. Vahl n. 19. Fl. Brit. n. 5 Engl. Bot. t. 1028. Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 229. t 5. (V. n. 545; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 235. t 16 f. 1.)—Cluster terminal, elongated, many-flowered. Leaves elliptic lanceolate. Stems erect, somewhat shrubby. Capsule ovate, of four valves. Native of the mountains of Austria, Scotland, Switzer- land, and the Pyrenées, flowering in July. The stems, at least their flowering branches, are quite erect, from four to six inches high. Leaves above an inch long, a little downy at their edges and veins, sometimes quite entire, sometimes crenate or serrated. Flowers numer- ous, in a spiked rather than corymbose cluster, pink or flesh-coloured, never blue. Caſh sule abrupt or rather acute, soon splitting into four valves. 21. V. saaratilis. Blue Rock Speedwell. Linn. Suppl. 83. Willd. n. 25 Vahl n. 20. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl Bot. t. O27. Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 284. Dicks. Crypt. fasc. 2. 29. (V. fruticulosa; Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. l. 19 1. Fl. Dan. t. 342. V. n. 545 (3; Hall. Hist. v. 236. V. tertia fruticans; Clus. Hist. v. l. 347. V. fruticans serpyllifolia; Ger. Em. 628.)—Cluster ter- minal, corymbose, of few flowers. Leaves elliptical. Stems spreading, somewhat shrubby. Capsule ovate, of four valves.—Native of the mountains of Norway, Scotland, Austria, Switzerland, and the Pyrenées, more frequent than the preceding, flowering in July. This is akin to the last, with which many botanists, even the greatest, have confounded it. The stems however are diffuse; leaves shorter and rounder; fowers of a rich ultramarine blue, and much fewer in each short corym- bose cluster. The bracteas too are rounder and shorter in proportion to the fartial stalks. The flowering branches of both these species are herbaceous and annual, though the main stem of both is shrubby and perennial, forming woody entangled tufts.-W. nummu- laria, Gouan. Illustr. 1. t. 1. f. 2, appears by original specimens from the author to be, as Willdenow and Vahl make it, a dwarf variety of the saacatilis, with small, rounded, crowded leaves. V. flygmaea, Schranck. Salisb. n. : 1. t. 1. f. 1, seems scarcely different from the nummularia. 22. V. v E R O NI CA. 22. V. alpina. Alpine Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 15. FI. Lapp. ed. 2. 7. t. 9. f. 4. Willd. n. 26. Vahl n. 21. Fl. Brit. n. 6. (v. pumila; Allion. Pedem. V.1.75. t. 22. f. 5. Spec. 19. t. 3. f. 3. V. integrifolia; Willd. n. 27. V. n. 544; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 235. t. 15. f. 2.)—Cluster terminal, dense, corymbose. Leaves ovate, smoothish, somewhat serrated. Calyx fringed. Stem ascending, simple.— Native of the alps of Europe, from Lapland to Savoy, flowering in July and August. Vahl thinks this Teu- crium sextum of Clus. Hist. v. l. 350, with the descrip- tion of which it well agrees, but there being no figure, we cannot absolutely decide. In general, though not unfrequent in boggy alpine spots, among trickling rills, in Switzerland and Savoy, it seems to have almost totally escaped the notice of the earlier writers. The root is perennial, rather creeping. Stems procumbent at the base, then ascending obliquely, a little zig-zag, round, leafy, from two to five inches long. Leaves about an inch long, more or less broadly elliptical, rarely hairy. Flowers small, of a bright light blue, with a white tube, shorter than the four ovate, nearly equal, hairy segments of the calyx. Cañsule oval-heartshaped, of two com- pressed valves.—We reduce to this species, on the authority of Vahl, the W. integrifolia of Schranck and Willdenow, of which no specimen has fallen in our way; but we find among those of indubitable W. alfiina many that answer to their descriptions. 23. V. serpyllifolia. Smooth Speedwell, or Paul’s Betony. Linn. Sp. Pl. 15. Willd. n. 28. Vahl n. 22. Fl. Brit. n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 1075. Curt. Lond, fasc. 1. t. 3. Pursh n. 4. Fl. Dan. t. 492. (V. humifusa; Dicks. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 288. V. minima repens; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 99. f. 1. V. minor; Ger. Em. 627. V. minor serpyllifolia; Lob. Ic. 472.)—Cluster terminal, somewhat spiked. Leaves ovate, slightly crenate three- ribbed, smooth. Capsule inversely heart-shaped, shorter than the style.—Native of Europe and North America, in pastures, and by road-sides, very frequent, flowering in May and June. The herbage in moist situations is smooth, shining, and rather juicy; in dry open or hilly ground it becomes downy or hairy. The roots are perennial. Stems from two to twelve inches long, erect or prostrate. Clusters elongated, lax, with ovate brac- teas. Corolla small, elegantly variegated with bright blue and white, streaked with dark blue. 24. V. Tenella. Little Round-leaved Speedwell. Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 75. t. 22 f. 1. Willd. n. 29 Vahl n. 23. Symb. v. 3. 5.—“ Leaves roundish, somewhat rugged and crenate, all stalked. Stem creeping, villous as well as the calyx.”—Native of the Pyrenean moun- tans, and the alps of Savoy. This is said to differ but little from the last. Indeed Plukenet’s t. 233. f. 4, cited for the present, can hardly be any thing else than the serflyllifolia. Allioni describes the leaves as less firm and even than that species, but the creeping stem and less dense cluster, are characters of no moment. We have not examined the plant. 25. V. telefihiifolia. Orpine-leaved Speedwell. Vahl n. 24. (V orientalis, telephii folio; Tourn. Cor. 7.)— “Leaves obovate, nearly entire. Stem creeping.”— Gathered in Armenia by Tournefort, and described by Vahl from his herbarium. Stems thread-shaped, smooth. Leaves stalked, hardly half the length of the nail, very obtuse, smooth, with one or two obscure notches about the extremity; acute at the base. Flowers (and we pre- sume inflorescence) wanting in the specimen. Wahl. 26. V. ruderalis. Round-leaved Peruvian Speed- Vol. XXXVIII. Engl. Bot. t. 484. Fl. Dan. t. 16. well. Vahl n. 25. (“V. serpyllifolia; Fl. Peruv. v. 1 6.”)—“Leaves roundish, crenate, obscurely five-ribbed; the upper ones slightly fringed and entire. Stem creep- ing.”—Native of waste ground, borders of fields, and cool watery situations in Peru. Perennial. Stems many, diffuse, thread-shaped, purplish; downy in the upper part. Lower leaves on short stalks, spreading; upper sessile. Partial flower-stalks thread-shaped, the length of the bracteas. Corolla violet; its smallest segment white. Wahl. This is evidently very near V. serflylli- Jolia. Sect. 3. Clusters lateral. 27. V. harviflora. Small-flowered Shrubby Speed- well. Vahl n. 26. Symb. v. 3. 4. Willd. n. 16.-Cius- ters axillary, about the ends of the branches. Segments of the calyx ovate, fringed. Leaves linear-lanceolate, entire, pointed. Stem shrubby.—Gathered by sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander in New Zeeland. They gave a specimen to the younger Linnaeus, by the name of W. jloribunda. The stem is perhaps several feet in height, with forked, twisted, round, scarred woody branches, leafy only while young. Leaves crowded, sessile, cross- ing each other in pairs, from one to two inches long, very smooth and even, single-ribbed, deciduous. Clus- ters axillary, and somewhat terminal, stalked, dense, many-flowered, nearly smooth, longer than the leaves. Flowers small, we believe them to be white. Bracteas minute, fringed. Calyx the length of the tube of the corolla, and only one-third as long as the ovate, smooth, finally four-valved and quadrangular cafsule. The style is remarkably long and capillary, deciduous. This is one among many shrubby or arborescent white flowered species, referrible to Jussieu’s and Commerson's genus of Hebe, which are indeed so unlike most Veronica, in habit, that one could wish their fructification afforded any generic distinction. They serve to approximate the present genus, by some points of resemblance, to the Jasmined. - 28. V. macrocarfia. Large-fruited Shrubby Speed- well. Vahl n. 27. Symb. v. 3. 4.—Clusters axillary, about the ends of the branches. erect. Segments of the calyx lanceolate. Leaves lanceolate, entire, flat. Stem shrubby.—Native of New Zeeland. The leaves are four inches long, smooth and even, without lateral ribs, or veins. Tube of the corolla twice, and cafsule thrice, the length of the calyx. Wahl. 29. V. salicifolia. Willow-leaved Shrubby Speed- well. Forst. Prodr. 3. Vahl n. 28. Symb. v. 3. 4. Willd n. 15.-Clusters axillary, about the ends of the branches, drooping; partial stalks aggregate. Seg- ments of the calyx lanceolate. Leaves lanceolate, entire; tapering at each end. Stem shrubby.—Gather- ed in New Zeeland by sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solan- der. This appears to be nearly related to the last, but the leaves are narrower at the base. In our specimen they are little more than two inches long, scarcely per- ceptibly undulated at the very edge. Clusters longer than the leaves, their capillary fiartial stalks very nu- merous, several from the same point, each accompanied by its own little short lanceolate bractea. Tube of the corolla twice the length of the calyx. 5 segments of its limb elliptic-lanceolate, acute ; not, as in the two pre- ceding, obtuse. Capsule, according to Vahl, oblong and acute, twice as long as the calyx. 30. V. elliſtica. Elliptic-leaved Shrubby Speedwell. Forst. Prodr. 3. Vahl n. 29. Willd. n. 13.--Clusters axilialy, about the ends of the branches, simple, of few flowers. Segments of the calyx ovate, acute. Lºaves 4 A ellipuic V E R O N IC A. elliptic lanceolate, pointed, entire, slightly revolute. Stem shrubby.—Native of New Zeeland, from whence Mr. Menzies has favoured us with a specimen in seed. No writer has yet given any detailed description of this species. Its woody branches are rough with very pro- tuberant scars, where the leaves have been, and when young are quadrangular. Leaves crowded, crossing each other in pairs, about an inch long, acute at each end, single-ribbed, smooth, very slightly revolute, or reflexed at the margin. Clusters of not more than six or eight flowers, at first probably short and dense; when in fruit hardly longer than the leaves; their stalks all an- gular and smooth. Bracteas minute, acute, permanent, The corolla we have not seen. The permanent calyx is smooth, acute, half the length of the ovate, acute, tumid, four-valved cafsule. 31. V. decussata. Cross-leaved Shrubby Speedwell. Ait. n. 20. Vahl n. 31. Willd. n. 19. Curt. Mag. t. 242.—Clusters axillary, about the ends of the branches, simple, of few flowers. Segments of the calyx ovate. Leaves eliiptical, obtuse, entire, slightly revolute. Stem shrubby.—Native of Falkland islands, and the straits of Magellan; yet it requires the shelter of a greenhouse in this country. Dr. Fothergill is said to have first cul- tivated this shrub in 1776. It flowers, but not freely, in July and August, and the foliage is evergreen. This species is so nearly related to the last, that they must necessarily be placed next to each other, nor are we well assured of a specific distinction between them. The Beaves of the present are indeed much shorter, rounder, and less pointed, but their figure is not invariable. The inflorescence is precisely similar. The flowers are white, large and elegant, observed by Mr. Curtis to have a most delicious fragrance, similar to that of Olea jragrams ; another point of resemblance to the Jas- minee, see n. 27. The same writer justly observes, that the segments of the corolta are Inore equal than is usual in Veronica, and sometimes vary to five. The cafsule is oval, scarcely emarginate. 32. V. formosa. Elegant Shrubby Speedwell. Brown n. 1.-Clusters corymbose, axillary, of few flowers. Leaves lanceolate, entire ; acute at . the base. Stem shrubby. Branches with two opposite hairy lines.—Ga- thered by Mr. Brown in Van Diemen's island. The deaves are ever green, in pairs crossing each other, very smooth. Brown. 33. V. catarractae. Water-fall Shrubby Speedwell. Forst. Prodr. 3. Vahl n. 30. Ait. n. 12.-Clusters axillary, elongated, lax. Leaves stalked, lanceolate, distantly ser- rated. Stem somewhat shrubby.—Gathered by Forster In New Zeeland, we presume near some remarkable cascade. The leaves are an inch long, acute at each end, Smooth; paler beneath. Clusters from the bosoms of the upper leaves, four inches long, with smooth flower- stalks in distant pairs. Calya with four awl-shaped seg- ments, shorter than the oblong cafsule. Wahl. 34. V. labiata. Labiated Speedwell. Brown n. 2. Ait. Epit. 376. Curt. Mag. t. 1660. (V. Derwentia; Little- john in Andr. Repos. t. 531 )—Clusters axillary, elonga- ted. Leaves sessile, ovato-lanceolate, taper-pointed, un- equally serrated.—Native of Van Diemen’s island, and the south coast of New Holland, flowering with us most part of the summer. It is perennial and herbaceous, in- creased by parting the roots, but hitherto treated as a greenhouse plant; though, not being shrubby it will pro- bably bear our climate. The stems are simple, erect, about two feet or more in height, round, leafy, very smooth. Leaves opposite, clasping the stem by a sort of dilatation, scarcely to be termed a footstalk, veiny, quite smooth, three or four inches long, acutely and co- piously serrated. Clusters numerous, opposite, about the top of the stem, ascending, stalked, many-flowered, rather dense, a little downy; their fiartial stalks some- times aggregate. Bracteas awl-shaped. Segments of the calyz four, lanceolate : those of the pale blue corol- la elliptic-lanceolate, unequal, acute. Capsule of four valves. 35. V. afthylla. Naked-stalked Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. Willd. n. 20.Vahl n. 32. Ait. n. 1 1. (V. n. 541 ;- Hall. Hist. v. 1. 234. V. alpina pumila, caule aphyllo; Bocc. Mus. 17. t. 1. and t. 9. V. saxatilis parva, cau- libus nudis ; Pluk. Phytt. 114. f. S. Segu. Veron. v. 1. 24 i. t. 3. f. 2. Teucrium minimum ; Clus. Hist. v. 1. 350.) 8. V. Kamtchatica; Linn. Suppl. 83. (“V. grandi- flora; Gaertn. Nov. Comm. Petrop. v. 14, p. 1. 531. t. 18. f. 1.” Vahl.) * Leaves obovate, crenate, hairy. Flower-stalks erect, naked, thrice as long as the branches, about three-flow- ered.—Native of alpine situations in the south of Europe, and north of Asia; not uncommon on the mountains of Switzerland and the north of Italy, flowering in July; but it has never been found in Britain or Ireland. The perennial trailing stems throw up several short leafy branches, about an inch in length. Leaves crowded op- posite, stalked, usually an inch long, sometimes much less, bluntish, with numerous shallow notches; their pu- bescence finely jointed. Flower-stalks solitary, near the top of each branch, two or three inches long, each bear- ing two or three light-blue flowers, on slender downy partial stalks, accompanied by oblong obtuse bracteas. Calyx hairy, in four Obovate segments. Cañsule twice the length of the calyx, obovate, emarginate, thin com- pressed hairy. The variety 8 differs merely in the some- what larger size of every part; the pubescence being not more articulated in this than the common V. afthylla, as we have long ago remarked; Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. l. 190. 36. V. Beccabunga. Brooklime Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 16. Willd. n 30. Vahl n. 33. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl. Bot. t. 655. Curt. Lond, fasc. 2. t. 3. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 7. Pursh n. 5. Fl. Dan. t. 51 l. (Becca- bunga; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 100. Anagallis seu Beca- bunga; Ger. Em. 620. Sium; Fuchs. Hist. 725.)— Clusters lateral. Leaves elliptical, flat. Stem creeping. —Native of clear ditches, and limpid streams, through- out Europe, from Sweden to Greece, as well as in North America, flowering in June and July. Perennial. Stems procumbent or floating in their lower part, send- ing out long fibrous radicles from the joints; round, succulent, smooth and shining, like every other part of the herb, and extending two or three feet. Leaves slightly serrated, of a bright rich green, from one to two inches long, on short broad stalks. Clusters axillary, opposite, stalked, longer than the leaves, of several, not very brilliant, blue flowers. Segments of the calyz ovate, as long as the roundish, emarginate cafsule. De Theis says, the old name Beccabunga is corrupted from Bach-flunghen, the German appellation of this plant; bach meaning a rivulet; from whence comes the word beck, used for a brook in Yorkshire and Norfolk. How- ever this may be, Dr. Sibthorp found Becabunga the Turkish V E R O N I C A. Turkish name of this Weronica : adopted perhaps from some European doctor. 37. V. Anagallis, Water Speedwell, or Long-leaved Brooklime. Linn. Sp. Pl. 16. Willd. n. 31. Vahl n. 34. Fl. Brit. n. 9. Engl. Bot. t. 781. Curt Lond. fasc. 5. t. 2. Pursh n. 6. Fl. Dan. t. 903. (Anagallis aquatica ma- jor; Ger. Em. 620.)—Clusters lateral, opposite. Leaves tanceolate, serrated. Stem erect.—Native of ditches, the borders of rivers, and other watery situations, throughout Europe; more general in North America than the fore-going; and found also in Japan. Perennial, and agreeing in habit with W. Beccabunga, but taller, more erect, and readily known by its long, acute, lan- ceolate leaves. The clusters also are longer and more pointed, and the flowers smaller, occasionally flesh-co- oured. 38. V. scutellata. Narrow-leaved Marsh Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 16. Willd. n. 32. Vahl n. 35. Fl. Brit. n. .0. Engl. Bot. t. 782. Curt. Lond, fasc. 5. t. 3. Pursh I. 7. Fl. Dan. t. 209. Poit. et Turp. Paris. 15. t. 13. (V. palustris angustifolia; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 96. f. 1. Anagallis aquatica quarta ; Lob. Ic. 467. Ger. Em. 621.)—Clusters lateral, alternate; partial flower-stalks divaricated. Leaves linear, slightly indented.—Native of watery places, especially on spongy bogs, or a sandy soil, in various parts of Europe and North America; much less common in England than the two last; flow- €ring in July and August. A slender, weak, often pur- plish, perennial herb, with long narrow leaves, occasi- onally downy. Flowers pale flesh-coloured, with purple veins; their stalks bent quite back as the caſhsule ripens. The clusters are axillary, rarely opposite V. farmularia, Poit, et Turp. Paris 16. t. 14, is only the hairy variety cf this species, mentioned in Fl. Brit., which is rather cf a smaller size, and hairy or downy in every part of the herbage; but even the authors cited esteem it only a variety. 39. V. gracilis. Slender New-Holland Speedwell. Br. n. 4.—“Corymbs lateral, of few flowers. Leaves linear-lanceolate, nearly entire, very smooth as well as the nearly simple stem.”—Native of Port Jackson, New South Wales. Partition of the capsule contrary to the valves. Brown. 40 V. herfoliata. Perfoliate Speedwell. Br. n. 3. Curt. Mag t. 1936.-Clusters lateral, stalked, many- flowered. Leaves entire, very smooth ovate, pointed ; combined at the base. Capsule of four valves.—Native of Port Jackson, New South Wales. Flowers dark blue. 41. V. Billardieri. Sharp-leaved Syrian Speedwell. Vahl n. 36.-Clusters axillary, many times longer than the lanceolate-oblong, entire, hoary leaves. Stems pros- trate hoary.—Gathered in Syria by M. Labillardiere. The stems are several, thread-shaped, somewhat branch- ed, hoary and villous, like the foliage and flower-stalks. Leaves nearly sessile, hardly the length of the nail, sharpish, without ribs or veins, and accompanied by ax- illary rudiments of linear leaves. Clusters after flower- ing two or three inches long. Bracteas linear, the length of the partial stalks. , Calya in four linear, equal seg- ments, the length of the same. Cañsule inversely heart- shaped, compressed, as long as the calyx, becoming smoother as it ripens Wahl. 42. V. macrostachya. Blunt-leaved Syrian Speedwell. Vahl n. 37.—Clusters axillary, many times longer than the linear-oblong, obtuse, deeply serrated, hoary leaves. Stems prostrate, hoary.—Native of Syria. Labillardiere. Every part of the herb is villous and hoary. Stems seve- ra!, a span long, thread-shaped, somewhat branched. Leaves sessile, the length of the nail; a little dilated, and deeply serrated, towards the extremity. Clusters long. Bracteas linear. Calyx in four linear segments. Cañsule as in the last. In a garden the stem becomes eighteen inches, and each cluster two feet, in length; with very soft downy leaves. Wahl. 43. V. flectinata. Pectinated Speedwell. Linn. Mant. 24. Willd. n. 36. Vahl n. 38. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. n. 25. (V. constantinopolitana incana, chamae- dryos folio; Tourn. Cor. 7. Buxb. Cent. 1. 25. t. 39. f. 1.)—Clusters lateral, on leafy stalks. Leaves oblong, with deep parallel serratures. Stems prostrate.—Gath- ered by Buxbaum, and since by Sibthorp, on craggy shelvy mountains, bordering both shores of the Bospho- rus, flowering in spring. Mr. Hawkins met with this plant on the highest summits of the Sphaciote mountains of Crete. It has a woody perennial root, and several woody stems, a finger's length, chiefly hairy on two op- posite sides. Leaves nearly sessile, not an inch long, with parallel, bluntish, rather deep incisions. Flowers blue, in long, loose, downy clusters, whole stalks bear several, alternate, partly entire, leaves. Segments of the calyx linear, obtuse, hairy, two of them much longer than the other two. - 44. V. orientalis. Various-leaved Speedwell. Mill. Dict. ed. 8. n. 10. Ait. n. 27. Willd. n. 39. Vahin. 39. Marsch. Taur.-Cauc. v. 1. 12. (V. austriaca 3 ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 17; the specimen marked V. cappadocia, foliis laciniatis; Tourn. Cor. though no such name occurs there. V. heterophylla; Salisb. Ic. 7. t. 4. V. montana, folio vario; Buxb. Cent. 1 24. t. 38.)—Clusters lateral, lax, on partly leafy stalks. Leaves pinnatifid, smooth, acute; tapering at the base ; the uppermost linear- lanceolate, nearly entire. Partial stalks capillary, longer than the bracteas.-Native of grassy pastures in Arme- nia, Georgia, and Tauria, flowering in June and July. Miller cultivated it in 1748, and it is still preserved in the gardens; but there was no reason for retaining his unmeaning name, which had not come into general use, instead of the expressive one of heterofthylla. This evil it is now too late to remedy. The plant is hardy and perennial, bushy, of a pale and smooth appearance, the leaves variously cut, thin, flat, and pliant. Flowers copious, rather large, light blue, prettily striated. Ca- lyac and bracteas linear, rather downy. Cañsule kidney- shaped. 45. V. taurica. Narrow-leaved Taurian Speedwell. Willd. n. 42. (V. orientalis 3; Vahl n. 39. Marsch. Taur.-Cauc. v. 1. 12.)—Clusters lateral, lax, on naked stalks. Leaves linear, revolute, downy, tapering at the base; entire, or somewhat toothed. Partial stalks lon- ger than the obtuse bracteas.—Native of Tauria, on chalky stony hills, flowering from June to August. We cannot agree with Vahl in reducing this to V. ori- entalis. Our wild specimens, from the Chevalier de Steven, shew it to be a more firm and rigid plant, with woody roots. The decumbent stems are not a finger's length. Leaves almost coriaceous, bright green, an inch long, somewhat downy on both sides, very narrow and, revolute in their lower part; some of them cut into two- rarely more, strong, lateral, tooth-like segments. Clue- ters axillary, greatly overtopping the branches, as in the foregoing; but the lower part of their long firm stalks is naked, never leafy. The bracteas, and seg- ments of the calyx, are obovate and obtuse, not linear. Flowers but half the size of the last; according to Willdenow rose-coloured, as they seem in our speci- men. Cañsule abrupt, Scarcely lobed. 4. A 2 46. V. V E R ON I C A. 46. V. flarviflora. Small-flowered. Oriental Speed- well. Vahin, 40. (V. orientalis minima, foliis laciniatis; Tourn. Cor. 7. Buxb. Cent. i. 26. t. 41. f. 2.)—Clusters several, lateral, on naked stalks. Leaves pinnatifid, linear, revolute. Bracteas linear, obtuse, as long as the partial staiks,—Native of Cappadocia and Armenia, in grassy hilly pastures, flowering in June. Linnaeus confounded it with V. flectinata, though nothing can be more dis- tinct; nor can there be less difficulty in distinguishing this species from the two last. The stems are hardly a finger's length. Leaves deeply and regularly pinnatifid, thick, obtuse, revolute, and in our specimen rather downy, as in taurica : Vahl says smooth. Clusters from four to six about the top of the stem, and rising far above it, downy all over, on long, round, downy, leafless Staiks. Partial stalks rather shorter than the bracteas. Flowers blue, much smaller than even the last. Calyx with four linear, obtuse, very unequal segments. Caft- sule inversely heart-shaped, more deeply divided than in taurica. 47. V. rosea. Rose-coloured Speedwell. Desfont. Atlant. v. l. 13. Vahl n. 41.-Clusters dense, axillary, nearly terminal, on naked Stalks. Leaves unequally pinnatifid, minutely hairy; lower ones wedge-shaped, obtuse, toothed. Bracteas linear, nearly as long as the partial stalks,—Found by Desfontaines, on mount Atlas, near Tlemsen. The stems are shrubby, numerous, as- cending from four to eight inches high. Leaves an inch long, acute, tapering at the base into a short footstalk. Calyx in four linear-lanceolate unequal segments. Co- ºrolla rose-coloured, the size of V. Teucrium, hereafter described. 48. V. austriaca. Austrian Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. Willd. n. 41. Vahl n. 42. Ait. n. 28. (V. multifida et austriaca; Jacq. Austr. v. 4, 15. t. 329 Chamaedrys spuria, tenuissimé laciniata; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 287. Moris. Sect. 3. t. 23. f. 17.)—Clusters lateral, on long naked stalks. Leaves slightly hairy, variously pinnati- fid, or bipinnatifid; most deeply towards the base. Par- tial stalks capillary. Calyx very unequally five-cleft, Somewhat hairy.--Native of Austria, Silesia and Car- niola, a hardy perennial in our gardens, flowering from June to August. The herbage is more or less downy, but scarcely hoary, except the stems, which are round, leafy, a span or more in height. Leaves various in their divisions, the segments generally broader upwards, all decurrent, sometimes as narrow and compound as in V, multifida, with which most botanists have always confounded the present species. Flowers light blue, in several long, lax, axillary clusters, rising high above the stem. Segments of the calyx acute, the two lower- most very long, the fifth opposite to them, between the two others, much smaller than either, but, as far as we can discern, always present. Divisions of the corolla eliiptic-oblong, acute. Cañsule small, shorter than the calyx, elliptic-obcordate. 49. V. multifida. Fine-cut Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. excluding the synonym. Willd. n. 40. Vahl n. 43. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 191. Marsch. Taur- Caucas. v. 1. 12. Curt. Mag. t. 1679. (V. n. 38; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 222; excluding the synonym of Tournefort.) -Clusters lateral, on long naked stalks. Leaves deeply and doubly pinnatifid, downy, with linear revolute seg- ments tapering downwards. Calyx very unequally five- cleft. Segments of the corolla rounded.—Native of open fields and hills, in Siberia, Tauria, and about mount Caucasus, flowering in April and May. A much smaller plant, more delicate in its herbage, than the last, as well as more downy. The narrow revolute spreading segments of the leaves, resembling some kinds of Artemisia, readily distinguish it. The flowers are bright blue, with rounder broader divisions than in W. austriaca. The calyx is very smooth in every flower of the original Linnaean specimen, but in most others, from various quarters, it is more or less downy. The fifth segment is minute, scarcely half so long as the shortest of the others. Baron Marschall a Bieberstein observes, that all this tribe of Veronica, with cut leaves, have a five-cleft calyx 50. V. tenuifolia. Slender-leaved Georgian Speed- well. Marsch. Taur.-Caucas. v. l. 13.−4° Clusters. lateral. Leaves pinnatifid, with linear-threadsiiaped divisions. Segments of the calyx awl-shaped; three upper ones very short. Stems ascending.”--Gathered in Georgia, by the Chevalier de Steven. Perennial. Akin to the last, but the stems are more elongated; leaves less subdivided; their segments, especially those of the lower ones, longer; fartial stalks equal to the bracteas, or longer; three upper segments of the ca'ya- minute. May this be V. farviflora of Vahl 3 (see n. 46.) The flowers however are by no means smalier than multifida or orientalis. Marschall. 51. V. caucasica. Slender-leaved Caucasian Speed- well. Marsch. Taur.-Caucas. v. 1. 3.—“Clusters lateral. Leaves doubly pinnatifid, with lanceolate or linear segments. Partial stalks capillary. Segments of the calyx lanceolate, nearly equal. Stem almost erect.”—From the same country. Perennial. The leaves are like multifida, but the divisions of the lower ones are broader. Partial stalks longer than the brac- teas. Segments of the calya four, aimost equal, broader than in the neighbouring species. Lobes of the corolla rounded. Mºrschall. 52. V. Allionii. Shining-leaved Speedwell. Villars Dauph. v. 2. 8. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1, 190. Willd. n. 18. Vahl n. 44. Ait. n. 19. (V. Pyrenaica; Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 73. t. 46, f. 3. V. repens, ex alis spicata, &c.; Spec. 21. t. 4. V. officinalis & ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. V. n. 2; Ger. Galloprov. 332. V. mas repens pyre- naica, folio longiori glabro; Sherard Schol. Bot. 46. Tourn. Inst. 143. Pluk. Phyt. t. 233. f. 1.):- Clusters lateral, very dense, obtuse, on long smooth stalks. Leaves roundish-obiong, crenate, rigid, shining, smooth as well as the creeping stems.-Native of mount Cenis, and the alps of Switzerland, Daup::iny and Savoy, flowering in August. Root perennial, creeping. Stems round, procumbent, ieafy, creeping also to a great ex- tent. Leaves roundish, or obovate, firm and coriaceous; paler beneath; on short broad footstalks. Clusters axillary, solitary, scarcely more than one to each branch, on a round, naked, firm, ascending stalk, thrice the length of the leaves; the cluster itself an inch iong, downy, elliptic-oblong, obtuse, of numerous, crowded, violet-blue flowers, with very short fiartial stalks, not half the length of the obtuse bracteas. Calyx in four oblong, unequal segments. Villars mentions a hairy variety. This species, confounded by Linnaeus with the following, is of a much more rigid, compact, and smooth habit, of a darker hue, and unquestionably very distinct. Its infusion, used medicinally in the South of France, for colds, coughs, debility of the stomach, &c. is said to be more fragrant and aromatic than that of V. officinalis, a popular medicinal tea in the north- ern parts of Europe 53. V. officinalis. Common Male Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 14. Willd. n. 17. Vahl n. 45. FI. Brit. n. 3. Engl. V E R O N I C A. Engl. Bot. t. 765. Curt. Lond, fasc. 3. t. 1. Pursh n. 2. Woodv. Suppl. t. 219. Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 93. Fl. Dan. t. 248. Poit. et Turp. Paris, 12. t. 8. (V. mas; Fuchs. Hist. 66. V. vera et major; Ger. Em. 626.)— Ciusters lateral, stalked, slender, acute, rather lax. Leaves elliptic-oblong, serrated, rough, stem procum- bent.—Native of dry sandy banks, heaths and woods, on a barren soil, throughout Europe and North Ame- rica, flowering in May and June. Perennial. Stems trailing, branched, forming broad tufts or scattered patches. Whole plant hairy. Leaves more oblong, acute, pliant, paler, and more deeply serrated, than in the former. Flowers pale blue, or light pink, striated, in long, rather lax, alternate, axillary clusters, on hairy stalks, about twice the length of the leaves. Capsule inversely heart-shaped, splitting into four valves. The late Mr. Mackay has sent us from the moun- tains above Blair in Athol, and from Ireland, a sort of intermediate variety between this and V Allionii, par- taking of the rigidity and smoothness of the latter, but even more strongly serrated than officinalis. We scarcely hesitate to which species to refer it, though we have never compared living specimens. 54. V. reniformis. Kidney-leaved Speedwell. Pursh n. 3.--Spikes lateral, stalked. Leaves kidney-heart- shaped, deeply crenate, smooth. Stem creeping.— Collected by Messrs. Lewis and Clark, in boggy soil, on the banks of the Missouri, flowering in June. Pe- rennial. Stem creeping, thread-shaped, taking root at the joints. Leaves opposite, on long stalks, deeply cut and notched. Floºper-stalks axillary, alternate, round, smooth, the length of the leaves, bearing to- wards the top a single oblong, crenate bractea. Shike oblong, short. Flowers large, crowded, pale blue. Calyac four-cleft; the two upper segments oblong; two lower linear, much smaller. Corolla flat, with oblong acute segments, thrice the length of the calyx; the lower one linear. Filaments the length of the corolla. Pursh. 55. V. frostrata. Trailing Germander Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. Willd. n. 35. Vahl n. 46. Ait. n. 24. Ehrh. Herb. n. 71. Roth in Sims and Kon, Ann. of Bot. v. l. 37. (V. angustifolia minor; Rivin Monop. Irr. t. 95. f. 2. Chamaedrys spuria minor angustifolia; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 287.) g. V. satureiacfolia; Poit. et Turp. Paris. 18. t. 17. Clusters lateral, mostly opposite, corymbose. Leaves elliºnic-oblong, variously serrated, nearly sessile; up per ones narrower and entire. Stem ascending, partially naked at each side. Calyx five-cleft, very unequal.-- Native of Germany, Switzerland, Italy, France, and the Levant. A hardy perennial, flowering in May and Jume. The herbage is light green, more of less dowº, slightly hoary. Stems not a span long, clothed with short dense recurved pubescence, which is Partly smoothed away, here and there, in opposite lateral lines. Leaves three-quarters of an inch long, rarely more, rather blunt, crénate or deeply serrated for the most part; the upper ones only being linear, revolute and entire; but in the variety, as we judge it, most of the leaves are of the latter description. The flowers are bright blue, rather showy, in corymbose dense tufts, subsequently lengthened ºut into long lax clusters. The calyx seems to vary in acuteness, but is generally Smooth. - 56. v. hilosa. Hairy-stalked Germander Speed- well. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1663, excluding the description. Willd. n. 34. Vahl n. 47. (Chamaedryos falsa species, Teucrium secundum aut quintum Clusii; Bauch. Hist. v. 3. 286.)—“Clusters somewhat spiked. Leaves ovate, obtuse, plaited. Stem prostrate, hairy.”—Native of Austria, Linnaeus. This is a very doubtful species, not to be found in the Linnaean herbarium; and the description in Sp. Pl. 1664. is erased by Linnaeus him- self, from his own copy. Willdenow's description of a Bohemian specimen, in his possession, answers very nearly to one of those pasted together as the firostrata, in the Linnaean her- barium, whose leaves are more cut, and calyx rather Sharper than the three others; but we cannot think there is any specific distinction between them. The calyx of this specimen have five segments, though that character is not invariable. Willdenow describes four. 57. V. Teucriam. Upright Germander Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 16, synonyms confused. Willd. n. 33. Vahl n. 48. Ehrh. Pl. Off. 51. Poit. et Turp. Paris. 16. t. 15. (V. montana; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 95. f. 1. Chamaedrys spuria major angustifolia; Bauh. Pin. 249. Bauh Hist. v. 3. 285. chap. 58. Ch. Sylvestris; Dod. Pempt. 45. Ch. vulgaris mas; Fuchs. Hist. 871. Teu- crii quartitertia species; Clus. Hist. v. l. 349.)—Clus- ters lateral, opposite, cylindrical, on long stalks. Leaves sessile, oblong-lanceolate, bluntly serrated, rough. Stem ascending, hairy. Fifth segment of the calyx very minute.—Native of Germany, Bohemia and France, on a dry soil, flowering in May. The root is perennial. Stems seldom quite erect, a foot long, round, hairy, partly smooth on two opposite sides. leafy. Leaves an inch and a quarter long, veiny, hairy, strongly serrated, but not cut; a little dilated at the base. Clusters axil- lary, usually two near the top of the stem, rising high above it, on long, parallel, naked, downy stalks. Flowers copious, rather crowded, large, handsome, of a fine blue. Segments of the calyar oblong the fifth minute, various, often obsolete. Mr. Sieber has sent as a variety of this species the W. dentata of Schmidt, whose leaves are narrow, linear, and nearly all entire. Yet it is probably not specifi- cally distinct. 58. V. latifolia. Great Germander Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 18. Willd. n. 44. Vahl n. 49, Ait. n. 30. Marsch. Taur.-Caucas. v. 1. 10. (V. Teucrium; Roth in Sims and Kon. Anti. of Bot. v. 1. 137. V. pseudo-chamae- drys; Jacq. Austr. t. 60. Chamaedrys spuria major altoia, sive frutescens; Bauh. Pin. 248. Teucrium majus pannonicum ; Ger. Em. 659. T. quartum; Clus. Hist. v. 1.349.)—Clusters lateral, opposite, taper- ing, on long stalks. Leaves sessile, ovate, somewhat heart-shaped, rough, deeply serrated and cut. Stem erect, hairy. Calyx unequally five-cleft. Native of Austria, Bohemia, Germany and the Levant; a com- mon hardy perennial in gardens, flowering in June and July. We have long supposed this not specifically distinct from the last. Vahl and Roth confound them; Willdenow seems to have been acquainted with their differences, and the old authors were clearly so. The present is a more robust plant, with broader more jagged leaves. The stem is quite smooth on two oppo. site sides, densely and equally hairy on the intermediate ones. Flowers large, copious, very brilliant, in dense more tapering clusters. Fifth segment of the calyx half as long as the two next, but on this mark we have little reliance. Linnaeus has led Jacquin and others astray, by citing synonyms of V. urticafolia for his lati- Jolia, of which latter, as above described, the original specimen is preserved in his herbarium, nor can we COINCUl I' V E R O N I C A. concur with the learned Dr. Roth in transferring this name to the urticifolia : see his excellent remarks in Ann. of Bot. above cited. Neither do we by any means assert our Teucrium and latifolium to be more than va- rieties of each other, Schmidt’s dentata perhaps except- ed, which is too unlike the latter. We have only aim- ed at collecting their synonyms, and indicating what distinctions we could find, for future inquiry. 59. V. f.eduncularis. Long-stalked Germander Speedwell. Marsch. Taur.-Caucas. V. l. l I. Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 401. (V. pedunculata ; Vahl n. 50. V. chamaedryos foliis parvis; Buxb. Cent. 1, 26. t. 41. f. 1.)—Clusters lateral, opposite; with long capillary partial stalks. Leaves stalked, ovate, deeply serrated and cut; their segments toothed. Ca- lyx in four, nearly equal, bluntish segments.-Native of shady thickets and groves of mount Caucasus, flower- ing in May. Perennial. Akin to V. Chamaedrys here- after described, but the stems are hairy almost all round; leaves stalked, smaller, and yet more cut, in an une- qual or compound manner. The partial flower-stalks are also longer; the bracteas and segments of the calyx broader and more obtuse. The variety y of Fl. Taur.- Caucas. sent by the Chevalier de Steven, is of a very different and diminutive aspect; the leaves scarcely stalked, or cut. 60. V. umbrosa. Wood Germander Speedwell. Marsch. Taur.-Caucas. v. l. l l —“Clusters lateral, of few flowers. Leaves oblong, obtuse, distantly serra- ted, rough ; uppermost linear-lanceolate, entire. Stems creeping. Calyx as long as the corolla.”—Native of the dense shady forests of Tauria, about the town of Karassubasar, flowering in April and May. Perennial, forming loose tufts. Partial flower-stalks thread-shaped. Segments of the calyx linear. Specimens sent by the Chevalier de Steven from Tauria, under this name, have smooth leaves, except the edges; clusters of rather numerous, though distant, large and handsome blue flowers ; bracteas ovate, as well as the segmeats of the calyz, which last is but half the length of the corolla. 61. V. Michaurii, Michauxian Speedwell. Lamarck Illustr. v. 1. 44. Dict. v. 8. 532. Vahl n. 5 i.—“Clus- ters lateral. Flowers somewhat crorwaed. Leaves ovate, toothed, sessile. Herbage hairy and glutinous.”— Brought from the East by Michaux to the Palis garden. Stems four to six inches long, clothed with whitisu vis- eid hairs. Leaves opposite, obscurely toothed, blunt- ish, an inch and a half long, six lines broad, without ribs. Stalks axillary, opposite, some of them at the ends ef the short lateral leafy branches all downy, hardly so long as the leaves. Flowers on very short downy stalks, crowded. Bracteas lanceolate. Segments of the calyx four, oval, sharpish, scarcely downy. 62. V. Chamaedrys. Wild Germander Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. Willd. n. 38. Vahl n. 52. Fl. Brit. n. 12. Engl. Bot. t. 623. Curt. Lond, fasc. l. t. 2. Mart. Rust. t. 66. Poit. et Turp. Paris. 13. t. 9. Fl. Dan. t. 448. (V. pratensis latifolia; Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 94. Chamaedrys : Brunf. Herb. v. l. 125. Ch. vulgaris foemina; Fuchs. Hist. 872. Ch. Sylvestris; Ger. Em. 657.)—Clusters lateral. Leaves ovate, ses- sile, rugged, deeply serrated. Stem diffuse, with a narrow hairy line at each side. Calyx four-cleft, lan- ceolate.—Native of grassy pastures, groves, and banks throughout Europe, and even in Japan, perennial, flow- ering in May. Few of our wild flowers can vie with this in elegance and brilliancy, nor can the pencil easily Linn. Sp. Pl. 17. do it justice. The wavy stems spread in every direc- tion, and are merely fringed at each side with a line of longish hairs, not only partially naked, as in V. Teu- crium and latifolia. The foliage is akin to the latter, but less cut. Clusters numerous, generally opposite, on hairy stalks, taper-pointed, many-flowered. Bracteas lanceolate, usually rather shorter than the partial stalks. Flowers large, bright blue, most elegantly veined; paler at the back. Cahsule inversely heart-shaped, small. 63. V. urticaefolia. Nettle-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Suppl. 83. Willd. n. 43. Vahl n. 53. Ait. n. 29. Jacq. Austr. t. 59. (V. n. 535; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 232. V. pratensis, omnium maxima; Buxb. Cent. 1. 23. t. 34. V. maxima; Dalech. Hist. I 65. Chamaedrys spuria major latifolia; Bauh. Pin. 248.)—Clusters lateral, lax with capillary stalks. Leaves sessile, heart-shaped, pointed, sharply serrated. Stem quite erect. Calyx, four-cleft, ovate.—Native of woods in Austria, Bavaria, Switzerland, and Bithynia, flowering in May and June. This species was not known to Linnaeus, till Jacquin, who originally took it for latifolia, sent him a specimen. Under this latter name it is described by Dr. Roth, in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 1. 137, but was never what Linnaeus intended. No species is better defined nor better named. The large nettle-like leaves at once determine it. The roots are perennial, moderately creeping. Stems erect and straight, slender, eighteen inches or two feet high, quite simple, marked with a slight hairy line. Clusters numerous, axillary, oppo- site, erect, loose and slender. Flowers Small, flesh-co- loured, with crimson lines. Cufisule of two semi-orbi- cular lobes. 64. V. Pozew. Rock Germander Speedwell. Gouan Illustr. 1. t. 1. f. 1. Willd. n. 23, excluding the variety. Vahl n. 54. (V. petrea; Pon. Bald. 1792 Clus. Hist. v. 2. 336 3)—Cluster nearly terminal, lax, offew flowers. Leaves sessile, heart-shaped, obtuse, coarsely serrated. Stem erect. Calyx five-cleft, smooth.-Native of the Pyrenées, and perhaps of mount Baldus. Perennial. Stem four or five inches high, quite simple and upright. Lower leaves smallest, roundish, crenate ; the rest an inch long, very blunt, coarsely serrated, entire at the extremity, besprinkled with distant close-pressed hairs. Bracteas linear, the length of the partial stalks. Flowers distant, the size of V. Chamaedrys. Such is Vahl’s description of Gouan’s plant, which he received from that author, and found himself also on the Pyrenées. He asserts it to be a distinct species, nor do we doubt his accuracy. We nevertheless have great doubts re- specting Pona’s plant, which may be a Linnaean Paede- rota, as Linnaeus supposed; for the figure very closely agrees with Micheli’s Buonarota, t. 15. Gouan him- self seems not quite certain of Seguier’s plant, from mount Baldus; for do we implicitly confide in Gouan's learning with regard to synonyms. The references to Pºkénet, Phyt, tº 233. § 2. and s, are best omitted. Willdenow issurely wrong in referring hither Ailioni's W. fitzmila, which Vahl more judiciously considers as W. alſiina ; see our n. 22. - 65. V. montana. Mountain Germander speedwell. Suppl. 83. Willd. n. 37. Vahl n. 55. Fl. Brit. n. 11. Engl. Bot. t. 766. Curt. Lond. fasc. 4. t. 2. Jacq. Austr. t. 109. Hoffm. Germ. ann. 1791. t. 1. Fl. Dan. t. 1201. (V. procumbens; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 93. Alyssum Dioscoridis montanum; Column. Ecphr. v. 1. 286. t. 288.)—Clusters lateral, elongated, lax, of few flowers. Leaves ovate, stalked, Serrated. Stem diffuse, hairy all round. Native of shady V E R O N I C A. shady rather mountainous woods, especially on a calca- reous soil, in Denmark, England, Germany, and Italy, flowering in May and J une. A very distinct perennial species, which some botanists have incautiously con- founded with W. Chama-drys. Scopoli, still more un- accountably, united them both with V. Teucrium. She- rard, who first noticed the montana in England, and Curtis, have been more exact in their observations. The stem being hairy in every direction, and the large caſi- sule formed of two orbicular lobes, not obcordate, are abundantly sufficient distinctions. The leaves are thin- ner, and more shining, than in Chamaedrys ; flowers smaller, paler, much less beautiful; segments of the calyx obovate. We regret that a mistake of the late very accurate Mr. W. Brunton is recorded in Turner’s and Dillwyn's Botanist’s Guide 666. He seems to have taken up a portion of the root of Chamaedrys along with montana, and thought the latter was, in the follow- ing season, transformed into the former. His specimens are before us; and of the obvious and absolute distinct- ness of the species there can be no doubt, however they came together. - 66. V. calycina. Long-cupped New Holland Speed- well. Br. n. 5.-Clusters lateral, offew flowers. Leaves stalked, ovate, rugose, unequally crenate, hairy as well as the creeping stem Calyx hairy, fringed, longer than the capsule. Observed by Mr. Brown, in Van Diemen’s island, and on the south coast of New Hol- land. 67. V. distans. Distant-flowered New Holland Speedwell. Br. n. 6.-Corymbs lateral, stalked, of few flowers. Leaves ovate, broadly serrated, smooth. Foot- stalks fringed. Stem decumbent, with a liairy line at each sidc.—Gathered on the South coast of New Hol- Iand, by Mr. Brown. 68. V. arguta. Sharp-toothed New Holland Speed- well. Br. n. 7-Clusters lateral, lax. Leaves ovato- lanceolate, smooth, unequally serrated. Stem downy on two opposite sides. Lower footstalks one-third the length of the leaves.—Gathered by Mr. Brown at Port Jackson, New South Wales. A specimen from the same country, communicated by Mr. Lambert, answers in every respect to the above definition, except that the leaves are triangular-heartshaped ; but perhaps it may be a variety only. The calyx has four obovate seg- ments, rather longer than the nearly orbicular capsule. 69. V. filebeia. Common New Holland Speedwell. Br. n. 8.-Clusters lateral, lax. Leaves ovate, unequal- ly and deeply serrated, smooth. Stem very finely downy. Lower footstalks half as long again as the leaves.—Gathered at Port Jackson, by Mr. Brown, who speaks of it as very closely related to the last. Sect. 4. Stalks single-flowered, azillary. 70. V. biloba. Two-lobed Speedwell. Linn. Mant. 172, excluding the synonyms of Columna and Bauhin. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 193. Willd. n. 46. Vahl n. 56. (V. orientalis, ocymi folio, flore minimo; Tourn. Cor. 7. V. arvensis annua, chamaedryos folio; Buxb. Cent. 1. 24. t. 36.)—Flower-stalks thread-shaped. Leaves ovate, acute, serrated, nearly Smooth. Calyx of the fruit in four deep, ovate, three-ribbed, almost equal, segments.—Gathered by Tournefort in corn- fields in Cappadocia; and by the Chevalier de Steven on the eastern mountains of Caucasus. The root is annual. Stems two to four inches high, erect, branched, downy. Leaves somewhat heart-shaped at the base, half or three-quarters of an inch long, on short stalks. Flowers axillary, solitary, alternate, about the top of the stem and branches, the leaves which accompany them being more entire, and sessile, than the rest. Segments of the calyx lanceolate while in flower, the two uppermost shortest; afterwards they become much larger, ovate, fringed, marked with two evident lateral ribs besides the central one. Corolla small, white. Cap- sule hairy, of two distinct, divaricated, rounded lobes, much shorter than the permanent calyx. Linnaeus seems to have taken his specific character from Co- lumna's Ecphrasis, t. 290, which represents a widely different species, akin to Chamaedrys, possibly the Ponce of Gouan ; see n. 64. 71. V. amoena. Handsome-flowered Annual Speed- well. Marsch. Taur.-Caucas. v. 1. 14.—“Flowers solitary. Leaves ovate, crenate; floral ones oblong, entire, much shorter than the flower-stalks. Segments of the calyx linear. Stem spreading.”—Gathered by the Chevalier de Steven, in the fields of Georgia, flow- ering early in spring. Root annual. Herb the size of W. arvensis. The floral leaves are minute and entire, So different from the rest, as to cause a doubt whether they be other than bracteas, and the inflorescence race- mose. This is the most beautiful species of the pre- sent section, on account of its very large blue flowers, white in the middle. Marsch. 72. V. glauca. Glaucous Three-cleft Speedwell. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. i. 6. t. 7.—Flowers solitary. Leaves heart-shaped, deeply serrated. Stems procum- bent. Segments of the calyx three-cleft.—Native of the summit of mount Hymettus, above Athens. Mr. Ferdinand Bauer. Root annual. Stems spreading on the ground in every direction, much branched, reddish, with a dense hairy linc at cach side. Leaves glaucous, stalked, more or less deeply cut, scarcely an inch long, most hairy at the base and underneath; the lower ones opposite; upper alternate. Flower-stalks capillary, smooth, shorter than the leaves. Calyx in four very deep, nearly equal, wedge-shaped segments, remarka- ble for being three-cleft, which well marks the species. Corolla deep blue, white in the centre. - 73. V. agrestis. Procumbent Field Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 18. Willd. n. 47. Vahl n. 58. Fl. Brit. n. 13. Engl. Bot. t. 783. Curt. Lond, fasc. l. t. 1. Fl. Dan. t. 449. (V. folio chamaedryos ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 99. f. 2. Alsine foliis trissaginis; Ger. Em. 616.) g. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 6. t. 8. (V. persica; Poir. in Lam. Dict. v. 8. 542. V. flosculis oblongis pediculis insidentibus, chamaedryos folio, major; Buxb. Cent. 1. 26. t. 40. f. 2.) Flowers solitary. Leaves ovate, deeply serrated, shorter than the flower-stalks. Stems procumbent. Segments of the calyx ovate. Seeds cupped.—Native of cultivated and waste ground, throughout Europe, an- nual, flowering from April to the end of autumn. A was gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, in Prince's islands, near Constantinople. Root small. Stems prostrate, simple, except at the base, round, leafy, hairy, from six to twelve inches long. Some of the lower leaves are opposite, but the greater part are alternate, all stalked, roughish. Flowers deep blue, rather small. Segments of the calyx ovato-lanceolate, fringed, generally quite entire, now and then irregularly toothed; becoming broadly ovate as the fruit advances. Cañsule rough, of two round swelling lobes. Seeds about six in each cell, ex- ternally rugged, hollowed out underneath, where their stalk is inserted.—We would gladly, if possible, have made a distinct species of the W. byzantima of Sibthorp's manuscripts, our variety 8; but no difference is to be found, except the greater size of every part. The i. 7"Q/4(2 V E R ON I CA. Tolla is much larger, paler, more elegantly streaked. The form of the calyx, tumid capsule, and curious structure of the seeds, are all the same as in our com- mon kind. 74. V. arvensis. Wall Speedwell, or Speedwell Chickweed. Linn. Sp. PI. 18. Willd. n. 48. Vahl n. 59. Fl. Brit. n. 14. Engl. Bot. t. 734. Curt. Lond. fasc. 2. t. 2. Fl. Dan. t. 515. Pursh n. 8. (Alsine foliis veronicae; Ger. Em. 613. Alyssum; Column. Phytob. t. 28.)—Flowers solitary, nearly sessile. Leaves ovate, deeply Serrated; the floral ones lanceolate, en- tire. Stem erect. Seeds flat.—Native of Europe, North America and Japan, on walls, banks, and dry gravelly or sandy ground, flowering in May. The her- bage is of a pale green, rough. Stem about six inches high, branched from the bottom. Lowest leaves on short stalks; the rest sessile; the floral ones so small, as to seem like bracteas only, but their true nature ap- pears from the analogy of other annual species. Flowers Small, pale blue; their very short stalks more or less elongated as the fruit advances. Segments of the calyz lanceolate, somewhat unequal. Cañsule inversely heart- shaped, compressed. Seeds elliptical, flat, with a little dimple in the centre of one side. - 75. V. rotundifolia. Round-leaved Peruvian Speed- well. “Fl. Peruv. v. 1. 6.” Vahl n. 60.-4: Flowers solitary, stalked. Leaves orbicular-kidneyshaped, cre- nate. Stem thread-shaped, creeping.”—Plentiful in boggy situations in Peru. Hairy. Stem slender, branch- ed, round, purple. Leaves two or three, often but one, from each joint, on long stalks, somewhat peltate, deep- ly notched. Flower-stalks twice the length of the foot- stalks. Segments of the calyac lanceolate. Corolla of a rosy purple, with ovate segments. Stamens three, the length of the tube. The flowers are occasionally five-cleft, with four stamens. Wahl from the Fl. Peruv. There is no figure, and having seen no specimen, we are very ready to concur with Vahl, in his opinion, that the genus of this plant is doubtful. 76. V. cymbalaria. White Oriental Speedwell. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1.7. t. 9. (V. cymbalariaefo- lia; Vahl n. 61. V. cymbalarifolia; Gmel. Tubing. 6. V. hederifolia 3 ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Willd. n. 49. V. chia, cymbalariae folio, verna, flore albo umbilico virescente; Tourn. Cor. 7. Buxb Cent. 1. 25. t. 39. f. 2.)—Flowers solitary. Leaves heart-shaped, deeply crenate. Segments of the calyx rounded. Seeds cup- ped, nearly smooth.-Native of fields about Constanti- nople, and in the Greek islands, as well as in Morocco. Annual. Stems spreading or procumbent, branched at the base only, a span long, square, with a hairy line at two opposite sides. Leaves all stalked, opposite, round- ed, obtuse, with two or three deep notches at each side, but scarcely lobed. Flowers white with a yellow cen- tre, on long, opposite, capillary stalks, reaching beyond their corresponding leaves. Segments of the calya, obovate, obtuse, fringed, entire. Capsule turgid, of two round lobes, hairy. Seeds only two in each cell, large, hollow at one side, nearly smooth externally, chiefly wrinkled at the margin. Very distinct in its ca- Zyr from the following. 77. V. hederifolia. Ivy-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Willd, n. 49. Vahl n. 62. Fl. Brit. n. 15. Engl. Bot. t. 784. Curt. Lond, fasc. 2. t. 1. Poit. et Turp. Paris. 23. t. 26. FI. Dan. t. 428. (V. fo- lio hederaº ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 99. Alsine hede- racea; Ger. Em. 616. Aisines quartum genus; Fuchs. Ic. 13.)-Flowers solitary. Leaves heart-shaped, flat, five-lobed. Segments of the calyx heart-shaped, acute. Seeds cupped, wrinkled.—Native of fields and waste ground throughout Europe, flowering in April and May. Annual, in habit like the last, but the leaves are more decidedly lobed, and ivy-like, though of a pale green. ... They are also, except a very few of the lowermost, all alternate, mostly longer than their foot- stalks. Flowers pale blue, on long, solitary, axillary stalks. Segments of the calyx nearly equal, point- ed, three-ribbed, with a very broad heart-shaped base. Seeds much more wrinkled at the outside than the last, but agreeing with that species and agrestis in their reversed cup-like form.—The late Mr. Crowe observ- ed to the writer of this, after the present species had appeared in Engl. Bot , that it is scarcely to be found with us in flower iater than May, and that the Norfolk farmers call it Winter-weed. - 78. V. filiformis. Capillary-stalked Speedwell. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. l. 195. Willd. n. 50. Vahl n. 63. Marsch. Taur.-Caucas. v. l. 15. (V. Orientalis, foliis hederae terrestris, magno flore; Tourn. Cor. 7. Buxb. Cent. 1. 25. t. 40. f. 1.)—Flowers solitary. Leaves heart-shaped, crenate, much shorter than the long slender flower-stalks. Segments of the calyx lanceolate.—Native of the Levant; found by the Cheva- lier de Steven in mountainous fields of Georgia, flow- ering early in the spring. We have compared his specimens with Tournefort’s nor is there any difference, though the reference to this author is directed in the Fl. Taur.-Caucas. to be struck out. The root is annual. Stems long and trailing. Leaves a quarter of an inch long, alternate, on short stalks, and shaped more like those of armensis or agrestis than of hederifolia. Flow- er-stalks four times as lous as the leaves. Segments of the calyx elliptic-lanceolate, obtuse, slightly three- ribbed. Caſhsule inversely heart-shaped, reticulated with veins. Seeds somewhat cupped. 79. V. Crista-galli. Crested Speedwell. Stev. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1 1. 408. t. 31.—Flower-stalks solitary, as long as the ovate, serrated, nearly sessile, leaves. Calyx of the fruit divided to the base into two heart-shaped, cloven, serrated, compressed leaves. Found by the Chevalier de Steven, to whom we are obliged for a specimen, very plentifully in the dense shady forests of Eastern Caucasus, above Kubam, flow- ering in May. The root is annual. Stem a span high, ascending, simple, or alternately branched, slender, downy, on two opposite sides. Leaves most like V. agrestis, uniform; the floral ones alternate, the rest op- posite. Stalks axillary, slender, downy. Flowers ex- tremely minute and fugacious, blue. Calyx greatly enlarged after flowering, of two flat, parallel, strongly serrated, veined, heart-shaped valves, each with two points, being altogether peculiar in this genus, and about the diameter of the leaves. Capsule of two nearly orbicular lobes, shorter than the permanent ca- lyx, very minutely fringed. Seeds solitary in each cell, black, rugged; concave, or umbilicated, at one side; inserted at the top of the cell. 80. V. trifthyllos. Blunt-fingered Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Willd. n. 51. Vahl n. 64. Fl. Brit. n. 6. Eng. Bot. t. 26. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 8. t. O. Curt. Lond, fasc. 6. t. 2. Fl. Dan. t. 627. (V. folio rutae; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 96. Alsine recta; Ger. Em. 6. 2.)—Flowers solitary. Upper leaves in deep, finger-like, obtuse segments. Flower-stalks longer. than the calyx. Seeds flat.—Native of sandy fields, here and there, throughout Europe; rare in England, occurring V E R O N I C A. occurring chiefly in the sandy confines of Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering in April. Dr. Sibthorp found it, very luxuriant in fields bordering on the Euxine sea. A small upright annual plant, more or less branched, leafy, downy, a little viscid and hoary. Lower leaves opposite, undivided, Scarcely lobed; upper alternate, in three deep segments, the lateral ones often cloven. Flowers of a rich dark blue. Two segments of the calyx. Sometimes notched. Cañsule almost orbicular, emarginate. Seeds numerous, obovate, flat. This plant turns black in drying, like most of the following Species. - * 81. V. verna. Vernal Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Willd. n. 52. Vahl n. 65. Fl. Brit. n. 17. Engl. Bot. t. 25. Rose Elem. app. 444. t. 2. f. 1. Fl. Dan. t. 252. Poit. et Turp. Paris. 21. t. 22. (V. Bellardi; Willd. n. 56. Allion. Pedem. v. l. 77. t. 85. f. 1. V. succulenta; ibid. 78. t. 22. f. 4.)—Flowers solitary. Leaves pinnatifid. Flower-stalks shorter than the calyx. Stem erect.—Native of dry open sandy fields in various parts of Europe, flowering in April. In England it chiefly occurs about Bury, Thetford, and the same sandy country as the last, but there in the greatest abundance, though soon disappearing after the seed is shed. This diminutive species is most akin to V. ar- vensis, in the flat elliptical form of its seeds, general habit and colour, not turning black in drying, like trifihyllos and most of its allies. But the leaves, un- less starved, are deeply fingered, or pinnatifid, their terminal lobe often large and rounded, like trifthyllos ; even the floral ones are deeply three-cleft. The stem, whether branched or not, is stiff and erect, from one to four inches high. Calyx in four nearly equal, lanceo- late, acute segments. Cañsule inversely heart-shaped. The herb varies so much in luxuriance, and conse- quently in the divisions of its leaves, that scarcely two representations of it are alike. 82. V. digitata. Slender-fingered Speedwell. Vahl n. 66. Symb. v. l. 2. (V. verna; Cavan. I.eccion. 22. V. acimifolia ; Ait. n. 37. V. chamaepithyoides; Lamarck Illustr. v. 1. 47.)—Flowers solitary, sessile. Leaves all in deep, finger-like, linear segments. Stem erect. Capsule wedge-shaped.—Native of the south of Europe. We have gathered it in Lombardy, and received it from near Aranjuez in Spain, by favour of the late abbé Cavanilles, who has described this species for verna. The plant is annual, flowering in April. Stem branched from the bottom only, from three to six or eight inches high, rigid, round, downy, leafy, rather woody. Leaves alternate, sessile, generally cut, more than half way down, into three, five, or seven, linear, obtuse, fleshy, somewhat rough or hairy, entire seg- ments ; the base narrow and linear, which Vahl coin- siders, perhaps justly, as a footstalk. Flowers small, axillary. Calyx in four deep, lanceolate, fringed seg- ments, the length of the capsule, two of them shorter than the rest. , Cañsule inversely heart-shaped, but with straight sides, rough, abrupt, rigid. Seeds pale, roundish, not compressed. 83. V. fire.cox. Early Jagged Speedwell. Allion. Auctuar. 5. t. 1.f. 1. . Vahl. n. 57. Poit. et Turp. Paris. 22. t. 24. (V. acinifolia; Willd. Prodr, Berol. 11. V. minor annua, ocymi caryophyllati folio, subtus rubro ; Vaill. Paris. 202.)—Flowers solitary, stalked. Lower leaves opposite, stalked, heart-shaped, deeply V. O.I.. XXXVIII. floral ones hardly so long as the flower-stalks. Serrated and notched; uppermost oblong, alternate, nearly entire. Stem erect. Style longer than the lobes of the capsule.—Native of fields about Turin, Paris, and Berlin, flowering in March and April. Mr. Davall found it also in the Lower Valais, in April, 1787. An annual upright plant, about the size of V. arvensis, but with more of the habit and red hue of trifihyllos, much larger and stronger than verna. Stem chiefly branched from the bottom, round, downy all over; but most densely on two opposite sides. Leaves rough, rather fleshy; the largest half an inch long, and nearly as broad, obtuse; variously toothed or jagged; A'low- ers blue or purplish, Segments of the calyx obovate- oblong, hairy, two of them rather the shortest. Caft- sule inversely heart-shaped, hairy, tumid, rounded at the sides, so as to be somewhat orbicular, the perma- nent style extending far beyond its lobes. Seeds nume- rous, roundish, cupped and umbilicated.—No wonder that those botanists, who had not seen both species, have always taken this for the following, and yet they are essentially distinct. 84. V. acinifolia. Basil-leaved Early Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Willd. n. 54. Vahl n. 67. Dicks. Dr. Pl. In. 1. Poit. et Turp. Paris. 22. t. 23. Allion. Ped. v. 1. 79. (V. romana; ibid. t. 85. f. 2. V. minima, clinopodii minoris folio; Vaill. Paris. 201. t. 33. f. 3. V. minima, clinopodii minoris folio glabro, romana ; Bocc. Mus. 19. t. 102.)—Flowers solitary, stalked. Leaves opposite, ovate, slightly crenate; lower ones opposite, partly stalked; upper sessile, alternate, entire. Stem erect. Style about as long as the lobes of the capsule.—Native of France, Italy, Turkey, and, as it is reported, of Germany; though we have never receiv- ed from that country any thing but arvensis or firecor under this name. In shady neglected garden walks, and gravelly ground, about Rome, nothing is more common than this little annual, flowering in April. What Mr. Davali sent to Kew for acinifolia, in 1788, was certainly the firaecoac. The present is by far the most delicate and slender plant of the two, though nearly of the same height. Leaves smoother, paler, ovate, and much more entire. Flowers much Smalier, on rather longer, more capillary, stalks. Segments of the calyx ovate, or obovate. Cahsule short, broadly obcordate, with round distant lobes, between which the permanent style is situated, scarcely, if at all, extending beyond them. Seeds numerous, oval, flat. The authors of the splendid, but too soon discontinued, Flore Parisienne, have well distinguished these two last species, by the proportion of the styles to their respective, very differently shaped, cafsules. It is curious to observe how authors have erred and copied each other’s errors, in their citation of Boccone. Sec Linnaeus, Willdenow, Vahl, and Poiret in Lamarck. 85. V. fieregrina. Purslane-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Pl. 20. Willd. n. 55. Vahl n. 68. Ait. n. 38. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 192. Pursh n. 9. Fl. Dan. t. 407. (V. romana; Linn. Sp. Pl. 19. Mant. 3 17. V. marilandica; Linn. Sp. Pl. 20. “Murr. in Comm. Goett. for 1782. I I. t. 3.” V. caroliniana; Walt. Ca- rolin. 61. V. terrestris annua, folio polygoni, flore albo; Moris. v. 2. 322. Sect. 3. t. 24. f. 19.)—Flowers solitary, sessile. Leaves oblong, smooth, obtuse, toº ed or entire ; the lower ones opposite. Stem erect. Style 4 B shorter V E R V E R. shorter than the lobes of the capsule.—Native of cul- tivated ground in several parts of Europe, Britain ex- cepted, as well as of North America, Lima, and the Brazils, flowering in summer. The root is annual. Herb very variable in habit and size. Sometimes partly decumbent; it is branched from the base, smooth in every part, rather succulent, vastly more like Purslane, than any species of Polygonum. Leaves an inch or more in length, for the most part sessile, some of them coarsely and distantly toothed, the upper or floral ones generally entire. Flowers nearly or quite sessile. Seg- ments of the calyx oblong, bluntish, a little unequal. Corolla small, white. Cañsule inversely heart-shaped, with a very short style, not reaching quite so far as the lobes. Seeds numerous, small, oval, flat.—Linnaeus was singularly unfortunate with respect to this species and the acinifolia. His original specimen of V. romana, answering to the character, as well as the number, in Sp. Pl. ed. 1, is, notwithstanding Vahl’s doubts, pre- cisely the same as his fieregrina, of which a third speci- men is marked acinifolia ; but this last specimen is not an original one. The synonyms of romana are properly referred in Sp. Pl. ed. 2. to acinifolia, so that the Linnaean romana is to be entirely excluded. Whether the W. erecta acini folio glabro, floribus caeruleis Dill. Giss. affi. 39, be the acinifolia, as com- monly supposed, or the firſt coac, we have some doubts. W. marilandica, adopted from Gronovius, is universally allowed to be the fieregrina, which therefore embraces three Linnaean species, none of them entitled to rank even as varieties of each other. VERoNICA, in Gardening, comprises plants of the herbaceous, perennial, and shrubby kinds among which the species cultivated are, the Siberian speedwell (V. sibirica); the Virginian speedwell (V. virginica); the bastard speedwell (V. spuria); the sea speedwell (V. maritima); the long-leaved speedwell (V. longifolia); the Welsh speedwell (V. hybrida); the cut-leaved speedwell (V. incisa); and the cross-leaved speedwell (V. decussata). In the second sort the stems are terminated by long slender spikes of white flowers, which appear late in July; and it varies with the blush-coloured flowers. The third is perennial in root, having the stems ter- minated by long spikes of blue flowers, which appear in June and July. A variety of this has a flesh-coloured flower. The fourth has the stalks of less length than those of the preceding, but the flowers are of a bright blue, and appear in July. There are varieties with leaves opposite, in threes or in fours, with blue, blue- ish, flesh-coloured, and with white flowers. The fifth has the stems a foot and a half high, which are termi- nated by long spikes of blue flowers, which appear in June. The sixth has very white and woolly stalks about a foot high, the flowers of which are deep blue in terminating spikes. A variety has white flowers. The last sort is a blushy shrub, about two feet in height. Method of Culture.—These plants may be raised by seed and parting the roots. In the annual sorts the seeds should be sown in the autumn, or very early spring, in the borders or places where the plants are to grow, being lightly covered in : if the seeds be per- mitted to scatter, good plants may be raised : some- times they are Sown on beds, to be afterwards removed. In the perennial sorts the roots may be parted in the autumn or early spring, and planted out where they are to grow, or in nursery rows to be afterwards re- moved. They should not be parted too small, or oftener than every two years: the large-growing sorts are proper for the borders, clumps, &c. and the trail- ing kinds for banks and shady slopes, or other similar places: they are hardy, and require only to be kept clean afterwards. The eighth sort is readily increased by cuttings in the spring and summer, being managed as a hardy greenhouse plant, in the same way as the myrtle. In very mild winters it sometimes stands se- cure in the open air. The annual and perennial sorts afford variety in the borders, clumps, and other parts of pleasure-grounds, and the last among plants of the hardy, potted greenhouse kinds. VERONICA, in the Materia Medica. The Beccabunga was formerly used in several diseases, and applied ex- ternally to wounds and ulcers; but its supposed efficacy must depend on its antiscorbutic quality. As a mild refrigerant juice, it is deemed serviceable in an acri- monious state of the fluids; and it is ordered in the Lond. Ph. as an ingredient in the succus cochliariae compositus. Its benefit depends on taking the juice in large quantities, or eating the fresh plant as food. The leaves of the officinalis have a weak, not disagreeable, smell, and a bitterish taste : an extract from them by rectified spirit is moderately bitter and astringent. About a century ago, this plant was much recom- mended as a substitute for tea : as a medicine, it had considerable reputation in coughs, asthmas, consump- tions, &c.; but, as it is a less powerful astringent than many others, it is now disregarded. Lewis. Wood- ville. VERONUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by many to a small river-fish, well known in England by the name of the minow. VEROBITZA, in Geography, a town of Sclavonia. This is a strong town, situated near the Drave; 36 miles S.S.E. of Canischa. VERPIELIERE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Isere; 5 miles S.E. of Lyons. VERPLANK’s PoſNT, a fortified spot in the state of New York, on the left bank of Hudson’s river, in West Chester county, which was taken, in 1779, by the British troops; 34 miles N. of New York. N. lat. 419 15'. W. long, 74°. VERRANA, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto; 10 miles S.S.E. of Oria. - VERREGINUM, or VERRUGo, in Ancient Geogra- fihy, a town of Italy, in Latium, in the country of the Volsci. VERRETZ, in Geografthy, a settlement of the island of Hispaniola; 30 miles N.E. of St. Marc. VERREZ, a town of France, in the department of the Dora, or in Piedmont, situated at the foot of a hill, on a stream of water, which divides into three branches, traversing the town on both sides, and the centre. The inhabitants have no other ramparts than the neighbour- ing mountains, and no other fosses than the beds of the rivers, made by nature : the houses are about 150 in number. In the most elegant part is a square fortress, built on a sharp rock, surrounded with a wall of stone, a parapet, and a good rampart, which surrounds the fortress and the gate of entrance, so that no one can ar- TiVe V E R V E R rive at this gate till they have passed the rampart and a drawbridge upon the fosse. When the bridge is up, the fortress is supposed to be impregnable, being sur- rounded on all sides with frightful precipices, while the access is only by narrow passes in the valley, which a small garrison can obstruct and annoy the enemy far and near ; 15 miles S.S.E. of Aosta. VERRIE’RES, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne ; 3 miles S.E. of Poitiers.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 3 miles S. of St. Menehould –P, iso, a town of Neufchâ- tel, on the borders of France, the environs of which are famous for cheese. Near it is a narrow pass of only five feet wide, with inaccessible rocks on both sides; i. that a few men could defend it against great num- €1’S. VERRIO, ANTonio, in Biography, was born at Naples in 1634. After he had acquired the manage- ment of the pencil, he went to Toulouse, and there was engaged to paint the high altar in the church of the Carmelites. He was invited by Charles II. to Eng- land, the king intending to engage him in designs for tapestry, to be made here; but he changed his mind, and ordered him to paint most of the ceilings of Wind- sor castle, the great hall, and the chapel; all which he loaded with heterogeneous compounds of gods and goddesses, vices and virtues, and all the emblematic imagery which scholastic pomposity could muster up, to supply the place of common sense ; and this he exe- cuted with great freedom and great freshness of colour, but in a manner devoid of any other good quality of art. For these labours he was paid nearly 6000l. The Revolution was not to his mind: he declined to serve king William, and went to the earl of Exeter at Burleigh, where he painted several apartments, which are esteemed his best works. He afterwards painted at Chatsworth, and at Lowther : at length he was per- suaded by the earl of Exeter to engage to paint for the king the great staircase at Hampton-Court; and Wal- pole observes, “he painted it as ill as if he had spoiled it out of principle.” His eyes failing him, queen Anne gave him a pension of 200l fier annum for life; but he did not long enjoy it, dying at Hampton-Court in 1707. VERRO, in Geografhy, a town Russia, in the go- vernment of Riga; 124 miles N.E. of Riga. N. lat. 58° 10'. E. long. 27°24'. VERROCHIO, ANDREA, in Biography, was among the early Florentine artists who prepared the way for the greater talents of subsequent painters. He was born at Florence in 1432, and distinguished himself both as a sculptor and painter. He had the honour to be the instructor of P. Perugino and Lionardo da Vinci, and was much employed; till, as Vasari reports, be- ing engaged by the monks of St. Salvi, at Valombrosa, to paint a picture of the Baptism of Christ, he set Lion- ardo da Vinci, then his pupil, to put in the figure of an angel from his design, and he executed his task in a manner so superior to the work of his master, that Verrochio, in disgust, resolved to paint no more, but apply himself entirely to sculpture and drawing. His style of design was grand and free, and Lionardo took great pleasure in copying his drawings, particularly a battle-piece, on account of the peculiar airs of the heads, the disposition of hair, and the actions of the figures. He died in 1488, aged 56. te VERRUA, in Geografthy, a town of Piedmont, or lately of France, in the department of the Tanaro, on a high hill, near the Po, opposite Crescentin: the for- tifications were once very strong, and the castle was calied impregnable; 18 miles N.E. of Turin. N. lat. 45° 14'. E. long. 89. VERRUCA, in Medicine. See WART. Hence, verrucous is applied to any excrescences which have a resemblance to warts. There are also verrucous ulcers, &c. VERRUCARIA, in Botany, so called by Persoon, from verruca, a wart, in allusion to the protuberant form of its fructification. The same name had been previously applied by Wiggers in his Primitia, Fl. Holsat. 85, in an extremely vague manner, to many of the crustaceous Lichens of Linnaeus; but it is now li- mited, as Persoon intended, to a very natural genus. —Pers. in Ust. Annal. fasc. 7. 23. Schrad. Spicil. 108. Achar. Prodr 13. Meth. 113. “Lichenogr. 51. t. 4. f. 2. 3.” Syn. 87-Class and order, Cryſitogamia Algae. Nat. Ord. Lichemes. Gen. Ch. Frond crustaceous, expanded, flat, uni- form, closely attached. Receptacles nearly globose, or somewhat hemispherical ; their base sunk in the frond; their coat double ; outermost rather cartilaginous, thick, black, clothing the upper, or exposed, half, and furnished with a small prominent mouth ; inner very thin and membranous, entirely enclosing a globular, cellular nucleus. Ess. Ch. Frond crustaceous. Receptacles half- immersed, globose, concave, black, with a cellular nucleus. We have, under ENDocARPon, adverted to the near agreement between the fructification of that genus and the present. Their habits and fronds however are very different, and Schrader has long ago indicated another distinction, that the receftacle is always closed in Ver- rucaria while in Endocarfon its contents are dischar- ged, he says “exploded,” by a small, but distinct, ori- fice. On these characters this great cryptogamist would found his generic distinctions, regardless of the nature of the frond, and the greater or less degree of prominence of the recefutacles sunk therein. But the learned Acharius, so peculiarly devoted to this difficult department of botany, has defined Verrucaria by more obvious, and as we think more natural limits, by which we have profited above. He defines forty-five species of this genus, in his latest publication, the Symoñsis Methodica Lichenum. They are distributed into four sections, according to the nature of the crust, or frond. Sect. 1. Frond membranous, or somewhat cartilagi- mous, contiguous and smooth. Twenty-one species. These all grow on the smooth barks of various trees, in Europe, Africa or America, in the form of a thin in- separable membrane, generally of a different colour from the cuticle of the bark, by which, more than the black dot-like fructification, these plants are generally rendercd conspicuous. Examples of this section are V. funct formis. Ach. Syn. n 1. (Lichen puncti- formis; Engl. Bot. t. 24.12. L. myacoproides; Ehrh. Crypt. 264.)—Crust determined, very thin, smºoth, rusty-brown. Receptacles minute, black, hemispheri- cal, umbilicated.—Found by Mr. W. Borrer, on the smooth bark of ash-trees. V. analehta. Ach. n. 2. (Lichen analeptus; Engl. 4 B 2 Bot. t. 1848.) V E. R. V E R * Bot. t. 1848.)—Differs from the foregoing chiefly in the central depression of the receptacles being more mi- hute. V. gemmata. Ach. n. 12. Meth. 120. t. 3. f. 1, (V. melaleuca; ibid. 117. V. alba; Schrad. Spicil. 109. t. 2. f. 3.)—Crust undefined, thin, Smooth, of a hoary white. Receptacles scattered, hemispherical, polished, beaked; nucleus globular, pellucid.—Found on the barks of the taller kinds of trees. Acharius. Mr. D. Turner has met with this species in England. The black and shining prominent recefutacles are strong- ly contrasted with the white, somewhat mealy, crust. Sect. 2. Frond rather solid, more or less gelatinous. Three species. - V. mucosa. Ach. n. 22. Meth. suppl. 23. “Wah- lenb. Lapp. 466.”—Crust gelatinous and slimy, very smooth, blackish-green. Receptacles minute, nearly globular, sunk, with a prominent beak; dirty white in- ternally.—Found by Mr. Wahlenberg, on rocks and stones washed by the mountain streams of Lapland and Sweden. When dry it is ºard and almost black, but moisture restores the crust to a Siimy state, and the fructification is visible, in both states, to a careful ob- Server. The other species of this section are named gelatino- sa and ceuthocarfia. - Sect. 3. Crust somewhat tartareous and friable, un- interrupted, cracking into small fortions, or flowdery. Seventeen species. V. Schraderi. Ach. n. 25. Meth. 114. (V. ru- pestris; Schrad. Spicil. 109. t. 2. f. 7. Lichen Schra- deri; Engl. Bot. t. 1711. L. immersus; Hoffm. Enum. Eich. 24. t. 3. f. 5. L. fusco-ater 3; Hag. Lich. 49.) —Crust tartareous, hard, whitish, smooth. Recepta- cles minute, crowded, nearly globular, umbilicated, sunk; semitransparent within.—This is often to be seen on chalk or lime-stone. The cavities in the very hard crust, seem formed by the growth of the receſitacles, and remain empty and unclosed after the latter fall out; just as happens in the true Lichen immersus, or Lecidea immersa. In this state our present Verrucaria may fre- quently be observed, on wrought stones in exposed si- tuations; its hard crust being scarcely distinguishable from the stone, except by its internal green hue when rubbed. V. Harrimanni. Ach, n. 26. Lichenogr. v. 1.284. (Lichen Harrimanni; Engl. Bot. t. 2539.)—Crust tar- tareous, contiguous, limited, mouse-coloured, with very minute depressed dots. Receptacles minute, immersed, globose, with a prominent bordered orifice ; brownish within.—Native of hard, grey, calcareous rocks, in the county of Durham, where it was discovered by the Rev. Mr. Harriman, a very skilful British botanist. The crust of this is thicker, with a more defined black edge than usual in Verrucaria, yet it cannot be sepa- rated in any entire portions from the stone. The dot- ted surface is peculiar. The dilated rim of each recefl- :acle is all that is visible of the fructification. V. maura. Ach. n. 36. Meth, suppl. 19. (Lichcn maurus; Engl. Bot. t 2456.)——Crust thin, continued, imperfectly circumscribed, coal-black, smooth, with in- numerable minute cracks. Receptacles black, in- finersed, swelling under the crust, marked by an um- iificated point; nucleus blackish.—Mr. W. Boi rer :2s hoticed this frequently on rocks on the Scottish * coast, and his specimens agree with those sent by Mr. Wahlenberg, the original discoverer of the present spe- cies, on the rocky shores of Sweden. It composes Sooty inseparable blotches, on stones exposed to the flux and reflux of the tide; but when examined, will be found as distinct in characters as any of its tribe. Sect. 4. Crust soft, fibrous, somewhat shongy, or like a thin cobweb. Four species. V. eſtigea. Ach, n. 43. Meth. 123. (Sphaeria epigaea; Pers. Syn. Fung. append. 27. Lichen terres- tris; Engl. Bot. t. 1681.)—Crust somewhat fibrous, gelatinous, uneven, pale greenish-grey. Receptacles minute, globose, immersed, with a prominent orifice; internally black–Not unfrequent on earthy or muddy banks. When dry the crust is smooth and even, with- out any sign of the fibrous texture, which becomes visi- ble on the admission of wet. The rece/tacles are scat- tered like little black dots over the surface, being most prominent in a dry state. - V. byssacea. Ach. n. 45. Meth. 116. (Sphaeria byssacea; Weigel Obs. Bot. 42. t. 2. f. 9. Pers. Syn. Fung, append. 27.)—Crust somewhat leprous and fibrous, dirty white. Receptacles minute, nearly glo- bular, half immersed, perforated ; black within.-On the trunks of old oaks, and other trees. This seems to be a very doubtful Verrucaria. We have never ex- amined it, but the crust is described more of a leprous than fibrous texture, resembling Byssus lactea of Lin- naeus. Recchtacles full of black powder. It is one of those ambiguous productions, partly allied to the Li- chemes, partly to the Fungi, which the students of each tribe press into their own service. From an attention to the fibrous bases of some other Shhaeriae, we should incline to think this a fungus, especially if the recehta- cles be really full of powder: but on the other hand, the mealiness of the crust is much more of the nature of the genus under consideration. Acharius now con- siders as a variety of this, his W. Stictica, Meth. 1 18; and indeed they appear very nearly akin. VERRUCINI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of the Maritime Alps, N.W. of the Sueltari, mentioned by Pliny. They are placed at Verignon. VERRUCOLA, LA, in Geografthy, a town of Etru- ria; 4 miles E. of Pisa. VERRUCOSUS, Warty, in Botany and Vegetable Physiology, is a term applied to any part of the surface of a plant when furnished with scattered protuberances from its own substance. Euonymus verrucosus of Sco- poli and Jacquin has a warty bark. The young branch- es are first besprinkled with little black shining oblong specks, which soon enlarge, crack longitudinally, and become tumid rough warts, having much more of the appearance of a parasitical fungus, than many produc- tions that are so denominated. In Aloe fierlata the cu- ticle of the leaves is studded with hard cartilaginous smooth warts, exhibiting a most genuine example of a folium verrucosum. So in Echium, several species bear hard, almost bony or shelly, warts, sometimes elegantly stellated, from which the bristly clothing of the herbage originates. These are all less strong and remarkable, the more luxuriant the plant. The papillary coat of the Ice-plant, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, can scarcely come under the above denomination; being an assemblage of cuticular bladders full of a watery fluid, without any cuticular or fleshy solidity. VERRUYE, v ER V E R VERRUYE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Two Sevres : 7 miles N.N.W. of St. Maixens. VERRY, in Heraldry. See VAIRY. - VERS du Gard, in Geograſhhy, a town of France, in the department of the Gard; 6 miles S.E. of Uzes. VERs en Montagne, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Jura ; 18 miles N.E. of Lons le Saunier. VERSA. See VICE Versa. VERSAILLES, in Geography, a city of France, and capital of the department of the Seine and Oise. In the beginning of the last century, it was a small village, when Louis XIII. built here a hunting seat, which H.ouis XIV. enlarged into a palace, in a forest 30 miles in circumference, which became a place of frequent residence of the royal family till the revolution. The palace is magnificent, with beat:tiful gardens, adorned with statues, canals, fountains, &c. and a park five miles in circumference, surrounded with a waii. Since the revolution, it has been erected into a bishop’s see; 3 posts S.W. of Paris. N. lat. 48° 49'. E. long. 2° 1 l'. VERSAILLEs, a township of Pennsylvania, in the coun- ty of Alleghany; containing 883 inhabitants.-Also, a town of Woodford county, in the state of Kentucky; containing 488 inhabitants. • VERSAK, a district of Asiatic Turkey, in the S. part of Caramania, so named from a mountain, 60 miles S. E. of Cogni. VERSAMEYRA, a town of Hindoostan, in Cutch ; 20 miles E. of Boogebooge. VERSARA, a town of Hindoostan, in Guzerat: 32 miles S. of Amedabad. VERSAUL, a town of Hindoostan, in Guzerat; 6 rmiles N. of Pernalla. - VERSCHORISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, a reli- gious sect, deriving its denomination from Jacob Vers- choor, a native of Flushing, who, in the year 1680, out of the tenets of Coccius and Spinosa, produced a new form of religion; for the leading tenets of which see HATTEMISTs. The disciples of Verschoor were also called Hebrews on account of the zeal and diligence with which they applied themselves to the study of the Hebrew lan- guage. - VERSE, VERSUs, in Poetry, a line or part of a dis- course, consisting of a certain number of long and short syllables, which run with an agreeable cadence : the like being also reiterated in the course of the piece. This repetition, according to F. Bossu, is necessary to distinguish the notion of verse from that of prose; for in prose, as well as verse, each period and member are parts of discourse, consisting of a certain number of long and short syllables; only, prose is continually di- versifying its measures and cadences, and verse regu- larly repeats them. This repetition of the poets appears evcn in the man- ner of writing ; for one verse being finished, they return to the beginning of another line to write the verse ſol- lowing: and it is to this return that verse owes its name, versus coming from vertere, to turn or return. Accordingly, we find the same word used to signify any thing that is placed in a certain regular order: Ci- cero uses versus for a line in prose; Virgil for a row of trees, and even of cars in a galley. But as the regu- larity of verse carries with it more charms, and requires a greater degree of exactness, the word has, in time, become appropriated to poetry. To make verse, it is not enough that the measures and quantities of syllables be observed, and six just feet, put one after another, in the same line ; there are far- ther required certain agreeable cadences, particular tenses, moods, regimens, and even sometimes words unknown in prose. But what is chiefly required, is an elevated, bold, figurative manner of diction; this manner is a thing so peculiar to this kind of writing, that, without it, the most exact arrangement of iongs and shorts does not constitute verse so much as a sort of measured prose. See PopTRY. Dr. Blair (Lectures, vol. iii. observes, that nations, whose language and pronunciation were of a musical kind, rested their versification chiefly upon the quanti- ties. that is, the length or shortness of their syllables. Others, who did not make the quantities of their sylla- bles to be so distinctly perceived in pronouncing them, rested the melody of their verse upon the number of syl- lables it contained, upon the proper disposition of ac- cents and pauses in it, and frequently upon that return of corresponding sounds which we call rhyme ; which see. The former was the case with the Greeks and Romans: the latter is the case with us, and with most modern nations. The Greek and Latin verses consist of a certain num- ber of feet, disposed in a certain order; so that every syllable, or the greatest number at least, was known to have a fixed and determined quantity; and their man- ner of pronouncing rendered this so sensible to the ear, that a long syllable was counted precisely equal in time to two short ones. Upon this principle, the number of syllables contained in their hexameter verse was allow- ed to vary. The musical time, however, was precise- ly the same in every such verse, and was always equal to that of twelve long syllables. In order to ascertain the regular time of every verse, and the proper mix. ture and succession of long and short syllables which ought to compose it, were invented what the gramma- rians call metrical feet, dactyles, spondees, iambics, &c. And the hexameter verse was scanned or measu- red by six metrical feet, either dactyles or spondees, with this restriction, that the fifth foot was regularly to be a dactyle, and the last a spondee. And some have attempted to make French and English verses on the same foundation, but without success. The introduction of these feet into English verse would not suit the genius of our language, which does not correspond in this respect, to the Greek or Latin. Hence mere quantity is of little effect in English versi- fication. The only perceptible difference among our syllables is owing to that stronger percussion of voice, called accºnt, with which some of them are uttered : and accordingly, the melody of our verse depends much more upon a certain order and succession of accented and unaccented syllables, than upon their being long or short. - If we take any of Mr. Pope’s lines, and, in reciting them, alter the quantity of the syllables as far as our quantities are sensible, the music of the verse will not be much altered; but if we do not accent the syllables as the V E. R. V E R as the verse dictates, its melody will be totally destroyed: (See Lord Monboddo's Treatise of the Origin and Progress of Language, vol. ii.) In the constitution of our verse, the caesural pause is an essential circumstance, and this falls towards the middle of each line. In the French heroic verse this is very sensible. This is a verse of twelve syllables, and in every line. Just after the sixth syllable, there falls, regularly and indispensably a caesuraſ pause, dividing the line into two equal hemi- stichs. Thus the one-half of the line always answers to the other, and the same chime returns incessantly on the ear, without intermission or change; which is, without doubt, a defect in their verse, and renders it unfit for the freedom and dignity of heroic poetry. For the differ- ence of the English verse in this respect, see PAUSE. See also AccENT, PRosody, and QUANTITY. Vossius is very severe on the modern verse, and makes it altogether unfit for music; our verses, says he, run, all as it were, on one foot, without distinction of members or parts, and without regard to the natural quantities of syllables. We have no rhythmus at all; and we mind nothing, but to have a certain number of syllables in a verse, of whatever nature, and in what- ever order. Mr. Malcolm vindicates our verse from this imputa- tion. It is true, he says, we do not follow the metrical composition of the ancients; yet we have such a mix- ture of strong and soft, long and short syllables, as makes our verse flow smooth or rumbling, slow or ra- pid, agreeable to the subject. Instances of all which we have in the following lines. “Soft is the strain when Zephyr gently blows. The hoarse rough verse should like the torrent, roar. The line too labours, and the words move slow. Flies o'er th’ unbending corn, and skims along the main.” By making a small change, or transposition of a word or syllable in any of these verses, any body who has an ear will find, that we make a great matter of the na- ture and order of the syllables. Vossius adds, that the ancient odes were sung, as to the rhythmus, (see RHYTHM.) in the same manner as we scan them ; every fies being a distinct bar, or mea- sure, separated by a distinct pause, though in reading, that distinction was not accurately observed. Lastly, he observes, that their odes had a regular re- turn of the same kind of verse ; and the same quantity of syllables in the same place of every verse ; whereas, in the modern odes, to follow the natural quantity of our syllables, every stanza would be a distinct song. It is next to impossible to write prose without some- times intermixing verse with it; so that Vaugelas's rule, which enjoins us to avoid them, is next to impractica- ble. This may be farther said, that for short verses they are so little perceived, that it is scarcely worth one’s while to strain one’s self to avoid them ; and as to long verses, they are chiefly to be avoided in the ends of periods, for, in the middle, they are scarcely felt. In the general rules of this kind must be considered as principally regarding numerous verses, and such as are readily distinguished by their cadence: Thus, in Latin it is scarcely possible to avoid iambic verses; but hexa- meter must, by all means, be avoided, their cadence being more sensible and more studied. - Verses are of various kinds; some denominated from the number of feet of which they are composed ; as the monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, fientame- ter, hexameter, hendecasyllabum, &c. Some from the kinds of feet used in them ; as the flyrrhichian, froce- leus mafic, iambic, trochaic, dactylic, anafi aestic, shonda- ic or mollossean, choriambic, iambidactylic or dactylotro- chaic. Sometimes from the names of the inventors, or the authors who have used them with most success: as the Anacreontic, Archilochian, Hifflomactic, Phcre- cratian, Glyconian, Alcmanian, Ascleſiadean, Alcaic, Stesichorian, Phalisean, Aristofthanian, Callimachian, Galliambic, Phalaecian, and Safifthic. Sometimes from the subject, or the circumstances of the composition; as the heroic, elegiac, Adonic, &c. See HEXAMETER, PENTAMETER, IAMBIc, &c. In reckoning the feet of iambics, trochaics, and ana- paestics, each meter is a dipody, or comprehends two feet. In other verses, a meter is but a single foot. Hence it is that the iambic trimeter is also called sena- rium, because composed of six feet. See VERSIFICA- TIon, infra. The ancients invented various kinds of poetical de- vices in verse, as centos, echoes, and monorhymes. VERSE, Alexandrin or Alexandrian. See ALEXAN- DRIN. VERSE, blank, is a noble, bold, and disencumbered species of versification; free from that full close which rhyme forces upon the ear at the end of every couplet, and allowing the lines to run into each other, with as great, if not greater, liberty than the Latin hexameter. Accordingly it is suited to subjects of dignity and force, which demand more free and manly numbers than rhyme. The constraint and strict regularity of rhyme are unfavourable to the sublime, or to the highly pa- thetic strain. An epic poem or a tragedy would be fettered and degraded by it. As this kind of verse is naturally read with less cadence or tone than rhyme, the pauses in it, and the effect of them, are not always so sensible to the ear. It is constructed, however, en- tirely upon the same principles, with respect to the place of the pause. See PAUSE. VERSEs, Concordant, Dactylic, and Elegiac. the adjectives. VERSEs, Equivocal, those where the same words contained in two lines carry a different sense. VERSEs, Fescennine. See FEscENNINE. VERSE, Heroic. See HERo1c. Our English heroic verse is of that kind which may be denominated iambic structure; that is composed of a nearly alternate succession of syllables, not short and long, but unaccented and accented. The line often begins with an unaccented syllable, and sometimes, in its course, two unaccented syllables follow each other. But, generally, there are either five or four accented syllables in each line. The number of syllables is ten, unless an Alexandrian verse be occasionally admitted. In the Italian heroic verse employed by Tassoin his Gie- rusalemme, and Ariosto, in his Orlando, the pauses are of the same varied nature with those that belong to En- glish See V E R V F. R. glish versification. See PAUSE, and VERSIFICATION, in- jra. VERSEs, Metrical. See METRICAL. Verses, Recifirocal, are those which read the same backwards as forwards. See RETRogRADE. VERSEs, Rhofalic, Serfientine, and Technical. the adjectives. VERSE is also used for a part of a chapter, section, or paragraph, subdivided into several little articles. The whole bible is divided into chapters; and the chapters are divided into verses. The five books of the law are divided into fifty-four sections. See PARAscHE and PENTATEUCH. Many of the Jews maintain, that this was one of the constitutions of Moses from mount Sinai; and some modern Christian writers, such as Buxtorf, Leusden, Pfeiffer, and their admirers, insist upon it, that the di- vision of the verses of the Old Testament was not a work merely human, but had the peculiar privilege of being fixed by the inspired author of each book, or at the latest by Ezra. Others, with greater probability, ascribe it to Ezra, and say that it was made for the use of the synagogues, in which one section was read every Sabbath-day, and thus the whole law read over every year. When the Jews were forbidden, in the time of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, to read the law, they substituted in its room fifty-four sections out of the prophets, which were afterwards continued; and when the reading of the law was restored by the Mac- cabees, the section which was read every Sabbath out of the law, served for their first lesson, and that out of the prophets for their second lesson; and so it was practised in the time of the apostles. These sections were divided into verses, which the Jews call fesukim. They are marked out in the He- brew bibles by two great points at the end of them, called softh-fasuk, i. e. the end of the verse. If Ezra was not the author of this division, it is certainly very ancient, and was probably invented for the sake of the Targumists, or Chaldee interpreters. Mention is made of these verses in the Mischna. Prideaux’s Conn. vol. ii. p. 479. For the more modern division, see CHAP- TIERS. That the modern division could not be of inspired au- thority is undeniable, for no inspired author could sepa- rate words which the sense determines to be insepara- ble, several instances of which occur. It is probable, says Dr. Kennicott (State of the print- ed Hebrew Text, vol. i.) That the division of the verses of the Oid Testament has been different at different times ; and it seems certain, that verses were not the same in St. Jerom's time as at present: for that learn- ed father in his preface to the book of Job, observes, that there were seven or eight hundred verses (some think the true reading to be seventy or eighty) wanting in the ancient Latin translation of that book; which cannot be easily supposed of such verses as the present, the whole book containing no more than one thousand and seventy of our verses. But the nature of verses having varied, and the present verses, as terminations of or pauses in the sense, having been probably fixed in the Hebrew text, or in the Greek version, some ages after the publication of the books of the Old Testament, as they See confessedly were with regard to the New Testament; we shall the less wonder that some of the wiser Jews made no scruple to alter the received division where they found it to be erroneous. F. Simon tells us that Elias Levita, the best Jewish critic, affirms, the present distinction of verses was made by the Masoret Jews, after the Talmud; and that Aben-Ezra mentions amongst others, R. Moses Cohen, a learned grammari- an, who took the liberty of joining some verses of the bible otherwise than they were joined by those who had marked them ; affirming that they were mistaken in those places. The division of chapters into verses has been found so convenient, that it has been used in all the editions of the bible, ever since it was first introduced. It is not, however, without its disadvantages. By this division the sense is often interrupted, and the reader may be thus led into mistakes, by fancying that every verse completes the sense. Besides, some persons are hence led to con- ceive, that every verse contains a mystery, or some es- Sential point, though there is frequently no more than some incident or circumstance recorded in that place. Moreover, it has proved the occasion of that wrong method which sometimes prevails among preachers. Many imagine that one verse is a sufficient subject for a sermon; and when they find that it does not furnish solid and instructive reflections enough they are con- strained to wander from their point, and in order to fill up their discourse, display their wit and learning, which often administer but little edification to their hearers, and is undoubtedly contrary to the end of preaching. It is then much to be wished, that some judicious person would divide the chapters otherwise than they are at present divided. If the verses were suffered to remain, they should be so divided, as to make always a complete sense, though on this account they might hap- pen to be longer or shorter than they now are. But perhaps it would be better to suppress the verses entire- ly, and to divide the chapters into certain articles, which should contain such a number of verses as would com- plete the sense. When any word or passage of scrip- ture is quoted, it would be no great trouble to look over a whole article, which could not require much time. To which we may add, that such a method of division would much assist the memory, which is now overbur- dened with such a great number of verses as preachers are occasionally, obliged to remember. The division of verses in the New Testament was first made by Robert Stephens; and so negligently was it done, that his son, Henry Stephens, assures us, he worked at it as he travelled from Paris to Lyons. Many learned men find great fault with this division, and yet it is every where followed. F. Simon observes, that the Greeks and Latins meant by verse, a line, containing a certain number of words. He adds, that the authors of those days to prevent any thing being added or taken away from their works, used to mark, at the end, the number of verses they contain- ed; but the books themselves were written all running, without any division, points, or the like. VERSE, JWeck. See NEck- Verse. VERSE, in Church Music : as, a verse anthem is dis- tinct from a solo anthem, an anthem for two or three voices, V E. R V E R voices, and from a full anthem. A verse anthem con- sists of chorusses, with solo movements between them for one, two, or three voices, so that in this sense verse is equivalent with solo. VERSED Sine of an arch. See Versed SINE. Co-VERSED Sine. See Co-verse D Sine. VERSHIRE, in Geography, a town of Vermont, in the county of Orange, containing 13 l l inhabitants; 16 miles N. of Hanover. VERSHOCK, or WERSHock, a Russian measure equal to 13 of an English inch. An arsheen is divided into 16 vershocks, or wershocks, and equals 28 Eng. inches: thus 9 arsheens=7 Eng. yards, and 4 vershocks =7 Eng, inches. A Sase, sashe, or fathom, is= 3 arsh- eens, or 7 Eng. feet. VERSIFICATION, the art or manner of making verse ; also the tune and cadence of verse. Versification is properly applied to what the poet does more by labour, art, and rule, than by invention, and the genius, or furor poeticus. See PoETRy. The matter of versification is long and short syllables, and feet composed of them; and its form is the arrange- ment of them in correct, numerous, and harmonious verses; but this is no more than a mere translator may pretend to, and which the Catilinarian war, put in mea- sure, might merit. It is with reason, therefore, that these simple matters are distinguished from the grand poetry, and called by the name versification. - In effect, there is much the same difference between grammar and rhetoric, as there is between the art of making verses, and that of inventing poems. History of Versification.—It appears that verse has been cultivated from the earliest period of literature, and among all people, from the most barbarous to the most refined; and to it principally we are indebted for most of the original accounts we have of the ancient na- tions of the earth. Equally measured lines, with a har- monious collocation of expressive and sometimes highly metaphorical terms, the alternate lines either answer- ing to each other in sense, or ending with similar sounds, were easily committed to memory, and easily retained. As these were often accompanied with a pleasing air or tune, the subject being for the most part a concatenation of striking and interesting events, histories formed thus, became the amusement of youth, the palliative of labour, and the Solace even of old age. In such a way, the his- tories of most nations have been preserved. The inter- esting events celebrated, the rythm or metre, and the accompanying tune or recitativo air, rendered them easily transmissible to posterity; and by means of tra- dition, they passed safely from father to son, though the times of comparative darkness, when the various tribes of mankind had no method more effectual of commu- nicating to their descendants the principles of their wor- ship, their religious ceremonies, their laws, and the re- nowned actions of their sages and heroes, till they arrived at those ages in which the fien and the firess have given to them, by multiplying the copies, a sort of deathless duration. The propriety of assigning the priority to Hebrew versification is obvious. The most intelligent consider the Hebrew to have been the primeval language, or at least the most ancient of which we have any knowledge and, therefore, it is here that we must look for the earli- est dawn of the poetic art. The address of Lamech (Gen. iv. 23.), which is in hemistichs in the original, is doubtless the most ancient verse in the world. Of the same kind is Noah's prophecy concerning his sons (Gen. ix. 25-27.) Jacob's blessing to the twelve patriarchs (Gen. xlix. 2–27), the song of Moses (Exod. xv.); and the book of Job, of Psalms, the songs of So- lomon, Isaiah, &c. afford ample proof not only of the existence of verse among the ancient Hebrews, but that in its origin and earlier history it was intimately connect- ed with music; that is, it was frequently set to some air or tune, for vocal or instrumental performance. Having thus pointed out the origin of verse, at an early period, among the Hebrews; we shall now endea- vour to trace its rise amongst other nations, assigning the precedence chiefly to those where we are most likely to find it in a native, rather than in a borrowed or ingraft- ed state. Tcho-Yong, the sixteenth emperor of the ninth peri- od, is the first on record among the Chinese for his at- tachment to the muses. Feu-Hi composed verses on the piscatorial art. Chin-Nong, a succeeding emperor, wrote verses on the fertility of the earth. Here we find what is frequently remarkable in the early history of the ancients, the office of a chief or legislator and bard or po- et united in one person : for many of the ancient poems were of a legislative cast, and contained, in verse, the most essential parts of their religious, moral, and politi- cal systems. The last emperor whom we find to have retained the poetical character was Chao-Hao. After him the complex office seems to have separated, as the next bard we meet with is in the person of the philosopher Confucius, who lived about six hundred years before the Christian era. (See Extraits des Hist. Chinois, and Du Halde Hist. Chinois.) The Chinese ode, therefore, trans- lated by sir William Jones, must be of high antiquity, as Confucius considered it as very ancient in his time. About One century before the same epoch, Calidas, who has been termed the Shakspeare of India, wrote his poems. Such being the state of oriental verse at these early pe- riods, it is not more than we might expect, that the Por- tuguese missionaries should meet with it on the coast of Proper India, where they found the natives possessed of a species of rude verse set to music. They composed, in the Malabar tongue, a long ode, containing a history of the Portuguese prelate, and a descriptive detail of what had passed at his synod. This nation had pre- served the ancient custom of transmitting to posterity, by this kind of poem, all the most remarkable events. (La Croze's Hist.) The missionaries, who visited the opposite coast of Coromandel, give us sufficient proof that the culture of verse was not inconsiderable at that early period. (Lettres Edifiantes, rec. xviii. p. 28.) With respect to Egypt, the origin of the belles lettres is so lost in thc antiquity of that famous kingdom, that we know nothing of the first advances made there in verse. We naturally expect that it met with the fate of its kindred science, music; which, in an early period, had all its form unalterably fixed by law, and, therefore, improvement and corruption were alike prevented. In VERSIFICATION. In adverting to those points of the poetic horizon, where we are most likely to descry the early dawn of the art of verse, it is now incumbent on us to notice the Arabs, whose language, from its manifest affinity, un- questionably had a common origin with the Hebrew and Chaldaic; and, consequently, is one of the most ancient in the world. Count Reviczki, however, was of opin- ion, that with respect to the metrical art of the Arabs, it was an invention of a date much later than that of the Hebrews, and that it assumed its form only a short time before Mohammed. At the beginning of the seventh century, the Arabic language was brought to a high de- gree of perfection, by a sort of poetical academy, that used to assemble at stated times in a place called Ocadh, where every poet produced his best composition, and met with the applause which it deserved. The most excellent of these poems were transcribed in characters of gold upon Egyptian paper, and hung up in the tem- ple of Mecca, whence they were named mozahebat, or golden, and moallakat, or sushended. The poems of this sort were called casseidas, or eclogues, seven of which are preserved in our libraries, and are consider- ed as the finest that were written before the time of Mo- hammed. Concerning the Arabic and oriental verse in general, count Reviczki remarks, that he “ anticipates the mortification of all our European poets, when they discover that the oriental dialects had a greater variety of feet, and consequently the true science of metre and prosody.” After the above-mentioned period, however, the Muses disseminated their gifts with a prolific hand, and many were signalized with their favours. Amongst the rest, the caliph Almamon, sometimes termed the Arabian Augustus, for the protection he afforded to the belles lettres, bore an early and a distinguished rank. We have only to consult the abbé Andres, in his lumi- nous work “ Dell’Origine, de’ progressi e dello Stato attuale d’Ogni Letteratura,” to assure ourselves, on the authority of the authentic manuscripts which he cites, that the Arabs had now become pre eminent for their cultivation of the Muses. Scoppa affirms that there is no exaggeration in the expression of the “Histoire de la Poesie Française,” which, from undoubted evidence, as- serts “ that there had been more poets amongst the Arabs than in all the rest of the world.” Abilabba-Abdalla, son of the caliph Motaz, recapitulates the lives of a hundred and twenty one poets of the first rank. Another work, entitled “ Théatre des Poètes,” forms a library of twen- ty-four volumes. Casiri, the celebrated author of the “ Bibliothèque Arabico-Hispana de l’Escurial,” does not hesitate to maintain that the excellencies of the Ara bian poets rose as high in the scale of merit as those of the Greeks and Latins. In our endeavour to trace the history of versification, where it is more likely to be found in its native and un- borrowed state, we now turn to the northern nations of Europe. Tacitus mentions the verse and hymns of the Germans, at a time when that rough people inhabited the woods, and whilst their manners were yet savage. The Arthur of Teutonic romance is the hero Dieterich of Berne, who lived about the year 450 A.D. It is thought that his deeds of high enterprise were sung in the ancient and barbarous verses, soºne of which were col- lected by Charlemagne. The flight of Theodoric to the Huns is related in an exceedingly curious fragment, from the language and metre of which we infer, it must have been composed in the eighth century. We learn from a Latin fragment, written by Du Chesne, that VOL, XXXVIII. Lewis the Pious, son of Charlemagne, being desirous that all his subjects speaking the Theotisc language should be enabled to read the scriptures, “ ordered a Saxon, who was reputed to be no vulgar bard, to make a floetical translation of the Old and New Testament into the German tongue.” It is supposed by Eccard and the German philologists, that the “Harmony of the four Evangelists,” in the Cottonian library, forms a part of this translation. Ottfried's Paraphrase of the four Gos- pels, made about the year 870, affords a proof that allit- eration had fallen into disuse, and presents us with the earliest specimen of German rhyme. Nor is this early production uninteresting. The in- fant Saviour is described as growing amongst men as a lily amongst thorns. The victory gained in the year 883 over the Nor- mans, by Louis III., was recorded, as is stated by a contemporary chronicle, “not only in our annals, but also in our national songs.” The Franks had not yet adopted the language of their vassal Gauls; and one of their national songs, which has been singularly preser- ved, is written in the pure Franco-Theotisc dialect, and consequently belongs to the history of German poetry. From these scanty remains we pass on to the period (from 136 to 1254) during which the imperial dignity was held by the house of Hohen-Stauffen. Upon the accession of Conrad III., the founder of the Swabian line, the banquet-hall suddenly unfolds its portals, and we behold the fathers of romantic verse, in the persons of “kings and dukes, mailed knights and trusty squires,” each of whom 66 took the harp in glee and game, And made a lay, and gave it name.” Under this new race of rulers, the dialects of the south and west of Germany obtained a decided preponderance. The Swabian or Allemannic became biended with the Franco- heotisc, and thus formed the basis of the lan- guage of the present day; which, as in the parallel in- stance of the “Volgare illustre” of Italy, has superseded its sister idioms, and become the sole vehicle of infor- mation. Whatever literary impulse may have been given by the first crusade, it appears that the second produced a more decided effect, by generally diffusing the cultiva- tion which had been maturing in the more propitious regions of the south. The population of the empire was brought into closer connexion with the songsters of Provence and Catalonia, and their polished strains were soon re-echoed in the harsher tones of the “ Minne Singers,” or bards of love, as they were pleased to call themselves, of the Swabian era A noble author is now considered is a rare occurrence. But in the age of the “Minne Singers,” hardly any one dared to cultivate the art of versification, unless he could prove his sixteen quarters. The sovereigns of Germany themselves, em- ularing perhaps the example of our captive Richard, shared in the same fervour. The collection in the vol- ume of Rudiger Maniss is headed by the poems of the emperor Henry; the next place is held by Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia. A ballad, distinguished for its ten- derness, is given as the production of the duke of Bres- lau. The verse of Henry, duke of Anholt, is by no means devoid of taste and elegance; and a single lay bears witness to the talents of the unfortunate Conrad- ine. The “Geste” of king Rother connects itself both 4 C With VERSIFICATION. with the Helden-buch and the Cycle of Charlemagne. This poem, and a fragment of the history of the expedi- tions of the French monarchs against the Saracens, are the earliest specimens now extant of the German metri- cal romance. The Swabian era produced upwards of two hundred poets, many of whom are deserving of attention. Un- der Rodolph of Hapsburg (1273) and his successors, they began to lose ground; and the brilliancy which had distinguished the preceding era gradually died away. It is difficult to establish a definite boundary for the different periods of literary history; they melt into each other, like the colours of the rainbow. In Conrad of Würzburgh, who flourished towards the conclusion of the 13th century, we find the glow of better days united to some of the peculiarities of the later “Master-Sing- ers” of Augsburg and Nuremburg. At this time a few princes and high-born lords, amongst whom Otto the marquis of Brandenburg, and the count of Leiningen, may be named as the most distinguished, still continu- ed to imitate the style of the Swabian poets. But they had no successors. The art expired amongst the nobil- ity, and the scene was suddenly changed. Poetry cer- tainly never had so singular a fortune in any other coun- try as in Germany. It actually became one of the in- corporated trades in the German cities; and the burgh- ers obtained the freedom of it, as of any other corpora- tion. By M. Grimm the “ Minne-Singels” and the “ Master Singers” are supposed to have originally form- ed but one class of poets. At all events, these socie- ties offer a most singular phenomenon. Composed en- tirely of the lower ranks of society, they obtained a mo- nopoly of verse craft, and extended their tuneful frater- nity over the greater part of the empire. The candidate for admission into these societies was introduced with prescribed formalities. The four “merkers,” or ex- a miners, sat behind a silken curtain, to pass judgment on his qualifications. One of these had Martin Luther’s translation of the bible before him, it being considered as the standard of the language. His province was to de- cide whether the diction of the novice was pure, and his grammar accurate. The others attended to the rhyme and metre of the composition, and the melody to which it was sung. And if they united in declaring that the candidate had complied with the statutes and regula- tions, he was decorated with a silver chain and badge, and admitted into the society. + Bouterwick remarks, that the rude inferiority of the German poetry, during the 16th century, forms an un- pleasing contrast to its state in Italy and Spain. In the age of Ariosto and Cervantes, Hans Sach continued to rank as the first German poet; and the only dignified epic which Germany possessed was the stiff allegory of Melchior Pfuitzing. Having traced the rise and progress of the art of ver- sification in Germany, we shall now still pursue the same system, in noticing, first, those places where its early dawn was unmixed with the rays of neighbouring consteilations. Sheringham and Bartholine inform us, that the scaldi or bards were highly honoured among the Danish tribes; that their verse was of the legislative cast; and that they sung the great actions of their an- cestors, and kindled the flame of war by the influence of poetic recitation. The “Welkina” and “ Niflunga Saga” were compiled in the 13th century from the songs of the Danes and Swedes. We also meet with the poetical and musical office united in almost every influence. northern clime. The union of the legislator's and bard’s character is exemplified in the person of Snorro Sturle- son, who, about six hundred years since, was at once the chief legislator and most eminent bard in the isle of Ice- land. Odin, the Scythian legislator, boasted that the Runic songs had been handed to him by the gods. Stra- bo tells us, that throughout the whole district of Gaul, there were three kinds of men held in high estimation, the Bards, the Vates, and the Druids. Diodorus Sicu- lus adds, that “the bards sung to instruments, praising some and satirizing others.” The British bards, about the same time, were of the same character; and their genius is sufficiently evinced by their verse yet extant under the name of Ossian, if Ossian's work be genuine. In Ireland they were endowed with estates, and lived by public patronage, independent and free from temporal care. Ollamlı Fodlah, one of their kings, summoned them to a triennial festival, for the purpose of transmit- ting to posterity the authentic records contained in their verse; which were from them selected and pre- served in the custody of the king’s antiquary. In the year 558, the Irish bards, being extremely numerous, and insolently powerful, had attained the summit of their Even in the time of Spenser, they were the subject of serious complaint. (Keating’s History, and Spenser’s View of the State of Ireland.) Nor are we without instances of the native and ungrafted state of verse in the transatlantic world. In the ancient empire of Peru, Garcilasso de la Vega informs us, that their songs were innumerable ; that he had heard many, and learned some from his ancestors, who were the last of the royal family of the Incas. Their Incas or chiefs had been poets or musicians in the early periods of their history. The same author presents us with some spe- cimens of their verse, which bear every character of aboriginal texture. Father Lafitau (Moeurs des Sau- vages, tom. ii. p. 213.) has given a circumstantial ac- count of the festivities of the Iroquois, Hurons, and some less considerable tribes of North American In- dians, in which verse and song bore an essential part. These, for the most part, consist of the fables of ancient times, and are composed in a style so antiquated as to differ materialſy from their colloquial dialect. They were observed also to retrench or strike off some sylla- bles from their words, to produce the requisite mea- sure; and the audience beat the time with a corres- ponding motion of the head, accompanied with shouts, repeated at certain intervals with such accuracy that they never err. It is easy to perceive that our remarks have hitherto been confined to trace the earliest source and rise of versification amongst those nations only, where we were most likely to discover it in a state unmixed with borrow- ed streams. The task is evidently not a little difficult, to say exactly where it can be contemplated in a stage purely nascent. Its distant course has gradually re- ceded from our view, and ultimately lost itself in the remote and visionary forms of aboriginal tradition. Nor do we mean to affirm that the subsequent meanders, which, from each insulated fountain, we have for a while been led to pursue, has, in every instance, remained unblended with the confluence of adventitious channels. It is sufficient if, by the preceding remarks, we have, in any degree, developed those features which appear to be uniformly peculiar to its infant state. This, how- ever, will not only apologize for, but even warrant, our omitting, until this, to mention the Greek and Roman - versification, VERSIFICATION. versification, where we can contemplate it only in an en- grafted predicament. It is admitted, that knowledge and useful arts the Greeks received from the East ; yet it is the opinion of some, that since “the Greeks studied no foreign language, it was impossible that any foreign literature should influence their’s. Not even the name of a Persian, Assyrian, Phoenician, or Egyptian poet is alluded to by a Greek writer. The Greek poetry was, therefore, wholly national. The Pelasgic ballads were insensibly formed into epic, tragic, and lyric poems; but the heroes, the opinions, the customs mentioned in them, are exclusively Grecian; as they had been, when the Hellenic minstrels knew little beyond the Adriatic and the Egean.” This argument, however, is not so conclusive as to lead to the inference, that the Greeks had no preceding example from which to copy. No more can we suppose that Homer was the most ancient poet: for as the Paradise Lost of Milton plainly implies that other epic poems existed prior to this, and that Milton had read them; so do the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer. It is contrary to all the phenomena of the hu- man mind, that so finished a work should have been the Jirst essay of the kind. There can be no room to doubt but many poets flourished before Homer. As the Para- dise Lost necessarily supposes Spenser’s Fairy Queen; that, Tasso’s Gerusalemme Liberata; that, Virgil’s AEneid; and the AEneid, the Iliad of Homer; so the Iliad itself may stand in reference to as many preceding poems as the Paradise Lost does. As the Æneid never could have existed, had not the Iliad gone before, after the model of which it is entirely constructed ; and as the Jerusalem Delivered is a proceed from the AEneid, as the Fairy Queen is from the poem of Tasso, and the Paradise Lost from the whole ; so we may conjecture, that the Iliad is from the works of preceding poets, and that we are left to lament the irreparable loss of a vast mass of intellect in the destruction of the works which preceded and gave birth to those of Homer. In the art of versification, the Greeks and Romans claim that eminent and distinguished rank, which has already secured to their memory that renown and cele- brity to which they were so unquestionably entitled. But as they possessed this art only in an engrafted State, and as their success in this department of literature is so universally known, and as we shall have a future opportu- nity to notice it, our limits compel us here to pass to that which is more recondite and less generally under- stood. According to the testimony of the abbé Andres, and the authentic MSS. which he cites, it is to the Arabs that Spain, France, and Italy, were not a little indebted for the cultivated state of their versification. These nations had for a long time groaned under the yoke of the bar- barians of the North; and according to the testimony of the abbé Andres, it is chiefly to the instrumentality of the Arabs that we owe the return of the sciences into Europe. Amongst the French and the Spaniards who have cultivated with the greatest success the poetry of which the Arabs gave them the example, the Trouba- dours of Provence, for the harmony of their enchanting verse, which has been received with such eclat through Western Europe, stand pre-eminently distinguish- ed. The history of the Troubadours is replete with the names of those exalted personages, to whom it had become a delightful recreation to compose verse in the Provençal dialect. We may mention, amongst others, William, duke of Aquitania, whose verses were com- posed in the year 1100 A. D.; Peter I. ; Alphonse I, ; James the Conqueror; James I. ; Thibaut, king of Navarre; Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of Naples and Sicily; Henry, duke of Brabant; Peter Mauclerre, earl of Brittany ; Raoul, count of Soissons. There exists yet at the Escurial a code, of which Casiri (tome i. p. 126.) makes mention, and which notices the literary dispute between Abu-Jahia, son of the king of Toledo, and Almotemed, king of Cordova, to obtain the poetic prize. Neither must we omit to mention the name of Frederic II., who patronized the Muses, and was himself a poet. Nor the poems composed by king Alphonse X. son of St. Ferdinand, who signalized him- self for the protection he afforded to the Troubadours. The encouragement which the Provençal poets en- joyed under the auspices of the great, induced them to traverse Europe in every direction. They resorted to the castles and palaces of kings, they were received with transport, and their melodious strains were listen- ed to with enthusiastic plaudits. Nor was England without some share of the general fervour. It was by the aid of the Troubadours, says Dryden, that Chaucer enriched and polished that language, which the same Dryden calls “sterile.” Richard I. was surrounded by the Treubadours and cultivated their verse. In short, says the same Andres, every king and emperor account- edit an honour to become accomplished in Provençal poetry. From the intercourse of the Provençals throughout Italy, their verse obtained the honour of becoming the mother of Italian poetry. This is asserted by Bembo, Equicola, Varchi, and by many other Italian authors, and especially by Bastero (Prefaz alla Crusca Provenzale.) There is no Italian author who has more frankly pro- nounced his opinion in favour of the Provençals than Bembo. (Pros. I.) He favours us with a long detail of all that the Italians had borrowed from the Provençals. Redi also enumerates those amongst the Italians, who had blended in their Tuscan composition, a multitude of words and phrases peculiar to the Provençals. The celebrated Tiraboschi, in his history of Italian Litera- ture, speaks also of the rhyme and the different kinds of poetic composition which the Italians had borrowed from the Provençals. On this subject may be read the work of Vicenzo Gravina della Ragion Poetica, liv. ii. p. 132, and L’Istoria della volgar Poesia del Crescim- beni. The three fathers of Italian literature, Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca, were eminently conversant with this exotic verse. The last lived a long time in Pro- vence, and studied for a while at Paris; and Tassoni assures us, “il Petrarca molto prese da” rimatori Pro- venzali.” As to Boccaccio, it is generally acknowledg- ed, that in his Decameron, he excels by the riches he has culled alike from the Roman and Provençal poets. But of the three, it is more especially Dante who has clearly decided, that it is Italy which has borrowed from the French, and more particularly from the Trouba- dours. It is not without foundation that the count Caylus accuses the Italians of plagiarism ; and it is not without reason that Millot says, that the Provençals opened the road to the Italians and furnished them with models for imitation. Nevertheless, whatever may be the degree of plagia- rism of which the ancient Italian poets are accused ; whatever may have been the anteriority of the time in which the belles lettres flourished among the Proven- 4 c 2 gals ; VERSIFICATION. çals; and the time when it passed to the Italians; we cannot refuse to the latter the honour of being pre-emi- nently distinguished for the peculiar care they have be- stowed on the superstructure, and for their advancing to the acmé of cultivation those arts and sciences which had been sepulchred under the ruins of the Roman em- pire. The Arabs, the Spaniards, the French, the Eng- lish, and all other nations, says Andres (tome i. c. 12. p. 339. edit. de Parme), have been as the Egyptians and the Asiatics who claim the right of originality in the invention and culture of their verse; but the Italians may be regarded as the Greeks, who with the industri- ous bee culled their honey from every surrounding flower. We must not forget, however, that with regard to this right of priority, the Provençals have formidable rivals in the Sicilians. The authorities on each side of the question seem paradoxically equal. Sicily has al- ways boasted herself to have been the cradle of Italian poetry. She encircles herself with a cloud of authori- ties, which serve as a shield to protect her from the design to rob her of that title of which she desires the exclusive enjoyment. To this end, she frequently of. fers to consideration the following passage of Dante. (Volg. Eloq.) “Ex acceratis, quodammodó, vulga- ribus Italis, inter ea quae remanserunt in cribro compa- rationem facientes honorabiliūs, ac honorificentitis, bre- viter seligimus: et primô de Siciliano examinemus inge- nium : nam videtur Sicilianum vulgarem sibi famam prae aliis adsciscere ed quðd quidquid poetantur Itali Sicilianum vocatur.” Petrarch, who in the next age succeeded Dante, both in his prose and poetic works, confirms the same opin- ion. Nor does he express himself with less decision in the epistle which he composed about the year 1360. Petrarch also informs us, that in his poems, he had followed that species of versification, which had made its reappearance some ages before in Sicily, or at least two or three hundred years before the twelfth century. But to afford the clearest light in the discussion of this subject, it is necessary to transport our ideas to the period of the decline of the Roman empire. The Ita- lian language took its radical elements from the nature of the Latin. Even before the splendour and the au- thority of the emperors had been impaired, the lan- guage was adulterated by that admixture of barbarisms which seemed the necessary consequence of foreign in- tercourse. But all limits to this corruption were over- thrown, when the Goths, the Huns, the Greeks, the Lombards, the Franks and Germans in rapid succession inundated the empire. Hence arose a new jargon which served the vulgar and the plebeian tribes in their col- loquial intercourse, whilst the learned and the polite circles of society endeavoured to maintain the dignity and purity of the Latin language. The former, however, composed the majority, and carried the day. This, ac- cording to Muratori, happened about the 11th century. But whilst this revolution happened in Italy, France and Spain, where the Latin language, the common ge- nus, branched into three kindred species, each receiving such modifications as were suited to the circumstances and temper peculiar to each nation, Sicily had also been long subject to a similar revolution by the frequent in- vasions of the Saracens from the year 649 to 827; and again to 1060. And besides this, the Latin language had been already corrupted by the influence of the Vandals, who made a descent on this isle in 440, and by the dominion of the Goths, who governed it from 493. to 535, when Belisarius rescued the island. The Sici- lians had also their plebeian dialect; and they had, from the dominion of the Arabs, imbibed a predilection for that peculiar species of versification, which the latter had been equally successful in communicating to the Spaniards. The Sicilians, guided by that delicacy of the ear for which they are always remarkable, discov- ered themselves to be the first that had in their native. language a certain melodious order, resulting not from that prosodial quantity which defines merely syllables to be long or short, but rather from another measure, which is the effect of the acute accent, artificially dis- tributed within the limits of a definite number of sylla- bles. They were thus enabled, without any other ef- fort, to imitate the taste and the versification of the Arabs their conquerors; and the example of the latter was a shark to set on fire what till this was but latent in their imagination, and thus the genius and natural disposition of their minds received an unexpected and brilliant developement. It is, at least, affilmed, that the Sicilians have far ex- ceeded the Spaniards and the French in the culture of this modern versification. And Castelvetro and Mura- tori maintain, that it was not Italy and Sicily that receiv- ed from the Provençals the elements of this new species of verse, but that the latter were indebted for it to the Sicilians. We learn, however, from the authority of incontestible witnesses, that the Sicilians made great progress in the culture of the fine arts either during the 9th or 10th century; whilst Fauchet could not find among the poetry of the French a writer more ancient than Eustaché, who flourished about the middle of the 12th century. And Galland (Acc. Inscr. tom. iii.) could not quote an author anterior to the same. And whilst the learned Andrews could not fix the birth of the same art amongst the Spaniards earlier than the l l th century. The Sicilian versification, at first rude, uncultivated, and barbarous, became, by degrees, a studied and polish- ed art, replete with brilliant images, and with thoughts noble and sublime. It was, in short, the verse of the year 1220 that was seen to shine with peculiar lustre in the mind of Frederic II., who, after he had received the investiture from pope Celestin, came to reign in Sicily. The Sicilians preserve even yet his poems, those of Euzo lis son, king of Sardinia, and those of Pier delle Vigne, secretary to the same. From the centre of Sicily, this art disseminated itself over all Italy. The more learned Italians, attracted by the virtues of a generous prince, came in a crowd to Sicily, frequented the court of Frederic, became themselves poets, and carried the taste of the novel versification into their na- tive country. Crescimbeni dates the commencement of this art about the year 1 189. But Quadrio fixes its origin about the year 1135. And this he proves by an inscrip- tion in verse, which he found in the cathedral church of Ferrara. It is not improbable, however, that when Frederic II. arrived in Sicily, which happened nearly a century after this, he was already well instructed in this new species of versification, which he had learned in Provençe, his native country; and also that he possessed an art which he had derived from the Arabs established in Spain, whilst the Sicilians boasted the possession of the same art, which they had originally received from the Sara- CCIlS, These. VERSIFICATION. These two points of history being reduced to these parallel terms, it will become easy to resolve what would otherwise appear to be contradictory and para- doxical in those apparently opposite opinions, of which the one attributes to the Sicilians, the other to the Pro- vençals, the honour of having been the first who com- municated to Italy the knowledge of this modern spe- cies of versification. The fact doubtless is, that both the one and the other, nearly at the same time, received from the Arabs that new acquisition for which their own dialects were found to possess a certain innate congeni- ality, and subsequently became reciprocally instrumental in confirming and ma uring that art, which soon became celebrated throughout Europe, under either the Italian epithet “ lettere amene e leggiadre,” or the Provençal “guai saber,” i. e. the gay science. Having now, perhaps, executed the most difficult part of our task, in tracing from this remote and obscure pe- riod, the earliest source of this new species of versifica- tion, our limits and our readers will exempt us from entering into a long detail of the subsequent progress of this art amongst two neighbouring nations, especially as this part of the subject is more accessible through the medium of the pens of the literati of France and Italy. Before we proceed to treat on the nature of verse, it will be necessary to premise the following explanations of such technical terms as will occur in the sequel. A SYLLABLE. By a reference to the article QUANTITY, the reader will discover that we have already had an opportunity of distinguishing between a short and a long syllable, and of stating that the fortier is usually denoted by a small curve, as "; and the latter by a dash, as T. FEET. A foot, (so called from the ancient custom of beating time by the foot,) is a part of a verse, and consists of two or more syllabies, as here exemplified. I. Tw ELVE SIMPLE FEET. 1. Four feet of two syllables. 1 & A spondee . . . . . . . . . - - # A pyrric & Q ſº º e º ºs & e Q — 3 ). A trochee, or choree tº ſº tº º ºs • Wel : An iambus . . . . . . . . . U - 2. Eight feet of three syllabies. 5 * A molossus tº º a sº us e s e * gº ºs 6 S A tribac • * * * * * * * * Kº Kº Cº 7 R A dactyl & º a g g º º & = @ ºn {{ An anapaest . . . . . . . . . Q º – 9 & A bacchic . . . . . . . . . Sº as e 10 S. An antibacchic tº gº º e º ſº º * * * 1 & A Cretic, or amphimacer . . . . * * = #; An amphibrac . . . . . . . . ſº a V-2 II. EIGHTEEN Compound FEET. “ Quidduid enim supra tres syllabas habet, id ex pluribus est pedibus.” Quintil. 9. 4. 1. Four of the same foot doubled. ; A dispondee, or two spondees . . . tº º sº gº 14 S A proceleusmatic, or two pyrrics . \P v J Kºº 15 R A dichoree, or two chorees, or trochees - e - 9 # A diiambus, or two iambuses • a tº e º s 2. Four of contrary feet. 172 A great ionic, or a spondee and a pyrric # A small ionic, or a pyrric and a spondee 19 2 A choriambus, or a choree and iambus - - - - 20 S. An antispast, or an iambus and a choree ſº sº º º Sº º wº tºss º tº tº * 3. Four feet in which long times eacceed. 21 2 First epitrit, or an iambus and spondee - - - - ; Second epitrit, or a choree and spondee - - - - 23 & Third epitrit, or a spondee and iambus - - - - 24 S Fourth epitrit, or a spondee and choree - - - v 4. Four feet in which short times eacceed. 25 & First paeon, a choree and pyrric . . as ºf º Q 26S Second paeon, an iambus and pyrric . tº a º Q 27 & Third paeon, a pyrric and choree g Wº º is ºf 28S Fourth paeon, a pyrric and iambus . Quº ºf \º - 5. Comfound feet of five syllables. © - - O - & Q = Q & 29) Dochmius, an iambus and cretic . 30 S Mesomacer, a pyrric and a dactyl *~ METRE. A metre is composed of two adjacent feet. In Greek. verse of the dactylic species, one foot constitutes a me- tre, according to Hephaestion ; “Kºrz Moyozoºlow parestral ro, Azºrvaizo.” In Greek verse of double feet, a metre is also said to consist of only one foot ; but since, in this case, each foot comprises two simple feet, it forms no exception. to the general rule. Metre is divided into nine species: iambic, trochaic, anafi & stic, dactylic, choriambic, anti- sfiastic, ionic & majore, ionic d minore, fi aconic. RH YTHM. Is a series of similar feet, continued until the ear per- ceives the order of the series, and is able to anticipate. the peculiar nature of the verse. To render this more plain, we add, that rhythm in verse is analogous to as many terms of an infinite series in mathematics, as are necessary to render the law of the rising order appa- rent, and from which we can easily anticipate the se- quel; or, more exactly, if we have the compound cir- A M e º te culate 325 given to evolve the series, we easily write or repeat 325 || 3 2 5 $25, &c. to as many periods as necessary. Now, a metre is said to be the commencement of this series. A rhythm is that portion of the series, which brings the whole under the recognizance of the ear. Metre respects both the time and order of the syllables. The rhythm of a dactylic and anapaestic measure is the . same ; the metre different. VERSE. A verse is an assemblage of a definite number of feet, and contains one, two, or more metres; and is accord- ingly termed either a monometer, dimeter, trimeter, te- trameter, femtameter, or hearameter, &c. Verse some- times receives its name from a reference to the number of feet, not of metre, which composes it; as, the sena- nius, octonarius, novenarius, &c.; sometimes from a. noted VERSIFICATION. hoted author who was particularly attached to that spe- cies; as, Safifthic, Anacreontic, Alcaic, Hiff on actic. A verse is also said to be acatalectic, if it be neither defective nor redundant; catalectic, if it want a final syllable ; brachycatalectic, if it want two ; hyfiercatalec- fic or hyfermeter, if it exceed the regular measure ; a ceſi halous, if it want an initial syllable. Hence the complete name of a verse necessarily con- sists of three terms ; the first referring to the sfiegies, the second to the number of metres, the third to the apo- thesis or ending. See VERSE. Schmidius and Triclinius, in their Analysis of the Metres of Pindar and Sophocles, generally recite first the general name, consisting of the three terms above- mentioned, and then subjoin the particular feet. A hemistich is, properly speaking, a half verse : yet the name is commonly applied to either portion of an hexameter verse divided at the penthemimer. The triemime ris is that portion of a verse (measured from the beginning of the line) which contains three half feet, or a foot and a half; fient hemimeris, five half feet, or two feet and a half; heft themimeris, seven half feet, or three feet and a half; ennemimeris, nine half feet, or four feet and a half. A distich is a couplet of two verses. A stanza, or strońhé, is such a series of two or more verses of different kinds, as comprises every variety employed in the composition. When only one sort of verse is used throughout the ode or poem, such an ode, &c. is called monocolos; when several sorts, folycolos: or more precisely, if there are two sorts of verse in a poem, it is called dicolos; if three, tricolos; if four, tetracolos. When the stanza, or strophe, is composed of two verses, it denominates the ode distrofiños; when of three, tristrofihos; when of four, tetrastrofinos, &c. By a complex use of these terms, the ode is dicolos distrońhos, when in a stanza there are two verses of dif- ferent kinds; it is dicolos tristrońhos, when the stanza contains three verses, but only of two kinds, one sort being twice used; dicolos tetrastrońhos, when the stan- za has four verses, but of only two sorts, one sort being used thrice. Again, the ode is tricolos tristrońhos, when the stanza consists of three verses, each of a differ- ent kind; and tricolos tetrastrońhos, when in the stanza there are four verses, but of only three kinds, one being used twice. Hebrew Versification. On the very first attempt to elucidate the nature of this versification, a question presents itself uncommon- ly difficult and obscure. If it be essential to the exist- ence of verse that it be measured by a definite number of feet or syllables, it appears absolutely necessary to demonstrate that those parts at least of the Hebrew writings which we term poetic are in a metrical form, and to inquire whether any thing be certainly known concerning the nature and principles of this versifica- tion or not. - It is well known, that an hypothesis was invented by bishop Hare concerning the Hebrew metres ; and the arguments which he had advanced in its favour appear- ed so conclusive to some persons of great erudition, as to persuade them, that the learned prelate had fortu- nately retrieved the knowledge of Hebrew verse, after an oblivion of more than two thousand years. The fol- lowing are the rules or canons of bishop Hare. 1. In Hebrew verse all the feet are dissyllabic. 2. No regard is paid to the quantity of the syllables. 3. When the number of the syllables is even, the verse is trochaic, placing the accent on the first syllable. 4. If the number of the syllables is odd, the verse is iambic, and the accent is to be placed on the second syl- lable. 5. The periods mostly consist of two verses, often three or four, and sometimes more. 6. The verses of the same period, with few excep- tions, are of the same kind. 7. The trochaic verses mostly agree in the number of feet; there are, however, a few exceptions. 8. In the iambic verses the number of feet are mostly unequal, though in some instances they are equal. 9. Each verse does not contain a distinct sense. One of the examples given by bishop Hare for the illustration of these rules, is the l l l th Psalm, which the learned reader may consult in any pointed Hebrew bible. The same example is alluded to by bishop Lowth, in the following confutation of the principles of bishop Hare, 1. In the first place, the feet are not all dissyllables. 2. Attention must always be paid to the quantity of the syllables, for the same word, as often as it occurs, is always of the same quantity. 3. The verses are either trochaic which admit a dac- tyl, or iambic which admit an anapaest. But it by no means follows, that a verse is either the one or the other, from its consisting of an even or odd number of syllables. Those, indeed, which consist of an even number of syllables, are, for the most part, iambic ; but they are also sometimes trochaic. And those which consist of an odd number of syllables are mostly tro- chaic; but they are, however, sometimes iambic, con- trary to the third and fourth canons. 4. The verses of the same period are of different kinds, a few only excepted; and those which are of the same kind seldom agree in the number of syllables and feet; and these facts are contrary to the sixth, seventh, and eighth canons. - 5 All the periods consist of only two verses: this is contrary to the fifth canon. - 6. Each verse has one particular sense ; contrary to the ninth canon. And in the same manner, perhaps, may every hypo- thesis, which pretends to state the laws of Hebrew verse, and to prescribe the numbers, the feet, the scanning of the lines, be confuted. For to that hypothesis another directly contrary, yet confirmed by arguments equally forcible, may be successfully opposed. Subsequently to bishop Hare, John Robertson, M.D. published his treatise on the Hebrew versification. To give any idea of his method, it is requisite to premise, that he, in common with the antimasoretics, supplies the pointed vowel by e ; to he gives the power of U or V, and to y. O. His rules are as follow : “ 1. Every syllable is long in which there is a written vowel. 'Tis true that I and U are sometimes joined in one syllable with the vowel before, but oftener with that after either of them. But in that case the I and U are not vowels, but consonants. “ 2. Every syllable having the inserted or implied vowel e is short, if only one consonant follows it before another expressed or implied vowel occurs. “ 3. Every syllable having only an inserted vowel in it is long, if two or more consonants intervene between it VERSIFICATION. it and the next expressed or implied vowel, either in the same or following word. “ 4. In all Hebrew verses, every alternate syllable must be long; the others may be long or short. “ 5. The last syllable of every verse is common; i. e. either long or short.” On laying down these preliminaries, it was easy for Dr. Robertson to reduce Hebrew verse to the iambic or trochaic metre. But so long as the true Hebrew pro- nunciation and the quantity of their vowels remain un- known, to attempt the analysis of Hebrew verse by iam- bic, trochaic, anapaestic, or any other metre, is to lay a superstructure without a foundation. But whilst we preſer to prosecute the sequel rather with bishop Lowth; we do not in the mean time withhold from our readers the pleasure of perusing Dr. J. Robertson’s “Treatise on the true and ancient Manner of Reading Hebrew, and on Hebrew Versification,” Lond. 1757. As to the real quantity, the metre and rhythm, these from the present state of the language seem to be alto- gether unknown; which is the necessary consequence of our uncertainty of the ancient pronunciation. To some of those, indeed, who have laboured in this matter, thus much of merit is to be allowed, that they have ren- dered the Hebrew metre, which, without their methods, sounded uncommonly harsh, in some degree polished and more agreeable. They indeed have furnished it with a sort of versification and metrical arrangement, when baffled in their attempts to discover the real. That we are warranted in attributing to them any thing more than this, is neither apparent from the nature of the thing, nor from the arguments with which they at- tempt to defend their conjectures. It is, however, undeniably apparent, that certain of the Hebrew writings bear not only evident signs of po- etic animation, but also such characteristics of verse, as leave us little difficulty in pronouncing them of the poetic class. There existed, amongst the Hebrews, a kind of verse, intended, perhaps, for the memory; in which, when there was little connexion between the sen- timents, an alphabetic order was preserved by the ini- tial letters of each verse or stanza. Of this there are several examples, where the verses are so exactly marked and defined, that it is impossible to mistake them for prose, especially if we compare the corresponding parts of the proximate verses, where word answers to word, and almost syllable to syllable. This being the case, though no appeal can be made to the ear, yet the eye remains competent to perceive the poetic symme- try and arrangement. Hebrew versification also exhibits another property peculiar to metrical composition. Writers confined to the limits of verse, are generally indulged with the li- cense of using words in a sense and manner remote from their common acceptation, and of retrenching or adding a syllable for the purpose of reducing the line to their assigned limits. Next to the Greeks, none, per- haps, have admitted those liberties more freely than the Hebrews, and especially by the use of certain particles peculiar to metrical composition, so as to form to them- selves a dialect distinctly poetical. There may be fur- ther observed a certain conformation of the sentences, so that a complete sense is almost equally infused into every component part, and every member constitutes an entire verse. So that as the poems divide themselves in a manner spontaneously into periods, for the most part equal, so the periods themselves are divided into verses, most commonly couplets, though frequently of greater length. The Hebrew verse too was adapted to their custom of singing corresponding parts by alter- nate and opposite choirs. (See Nehem. xii. 24. 31. 38. 40. and the title of the 88th Psalm.) Verse construct- ed in this manner, is similar to the Grecian proasm or epode. And it was thus, it is thought, that Moses with the Israelites chanted the ode at the Red sea. (Exod. xv.) For “Miriam the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand; and all the women went out after her, with timbrels and with dances. And Miriam answered them, sing ye to the Lord, for he hath tri- umphed gloriously : the horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea.” (Exod. xv. 20, 21.) On some occasions, one of the choirs sung a single verse to the other, which was answered by the other by a verse in. some respect correspondent to the former. The 135th Psalm is obviously adapted to three choirs; the high priest with the house of Aaron constituting the Jirst; the Levites, the second; and the congregation, the third; each having its distinct part, and all at stated in- tervals uniting in full chorus. From an analysis of this psalm it might easily be shown, that the Hebrew hymn is a composition not less regular than the Grecian ode. One cannot but observe too, that it was from the Jewish, that the Christian church derived the custom of singing in alternate cho- rus. Pliny (1. x. epist. 97.) observes of the primitive Christians, that “they repeat alternate verses to Christ as to a god.” And the remains of this ancient custom are yet evident in the alternate or responsive parts of the liturgy of the established church. See Bingham’s Antiq. xiv. 1. The peculiar conformation, already alluded to, in the structure of Hebrew verse, consists chiefly in a certain equality, resemblance, or parallelism between the mem- bers of each period; so that in two verses, or members of the same period, things for the most part shall answer to things, and words to words, as if fitted to each other by a kind of rule or measure. This parallelism con- sists of three species. See PARALLELISM. Greek Versification. It is necessary, before we present the reader with a system of the Greek versification, to apprize him, that the second, fourth, and sixth foot, &c. of a verse are commonly called the even places ; and the first, third, and fifth foot, &c. the odd places. I. Iambic Metre. 1. An iambic verse admits in the even places an iam- bus, in the odd, an iambus or a spondee. 2. An iambus in the odd places may be resolved into a tribrach; the spondee, into a dactyl or anapaest. 3. An iambus in the even places (except the last) may be resolved into a tribrach. An anapaest is substi- tuted for it in the case of a proper name only. 4. A dactyl must be avoided in the fiſth place; and, resolved feet must not occur. Dimeters catalectic. Ov3’ &igest ºf zévolos, Ovös pêoy & rve ovyot.g. Epcot wºe ºvgot at Kºrzºgszeuv d'ºrºyay". Ekºot ºf Xe t eoëo, at Karao's ºeuv xzgºya, VERSIFICATION. Beginning with an anapaest. Azroxotro zrgaro; cºvre; O roy we'vvéoy quana'a.g. Ata row, oy ovz 23:220s, Ata, rovtov ov roznes'—Anacreon. Trimeters or senarii. Ev zroyri ºrgays, 3’ &yº’ ºwlºtas xxxng Kazuoy ověev, xzézrog ov zoºlºleos. Arng cºeovec. 32y2roy exxzézićeral H yae goveto Goºg ºrwooy evºsºns ºne Navrºſa's 9tewotº x2, ºrayoveyz rivu, Oxoxey w8%ay avy Seozrvalº yeyer—Mºschylus, II. Trochaic Metre. 1. A trochaic verse admits trochees in the odd places, trochees and spondees in the even places. 2. The trochee may in any place be resolved into a tribrach ; and the spondee into a dactyl or anapaest. 3. A dactyl in the odd places occurs only in the case of a proper name. 4. In trochaic tetrameters, the second metre should always end with a word. Dimeters catalectic. Tavro, rug roºx’ cºy roºtng H rexova'a yeo 70.6×s Ouxtoy ouxtla wit’. Ezret- -3% rity; ºpe, Auzzº.—AEschylus. Tetrameters catalectic. Ov yet aw #vºzlºv waxwº, 3 ºr rot; tıpºpºevote, $20 ré we axo~rewy zéarovvra, rhº' woxv’s twº zºoyoº. Tay waxéay 9’ xzxxxzye tºo yov6erºpºray tº ex. Kal av ray3° sºa, Kokić w retzewy, a zºrézyn. III. Anafi aestic Metre. 1. An anapaestic admits either in the even or odd places an anapaest, a spondee, or a dactyl. 2. Except the dimeter catalectic, called paraemiacus, which requires an anapaest only in the last place but one. 3. Anapaestic verses are sometimes intermixed with other species. 4. A system is chiefly composed of dimeters, and is most correct when, first, each foot, or at least each sy- zygy, ends with a word : secondly, when the last verse but one, is monometer acatalectic ; and the last, dimeter catalectic; with an anapaest in the second metre. 5 In a system, the last syllable of each verse is not (as in other species) common ; but has its quantity re- gulated by the foot of which it is a part. 6. The monometer acatalectic is termed an anapaes- tic base. This, in a system, is sometimes dispensed with. In the paraemiacus rarely. 7. A series of anapaestic verses, consisting of one or more sentences, must be constructed as if each sen- tence were only a single verse. Therefore, if the last foot of a verse, in the middle of a sentence, begin as an anapaest or spondee, its last syllable must be long; but as a dactyl, short. This rule, however, may be dis- pensed with, when a tribrach, cretic, or trochee, sup- plies the place of an anapaest, dactyl, or spondee. 8. An anapaestic verse has sometimes in the last place a proceleusmatic, which foot is isochronal to an anapaest; as, IIgo; two, o I geyevero || 6a–Eur, Ph. 169. Anapaestic system with the base. An?oy swo: 'Y' aſ; qoeſ nº zeetz Erºoy ovºsves revº weace, row. Tavrov yºg exe v 3 torng avrov Aoyos é ºl. 4 wºuv, ºngočoxovyra. IIºnvots to tº ºlviyego, alvyegas. ovë riv' &vrº - IIc. tayo. 2&zay fºrtyakºv. Anapaestic system without the base. o Servov 19ew rado; avºpaºots, o ºgivotarov waytay 3a' sya IIgorexver n}. Tº a' a rankov, IIgozsón wavia; ris 3 mºnzo's Azteca, we ſovº roy Pºnzi "raw IIgo; 7% ºf ovzºo.º.ovi koté% wiv, riv, ºvaray’ axx' ovº erºw Avvoctºozi are, 6exay zroxx.’ aysged 621, IIoxx, rvésztat, woxx. 9° 28′nºa. Totay ºgizºv zrezeszewº Pºol.- Sophocles. System of paraemiaci. Xi Yoty www cººroºg #26 ori'yoºy" Kozi zroy to Xayoy roºzoº arevº’ Hºly 3° 1922, rare is sºrt. IIAsowev 3’ xº' Oövo-cºil 9eta.—Cratin. Tetrameters catalectic. Ouvov tº 2xeze, coºl yukovoccuay zoºi ray ºwy evontaſy, Kai giartºlov. rowrovokićets, drie stro; 3%toy avºe», Nizzy rearray xzi govaevay was tº Yaar"? woxerciſov. Aristoph. IV. Dactylic Metre. 1. A dactylic verse consists only of dactyls and spon- dees. 2. The common heroic is hexameter acatalectic, having in the fifth place a dactyl, in the last, a spondee. 3. In the heroic verse several licenses are allowed, which are not admitted in iambic metre ; as, first, the lengthening a short final syllable not only at the place of the caesural pause, but sometimes even on the other final syllables, whose emphasis is increased by their be- ginning a foot; as, Tag” wºotzw exay awougeotá, re 22eerényi-II. A 45. Secondly, the hiatus, or the concurrence of two vow- els in contiguous words; as when the word ends with a short vowel, Axx' axesza zoºnºo, two 3’ treast&so ºvºw. Il. a 565 Or when the word ends with a long vow: l or diphthong, in which cases the syllable may either be long without elision, or short, on the supposition that the latter of the component vowels is cut off; as, K861% ºoz8, sºril 8 etey es', zeestav ovz effixoy ºzºa exei woxv ºsaekoi avtov. 4. The Ionic dialect affords great variety in the fºrm of epic verses. And that irregular sort of dactylics, called aeolics, admits in the first place any foot of two syllables: the rest must be all dactyls, except when the verse is catalectic, and then the catalectic part must be a trochee. • º 5. Hephæstion terms that species of dactylics, logo- Oedics, VERSIFICATION. * cedics, whičh requires at the end a trochaic Syzygy : . but every where else a dactyl. Dactylic trimeters. At Movarai roy Egara, Aºzºzt aleøavotº t, Tº K222s t ºraesowzz, Kºt Vuy ; Kvěegeta, Zºret, Avréa, ºegovºroz, Avvaaºo, a roy Egwro.—Anacr. Dactylic hexameters. Ev 3’ evez’, as ºre zvºz dog evyzi area hat Axºgow d7&t we?eavy, «ysºzorge®es' # 3. * * ºracoa Azyn wºrexévºn, avekoto 3° 38tyo; wºrn; Iºriº tººgeºgral. reoksovº. 3, ri 46-ya yawrz. Aetºlores rurdov was ºr ex Gayaroio 2 gavrat.—Hom. Elegiac. IIerºvºo, whº alºzºolow eq' seyºzo, whº wºnotri Tºp 2s ºn3' age tº ºxio, wh9’ xosyos. Tavraº asy odºra's ea 6, 22 court 3 ºn ~goaokoºst Avºazºv, oxx'ate, ray «yzºwy exeo.-Theogn. V. Choriambic Metre. 1. A choriambic verse requires in every place but the last a choriambus, and in the last, an iambic syzygy, entire or catalectic. 2. Sometimes the iambic syzygy occurs in the first place, and in long verses in other places; but this hap- pens less frequently. 3. Either two iambic feet, or a spondee and iambus, or the third epitrite, form the iambic syzygy : it is used here for the former case. - 4. Any other foot of four syllables joined with riambic constitute the epichoriambic verse. Dimeter catalectic. Ovº eros, a yoyo.1zes, II*at xxxoloty is.ccg ‘Dºwry exaglor' awºes. Astyº Yaº Egya, ºoza at Azuºzyoºsaº, Jr.’ «vray.-Aristoph. Sapphic system ; consisting of epichoriambic and Adonic verses. IIouxtxoqºoy’ agavar’Aq'goºra, IIzi Atos 32×owaozs, a co-owa, ore, Mn w” atalai, whº awator, 3xwa, - IIorylat 69ptov - - EX6's foot zoºl wwy, 22Aérôy * Avorov Ex **wēv ozora º ºvoi rexeza.a. ©vkos tº stees rexévoy, a v 3’ owza Zvºbozzog earoo. * VI. Antisfiastic Metre. An antispastic verse admits in the last place, an iam- bic, syzygy complete, or catalectic, or an incomplete antispastus; and in the first place, besides the hroner foot, is admitted any foot of four syllables ending like an antispastus in the two last syllables; i. e. either 2 -- ~ , But in the intermediate places only , - " - 9. an antispastic. --- ~ 3 - Sºº - sº 1. In short verses, the proper foot frequently vanish- es, and the verse is composed of one of the above-men- tioned feet, and an iambic syzygy. 2. Every epitrite, except the second, is occasionally substituted in the different places of the verse, especial- ly the fourth epitrite in the second place. 3. If an antispastic begins the verse and three sylla- bles of any kind remain, the verse is antispastid; because the remaining syllables may be considered as a portion of some of the admissible or resolved feet. 4. Long verses sometimes contain an iambic syzygy in the second place, and then the third place admits the same varieties as the first. Dimeter acatalectic and hyperacatalectic. Mr. Øvyozi roy oºrrowra, vi- x& Aoyoy ro 3’ ers Øayº, Boyat Kettew 30sy wee #xel, IIoxv ºevregov, as raziata. Q4 eur’ ow ro vsov zraeh, Kovºazº &4,600 vya's 256 ov, Tug ºrwayzºn woxvt.ox.60% ºw: Oa'71; arov raeovas wegovg Xénées rov weretov wagets Zwety, a katoo-vvacy ºvXaa-a-ay Ey spot zarzónxos éclai.-Soph. VII. Ionic Metre à Majore. An Ionic verse a majore admits a trochaic syzygy pro- miscuously with its proper foot. War. 1. The second paeon is sometimes found in the first place. - 2. A molossus in an even intermediate place, follow- ed by a trochaic syzygy. f 3. The second paeon is sometimes joined to a second a cho- or third epitrite, so that the two feet together are equal in time to two Ionic feet. This is called an Ayorºzotº, the defect in time of the preceding foot being supplied by the redundant time of the subsequent. And the verse so disposed is called Ayoºxakewog. º, 4. Reselutions of the long syllables are allowed in all possibles varieties. y e If the three remaining paeons, or the second paeon in any place but the first, without an ayzzºzºis ; or if an iambic syzygy, or a third epitrite, a choriambus, or any of the discordant feet of four syllables, be found in the same verse with an Ionic foot, the verse is then called Epionic. Trimeters brachycatalectic. IIAnens wey e4.24ver' or orexxyz, * Atô' w; regi 8wºoy ealdºnçay.-Sapph. - Tetrameters brachycatalectic. Xwmézrºy & zoop.os arezroinzey aro4.oy swat, Kozi xzxaſ; ovel»ey roy Xangorny 3 xoakos, Ey rº, ºvazzº, kavuoy or way reºvºze.—Sotad. VIII. Ionic Metre à Minore. 1. An Ionic verse à minore is often composed en- tirely of its proper feet. It begins sometimes with the third paeon, followed by one of the epitrites for an awakaz- arts. And it admits an iambic syzygy promiscuously. 2. In the odd places, a molossus preceded by an iam- The following are the most usual varieties in this spe- bic syzygy sometimes occurs; and in the first a molos- cies of verse. i Vol. XXXVIII. sus alone. 4 D 3. In VERSIFICATION. 3. In the intermediate places, a second or third paeon is prefixed to a second epitrite, and this construction is also called ovocaccarig. 4. The long syllables admit of resolutions, as in the other Ionic metre. 5. An epionic verse à minore is formed by intermix- ing with the Ionic foot a double trochee, second epitrite, or paeon without an awaxxxaris. 6. When a choriambus precedes or follows an Ionic foot of either kind, the verse is called prosodiacus: which name is applied to a verse consisting of an alternate mix- ture of choriambic and Ionic feet, or of their respective representatives. - 7. The two species of Ionic feet are not to be inter- mixed in the same verse. Dimeters. * Aoxºo; 3’ evris Waraola; Meyo.29 gevkºri qataly, Exveois exerty eigyely Apaxo y xvka. ºochoco-wºº' Argozotoros yag & IIEgray Xrgºros, ºx14 gay re Azog.--Ayazhaº. Aoxomºtiv 3’ &raray (soy Tº avºie (voºroº waváel ; Tis 3 xpairvº ºroë rºw- -waros evarezsos avaizawy.--Mºschylus. IX. Pacomic Metre. 1. A paponic verse requires all the admissible feet to have the same rhythm with the proper foot, i. e. to con- sist of five times. 2. The construction is most perfect when each metre ends with the several words of the verse, 3. Verses called Bacchiac and Cretic are referrible to this head. Tetrameters catalectic. Eto's rive; 31 º’ exeyov, we karaºnaxx yny, Hytno, Kºewy w varstoº arrey sºrtzetusvos. --~~~ Koes ºf zoºxalais ºxytºs' 229, 3 r" are?eigokºny Otzrog, eyeway Pºsya: xexecºyota ºf 6sousvot, Ov?ey we gov weaov. oroy 9 wovoy stºval, 2xapºdcºttoy et rore ri 9A.Gowevo; szºo. AAw.--Aristoph. X. Of the Pause. Besides the division of a verse into metres and feet, writers have taken notice of another division into two parts only, arising from the natural intermission of the voice in reading it. . This is called the flause, which necessarily ends with a word. Heroics and trimeter iambics are esteemed most harmonious, when the pause falls upon the first syllable of the third foot. In iambic and trochaic tetrameters, its place is at the end of the aecond metre. These rules, which are far from being general, are more observed by the Roman than the Greek poets. In anapaestic and paeonic verses, and the verse Ionic ä minore, no place is assigned to the pause; because the effect of a pause will be produced at the end of each regularly constructed metre. XI. Of the different Combinations of Metre. 1. The first is a long syllable between the parts of a verse, as in the common pentameter; thus, 2. In some species, the portions of an admissible foot of four syllables are separated by the intermediate Imetres. ** - - 3. It frequently happens that two speeies totally dis- similar are united in the same verse, which is then de- nominated Arvyagrarog. We shall employ the mark + to connect the dissimi- lar portions, in the following instances. 1. Dactyl, tetram. -- troch. hemihol. 2. Iambic. penth. -- troch, hemihol. 3. Dactyl, dim. -- troch. monom. or logooedic verse. 4. Dactyl, comma prefixed to an iambic dim, which is called elegiambus. Iamb. dim. prefixed to a dactylic comma, 5. OI" the converse of the former, Iamb. º and called iambelegus. 6. Dactyl. comma + iamb, hemihol. 7. Iamb. penth. H- dactyl. dim. 4. When the parts thus united are an iambic and tro- chaic syzygy, the verse is called periodic or circulating; the quantity being the same as if scanned from the end. 5. A verse agreeing with none of the preceding insti- tutes is termed IIoxwºxnuatuo'los, or anomalous; to which class we may refer, - 1. A verse, otherwise iambic, having a spondee in the second or fourth place. 2. An iambus in a trochaic, &c. 3. Scazon. “Fit scazon, si spondeo prior exit iambus.” Q tº as m “Azoëzë6 Imalºvăxrö; oiſ | yūg 322 ºzº.” Of the Figures used in Versification. The syllables composing a verse are affected seven different ways: by caesura, by synalaepha, by ecthlipsis, by synaerisis, by diaeresis, by systole, and by diastole. Of Catsura.—When, after finishing a foot, there re- mains one syllable of the word, this circumstance is called caesura ; a term which is also sometimes applied to the syllable itself thus cut off, and which forms the first part of the following foot. There are four species of caesura ; the triemimeris, fenthemimeris, hefthemimeris, and ennemimeris. The triemimeris is when, after the first foot, or two half feet, there remains a syllable terminating a word, or a third half foot. The penthemimeris is when, after two feet, or four half feet, there remains a terminating syllable, or fifth half foot. The hepthemimeris is when, after three feet, or six half feet, a syllable remains, which is the seventh half foot. * ... ** The ennemimeris is when, after four feet, or eight half feet, a syllable remains, which is the ninth half foot. The first three caesurae are in the following line : 3 Silves |trem tenſi Mu-sam meditaris a vena—Vir. All are in the following line: 9 Ille laſtus nivel-um moll-f full-tus hyal cintho.—Virg. Ouzºn I wanvklón eviºuſ gaºqegov avºx. Hom. Il. 3. 24. AAA& versIFICATION. Axxe wel-yā al-zay pºoy, sixtº rivXia waxwy. Hesiod. Suet. 45 1. The preceding are named syllabic caesuras. To these may be added the trochaic caesura, which is formed either by a trochee remaining at the end of a word, after the completion of a foot, or by a word consisting of a trochee ; as, Cuncta priſus ten-tätä; sed immedicabile vulnus.-Ov. Per coni-nubia | nostrá per incaeptos Hymenaeos.--Vir. And the monosyllabic caesura; as, De grege nunc tibi vir nunc de grege—natus hal-bendus.-Ovid. The principal effects of caesura are, first, to impart smoothness and elegance to a verse, by connecting the different words harmoniously together; secondly, to cause a short syllable to become long, especially after the first, second, or third foot; as, Pectoril-būs inhians, spirantia consulit exta-Virg. of Synalapha.—Synalaepha cuts off the final vowel or diphtholºg of a word, when the following word begins with a vowel or a diphthong ; as, Tërra ànj-tiqua, potens armis atque ubere glebae.--Vir. As though it were, Tërr’ān) liqua, &c. The Greeks never employ the synalaepha, unless they join the apostrophe as, - 26 ep2*, sºil-asy 3’ o yeléây, x2 lastēslo | uvêa. Synalaepha is sometimes omitted. First, regularly, as in the interjections Q, heu, ah, proh, vas, vah, hei; as, Heu ubi pacta fides, ubiquae jurare solebas-Ovid. Secondly, by poetic license ; as, Et succus flecori, et lac subducitur agnis.-Virg. Long vowels and diphthongs, when they are not cut off, become common ; as, Insula. Ionio in magno quas dira Celaeno.—Virg. Ante tibi Eoaº Atlantides abscondantur.—Virg. Of Ecthlinsis.-Ecthlipsis cuts off the final m, and the preceding vowel, when the following word begins with a vowel; as, Disce puer, virtutem ex me, verumque laborem For- tunam ex aliis.-Virg. This figure is not employed in the Greek language. The ancients sometimes retained the m, and its pre- ceding vowel, which they made short; as, - Corfioričm officium est quoniam premere omnia deor- $Ulſſl. Lucret. But the um of officium is elided. S was formerly elided, not only before a vowel, with the loss of a syllable; but also before a consonant, with- out the loss of a syllable; as, *- Vicinaus, O socii!et magnam pugnavimu’ pugnam.--En. Nam, side nihilo fierent, ex omnibu’ rebus.-Lucret. . Both synalaepha and ecthlipsis are found in the last syllable of a verse, when the following verse begins with a vowel, provided no long pause intervene to suspend the sense ; as, # Jamgue iter emensi, turres ac tecta Latinorum Ardua cernebant juvenes murosque subibant.—Virg. Sternitur infefix alieno vulnere coelumque Aspicit, et dulces moriens reminiscitur Argos.-Virg. Qf Synaeresis.-Synaeresis is the contraction of two syl- lables in the same word into one syllable; as reux; for reux; ; ii for iſ, dēinde for deinde ; abiete pronounced abyete for abiète, &c. And in the following verses for parietibus, tenuius, vindemiator, pronounced pār-yétibus, ten-wis, vindem- yător. Haerent pāriëtibus scalae; postesque sub ipsos.-Virg. Quánec mobilius quidquam neque tenuitis exstat.--Lu. Vindémiãtor et invictus cui saepe viator.-Hor. of Diaresis.-Diaeresis is the division of one syllable into two; as rvalso for rvale, aurai for aurae, süésco for sūésco, siluae for silvae, soluit for solvit, subjecta for subjecta, Jüpiter for Jupiter, &c. Of Systóle.—Systole is the shortening of a syllables otherwise long by nature or position; as tº rezvāa śiyé- tgat, Theocr.; vidén, for vidés me, hädie for höc die, ëbicis for Öbjicis, &c. of Diastole.— Diastole is the lengthening of a sylla- ble, otherwise naturally short; as Heway avršº 3’ exagla. revze ºvveraw, Hom. II. c. 4. So are the first syllable in Priamides, Arabia, occasionally lengthened ; without which license, these and some similar proper names would scarcely be admissible in heroic verse. There are other figures which may affect a verse, but these belong to etymology. Latin Versification. I. An hexameter or heroic verse consists of six feet, of which the fifth is usually a dactyl, the sixth a spon- dee; the rest may be either spondees or dactyls, at the option of the poet. The following scale exhibits the construction: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. * Rºy tº * Sº K-5 * @ Q • º º * Qº) tº tº dº At tibá | terribi-j-lèm söniſtüm préciſiläré ca-l-noro. Virg. Sometimes when the description is grave, slow, ma- jestic, mournful, &c. a spondee is admitted in the fifth place, and the verse is called spondaic. In this case, a dactyl usually occupies the fourth place, and the verse terminates with a word of three or four syllables. It is but seldom otherwise; as, : 4. - Constitit atque oculis Phrygia agmina | circum)- spexit.—Virg. • Hexameters abounding too much in spondees may ap- pear to drag, as it were, heavily; and those in which dactyls prevail seem sometimes to have a light and flut- tering effect. An equal admixture, therefore, has been thought to afford the just and most harmonious medium. 4 D 2 A proper * VERSIFICATION. A proper regard to the caesura, in the structure of an hexameter, is indispensably necessary. The term caesu- ra is used by grammarians in two senses. In the for- mer, it signifies the division of a verse into two portions, affording a little pause or rest for the voice, at some convenient place, where the pause may take place with- out injury to the sense or harmony of the line. This kind of caesura is sometimes called a tome, which term, for distinction’s sake, we shall in this former sense ex- clusively employ. Tantae moliserat...fºº Romanam condere gentem.--Vir. Errabant, acti fatis. Tº maria omnia circum.—Virg. From these examples, it is evident that the tome is not exclusively confined to a particular part of the hex- ameter, as in the pentameter, which, like the English and French Alexandrine, is invariably divided into two equal portions. But the tome most approved in heroic verse was the penthemimeral ; as, - Lüctān-l-tes vén-]-tos, tº tempestatesque sonoras.--Vir. Instead, however, of the tome at the exact penthemi- meris, a different division was admitted after a trochee in the third foot; as, Effigi-l-em statü-|-eré, fºr néſas quae triste piaret.--Vir. This, however, is generally censured, as the ear seems to require that there should be no pause immedi- ately after a trochee in this place, especially as the voice, which would find an agreeable rest on a long semifoot, is disagreeably suspended on a short syllable. The hepthemimeral tome was also approved as he- roic ; as, Clamäl-res simiil I horrèn-|-dòs ºft's ad sidera tollit— Virg. The tome after the third foot has been the subject of critical censure, though Virgil, the princeps facilè po- etarum, has on a few occasions employed it. The pen- themimeral or hepth emimeral tome is, however, un- questionably preferable. The tome between the fourth and fifth feet has been considered as peculiarly adapted to pastoral verse, and therefore called tome Bucolica; as, Stânt vità-l-li, et ténè-|-ris mü-l-gitibús tº aera complent.—Nemesian. But this pause occurs as frequently in heroic as in pastoral verse. In the second acceptation, the caesura means the di- vision or separation which takes place in a foot, when that foot is composed of syllables belonging to different words, º A verse in which this caesura is neglected, in which the insulated and unconnected feet seem to shun all so- ciety with each other, is held to be stiff and uncouth in the extreme, and devoid of all poetic elegance; as, Spårsis hāstis laté | campus spléndét ét hör- ret. Ennius. On the contrary, those verses are the most pleasing in which this figure abounds; and this effect is equally produced, whether the division take place before a se- mifoot or before a solid trochee. JW. B. By a solid trochee is meant a trochee consist- ing of a single word, or the last two syllables of a word; not a semifoot jeined with a short monosyllable. Té Spéc-|-tém, sü-firemä mi-hi quum || vénétit! harā. Tibullus. But two successive trochees of this kind occurring in the second and third, or in the third and founth feet, should be avoided; but in the first and second, or in the first, third and fifth, they are unobjectionable. After the first foot, the neglect of the caesura is no blemish, provided that foot be a dactyl ; as, Régià | Solis erat sublimibus alta columnis.—Ovid. Nor after a spondee is it much felt, especially if it be an emphatic word; as, Tândém | progreditur, magná stipante catervā-Virg. Nor is the want of the caesura felt after the second foot, if it be a spondee concluding with a monosyllable ; aS, - Ah quoties per | saxa canum latratibus acta est. - Ovid. The caesura, at the third foot, is held to be, if not ab- solutely necessary, highly desirable. When the tome, however, takes place at the penthernimeris, and there is no pause at the close of the third foot, no objection can be made to its terminating, either with a long monosylla- ble, two short monosyllables, or a dissyllabic word; as, Contem-l-nuntdue fa-l-vös, Jºº &t frigida tecta relin- quunt. - Virg. Scindit se nuţbās, ºf get in aethera purgat apertum. Virg. Et semel emis-ſ-sàm. fºr völät irrevocabile verbum. Hor. The caesura is seldom introduced after the fourth foot ; it is then generally unnecessary, and when it oc- curs the verse is not harmonious ; as, Omnes innocuaº ; sed non pup|f| is tua Tarchon. Virg. Vertitur interea coelum, et ruit ocean]o nox-Virg. When formed by a monosyllable, and when the verse is spondaic, it is unobjectionable ; as, Explorare labor : mihi jussa capessere fas est. Virg. Persolvit pendens e verticilbús praeruptis.—Catuł. II. JVeglected Hezameters. In the epistles and satires of Horace are hexameters, which, from their studied negligence, and their want of all the characteristic majesty of the heroic, have re- ceived this appellation. They are not, however, devoid of either beauty or simplicity; and Horace has success- fully employed them in occasionally drawing the por- trait of the foibles and passions of mankind; as, Rure ego viventem, tu dicis in urbe beatum : Cui placet alterius, sua nimerum est odio sors. Stultus uterque locum immeritum causatur inique In culpå est animus, qui se non effugit unquam. The following verse consists either of the beginning or latter part of an hexameter. 1. The Archilochian penthemimer or dimeter, named from Archilochus, its inventor, consists of two dactyls and one syllable, and therefore named hypercatalectic; as, Pūlvīs ét I umbrä sii-l-mus-Hor. 2. The VERSIFICATION. 2. The Alcmanian dactylic trimeter, first used by Alcman, consists of three dactyls and a hypercatalectic syllable ; as, Nöstră dé'ſ us cinét härmöni |-a-Prudent. - - This verse, like the hexameter, of which it is a part, admits a spondee in the first, second, and third places. 3. The Alcmanian dactylic tetrameter acatalectic admits in the first, second, and third places, either a dac- tyl or spondee ; in the fourth, a dactyl only ; as, Lūminī-l-būsqūe pri: 5r rédi-I-it vigör. Nimbös--isqūe pö lùs stétit I imbribús Désipër in tér |-rām nox fündītūr.—Boët. Sölvittir àcris hy--ems grä-|-tä vice.—Hor. 4. The Alcmanian tetrameter acatalectic contains the last four feet of an hexameter, of which, of course, the third is a dactyl, and the last foot a spondee ; as, Ibimús I & sóci-)-i comi-l-têsque.—Hor. A spondee may precede the last foot, provided a dac- tyl precede it; as, Mēnsö-|-rém céhi-|-bent Ar-|-chytā,-Hor. 5. The Alcmanian tetrameter catalectic contains one long syllable, or two short syllables, then a dactyl or spondee ; afterwards a dactyl ; and lastly a spondee. Quí | se völét essé på-ſ-têntem tº Ani--mös démét illé fe-l-röces.—Boët. 6. The Alcmanian tetrameter hypercatalectic contains an heroic penthemimer and an adonic (see N° VI.); as, Heu quâm | præcipi-I-ti || mérsá pré-|-fundo.—Boët. 7. The tetrameter acatalectic consists of three dac- tyls and a pyrric, or iambus ; as, Qui sãré-l-re ingéni--lim völét | #grum.—Boët. 8. The Bucolic hexameter has in the fourth place a dactyl ; as: Ab Jove principium, Musae ; Jóvis omnia plena.—Virg. Fortunatianus observes, that Theocritus adhered to this rule in his pastorals, and that Virgil often neglect- ed it. 9. The hexameter, which is named miurus or teli- ambus, having for its last foot an iambus instead of a Spondee ; as, Dirige odorisequos ad caecanubilia canes.—Liv. Andron. The two alcaics will be noticed hereafter. III. Of the Pentameter. The pentameter verse consists of five feet, of which the first two may be either dactyls or spondees, the third must always be a spondee, the fourth and fifth anapaests. It appears from Quinctilian that this was the ancient mode of scanning the pentameter. (Inst. ix. 4.) But among the moderns it is scanned otherwise. By divid- ing the verse into two hemistichs or penthemimers, the first hemistich must contain two dactyls or two spondees, or one of each indiscriminately, and a long syllable, or caesura ; in the latter hemistich, two dactyls with an- other caesura ; thus, - Cârmini-bus vi-ves | templis in I omnēmē-i-is-Ovid. 1. The first hemistich ought to end, with the entire word, that the caesura belonging to the penthemimer may take place; otherwise it will not be a legitimate pentameter, according to Quinctilian, ix. 4. “ In me- dio pentametri spondeo, qui nisi alterius verbi fine, al- terius initio constet, versum non efficit.” Therefore Terentianus condemns the following line. Inter | nåströs gèn-|-tilis 5-|-bérrát éſquus. 2. An elision immediately after the penthemimer is harsh ; as, Mimise-jro eripu-l-istill omnia | nostra bo-ſ-na. which verse is rendered still more harsh by the elision in the preceding foot. *--. 3. Neither hemistich should end with a monosyllable, except it be preceded by another monosyllable, or an elision. 4. The most eligible conclusion of a pentameter is a dissyllable, or a word of four or five syllables. But the verse of Ovid, Propertius, or Tibullus, seldom ends with a trisyllable. 5. A pentameter subjoined to an hexameter consti- tutes an elegiac distich ; as, Flebilis indignos, elegeſa, solve capillos. Ah nimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit 6. Every distich should terminate with a period or colon. 7. Rhyming must be avoided in this and every other kind of Latin verse; as, - Quaerebant flavos per hemus omne favos. Such verses are called Leonine, or monkish, from Leonius, a Benedictine monk, who is censured by Vos- sius and others for affecting this mode of versifying. IV. Of the Asclefiadic, or Choriambic. This verse, invented by the poet Asclepiades, consists of four feet, a spondee, two choriambi, and a pyrric ; or, considering the last syllable of the verse as long, an iambus; thus, - - Mæcelnäs àtävis I edité régibus—Hor. 1. Sometimes the first foot was a dactyl ; as, Effigi-l-um et misèros I libérá mors I vehit.—Seneca. 2. Sometimes, but seldom, a spondee was admitted into the second and fourth places ; as, Tèndit in extér-t-nas ire tenebras.-Boët. 3. Single feet are elegantly composed in this verse of complete words; as, Quâssås I indöcilis pāupérièm páti.—Hor. 4. The first choriambus, or a caesura, falls inelegant-- ly in the middle of a word; as, Non in-\céndiá Cărthläginis im!-piae. Unièss, VERSIFICATION. Unless there be an ecthiipsis, a synalaepha, or the word be a compound ; but even then the lines lose hot all their harshness, and are but seldom to be imitated. There are, likewise, the following varieties in chori- ambic verse. 1. The Aristophanian choriambic dimeter acatalec- tic, consisting of a choriambus and a bacchic, or an am- phibrac ; as, Lydä dic I per &mnes.—Hor. 2. The Alcaic pentameter acatalectic, consisting of a spondee, three choriambi, and a pyrric; as, Séu plülrès hièmès séu tribiſit Jüpítēr ul--timam. - Hor. 3. The Alcaic epichoriambic tetrameter acatalectic, consisting of the second epitrite, (a choree and a spon- dee,) two choriambi, and a bacchic ; as, Të Déösö-ſro Sybárin cūr prépérès I amando.—Hor. V. Of the Glyconic. The Glyconic verse, so named from the poet Glyco, consists of a spondee, a choriambus, and an iambus; as, Sic té | divá pátēns | Cypri.-Hor. But the first foot was sometimes varied to an iambus, or a trochee: but Horace, who was partial to the Gly- conic, invariably adheres to the spondaic commence- ment, except in one solitary instance; viz. ode i. 15.36. VI. Dactylic Dimeter, or Adonic. The Adonic verse consists of two feet, the first a dac- tyi, the other a spondee ; as, Viséré | montés.-Hor. We seldom find this verse employed alone. Teren- tianus Maurus (De Metr. 439.) informs us that Sappho wrote entire poems in this short measure. other of thirty-one successive adonics occurs in Boëthius, lib. i. metr. 7. - VII. Of the Saffiſhic Pentameter. The Sapphic verse, so named from the poetess Sap- pho, consists of five feet; the first a trochee, the second a spondee, the third a dactyl, and the fourth and fifth trochees; as, Déflü |-it sax-l-is agit-ſ-tātūs hūmör.—Hor. 1. The penthemimeral caesura adds that elegance to Sapphic verse, without which it does not flow harmoni- ously. 2. Sappho and others admitted sometimes, in the first place, a spondee, or a pyrric ; as, AKP axx" | ºffixey'ro rv 3’ a waxago.-Sappho. Pösi ſtis tandem levibus sagittis.-Seneca. 3. Sappho, Catullus, and Seneca, sometimes made the second foot an iambus, a trochee, or a dactyl, as, Xgvae--öuil-rea. 3.xięgow awaa zoº.—Erinna. IIzi Al-I-56 33-)-xo~xoxe, 2\toro-optoºt ce.—Sappho. Quaeque ad | Hespèri-l-as jacet ora metas.-Seneca. Horace, however, who in many instances improved upon the invention of Sappho, invariably adheres to that º Terentianus himself has also left us a short piece of the kind ; and an- form which has the second foot a spondee ; and the young poet, if he be prudent, will not pass beyond his limits. - 4. Sapphic verse appears sometimes to be hypercata- lectic, but in this case the final vowel of the line suffers the elision consequent on the following verse beginning with a vowel. -- 5. Instances occur in Sappho, Catullus, and Horace, of the division of a word between two lines; as, Grosphe; non gemmis, neque purpura ve- -male, nec auro.—Hor. It has been conjectured, however, that the cause of this peculiarity in the Sapphic is, that neither Sappho, Catullus, nor Horace, intended the stanza to consist of four, but of three separate verses; viz. two sapphics, and one verse of seven feet; as, Otium bello furiosa Thrace, Otium Medi pharetră decori, Grosphe, non gemmis, neque purpura venale, nec auro. Hor. Od. ii. 16. 5. 6. However, we moderns usually consider the strophe to consist of three sapphics and an adonic : see No. VI. ; àS3 - Quid brevi fortes jacularmur aevo Multa ? Quid terras alio calentes Sole mutarous : Patriae quis exul - Se quoque fugit.—Hor. Od. ii. 16. 17. VIII. Of the Phalaccian Verae. The Phalaecian verse, denominated from the poet Phalaecius, consists of five feet, viz. a spondee, a dactyl, and three trochees; as, Nön ést vivéré, Isèd väſ-lèré, vitā.-Martial. 1. This verse neither rejects nor requires a caesura. 2. Sometimes the first foot was made an iambus or a trochee by Catullus, but by the poets posterior to Catul- lus, not more than two or three solitary instances of this anomaly can be proved from an analysis of some thou- sand verses. - 3. The same poet has in some instances also spoiled the elegance and harmony of this measure by introduc- ing a heavy spondee into the second place, but his ex- ample was not imitated by his more polished successors. 4. The term hendecasyllabic (as employed by some) is not applicable exclusively to the Phalaecian verse, since the epithet is equally suitable to the Sapphic and to the Alcaic verse. IX. Of the Pherecratic Verse. This verse, invented by Pherecrates of Athens, con- sists of what may be the three last feet of an hexameter; viz. a spondee, a dagtyl, and a spondee ; as, Nigris I aequêrá | ventis.-Hor. 1. Boëthius sometimes admits an anapaest in the first place ; as, Simili | surgit āb Jortu. 2. Catullus sometimes admits in the first place a tro- chee, or an iambus, and at others, in the last place, a dactyl ; as, Prödé--as nova | nupta. Püél-|-jaeque că-l-namus. X. Of A VERSIFICATION. *: X. Of the Iambic Verse. Iambic verses take their name from the iambus, which in pure iambics was the only foot admitted. The two most common kinds are the dimeter and the trimeter; as, I. II. III. r YT Y ſt- V Y ,---\-—) inär. -sit ac- stüö- |-siús Súis ét jp-|-så Rö-|-mä wlaw. | riſit.—Hor. 1. But in order both to facilitate and dignify the com- position, spondees were admitted into the odd places; as, Hor. füit.—Seneca. 4. -to re -lè Sā- 1. 2 3 Förti séqué-|-mür pèc- Pārs sā. -nītā- |-tis vél- 2. The former of these makes two thirds epitrits, and the latter three. 3. And instead of an iambus and a spondee, their iso- chronal feet were admitted instead of them, i. e. in the odd places, an anapaest, a dactyl, and sometimes a tri- brac; and also in the even places, (except the last, which always requires an iambus,) a tribrac : the scale of the mixed trimeter iambic is, therefore, as follows: -nāri- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. v_j - Q = Q = Sº a º “ Q-9 • * Q Sº Q º ºv Ǻ º º Q & Q Q Q @ º º tº gº tº º * @ Qº) * Wº ºf * @ 9 © J - tº º " tº Kº " 4. The comic poets not only admitted these feet, but also the amphibrac, proceleusmatic, and bacchic into the even as well as the odd places, the last always ex- cepted; and almost all the fables of Phaedrus are written in the following manner : Amit--tit méri-l-to próprī-l-ūm, qui älī-l-enum ãp-l-pétit Făcit pārēn-|-tês böni-ſ-tās non | nécès-|-sitãs. The following are the varieties of the iambic. 1. The iambic monometer, or binarius, consisting of two iambi; as, -- 1 2 Căvé mālūm Téné I b'nām. 2. The iambic dimeter consists of two metres, or four feet, properly all iambuses; it admits, however, the same variations as the trimeter ; as, Förtū-)-ná nán || mutat génus.-Hor. Ast égó | vicis-|-sim riſ-Sérô.—Hor. Prudentius, and several posterior authors, wrote en- tire poems in this metre. ' 3. The Archilochian trimeter catalectic, which in the first place has an iambus or spondee, in the second an iambus, in the third a spondee, in the fourth and fifth an iambus with a common syllable; thus, 1. 2 3 * , § - Trāhūnt--qūe sic-ſ-căsmå-l-chinae .. Něc prä--ta că-|-nis àt-l-bicănt | prüí-l-nis.-Hor. 4. The Archilochian trimeter catalectic!differing from the last in this, that it admits a spondee or iambus in the third place; as, 1 Méâ Premunt 3 4. -dét in domo -nāstāl-l-timã recis- 3 Téni- 5 .. colum- -as.—Hor. 5. The Galliambic trimeter (so named from the Galli or priests of Cybele) acatalectic consists of six feet, of which the first is an anapaest, the second and third an iambus, the fourth and fifth a dactyl, and the sixth an anapaºst ; as, 4. 5 Super al-l-ta vec. -tus A. -tys cele-|-ri rate matia Phrygium nemus cita--to cupi -dé pede tetigit Adiit- -que opa--ca sil-l-vis redi-l-mita lo-|-ca Deae. - Catullus. This verse has always an iambus in the third verse place, in the fifth a dactyl, and in the sixth a spondee. In the second, however, it admits an anapaest or a tri- brac; and in the fourth, a spondee. It is but seldom that other feet are admitted, viz. in the first place a spondee, a cretic, or a proceleusmatic ; in the second, a spondee and its isochronal foot, a dactyl ; in the fourth an iambus. 6. The Saturnian trimeter hypercatalectic, which has a spondee in the fourth place, and in the other five iam- bi, with the hypermeter syllable at the close ; as, i 2. 3 4. 5 6 Dabunt I malum | Metel-ſ-li Nä-|-vio || Poé-|-tae. Ter. Maur. 7. The Hipponactic tetrameter catalectic consists of seven iambi and a long syllable, and sometimes admits a spondee into the odd places; as, 1. 2 3 4. 5 ... 6 7 Et in solen--ter aes-|-tues velut) minu-j-ta mag-l-no. Depren-l-sa na-i-vis in marilvésà | nien-l-te ven-|-to. Catullus. 8. The tetrameter, or octonarius acatalectic, contains eight feet, of which the last is always an iambus; in the other even places are iambuses or tribracs; in the odd places, iambuses or spondees, or their isochronal feet, tribacs, anapaests, or dactyls ; as, i . , 2 . . . § 4. ... 5 ... 6 Suspi |-cio-l si ad con-l-tume-l-liam om--nia ac- 7 |-cipiunt I magis.--Terence. Comic writers admit not only in this, but also in the trimeter and catalectic tetrameter, such feet, in the even places, as are generally used in the odd places, and vice versd ; the last place excepted, in which there is al- ways an iambus. Of the Scazon, or Choliambus. The scazon or choliambus (i. e. lame iambic), so named, because in it the cadence is inverted, or maimed, by the change of feet in the two last places, consists of six feet, of which the fifth is invariably an iambus, and the sixth a spondee, the others being the same as in the . iambic trimeter; as, - Ö quid I still-l-tis est I bea-I-tius I chris?—Catul. Of the Anacreontic. The name of the celebrated lyric poet Anacreon forms. the distinguishing epithet that characterizes this verse ; , which is nothing else but the iambic dimeter catalectic. The first foot is an iambus, often a spondee or anapaest, sometimes a tribrac or a cretic ; the second and third are iambuses, with an additional syllable at the end; as, . ‘āzārā | 4-gov-|-ow ū-|-Azi.-Anac. Léx haic dāta èst cádà-|-cis-Prudent. Hābét 5m-Inis hôc völüp-|-tas-Boët. - ~. Qf the- VERSIFICATION. Of the Trochaic. The trochaic verse admits, in the odd places, a tro- ‘chee or a tribrac ; but in the last place a trochee only ; in the even places, besides the trochee and tribrac, a spondee, a dactyl, or an anapaest, but a proceleusmatic , was seldom admissible. It rejects the iambus, as the iambus does the trochee. The most common trochaic verse is the tetrameter catalectic, which consists of seven feet, (properly all trochees,) followed by a catalectic syllable; as, Jüssús estin-l-ermis iré: | purūs Irè I jūssús est. Catullus. 1. Although iambic and trochaic verses seem oppo- site in their nature, yet as in each, single short and long syllables alternately recur, the retrenchment of the ini- tial syllable of either, transforms it into the other, i. e. the iambic into the trochaic, and the trochaic into the $2mbic. This circumstance has induced some, particu- larly the author of the Port Royal grammar, to deny the existence of trochaic verse, and to denominate them acephalous iambics. 2. In the trochaic tetrameter, the caesura ought to be altogether avoided after the fourth foot, which divides the verse into two hemistichs. 3. The comic writers use, in trochaic verse, the same liberties in regard to the choice of the feet as in iambics, planting promiscuously, in the odd places, such feet as others admit in the even places, the seventh foot alone excepted. - Of trochaic verse we have the following species. l. The trochaic monometer hypercatalectic contains two trochees and the hypermeter syllable; as, Nüllā jām fī-|-des.—Scalig. 2. The trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic contains three trochees; as, • , Huc a-ſ-des Ly-|-aee.—Scalig. 3. The Euripidean dimeter catalectic consists of three trochees, (in the second place sometimes a spondee or a dactyl,) with a catalectic syllable ; as, Döná cönsci-l-énti-ſ-ae.—Prudent. Vitā | décur-réns vi-l-ā.—Seneca. Lênis | ac médi-)-cum flü Fens.—Idem. 4. The Alemanic dimeter acatalectic contains four trochees; but it admits, in the second place, a spondee, or isochronal feet, a dactyl or anapaest; as, Nön få-ſ cit qāod | 6ptät ipse.—Boët. Æré torvö | commi-l-nāntés.-Boët. Cönsci-|-0s scélè-|-ris né fandi.—Buch. 5. The anacreontic dimeter acatalectic has, in the first Place, a pyrric, in the other three trochees; as, Redi-lºmita | vere | tellus.—Claud. 6. The Hipponactic tetrameter acatalectic consists of eight trochees; but it admits in the even places a spon. dee and its isocnronal feet, an anapaest, a dactyl, and sometimes a proceleusmatic, and in the odd places a tribrac ; as, Appe-|-tente | vere primo | cum te-l-ner vi-|-rescit | annus.-Scalig. But the comic writers reserved to themselves the same license which characterizes their catalectic iam- bic tetrameters, and introduce all the above-mention- ed indiscriminately in any place. - Of the Anafi aestic, Anapaestic verse is so named, because in any place of it an anapaest may be used. It admits, however, so freely the isochronal feet, (the spondee and the dactyl,) that there is frequently not one anapaest in an anapaes- tlC Wel'Se. 1. The anapaestic dimeter acatalectic is seldom found in its pure state ; as, Phārētrae--qué gräves | dāté sai-]-vå fårö.-Seneca. But the sweetest and most common kind, is that which is named the Aristophanian or Pindaric, which consists of an admixture of dactyls, spondees, and anapaests, ex- cluding, however, generally, the dactyl from the second and fourth places; as, Qūanti | căsús | himä-l-nā rotant : Miniis in pårvis förtū l-nā fürit, Lévius-liqué fěrît lèvió |-rā Déüs—Seneca. The pyrric, the trochee, and the tribrac, were occa- sionally substituted for the anapaest. The young poet must here observe, that those anapaºstics are the most harmenious which are without the caesura; and next to these in elegance are the lines in which each dipodia terminates with a word. 2. The Simonidian dimeter acatalectic consists of an anapast, a dactyl, or a spondee, in the first place, and in the last an anapaest or spondee ; as, Déflé-j-té virum Quá nán | #iiüs Pöttiit citiiis Discéré causås Unā tāntum -* Pärte all-)-ditā Sæpe ét | neutrā.—Seneca. 3. The Parthenic tetrameter catalectic, having in the first and second places either an anapaest or a spondee ; in the third only an anapaºst ; and, lastly, the catalectic syllable ; as, º w © Utinam mádá nás-ſ-tra rédi-l-rent. In må-l-rés tem-|-pórá pris-|-cos. – Boët. 4. The Archebulian pentameter acatalectic, (denomi- nated from the inventor Archebulus,) consists of four anapaests and a bacchic ; thus, - Généri | datür alic-)-tör hiſic | vétis Ar-ſ-chebulus. Terent. Qf the greater Alcaic. The greater Alcaic is an hypercatalectic tetrameter, consisting of an iambic penthemimer, followed by a cho- riambus and an iambus ; as, Coeles- -lis ār-|-cis |nóbilis in-ſ-céla.-Prudent. - The * VERSIFICATION. The caesura more frequently occurs in the last sylla- ble of a word at the catalectic syllable, as above. In Horace, however, the caesura is sometimes found in the beginning of a word, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes it is a monosyllable. In the first place, Horace has seldom an iambus, but generally, and Prudentius always, a shondee. Of the less Alcaic. This metre consists of two dactyls, followed by two trochees; and is, therefore, a dactylico-trochaic tetra- meter ; aS, Lévíá | pèrsönü-l-ere | Sãxá-Horace. Of the Pyrric. In Terentianus and Ausonius we find a pyrric tetra- meter catalectic ; as, Périt ābit āvī-l-pédis I ini--mülä I lepô-|-ris. Terent. Of the Ionic d Majore. 1. The pure great ionic tetrameter acatalectic con- sists of four great ionics; as, Fécit sátis egrüm rābī-l-Ém qui démü--it feminae. Scalig. 2. The mixed great ionic, (or Sotadic, from the poet Sotades,) consists of three great ionics and a spondee ; aS; Vöcălă | quaedam mémó-l-rânt cons&ná | quædam. Terent. This kind of verse oftener admits, in the third place, a dichoree instead of a greationic; thus, Has cum gemi-ſ-na compede I dedicat ca-|-tenas. Mart. It admits also, in all the places but the last, the se- cond paeon, the second epitrite, and the dichoree ; and in almost every place a long quantity may be resolved into short syllables. Of the Ionic & Mimore. This verse receives its name from the foot, the ionic à minore, which it employs in every place. It is more usually cither a trimeter or tetrameter. Thus Horace, Carm. iii. 12. after two trimeters places a tetrameter; aS, • Misérárúm est, Ilêque àmöri | dāré ludim Něqüe dulci mälä vinó | lavère àut ex- ânimări | métientès | pâtrüā vēr-i-bérá linguæ. The learned Bentley was, however, of opinion, that this composition of Horace’s consists of ten small io- nics, without any pause, and that, therefore, the whole of the ode is finished in four decapodiae of this kind. Of Mixt Verses. Verses are said to be mixt, when two of different kinds are united. Amongst the Latin poets we find the following variety. 1. The Archilochian pentameter consists of two mem- bers, the first a dactylic tetrameter a firiore, the latter is a trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic ; as, Solvitur acris hi--ems grä--tä vice || véris | et Fā- -vöni.—Hor. Vo L. XXXVIII. 2. The Archilochian elegiambic; of which the first member is the latter part of an elegiac pentameter, or the Archilochian dactylic penthemimer, (consisting of two dactyls and a syllable,) the second member, the iambic dimeter acatalectic ; as, Scribéré | versicii--los, ſåmö-|-re per-l-cusslim I gravi. Hor, which is commonly thus divided into two verses : Scribere versiculos Amore percussum gravi. 3. The dactylic hexameter acatalectic consists of two divisions of an hexameter, each of three feet, but in such a manner, that in the first place of each there is a spon- dee, or a trochee, or iambus; in the second and third place of the first division, there is a dactylus; in the second place of the second division a dactyl, and the third or last a spondee. In this kind of verse the last syllable of the first division is accounted common ; as, Năm te præcipii-l-e in stiis || Urbī-l-būs colit Öra. Catul. 4. The iambelegiac (the converse of No. 2.), in which the first division is iambic, and the second elegiac ; thus, Nives-ſ-qué dé-)-dûcünt Jövém : || nünc miré | nünc siliiſap.–Hor. Commmonly thus divided, Nivesque deducunt Jovem: Nunc mare nunc siliiaº. 5. The choriambic dactylic ; in which the first divi- sion is the Glyconic, having generally in the first place a trochee ; the second division is the Pherecratic, with a trochee also in the beginning; thus, O Cöllöniä quæ | clipis | ponté | lúdéré | longö.- Catul. 6. The choriambic trochaic ; of which the first divi- sion is the choriambic dimeter, or two choriambuses : the second, the trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic, of which the first foot is a dactyl, the other two trochees; thus, Vēstiãt Al-|-piniis apex || et ribé-|-ānt prü-l-inae. Claud. 7. The trochaic dactylic ; of which the first division is a trochaic penthemimer ; that is, in the first place there is a trochee, in the second a spondee or dactyl, with an additional syllable ; and the second part is an adonic; as, Si quis | Arctii |-ri || siderä nescit. Cúm ni-|-mis célé-|-rés || explicét | Ortus.—Boët. 8. The iambic dactylic ; of which the first is an iam- bic penthemimer, consisting of two iambi, with a long syllable, but oftener in the first place a spondee, and sometimes in the second a tribrac ; and in the last part an adonic ; thus, Pröpin-|-qua sum-l-mö || cârdiné läbi Mërgāt-l-qué se-i-ras ||acquéré flammas.-Boët. Stüpet-I-qūe sūbi-|-tis] mobile vulgus. Of Comfiositions in which the Verse is varied. From what has been already said, it appears that there are five different species of composition, consist- 4 E ing VERSIFICATION. ing of a combination of various kinds of verses, and in each there are generally several varieties. I. Of the Carmen Dicolon Distrofiñon. 1. The elegiac distich is already explained. See Pentameter, Obs. 5. & te 2. An hexameter with an Archildchian dactylic pen- the mimer; as, # Diffugere nives; redeunt jam gramina campis Arboribusque comae.—Hor. • 3. An hexameter with an Alcmanian dactylic tetra- meter acatalectic ; as, Tunc me discussa’liquerunt nocte tenebrae, Iluminibusque prior rediit vigor.-Boët. 4. An hexameter with an Alcmanian dactylic tetra- meter catalectic; as, Laudabunt alii claram Rhöden, aut Metylenen, Aut Ephesum, bimarisve Corinthi-Hor. 5. An hexameter with an Alcmanian dactylic tetra- meter catalectic ; as, O qui perpetuis orbem moderaris habenis Placidos bonus exsere vultus.-Buchan. Psal. 68. 6. An hexameter with an iambic dimeter acatalectic ; aS3 Nox erat, et coelo fulgebat luna sereno Inter minora sidera.—Hor. 7, An hexameter with an iambic trimeter; as, Altera jam teritur bellis civilibus aetas; Suiset ipsa Roma viribus ruit.—Hor. 8. An hexameter with an Archilochian elegiambic asyn; as, Borrida tempestas coelum contraxit; et imbres Nivesque deducunt Jovem: nunc mare, nunc siltiae. —Hor. 9. An Alcmanian dactylic trimeter hypercatalectic, with a Pherecratic dactylic trimeter acatalectic ; as, Omne hominum genus in terris Simili surgit abortu.-Boët. 10. The Alcmanian dactylic tetrameter acatalectic, with an Archilochian dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic; #S3 Quam thalamo, taedisque jugalibus Invida mors rapuit.—Auson. Parent 2. 1. The Alcmanian dactylic tetrameter acatalectic, with an iambic dimeter acatalectic; as, Sunt etenim pennae volucres mihi Quae celsa conscendant poli.—Boët. i2. The Anacreontic iambic dimeter catalectic, with the Pherecratic dactylic trimeter acatalectic ; as, Quisquis volet perennem Cantus ponere sedem.—Boët. 13. The iambic trimeter acatalectic, with the elegi- ac pentameter; as, Quamvis fluente dives auri gurgite Non expleturas cogat avarus opes.—Boët. 14. The iambic trimeter acatalectic, with the iambic dimeter acatalectic; as, Ibis liburnis inter alta navium, Amice, propugnacula.-Hor. 15. The iambic trimeter acatalectic, with the Archi- lochian elegiambic ; as, Petti, nihil me, sicut antea, juvat Scribere versiculos, amore percussum gravi. —Hor- 16. The scazon iambic, with an iambic dimeter acat- alectic; as, Verona docti syllabas amat vatis Marone felix Mantua est.—Martial. 17. The Euripidean trochaic dimeter catalectic, with an iambic dimeter acatalectic; as, Orbis omnes incolae A sole Eoo ad Hesperum.—Buchan. 18. The Euripidean trochaic dimeter catalectic, with an Archilochian iambic trimeter catalectic; as, Non ebur, neque aureum Mea renidet in domo lacunar.—Hor. 19. The Alcmanian trochaic dimeter acatalectic, with a Pherecratic dactylic trimeter acatalectic ; as, Quos vides sedere celsos Solii culmine reges.—Boët. 20. The trochaic tetrameter catalectic, with an iam- bic trimeter acatalectic; as, Ore pulchro, et ore muto, scire vis quae sim P Imago Rufi rhetoris Pictavici.-Auson. 21. The Sapphic pentameter acatalectic, with an iambic dimeter acatalectic ; as, Gentis humanae pater atque custos Quam sancta majestas tui.-Buchan. 22. The Sapphic pentameter acatalectic, with the Glyconic choriambic trimeter acatalectic; as, Cum polo Phoebus roseis quadrigis Lucem spargere caeperit.—Boët. 23. The Phalaecian pentameter acatalectic, with an elegiac pentameter; as, Quid tantos juvat excitare motus Et propriá fatum sollicitare manu.-Boët. 24. The Phalaecian pentameter acatalectic, with an Alcaic dactylic tetrameter acatalectic; as, Quamvis se Tyrio superbus ostro Comeret, et niveis lapillis.-Boét. 25. The Phalaecian pentameter acatalectic, with a Sapphic pentameter acatalectic ; as, Hic partus placidá manens quiete, Hoc patens unum miseris asylum.-Boët. 26. The Aristophanian choriambic dimeter acatalec- tic, with an Alcaic epichoriambic tetrameter acatalectic; aS, Lydia dic per omnes Te deos oro, Sybarin cur properes amando.—Hor. 27. The VERSIFICATION, 27. The Glyconic choriambic trimeter acatalectic, with the Asclepiadic choriambic tetrameter acatalectic ; aS, Sic te diva potens Cypri, Sic fratres Helena lucida sidera.—Hor. 28. The Asclepiadic choriambic tetrameter acatalec- lic, with the Pherecratic dactylic trimeter acatalectic; as, Si quantas rapidis flatibus incitus Pontus versat arenas.—Boët. 29. The Asclepiadic choriambic tetrameter acatalec- tic, with an iambic dimeter acatalectic ; as, Eheu, quae miseros tramite devios Abducit ignorantia.—Boët. 30. The dactylic-trochaic septenarius, with an Archi- lochian iambic trimeter catalectic ; as, Solvitur acris hiems grată vice veris et Favoni, Trahuntgue siccas machinae carinas.-Hor. 31. The trochaic dactylic, with an iambic dactylic ; as, Si quis Arcturi sidera nescit Propinqua summo cardine labi...—Boët. II. Of the Carmen Dicolon Tristrońhon. 1. Two Aristophanian anapaestic tetrameters acata- tectic, and an Adonic dimeter acatalectic ; as, Tu quoque in aevum, Crispe, futurum Maesti venies commemoratus Munere threni.-Auson. 2. Two Alcmanian trochaic dimeters acatalectic, and an Euripidean trochaic dimeter catalectic ; as, Incolae terrarum ab ortu Solis ultimum ad cubile, Eia Domino psallite.—Buchan. 3. Two small Ionic trimeters acatalectic, and a small Ionic tetrameter acatalectic ; as, Miserarum est, nequé amore dare ludum Neque dulci mala vino lavere; aut ex- -animari metuentes patruaº verbera linguaº.—Hor. III. Of the Carmen Dicolon Tetrastrońhon. 1. Three Anacreontic trochaic dimeters acatalectic, and a choriambic trochaic quinarius; as, Age cuncta nuptiali Redimita were tellus Celebra toros heriles Omne nemus cum fluviis, omne canat profundum.– Claud. 2. Three Sapphic pentameters, and an Adonic dime- ter; as, Jam satis terris nivis, atque dirae Grandinis misit pater, et rubente Dextera sacras jaculatas arces Terruit urbem.—Hor. 3. Three Glyconic choriambic trimeters acatalectic, and a Pherecratic dactylic trimeter acatalectic; as, Dianae sumus in fide Puellae, et pueri integri: Diar:am pueri integri, Puellaeque canamus.-Catull. 4. Three Asclepiadic choriambics and a Glyconic; as, Aurum per medios ire satellites, Et perrumpere amat saxa potentius Ictu fulmineo. Concidit auguris Argivi domus ob lucrum.—Hor. IV. Of the Carmen Tricolon Tris trophon. 1? An hexameter, an Archilochian dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic, and an Iambic dimeter acatalectic; as, Te regem Dominumque canam, dum lucida volvet Lucidus astro polus, Et unicum colum Deum.—Buchan. 2. An hexameter, an Iambic dimeter acatalectic, and an Archilochian dactylic penthemimer; as, Horrida tempestas coelum contraxit; et imbres Nivesque deducunt Jovem: Nunc mare, nunc siliae. Epod. 13. Thus Heinsius scans the 13th Epod. 3. An Iambic trimeter acatalectic, an Archilochian dactylic penthemimer, with an Iambic dimeter acatalec, tic ; as, Petti, nihil me, sicut antea juvat Scribere versiculos— Amore perculsum gravi.-Hor. But others term this a carmen dicolon distrophon. 4. A Glyconic choriambic trimeter, an Asclepiadic choriambic tetrameter, and an Alcaic choriambic pen- tameter; as, Per quinquennia jam decem Ni fallor, fuimus; septimus insuper Anno cardo rotat, dum fruimur Sole volubili-Prudent. V. Qf the Carmen Tricolon Tetrastrońhon. 1. Two great alcaics, an Iambic dimeter hypercata- lectic, and a small alcaic ; as, Odi profanum vulgus et arceo : Favete linguis: carmina non prius Audita, Musarum sacerdos, Virginibus puerisque canto.—Hor. 2. Two Asclepiadic choriambics, a Pherecratic dacº tylic trimeter, and a Glyconic choriambic; as, Prima nocte domum claude, neque in vias Sub cantu querulae despice tibiae : Et te saepe vocanti Duram, difficilis mane.—Hor. There is likewise a third kind formed by a certain arrangement of ode 12. lib. 3. of Horace ; for which see the Carmen Diocolon Tristrophon. No. III. As the literature of Italy and France is allowed to hold such distinguished rank and importance in the re- public of letters, it is now incumbent on us to offer such remarks as may tend to develop the nature and principles of Italian and French Versification. I. If the reader will take the trouble to consult the abbé d’Olivet on the French Language, (edit. of 1897, VERSIFICATION. p. 6-10.) he will find a detail of those who attempted the composition of verse after the principles of the ancient Greeks and Romans. This practice, however, has long since become quite obsolete, and syllabic quantity has been superseded, in the structure of verse, by accentu- ation, and therefore the definition of modern verse may be given in the following words. II. A verse is an assemblage of such a definite num- ber of syllables or feet, and comprises such a series of regularly recurring accents, as may be easily remarked by the ear; whose pleasing succession is regulated by our innate perception of what is musical and harmonious; and it, therefore, admirably serves to delight the ear, to expand the soul, to solace the heart, to aid the memory, and to adapt the language of discourse to that of song and music. The extent or the measure of verse ought to be such, that it may be easily and sensibly felt by the ear; other- wise verse differs not from prose. For if the number of feet or syllables constituting the verse be such, as to prevent the easy recognizance of the same returning se- ries, the ear fails to be delighted, or the memory to be assisted by the recurrence of what it is only fatigue or difficulty to anticipate. That an intimate analogy exists between verse and music is manifest to the most superficial observer. They receive their existence from the same laws, and their object is to gratify and delight the same organ. Amongst the ancients, music lent its numbers to poet- ry. It was to the lyre that Apollo. Orpheus, and Ho- mer sung their verse. “ Illud quidem certum,” says Vossius, “commem poesim olim cantatum fuisse.” It is, therefore, to music that we must refer for the basis, the rationale, of versification. It is affirmed too, by the definition just given, that verse admirably serves to delight the ear, to expand the soul, and to aid the memory. Verse aims to render the truths and sentiments expressed by its language, amia- ble and interesting. And this it effects by the medium of an accurately measured and agreeable succession of accented and unaccented sounds, which address the ear; and by the means of such images and sentiments as de- light and affect the soul : and the memory is powerfully assisted as well by the one as by the other. III. To explain the nature of Italian verse, it is ne- cessary to remark, that they divide all the words con- tained in their language into three classes, termed words tronchi, fiani, and Sarucciolo. Words having the accent on the last syllable are called tronchi; as bontà, virtù, ſä, senti. Those having the accent on the penultimate are termed fiani ; as uómo, animále, impéro, &c. And those that are accented on the antepenultimate are named sdrucciolo ; as d6cile, ábito, äncora, &c. The first are denominated tronchi, (trong ués couf às, cut short.) be- cause they were originally entire, as bontãde, virtute, face, sentis. The second class, fiani, receives this dis- tinction from the circumstance of the words composing it being pronounced (fianamente) more gently than those of the other two classes; and the last, the salruc- cioli (cowlans or glissons), because the words of this kind seem to flow or slide swiftly from the antepenultimate syllable to the end. IV Hence also it follows, that a verse also receives its denomination, according as it is terminated by a word of one or the other of these kinds : consequently, verses termed tronchi are terminated by an acute accent; those called piani have a syllable after this accent; and the sdruccioli have two; to which some add the più che sdruccioli, which have four syllables after the accent. The last accent decides the nature and the comple- tion of every verse. The ear measures the extent of a verse from its commencement to the last accent. The ear is naturally sensible at the occurrence of this last accent, that the harmony of the verse is accomplished : it is satisfied, and demands nothing more. It is equal, whether the last accentuated syllable be itself the last syl- lable, or followed by one, two, or four syllables; for the measure of the verse is comprised between its com- mencement and this last accentuated syllable. The syl- lables remaining after this accent are redundant, with respect to the measure and harmony of the verse. (See Aristotl. Poet. cap. 8.) This consideration will render it evident, that if a verse be piano, (which species the Italians select for their regular measure,) it will have the precise number of syllables which the nature of the verse assigns to it; if it be tronco, it will have one less; if sqrucciolo, one more. Therefore, the verse piano is acatalectic; the verse tronco, catalectic ; the verse sclruc- ciolo, hypercatalectic. - V. The French in , a similar manner divide their words chiefly into two classes, the masculine and the fem- inine. The masculine (corresponding to those which the Italians term tromchi) have the accent on the last syllable ; as vertú, nouveatí, il parlă, and are generally of the masculine gender. The feminine (analogous to the Italian fiani) have the accent on the penultimate; as honnéte, ili parlèrent, il párle, Fränce, &c.; and these are so called, because that nouns of this description are generally terminated by the e mute, a characteristic of the feminine gender. The words called sqrucciolo by the Italians (glissant by the French) can only be found in such phrases as gårde-le, dites-le, mántre-le, &c. The same epithets are also applied to their verse, ac- cording to the characteristic of the word which termi- nates it. These preliminary observations, well understood, will reconcile the anomalies which, until the present, have produced an appa ent difference between the nature of the Italian and that of the French versification. For since the Italians select the verse piano for their com- mon measure, and the French the masculine (or tronco), which, between the commencement of the verse and the accented syllable, will contain one syllable less than the former; it follows that the Italian verse will always ex- ceed the French verse of the same kind by one syllable. For example, the Italian hendecasyllable piano has elev- en syllables, and the French hendecasyllable masculine (tronco) ten; and the French hendecasyllable piano will have the same, for they do not reckon, as the Ital- ians, the redundant syllable. The only simple feet admitted in the composition of French and Italian verse are the trochee, the iamb, the dactyl, and the anapaest. It is unnecessary to repeat here the definition we have already given of a metre and a rhythm, in a former part of this article. We shall, therefore, now proceed to state all the possible combi- nations that can result from these four feet in the com - position of a hemistich, which is, by a late French wri- ter, considered as a simple or primitive verse. An iambic hemistich may consist of three, four, or five feet ; so may the trochaic, the anapastic, or the dactylic hemistich : therefore, from bence we have twelve varieties, or all the possible combinations of the hemistich. For each of the four feet cannot produce HY, OR 6: . VERSIFICATION. more than three varieties, the smallest of which cannot consist of less than three, nor the greatest of more than five feet. Hence, then, we have at once the minimum and maximum of their extent. At the former, we as- sert that an hemistich cannot consist of less than three feet. We have already remarked, that the extent or measure of a verse ought to be such as to admit of its being easily and sensibly remarked by the ear, otherwise it is not verse, but prose. And every verse or hemi- stich contains more or less of the rhythmical order; and, as we have already observed, a rhythm is a series of similar feet continued until the ear perceives the or- der of the series, and is able to anticipate the peculiar nature and recurrence of the verse. But one foot can- not be a series, therefore a foot cannot be a hemistich. We have already affirmed, too, that the succession of two similar feet constitute a metre ; and a metre is the commencement of a series. But the commencement of a series is not the series itself: the series supposes a continuation; therefore, the succession of two feet, or a metre, cannot be a hemistich or primitive verse. For the union of two feet form a metre ; but a metre is not a rhythm ; therefore, two feet are not a hemistich. But if to two similar feet succeed another of the same nature, then the series is decided. An hemistich, then, cannot have less than three feet What is smaller than this is only the element of an hemistich. Let us further inquire, in what consists the harmony of a v rse P Doubtless in the regular order of the accents in its rhythm or series. But one foot has only one accent ; therefore, it has no harmony, and cannot be an hemi- stich or radical verse. So we reply concerning two feet; they are not an order or series, but only the com- mencement of a series. We may, with M. J. J. Sul- zer, illustrate these remarks by repeating the following series, un deur, un deur, un deux, un deux, un deux, &c. Here we can easily perceive the rhythmical order. But no one can suppose that the first foot, un deux, is an order or series; nor in the first two feet, un deur, wn deux, do we perceive more than the commencement of a series. But if we include the third, un deux, un deux, un deux, we see at once the order, the series, the rhythm, and, lastly, the metrical hemistich precisely decided. Three feet, then, is the smallest number which can constitute the hemistich or primitive verse. In the same manner we may determine the maximum of the hemistich. We have said that it cannot exceed five feet; for the number must be such as may be dis- tinctly remarked by the ear. Suppose, for example, an hemistich of six feet; since it may be divided into two equal parts of three feet each, and since three feet form an hemistich, it is evident that the line of six feet is not one but two hemistichs, i. e. a verse. But the hemis- tich of five feet is incapable of being thus divided. If it be, let the one part consist of three feet, which, as we have just proved, is an hemistich ; the other of two feet, which is only a metre ; and a metre, as we have just observed, is not ºn hemistich ; consequently, the line of five feet is an hemistich or primitive verse. Aid because a verse of six feet is composed of two he- mistichs, the line of five fee is the maximum or great- est hemistich or primi'ive verse; and lines consisting of more than this, after the redundant syllables are cut off, contain two or more hemistiehs of a verse. VI. Some writers on versification are in the habit, however, of treating on verse, which they term dissyl labic, trisyllabic, quadrisyllabic, the quinarius, and the senarius. But these are not verses, but only the ele- ments of a regular and complete verse. We shall, however, in conformity to their custom, and to omit nothing essential, especially in what must be admitted to form the basis of this art, proceed to treat on the ele- ments here enumerated. 1. The dissyllabic member cannot have more than one accent. If it is tronco, it has but one syllable (see obs. 3. and 4, supra); if piano, two; if sqrucciolo, three; as, Là. Lásso Pénsaci. Tronco º - gº Piano tº- -s iº Sdrucciolo - -> t- 2. The trisyllabic member, if it has but one word, has only one accent ; if it consist of two words, it has two accents. If it is tronco, it has only two syllables; if piano, three; if sclrucciolo, four ; as, Tronco º º iº Poträ Chi fü2. Piano ſº º tº Potränne Si disse. Sdrucciolo *- wº Risvégliatiº No, dissero". 3. The quadrisyllabic member tronco has only three syllables; piano, four ; Sdrucciolo, five ; as, Tronco gº & Io men vö3. Piano gº * Belle rôse4. Porporínea. Sdrucciolo - º I di völano.5. We may here remark, that the Italians call that th accent (commun), which is placed at the end of each verse, and which accomplishes the measure of the same. They assign this epithet to it, in consequence of its being essential and common to all verse. And this accent is placed on the last syllable, if the verse is tronco ; on the penultimate, if piano; on the antepenultimate, if sdrucciolo. Now, in the above quadrisyllabics, we may observe that this accent uniformly falls on the third syllable. 3. The quinarius, besides the common accent, has also an accent on the second syllable, sometimes on the first, and not unfrequently it has only the common ac- cent. It contains four, five, or six syllables, according to the laws already prescribed ; as, Tronco º º º Porgilo a mê4. Piano sº tº - Tersi deh súrgis. Sdrucciolo º º Ah non ti perdereº. The dissyllabic member, when it is tronco, does not contain even the image of a foot; but if it is piano, it is a trochee, as làssó ; and if it is Sqrucciolo, it is a dactyl, as pensäcí. The trisyllabic, of whatever kind it be, can have only an iamb, as pêtrå, pötränne, riscegliati. Ex- ample: Sè cerca, S” iO YO’ Se dice : ” Colla sorte L’amico Cangiando Dºv’ e Sembianza; L’amico Virtu ” Intelice ” L'incostanza R}spondi Diventa Mori Per me. &c.—Metast. The quadrisyllabic is a monometer, consisting of two trochees, which form a metre; and two of these united form the regular octonarius. - 1. Dāmīgēilă VERSIFICATION. ; : Dāmīgēlā Tutta tella, Versa versa—quel bel vino Fa che cada La ruggiada Distillata— di rubino '3. O’ nel Seno Rio veneno Che visparse Amor profundo, Magittarlo E lasciario Vo’ sommerso in- questo fondo. The quinarius is an iambic monometer, and conse- quently not a rhythm. Example : Siscuote il laccio, Manon si spezza, E amor si vendica Con piu fierezza Del folle ardir.—Zeno. Oh quánto e facile Nella catena D'amor languir Quanto e difficile Poterne uscir VII. Every species of French verse is the same as the Italian. In each we discover the same number of syllables, the same accents, the same caesura, the same feet, the same harmony. To evince this, we shall now state, in the same order as we have done for the Italian verse, the following elements or members of a verse. 1. The dissyllabic Tronco - Est. Piano - Etré. Dönné. Sdrucciolo Dönné-lè. 2. The trisyllabic Tronco - Sérá2. Piano - Fácile3. Sdrucciolo Régårdé-lè4. 3. Quadrisyllabic Tronco - Cômbättéz8. Piano - Cönsidérè4. Sdrucciolo Cônsidéré-lè5. VIII. The senarius is an anapaestic monometer catalectic, having only an iamb for the first foot. Besides the ac- cent common (which is on the fifth syllable,) it generally requires an accent on the second syllable; though some- times the accented syllables are the first, third, and fifth. It contains five, six, or seven syllables, according as the verse is tronco, piano, or Sdrucciolo ; as, The Senarius. Tronco - Usäte pietà5. Piano - Begli ästri d’amóreb. Sdrucciolo Dā qui tu quel calice. The French, according to the rule which we have al- ready explained, call this verse of five syllables. The difference is merely nominal : the verses are virtually the same. Tronco - Totijoirs cé zéphir. Piano - L’âmâur à dés Chārmes. Sdrucciolo (no example exists.) IX. The Sehtenarius. If to each of the monometers, of which we have just treated, we add one, two, or three other feet, these mo- nometers become, according to the principles we have prescribed, regular and legitimate verse. The septenarius is composed of iambic feet, and con- tains six, seven, or eight syllables, according as the verse is tronco, piano, or sdrucciolo; as, Tronco - Che vino è quél colāº ? Piano - In un gravóso affänno". Sdrucciolo O liquor d61ce e amábile”. This verse, besides the common accent, which con- stantly falls on the sixth syllable, requires an accent on the fourth. Often it has the accent on the second and fourth, and then the verse is exceedingly harmonious. It is stated, however, to be a peculiar conveniency of this verse, that it does not absolutely require any other accent than the accent common; but since the regular septenarius consists of three iambic feet, we discover the evident reason that it should have the acute accent on the second, the fourth, and sixth; as, 2 4. 6 Ǻ - & — Qs) - 3. 3. This verse is of extraordinary antiquity in Italian ver- sification, as appears from the verse of Messer Ruggeri, quoted by Trissino. The French, who, as we have often remarked, mea- sure their verse by the masculine (tronco), call the sep- tenarius of six syllables. In reality it is only three iambic feet, the seventh syllable is redundant. With regard to the accents, it is subject to the same laws as the Italian Septenarius. - Tronco - A soi-même odieux0. - Le sº de tott s'irrité. X. The JAlexandrine Verse. Piano Two septenarian verses united, form what the Italians call an Alexandrine or Martellian verse. These verses, called by the Italians Alessandrini, are an imitation of the French Alexandrine, which the French themselves, as Fauchet and Pasquier observe, have derived from an ancient rhapsody which celebra- ted the life of Alexander the Great. The Italians, how- ever, also call them Martelliana, from James Martelli, a learned and ingenious author, who, in the composition of his tragic verse, successfully imitated the French Alexandrine. Although this verse consists of fourteen syllables, it is not absolutely necessary to divide it into two exact sevens, with all the rules which are essential to each Septenary. The rhythm is iambic to the end of the verse. But in proportion as we neglect the accents, the verse becomes more grave and majestic, and more free and harmonious in proportion as we pay strict at- tention to the rules prescribed for the septenarius. There is not a literary Italian that is not perfectly aware that the Italian and French Alexandrine are the same. The most insensible ear may perceive the same percussion of the accent, the same number, the same harmony. This verse, according to the different position of the accent, preserves in French as well as in Italian a cha- racter of dignity which equals the Latin hexameter. And the French have made choice ef the Alexandrine to treat on epic and tragic subjects. Neither were they dissuaded from this because this verse was stigmatized by the epithet “commun,” in consequence of the shep- herds, the vintagers, and husbandmen having availed themselves of its peculiar facilities for their poetic ef- fusions. XI. Octonarius, VERSIFICATION. XI. Octonarius. The octonarius consists of four trochaic feet. Be- sides the common accent, which is uniformly on the seventh syllable, it requires the accent on the third. But if the accent should fall both on the third and fifth, still more if on the first, third, and fifth, the harmony will become more sensible. 1. 3 ... 5 7 Tronco - Viva Bacco il nostro re. ſº 1 3 § 7,8 Piano - Musa, amor portö novella. 1. 3 5 . 7 . 9 Sdrucciolo L'acqua agghiaccia i corpi, e gli animi. Loretto Mattei quotes some verses from Rospigliosi, accentuated on the second syllable; but this kind of verse has few admirers; it is scarcely discernible from prose. The octonarius is generally employed for lyric poems, and airs adapted to music, and for the canzonette. But it is every where distinguished by that characteristic of gravity which renders it equally adapted to sublime and elevated subjects. Since the octonarius contains two monometers of four syllables each, (see the quadrisyllabic member,) it may very properly be divided by the caesura into two equal parts. This verse amongst the French, for the reason already assigned, is said to be of seven syllables. It is subject to the same laws of accentuation as the Italian. The ac- cent, however, on the fifth, amongst the French, is some- times omitted, but never that on the third. 1. 3 7 Tronco - Belle nymphe tes attraits. 3. 5. . , 7 Que langueurs, que soins jaloux. 1. 3. 5. 7 Piano - Viens m'aider a fuir les vices, XII. A'ovenarius. Some are of opinion that the Italian novenarius does not possess sufficient harmony for poetic composition. And l’Abbé Quadrio declares that this species of verse ought not to be admitted in Italian poetry. On the other hand, Joseph Gaétan Salvatori affirms that verse of this kind is by no means defective in point of harmony; and many poets of distinguished rank have employed this species of rhythm with success. Example : Tronco - Certo che vinto a morte andró8. Piano - Tormento crudele tiranno?. Sdrucciolo Vedi, vedi come sen fuggonoio. This verse, as it respects the accent, is subdivided in- to four varieties. The first, besides the common accent, has the accent on the third and on the fifth syllable. The celebrated Sacchi is inclined to suppose that this kind of verse is composed of two iambic quinarii, of which the former is acephalous, so as to give nine sylla- bles in all. The second variety has the accent on the third and sixth syllables. The third variety has, besides that accent which is common to every species, the fourth syllable only accent- uated. This variety is an iambic dimeter hypercatalectic. Rt consists of two quinarii, of which the first is tronco: or if it is piano, it is subject to the elision consequent on the following hemistich beginning with a vowel. It ad- mits also the accent on the second and sixth syllables, as well as on the fourth; and then the rhythm becomes purely iambic, and the harmony more complete. The fourth variety, besides the common accent, has the second and fifth syllables accentuated. This variety is an anapaestic trimeter, having the first foot supplied by an iamb. XIII. The Decasyllabic Verse. The decasyllabic sometimes consists of two quinarii, which form a caesura at the point of their union. Since this verse is composed of two quinarii, it is ne- cessarily subject to the same laws. See § VI, 3. Sometimes it is not composed of two quinarii, nor has it any regular casura. This species of verse is anapaestic trimeter, either catalectic, acatalectic, or hypercatalectic, according as it is tronco, piano, or sdrucciolo; as, 3. 6 - - 9 Tronco - Contra morte non val fresca età. 3 6 9 1 O Piano - Vasto incendio se bolle ristretto. 3 6 9 1 O. Sdrucciolo I bon vini son quelli che acquietano. There is another variety of the descasyllabic verse, of which Chiabrera has given us an example. It has the accent on the first, the third, the fifth, the seventh, and on the ninth syllables. The rhythm of this verse is essentially different from either of the preceding ; it consists of five trochaic feet, XIV. The Hendecasyllabic Verse. The hendecasyllabic verse is also called heroic ; for it is that rhythm” which, from its harmony, its grave and majestic movement, and the variety of which it is susceptible, offers to the poet peculiar advantages for the expression of sublime and elevated subjects. It is, in common with every other, capable of three kinds; as, Tronco - Monte-pulciano d'ogni vino é ib rel”. Piano - T’Alzó natura in verso al ciel la fronte". Stirucciolo. Celebri l’acqua, e se la bea pur Pindaro*. f Redi, Tronco - Le printems fuit, hâtons-nous d’être heu- 1 0 I’C Ul X. & * ... 3 & . , 1 0 1 1 Piano - Qui n'en serait en effet idolatre.—Petr. ‘This verse is generally accented on the second, the fourth, the sixth, the eighth, and on the tenth sylla- ble, which last is the accent common, or invariable. And the verse thus accentuated is the most harmo. nions: but as an unvaried recurrence of the same luxus riant rhythm would become eventually monotonous, it admits of the following valieties. 1. It is sufficient, if, besides the common accent, the sixth syllable should be accented. * Rhythm and rhyme are two distinct things : the former is de- fined in the preceding pages of this article, it is derived from ‘gw820s; the latter is only the correspondence of the last sound of one verse, to the last sound of the next. And on account of this material distinction, not generally u.derstood, even by English tericographers, the recent writers on this subject thus orthogra- phically distinguish the former,-rhythm, 2. The VERSIFICATION. 2. The second variety has, independently of the com- mon accent, the fourth and eighth syllables only accent- ed. - 3. The third variety, besides the common accent, has only the fourth and the seventh syllables accented. With regard to the afflarent difference in the num- ber of syllables between the Italian and French hendeca- syllable, the reader is referred to what has been already observed at S V. Concerning the Intermixture of different Verse.— Whatever harmony may arise from the succession of verses of the same kind, they often acquire a new excel- lency when the series is composed of an affiroſhriate ad- mixture of verse of a different rhyme. It may now be reasonably inquired, why is the inter- mixture of different verse productive, at one time, of an agreeable effect, and at another of the contrary : In an- swer to this inquiry it is here only necessary to remark, that we have already said that the hendecasyllabic verse and the septenarius, together with the two members of which the hendecasyllable is composed, the septe- narius and the quinarius, are of the iambic rhythm. Hence we clearly perceive, that the transition from the hendecasyllable to the septenarius, and vice versä, from the latter to the former, preserves the same rhythmi- cal order and movement. And the same principle will sanction the intermixture of an octonarius and a quadri- syllabic verse, since the rhythm of each is trochaic. It often happens however, that notwithstanding the exact identity of the rhythm in the alternation of different verses, the effect is not agreeable. But this only hap- pens when we connect verses, for example, of four feet, with others of five or three feet. And here it is evident, that although a verse of five feet and another of four are of the same rhythm, yet they present an essential differ- ence. The verse of five feet is indivisible, but that of four feet, which is an even number, may be divided into two equal parts, which are in rhythmical quantity per- fectly equivalent and reciprocal to each other. The im- pression, therefore, resulting from this verse, is different from that of the verse which can only present to the ear the rhythm of two unequal parts. And here we may add, once for all, that all which we have said concern- ing the combination of verse of the same or of different kinds in the Italian language, is perfectly applicable to that of the French also. - I. Of the Sonnet. The regular sonnet contains fourteen hendecasyllabic verses, divided by the rhythm into four stanzas, or strophes, of which two are tetrastrophons, and two tristrophons. The sonnet, which the Italians call colla coda,” “cau- dato,” receives this appellation from the circumstance of its having, after the fourteenth verse, a train of one or more stanzas of three verses each, or tristrophons. The fifteenth verse must in this case be a septenarius, and rhyme with the fourteenth. Sonnets may be also composed of the verse octonarius, Septenarius, or quinarius. The two rhymes of the tetrastrophon stanza are sus- ceptible of four different combinations, according to the following table. Any of which, but legitimately no other, the poet may adopt freely at his choice. 1st. Tetrastrophon: rhyme closed (serée). 1 - - ano 5 - - ano 2 - - ore 6 - - ore ( most in 3 - - ore 7 - - ore Ul SČ. 4 - - ano 8 - - ano 2d. Tetrastrophon: rhyme alternate. 1 - - asto 5 - - a Sto 2 - - era 6 - - era 3 - - asto 7 - - asto 4 - - era 8 - - era 3d. Tetrastrophon: rhyme reciprocally alternate. 1 - - idi 5 - - ezzo 2 - - e ZZO 6 - - idi 3 - - idi 7 - - ezzo 4 - - ezzo 8 - - idi 4th. Tetrastrophon: rhyme alternate and closed. 1 - - ente 5 - - eme 2 - - eme 6 — - ente 3 - - ente 7 - - ente . 4 - - eme 8 - - eme The rhyme of the tristrophon may have, at the op- tion of the poet, the following varieties. 1 St. : - ice 4 - - ante 5 - - ice 6 - Tristrophon: rhyme connected (enchaînée). - ante º e most in = 1 CC UlSC - ante tº 2d. Tristrophon: rhyme tertian (atterzata). l - : - ettO 4 - - etto - ente 5 - - ente - ogno 6 - - ogno Or, - - €ttO 4 - - ente - ente 5 - - ettO - ogno 6 - - ogno 3d. Tristrophon: rhyme duplex. - ate : ; : * seldom - oria - used. - O Tla 6 - - ate : There is no essential difference and French sonnet. between the Italian In addition, however, to the above, they also employ the following rhymes. 4th. Tristrophon: rhyme tertian (ā la manière Fran- ! S : çais.) - Ul SC 4 - - USC 5 - - net 6 - Or, - €ll X 4 - - €Ul X 5 - - €I’l’C 6 - - €II) C - €1 IAC • net - crit - erre - crit We may, in the reading of poets, discover other me- thods; but every series differing from the above, is prº- nounced, by the connoisseurs, to be not “ad tºnguem. II. Of the Ode.—Canzone, or Chanson. The ode is a composition formed of an indefinite number of stanzas, which, with respect to the rhyme and VERSIFICATION. and the measure of the verse, are uniformly the same to the conclusion of the poem. We may except, how- ever, those concluding stanzas which have been called congé (congedo, or commiato), as if the poet, by this concluding strophe, shorter than the rest, took his leave of the poem, or person to whom it is addressed. Our limits will not admit of examples. III. Qf the Canzonetta. The canzonetta (chansonette, or the Anacreontic ode) is an inlitation of the characteristic, the simplicity, and the artless style of the odes of Anacreon. Of this spe- cies of composition, the celebrated Tasso was the in- ventor; but the praise is due to Chiabrera for that acné of perfection to which he has advanced it. The canzonetta differs from the ode in the following particulars. 1. Generally, though not always, the stanzas of which they are composed are less, and contain a smaller num- ber of verses. 2 The stanzas consist of small verses of different kinds. 3. They are not adapted to that elevated and sub- lime style which the ode requires. The characteristic of their style should be simple, artless, and familiar ; and they are, therefore, very well suited to what is of an agreeable and humorous nature, to fables, and to alle- gories, of which the sense or moral is usually given at the close. The number of stanzas of which the canzonetta con- sists is indefinite, at the discretion of the poet. The strophes are usually composed of four or six verses, in their measure either mixed or uniform, but always agreeing together by the closed or alternate rhyme. (Rime serrée ou alternée.) See the table of rhyme un- der the Sonnet. Sometimes the stanzas contain ten verses, and then, as well as when they have six verses, the two first and the two last should rhyme together. When the strophe contains verses tronchi, piani, and sdruccioli, we may perceive a disagreement in the rhyme. But of whatever nature the first stanza may be, the subsequent stanzas should strictly conform thereto. In lyric poems, on the contrary, we are at liberty to vary the stanza, firo re natá, as circumstances and the taste and discretion of the poet may require. IV. The Safifthic Ode. This ode, of which the Grecian poetess Sappho was the inventress, is, when regular, composed of several tetrastrophons, of which the three first verses are hen- decasyllabic, the last a quinarius. Frequently, however, the septenarius is substituted for the quinarius; in which case the strophe has less elegance, and less conformity to the Grecian original, of which they should be an ex- act imitation. The rhyme most employed is the alter- mate or the closed (alternáe or serrée). Among the several forms of the French ode, the fol- lowing is much admired. The reader must be content with a single stanza for illustration; our limits forbid In OI’C. Puissantes Déités, qui peupler cette rive, Préparer, teur dirais-je, une oreille attentive Au bruit de mes concerts. Vol. XXXVIII. Puissent-ils amollir vos superbes courages En faveur d’un Héros digne des premiers äges Du naissent Univers 1–Rousseau. We are compelled, for want of appropriate epithets, to borrow the following terms with which the Italians and the French denominate certain strophes of their composition. Terza Rima-This species of composition contains several tristrophons, each consisting of three hendeca- syllabic verses. The rhyme is connected together in such a manner, that the first verse of each stanza agrees with the third, and the second rhymes with the first and the third of the stanza following. And this order is preserved to the end. There is no example of this species of composition in the French language, for, by a transposition of the verses, they convert the tristrophon into the tetrastrophon, and then call the terza rima the Quarta Rima.—By the quarta rima, that species ºf no- em is denominated which contains several “trast 9Phons, .r.º.:... ... . . Jºse is an hendecasyllabic in Italian, and an Alexandrine in French: the rhyme is either serrée or altermee. See table of rhyme under Sonnet, supra. Sesta Rima et Ottava Rima. —Compositions of this kind receive their name from the number of verses of which their stanzas are composed; the former of six, the latter of eight. The two last verses agree together in rhyme (filate) i.e. unmixed; the rest in rhyme (alternáe) alternate ; see table, Supra. The French do not as here to any regular standard in the composition of the sesta rima, which they call les eizains, ou les stances de Siac vers. But with regard to the “ Ottava rima” of the Italians, and the “ Stances de huit vers” of the French, there is, both as it respects the rhyme and the nature of the verse, which in either case is hendecasyllabic, a perfect simi- larity. This species of composition has prevailed much since the time of Thibaut, who lived a hundred years. before Boccace. V. The Madrigal and the Eftigram. The madrigal is a small poem consisting generally of not less than six nor more than twelve verses, which are either octonarii, or more commonly septenarii or hen- decasyllabic. The number of verses, however, of which the madrigal consisted, was amongst the poets of the sixteenth century arbitrary. The rhyme is yet ad libi- tum; sometimes only the two last verses rhyme together. The character of the madrigal is not essentially dif- ferent from the epigram of the Latins. It is contradis- tinguished, however, by its style, which, though simple, is so elevated as to become equally unadapted to the sa- tire, or to humorous and trivial subjects. The epigram is a small poem consisting of an indefi- nite number and kind of verses, and terminating in a point of wit. Generally, however, it contains not less than two nor more than eight verses, which are frequently hendecasyllabic, and rhyme together by couplets. VI. The Dithyramb, The dithyramb is a species of poem composed in honour of Bacchus: or, in fact, it is a poem written with * degree of unusual wildness and enthusiasm. It em- 4. F ploys VERSIFICATION. ploys verse of every kind, piano, tronco, sdrucciolo, great and small, with or without rhyme, and stanzas of any magnitude. And the whole is written with that liberty and freedom from restraint, as indicates it to be the indigenous production of the devotee of Bacchus. Its style at one time is elevated, at another low. The metaphors it employs are bold; its phraseology excen- tric and whimsical, and words are admitted either pure- ly exotic, or oddly compounded of others; as ebrifesto- so, egidarmato, capribarbicornipede, &c. The reader will find many examples of the Italian dithyrambic in the works of Crescimbeni, Quadrio, and Andrucci, and in the “Bacco in Toscana” of Francesco Redi. VII. The Idyl. This species of poem consists of an indefinite num- ber of Septenarii or hendecasyllabic verses, and free from all restraint as it respects the rhyme. The word idyl (idillio) is derived from eiðaxtov, the diminutive of *** a figure ºr representation; and the idyl, in fact, is nothing but the painting or image of some natural object. There is no difference between the Italian and the French idyl. The Caesura. We have now to notice what is peculiar to the caesura in the French and Italian versification. Amongst the moderns, it is said to be that pause between one word and another, which divides the verse into two equal or unequal parts. A verse is said to be so much the more harmonious, in proportion as it abounds in casurae which give redoubled energy to the accented syllables. The use and design of this pause, Boileau very appositely mentions in the following lines. Que toujours dans vos vers, les sens coupant les mots, Suspende l’hemistichey-en marque le repos. In the hendecasyllabic verse, the caesura should occur between the fifth and sixth syllable, and between the ninth and the tenth, or between the seventh and the eighth only; as in the following verses of Ariosto. 5 6 9, 1 O Il collo è tondo-il petto colmo-e largo. 5 6 9 1 0 Da render molle-ogni corrozzo, e scabro 4 Quindi escon le cartesi-parolette. By adverting to the principles of accentuation already explained, we shall discover, that when the hendecasyl. labic is accented on the fourth and eighth syllables, it ought to have the caesural pause between the fifth and the sixth, and between the ninth and the tenth syllables. And when the principal accent is on the sixth only, it ought to have the caesura between the seventh and the eighth syllables; i. e. when the verse is fiano. But if the words on which the principal accents fall (i. e. ac- cent commun) are tronchi, the caesura must follow im- mediately after each accented syllable. We may, from these observations, easily infer what are the most suitable places for the caesura in every other verse; as the caesura ought to take place imme- diately after the principal or characteristic accent (ac- cent commun) of the entire verse, the hemistich, or of any constituent member. To the above remarks, which are perfectly applica- ble to the versification of the French language, we may add the following. If at the place of the caesura, the preceding word be feminine, (i. e. end with e mute,) the following word ought to commence with an initial vow- el, in order that the elision or synalaepha may take place. For example, in the hendecasyllabic verse, which con- sists of a quinarius and a septenarius, when the former ends with an e mute, the latter must commence with a vowel; otherwise the verse will have a syllable too much, since a quinarius and a septenarius conjointly make twelve syllables. English Versification. All the different feet used in English versification are reducible to eight kinds, four of two and four of three syllables; as, Dissyllabic Feet. 1. An iambus, v - ; as, beträy, consist. 2. A trochee, - ~ ; as, extért, gü'iltless. cº) - Y - # spondee, - -; as, the pāle mêön. 4. pyrriv, - - 2 - ~ x $2 -- 4 l- >< + r. Il + r. p. p. Trisyllabic Feet. 5. An anapaest, * ~ - ; as cântrövéne, acquiésce. 6. A dactyl, - * ~ ; as, läböurër, póssible. 7. An amphibrac, “ - - ; as, délightfül, doméstic. 8. A tribrach, * * ~ ; as, numérāblé, cónguerable, Those feet of which verse may be wholly or chiefly formed are termed firincinal feet. Such are the tro- chee, iambus, dactyl, and anapaest. The others are de- nominated secondary feet, because their use in English versification, is merely to diversify the rhythm and to improve the verse. I. Iambic Verse. 1. Iambic Monometer Catalectic.—This verse, which is the shortest form of the English iambic, consists of an iambus and an additional short syllable. It is only found in stanzas : we have no poem, (or monocolon,) formed exclusively of this measure. Q Assäili Ǻ sailing, Availing, Rélénting, Répênting. 2. Iambic Monometer Acatalectic.—This verse, which is also too short to be continued through any great num- ber of lines, contains an iambic metre, or two iambic feet ; as, With rāptir’d ears Thé monarch hears.—Dryden. 3. Iambic Monometer Hyfiercatalectic.—This verse is the same as the former, with an additional short syllable, aS3 K-9 Upon à mountáin Beside a fountain. 4. An Iambic Dimeter Brachycatalectic.—This form consists of three iambic feet; being one foot less than the iambic dimeter; as, Though in the utmöst peak A while we do remain, Amongst VERSIFICATION. Amongst the mountains bleak, Expos’d to sleet and rain, Nor sport our hours shall break, To exercise our vein.—Drayton. 5. An Iambic Dimeter Catalectic.—This verse is on- ly one syllable less than the iambic dimeter; as, Oür hearts nô löngér länguish. 6. An Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic.—This form con- tains exactly, without redundance or defect, two iambic metres, or four feet; as, Thé spăcióus firmāment Ón high With all the blue ethereal sky And Spangled heav’ns, a shining frame, Their great original proclaim.—Addison. 7. An Iambic Trimeter Brachycatalectic.—This spe- cies of verse contains one foot, (or two syllables,) less than the iambic trimeter; as, Děfēr nôt till tă morrów to be wise; To-morrow’s sun to thee may never rise. The cobwebb’d cottage with its ragged wall Of mould’ring mud is royalty to me ! The spider’s most attenuated thread Is cord, is cable to man’s tender tie On earthly bliss ; it breaks at every breeze.—Young. This is also termed the heroic measure. In its pure or unmixed state it consists of five iambic feet only. But here we may remark, once for all, that not only this, but most of the English common measures admit, for the sake of variety, of the occasional introduction of other feet, as the trochee, dactyl, anapaest, &c. 8. An Iambic Trimeter Acatalectic.—This verse is commonly called the Alexandrine. It consists of six iambic feet; as, º * u, sº V-2 sº- ** *g ** sº Espécial audiènce cräves, Öffendéd with the thröng. Drayton. The Alexandrine verse is now used only to diversify heroic lines; as, Thé séas shäll waste, the skies in smöke décăy; Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away; But fix’d his word, his saving pow'r remains; Th; realm fºr aver lasts, thiſ 5un Mêssiah reigns. 9. An Iambic Tetrameter Brachycatalectic.—This last iambic form consists of one foot less than four iambic metres, i.e. of seven iambuses; as, ~2 Andās the mind Öf such a män, thāthāthālūng way göne, And eithér knówáth nãt his way, Ör else would let älöne. * Chapman. But it is more usual now to break this verse into a lyric measure, or into two verses, consisting aiternately of eight and six syllables; as, Whéſ, in the slipp’ry pāths of youth, Qº With heedléss stéps, I rān, Thine arm unseen, convey’d me safe, And led me up to man.—Addison. II. Trochaic Verse. 1. ºf Zºrochaic Monometer Catalectic.—This, which is the shortest trochaic verse in the English language consists of one trochee and a long syllable ; as, Other jöys Are bit toys.-Walton. 2. A Trochaic Monometer Acatalectic.—This verse consists of one trochaic metre, or two trochaic feet; but both this and the last verse are too brief to form a mo- nocolon; as, In the grâssy Meädów vérdānt. 3. A Trochaic Monometer Hypercatalectic.—This form of trochaic verse contains one syllable more than the exact trochaic monometer; as Häppy färming age, Heålthy, blithe ānd såge. 4. A Trochaic Dimeter Brachycatalectic.—This spe- cies of trochaic verse contains two syllables, or one foot less than two trochaic metres; i. e. three trochees; as, Blööm yè sūmmër rösés. 5. A Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic consists of one syl- lable less than two trochaic metres; or of three trochees with an additional long syllable; as, Fáirést pièce àf wéll-fôrm’d earth Urge not thus your haughty birth.-Waller. 6. A Trochaic Dimeter JAcatalectic contains two tro- chaic metres or four trochaic feet; as, Round üs shine thé sun-beams brightër. 7. A Trochaic Dimeter Hyfiercatalectic contains a long syllable more than the last verse ; as, See yūn clouds that nów disperse ànd clear. 8. A Trochaic Trimeter Brachycatalectic is, as well as the last, seldom employed; it contains five trochaic feet, and, of course, one foot less than three trochaic metres ; as, All thät walk &n fööt, Ör ride in châriots, All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 9. A Trochaic Trimeter Acatalectic contains six tro- chees, or three trochaic metres; as, On à mountain stretch'd beneath a hôary willów Lay a shepherd Swain, and view’d the rolling billow. III. Anahastic Verse. The reader will recollect that we have already said, that in dactylic and anapaestic measure one foot forms a metre, but in every other case, two feet form a metre. 1. The Amafiastic Monometer Acatalectic contains, without redundance or defect, one anapaestic foot; as, Nów again They remain. But as by laying the stress of the voice on the first syllable, we reduce the verse into trochaic rhythm, this measure is ambiguous; hence the simplest form of our regular anapaestic verse is the 2. Anafi aestic Dimeter Acatalectic, or verse of two anapaestic feet; as, För nô art could avail. 4 F 2 3. Zhe V E. R. V E R 3. The Anahastic Dimeter Hypercatalectic contains two anapaestic feet, with an additional short syllable ; as, In the căve | Öf the moun- tain. 4. The Anah a stic Trimeter Acatalectic contains three anapaºstic feet; as, Ö yā woods, spréad yūur bránchés àpäce; To your deepest recesses I fly ; I would hide with the beasts of the chase, I would vanish from every eye. 5. The Anahastic Tetrameter Acatalectic consists of four anapaestic feet ; as, Vº May I govern my pâssions with absäliite swāy; And grow wiser and better as life wears away.—Pope. 6 The Anahastic Tetrameter Hyfiercatalectic adds to the end of the last verse a short syllable; as, Ön the top | Šf thät hill I see the sün | now ascènd ſing. Of the Caesura. The same advantages result from a suitable and ap- propriate use of the caesura in English verse, as in that of the French and Italian, which we have just noticed. What is peculiar to this pause amongst us may be briefly comprised under the foilowing particulars. 1. In heroic verse the caesura may take place on the fourth syllable ; as, Child of the sun", refulgent summer comes. 2. Or on the fifth syllable ; as, He comes attended” by the sultry hours. 3. Or on the sixth syllable ; as, But should he hide his face", th’ astonish’d sun. 4. Or two casuras may divide a verse into three por- tions ; as, Some love to stray"; there lodg’d", amus’d and fed. 5. Some lines admirably admit that subdivision of the caesural pause, which may be called a demi casura; as, Glows’ while he reads'', but trembles' as he writes. Rides' in the whirlwind" and directs' the storm. Warms' in the sun" refreshes' in the breeze, Glows' in the stars” and blossoms' in the trees; Lives' through all life” extends' through all extent, Spreads' undivided”, operates' unspent. As we have now treated minutely on every point es- sential to Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French and Italian versification, our readers will permit us, in accommo- dation to the limits of our work, to refer them, for further information on English versification, to what has been said at the article ODE, EPIGRAM, SoNNET, &c. in other parts of this work. VERSIO CHEMIcA, a term used by chemical writers to express a change, wrought by their art, of manifest forms into occult ones, which, they say, is done by a corruption of the specific form, and the generation of a more general one; that is, by a conversion of decom- pounded elements into compound bodies, and of impure into such as are perfectly pure. VERSION, a translation of some book, or writing, out of one language into another, The chief objects which ought to be regarded by every translator, and more especially by a translator of sacred scripture, are the following: viz. to give a just and clear representation of the sense of his original; to con- vey into his version as much of his author’s spirit and manner as the genius of the language, in which he writes, will admit; and, as far as may be consistent with these two ends, to express himself with purity in the language of the version. The ancient versions of the New Testament, in parti- cular, have been justly considered as affording an im- portant evidence of its antiquity, and presumptively of its authenticity. Some of these are supposed to have been made so early as the first century; such as the Sy- riac, and several Latin versions, the latter of which, abounding in Hebraisms and Syriasms even in a greater degree than the original, were manifestly made by na- tive Jews, and must have been productions of the first century. A book, therefore, so early and universally read throughout the East in the Syriac, and throughout Europe and Africa in the Latin translation, must be able to lay claim to a high antiquity. To the strange and trivial hypothesis, that the New Testament was forged in the fifth century, after the conquest of Italy by the Goths, the Gothic version of Ulphilas, which was made in the preceding century, will serve for a sufficient an- swer. For an account of the Anglo Saxon, Arabic, JArmenian, Cofitic or Egyſhtian, Fthioftic, and Gothic versions, see BIBLE. See also ARMENIAN and CoPHT1c. VERSION of Aquila. See Aquil.A and HEXA PLA. VERsions, Greek. See SEPTUA GINT, and Greek B1.BLEs. VERSION, Italic, called by St. Jerom the common and vulgar, and by Gregory the Great the ancient, was made in Italy, and for the service of the Latin Christians. As it was used in the church fill the sixth century, there are several fragments of it extant in the quotations of those Latin fathers, who wrote before that time. As this ver- sion continued, partly from the influence of custom, partly from respect to antiquity, to be regarded and used by many, there is reason to believe that a part of that version still remains in the Vuigate, and is in a manner blended with it. (See VUL.GATE.) From what remains of the old Italic, it appears to have resembled almost all the Jewish translations, and to have been very literal, and consequently, in a great degree, obscure, ambigu- ous, and barbarous. Dr Miils supposes, that this ver- sion was the work of several persons in the second cen- tury, by order of pope Pius I., who was an Italian. This learned writer, in his “Prolegomena,” has given an ac- count of the qualities of this version; and how far it may be of use for discovering the true reading of the original Greek. St. Jerom, in his translation, has deviated from this version without sufficient reason. VERSION, Latin, includes not only the Italic, (see the preceding article,) but other versions made before and since the time of Jerom, as well as that which he corrected and published. (See VUL.GATE.) It appears from the testimony of Augustin (De Doctriná Chris- tianã, lib. ii. c. 11.), that the Latin church had a great number of translations of the bible, that they were made at the first introduction of Christianity, but that the au- thors are totally unknown. Some of these Latin ver- sions were probably written later than the first ages of Christianity. The style of these ancient versions, still perceivable in the Vulgate, though amended by Jerom, is not only devoid of classical elegance, but inaccurate and V E. R. V E R and impure. False Latin frequently occurs, and such as no native Roman could have written. Errors of this kind, and a too servile attention to the idiom of the Greek, betray a translator, who was neither a native Italian, nor had learned the language by the rules of grammar. At other times, we find expressions that seem to be improper, and that nevertheless are justi- fiable according to the usage of the Italian language. Words are also used in a sense that is very rare in the classic writers. Moreover, these versions contain very numerous Hebraisms, or rather Syriasms, that are diametrically opposite to the genius of the Latin: from which circumstance we may infer, that some of these versions were made by Jewish converts, whose native language was the Syriac. The language of these ver- sions has materially influenced the Latin of the church, which is not only unclassical, but has a tincture of the oriental idiom, though in a much lower degree than the versions themselves. Michaelis differs from Mills, who refers the origin of the oldest Latin version no higher than to the time of pope Pius, in the middle of the second century, and who supposes that the Latin version was made by public au- thority, or under the direction of the bishop of Rome. It is, says the professor, very improbable, if a translator had been appointed by a bishop or a council, that a writer would have been chosen, who was so little master of the Latin. He therefore supposes, that the real state of the case was as follows. The New Testament was read in the Christian churches, in the same manner as the Old Testament in the Jewish synagogues; and as the Jews, after reading the original Hebrew, explained it by a Chaldee paraphrase, the Christian bishops and public teachers expounded the passages in Latin, which they first read in the Greek. At first this was done extem- pore; but by degrees, in order to facilitate the public service, these translations were committed to writing, and at length communicated to the different members. By these means we may account for their great variety, and the confusion, which might have been avoided by a version ordained by the public authority of the Christian church, As it cannot be denied, that the oldest Latin versions are of very high antiquity, though some of their read- ings are false, their principal use in the criticism of the New Testament is, that they lead us to a discovery of the readings of the very ancient Greek MSS. that ex- isted prior to the date of any that are now extant. The great confusion which prevailed in the copies of the old Latin version induced pope Damasus to employ Jerom in correcting it; and among all the Latin fathers, before and after his time, it seems that no one was better qua- lified for the task. Jerom finished this work about the year 384; but F. Simon observes, that the Vulgate, after the time of Jerom, was manifestly different from the old version, in all the books of the New Testament. He partly expunged the spurious readings, and partly corrected the translations, which appeared to be erro- neous; but it must be acknowledged, that, with the best intention, he has sometimes altered for the worse. See VUL.GATE, and Latin BIBLEs. The learned and ingenious Eichorn, in his Introduc- tion to the Old Testament, supposes, not improbably, that the first Latin version of the bible was made in Africa, where Latin alone being understood, a transla- tion was more necessary, where the Latin version was held in the highest veneration, and where the language being spoken with less purity, barbarisms might have more easily been introduced, than in a provincial town in Italy. But the Greek Testament could not have been translated into Latin before the canon had been formed, which was certainly not made in the first century. Mi- chaelis by Marsh. º Of the modern Latin versions, the first we shall men- tion is that of Erasmus, who translated the New Testa- ment from the Greek; following not only the printed copies, but also four Greek MSS., and varying very little from the Vulgate. The first edition appeared in 1516, and dedicated to pope Leo X. Arius Montanus undertook, by order of the council of Trent, as some pretend, a version of the Old and New Testaments; following, in his translation of the Old Testament, Pagninus, keeper of the Vatican library,who had translated the Oid Testament from the Hebrew, by order of Clement VIII. As for the New Testament, he only changed some words in it, where he found that the Vulgate differed from the Hebrew. See BIBLE. A Latin version of the whole New Testament, except the Revelations, is ascribed to Thomas de Vio, a Do- minican, commonly styled cardinal Cajetan; but not understanding Greek, he probably procured some per- son to perform the work in his name. This was printed at Venice in 1530 and 1531, with the cardinal’s com- mentaries. Another Latin version was published by an English writer in 1540, and dedicated to Henry VIII. The Zurich version is one of the most ancient Latin translations made by Protestants. Part of it was done by Leo Juda, one of the ministers of that city, aided by some of his learned brethren; but being prevented by death from completing it, he left it to the care of T. Bibliander, professor at Zurich, who, aided by Conra- dus Pellican, professor of Hebrew in the same place, translated the rest of the Old Testament. The New Testament was continued by Peter Cholin, professor in divinity, and by Rodolph Gualterus, Leo Juda’s suc- cessor in the ministerial office. This version was pub- lished in 1544. The seventh verse of the fifth chapter of the first epistle of St. John is omitted in this version, and placed in the margin. This passage was not in- serted by Erasmus in his first editions of the New Tes- tament, because he did not find it in the Greek copies; but having afterwards found it in a M.S. in England, he introduced it into subsequent editions. In the following years, Robert Stephens printed his edition, with a few alterations; joining to it the Hebrew text and the Vul- gate, and notes from the public lectures of Vatablus. See Latin BIBLEs. Sebastian Castalio published a Latin bible, which has been both censured and admired. See Latin BIBLES, and CASTALIo. Theodorus Beza’s Latin version has been much ap- proved by Protestants, but depreciated by the Roman Catholics. It has been also censured by bishop Walton and Dr. Mills. See BIBLE. - VERSIon of Origen. See HEXA PLA and TETRAPLA. VERSIox, Persian. See BIBLE. VERSION, Peshito and Philoxenian. Version. VERSION, Slavonian or Russian. VERSION, Sahidic. See BIBLE. VERSION, Syriac. See Sy RIAo Version, and BIBLE. For an account of English, Flemish, French, Gaelic, Georgian, German, Indian, Irish, Italian, Rhenish, Saar- 0n 3 See SYRI Ac See BIBLE. V E. R V E. R on, Sfianish, and Welsh versions, see BIBLE. See also Poly GLOTT. VERSITZ, or VERSEcz, in Geograft hy, a town of Hungary. It is the see of a Greek bishop, and contains some extensive barracks, with about 12,000 inhabitants. Near it are the ruins of a castle; 20 miles N.N.W. of Vipalanka. VERSMOLD, a town of the county of Ravensburg ; 10 miles N.W. of Bielefeld. N. lat. 52° 2'. E. long. 8° 5'. VERSO. See Folio Verso. VERSOIX, in Geograft hy, a town of France, in the department of the Ain, at the mouth of a river of the same name, on the side of the lake of Geneva; 6 miles S.E. of Gex. VERSOIX, La, or Versoy, a river which rises in France, and runs into the lake of Geneva at Versoy. VERSOU, LE, a town of France, in the department of the Isere; 6 miles N. of Grenoble. VERSOY, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc ; 4 miles N. of St. Maurice. VERST, or WERST, a Russian measure, containing 500 sashes or 1500 arsheens = 3500 English feet. Hence 264 versts = 175 English miles; so that a verst is nearly two-thirds of an English mile, and a degree of the meridian is reckoned to be about 104 versts. The Russian foot is - 13; English inches, and the Moscow foot = 13; English inches; but the English foot is gen- erally used at Petersburg, and also the Rhineland foot 12# English inches. See MEASURE. - VERSTEGAN, Ric HARD, in Biography, a descend- ant of an ancient family in Guelderland, and the son of a cooper in London, enjoyed the advantage of a liberal ed- ucation at Oxford, and distinguished himself by his lite- rary acquirements; but becoming a Catholic, he left the university without a degree, and removed to Antwerp. About the year 1585, he there published a work, en- titled “ Theatrum Crudelitatum Haereticorum nostri Temporis,” adorned with engravings, and intended as a counterpart to the Protestant Martyrologies. In this work he treated queen Elizabeth with great severity; and when Verstegan removed to Paris, complaint was preferred against him by the English ambassador to Henry III., who, from motives of policy more than from a disapprobation of his book, caused him for some time to be imprisoned. After his release, he returned to An- twerp, where he employed himself as a printer, and pub- lished, in 1592, a second edition of his Theatrum. He also entered with much acrimony into a dispute between the regular and secular Roman Catholic clergy in Eng- land, taking part with the former. But he was more honourably and usefully employed in preparing his “Restitution of decayed Intelligence in Antiquities con- cerning the noble and renowned English Nation,” which was first printed at Antwerp in 1605, 4to. Bishop Nicol- son’s character of this work is as follows: “ The writer had several advantages for making of some special dis- coveries on the subject whereon he treats, which is hand- led so plausibly, and so well illustrated with handsome cuts, that the book has taken, and sold very well. But a great many mistakes have escaped him.” Some of these are stated by the bishop; and he adds, they have been carefully corrected by Mr. Sommer. The last of three editions of this work that issued from the press in England was that of 1674. Among some other works of Verstegan, we find mentioned his “ Antiquitates Bel- gives”. Antwerp, 1613. He is supposed to have died about the year 1625. Biog. Brit. VERT, Dom CLAUDE DE, was born at Paris in 1645, and at the age of 16 entered into the order of St. Benedict, in the Congregation of Cluni. In the Jesuits’ college at Avignon he studied philosophy and theology; and after his return from a journey to Rome, he devoted him- self to the study of the rule of St. Benedict, and con- tributed by his influence to the establishment of gener- al chapters. In 1676 he and another monk were ap- pointed to the office of reforming the breviary of the order. The result of their labour appeared in 1686; and in 1689 he published a translation of the rule of St. Benedict, with a preface and learned notes. In 1690 he wrote a letter to Jurieu, who had expressed himself contemptuously of the ceremonies of the church; and in 1690 he was rewarded for his services, by the dignity of vicar-general to the cardinal de Bouillon, and the priory of St. Peter in Abbeville. His work most known is en- titled “ Explication simple litterale et historique des Ceremonies de l'Eglise,” 4 vols. 8vo. The writer died at Abbeville in 1708, aged 63, leaving the character of a pious, as well as a mild and polished man. Moreri. VERT, in Heraldry, the term for a green colour. It is also called vert in the blazon of the coats of all under the degrees of nobles; but in coats of nobles it is called emerald ; and in those of kings, Venus. In engraving, it is expressed by diagonals, or lines drawn athwart, from right to left, from the dexter chief corner to the sinister base. In lieu of vert, the French heralds use simofile, or synofile. VERT, or Green Hue, in Forest Law, any thing that grows and bears a green leaf, within the forest, that may cover a deer. This is divided into over-vert and mether-vert. The former is the great woods, which, in law-books, are usually called hault-bois ; and the latter is the under- woods, otherwise called sub-bois. We sometimes also meet with sfiedial vert, which de- notes all trees growing in the king’s woods within the forest, and those which grow in other men’s woods, if they be such trees as bear fruit to feed the deer. VERT, in Geografthy, a river of France, which runs into the Gave of Oleron.—Also, a river of France, which runs into the Lot, near Cahors. VERT St. Denis, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Marne; 3 miles N.W. of Melun. VERTACOMECORI, in Ancient Geography, a people to whom Pliny ascribes the foundation of Na- varre, in Gallia Cisalpina, and who formed a part of the Vocontii. VERTAF, a people of Asia, allies of the Persians, and found at the siege of Amida. VERTAISON, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Puy de Dôme ; 4 miles N.W. of Billon. VERTE BAY, or Green Bay, a bay of the Atlantic ocean, between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, on the north coast. N. lat. 46°. W. long. 63°54'. VERTE Bay, a hay on the north-east coast of New- foundland. N. lat. 50° 10'. W. long, 56°. VERTEBRAE, in Anatomy, the bones composing the spine. They are distinguished by their situation into vertebrae colli, dorsi, and lumborum; or cervical, dorsal, and lumbar. See SPINE. The cartilages between the vertebrae of the back yield considerably to the pressure of the body, in an erect posture, V. E. R V E. R posture, and expand themselves in the night, when per- sons lie down. Hence arises a very singular phenom- enon, but a very true one; which is, that a man is consid- erably taller at his rising in the morning, after the expan- sion of these cartilages, during the absence of the pres- sure for several hours, than at night, when they have been pressed down all the day. The reverend Mr. Wasse seems to have examined this difference more strictly than any other person. He found that several persons, enlisted as soldiers in a morn- ing, had been discharged for want of height, on their being measured again before the officers in the evening; and on this occasion measured several other people, and found the difference, in many cases, to be not less than an inch. This gentleman observed in himself, that fixing a bar of iron where he just reached it with his head on getting first out of bed in the morning, he could lose near half an inch in an hour, or less, if he employed that time in rolling his garden, or any other exercise of that laborious kind. He observed also, that riding often took off the height very suddenly; and what was more particular, that in sitting close to study five or six hours without any motion, he lost often a whole inch in height. People who use hard labour sink rather less in the whole than those of sedentary lives; and the height once lost is never to be recovered that day, not even by the use of the cold bath; but a night’s lying down can alone restore it. Phil. Trans. No 383. p. 87. This difference in height takes place only in the hu- man Species, as they are the only creatures who walk erect, and throw the pressure of their whole weight up- on the back-bone. This gentleman measured horses before and after riding, and could find no difference even after the longest journeys. The alteration in height is much greater in young people than in those who are more aged. It is evident from this change happening to persons when they sit, as well as when they stand, that it is brought about mere- ly by the back-bone; and we must admire the structure of that part of the body, which owes its giving way thus to its being formed together in that manner, which alone could suit it to the several purposes it was intended for. The thickness and shortness of the bones, with the in- tervening cartilages, assisted by the bony processes, dispose it to a motion peculiar to itself; whereas, had the bodies been of any considerable length, upon bend- ing the body, the articulations must have made a large angle upon their inmost edges, and the spinal marrow would have been continually liable to be injured; and had the cartilages been entirely wanting, it would have been as useless as if it were but one bone, by which the trunk of the body, being rendered incapable of bending, must have remained for ever in an erect posture. An. ºther particular, which bespeaks the utmºst wisdom and design in the contrivance of this part is, the remarkable difference there is in the cartilages placed between the several bones of the spine. The vertebrae of the back require but little motion, and the cartilages there are for that reason small and thin, * Cºmparison with those of the loins, which being very thick, the lowest more especially, the motion is much §reater there, and much better to be borne. This being the state and disposition of the parts during the whole Space of time in which we are usually employed about 9". Several businesses, till the time that we dispose our- selves to rest, the cartilages of the spine will, by their compressible and yielding properties, become more close and compact for the pressure they sustain, and conse- quently the spine, which is the only support of the trunk of the body, will become shorter; but when this supe- rior weight shall be entirely removed, by placing the body in an horizontal posture, as it always is when we are in bed, the compressed cartilages will, by their nat- ural elastic power, begin gradually to enlarge them- selves, till they, by degrees, recover the expanded state they had before they gave way. The cartilages between the several vertebrae are twen- ty-four in number, and every one of these is pressed somewhat in our daily employments, so that when they all come to expand, the aggregate of their several ex- pansions cannot be supposed less than about an inch. Now, if this be the difference occasioned by the pressure of the common weight of the body alone upon itself, it must necessarily be much greater in those persons whose constant employment is to carry heavy burdens. The compression and expansion of the cartilages in older people being less than in younger, is a necessary con- sequence of the cartilages in time of age growing hard- er, and less capable of compression; for they often grow almost bony in length of time : and hence it is, that old people are observed to lose somewhat of their former height, the cartilages in them shrinking to a somewhat smaller compass as they grow bony ; and this shorten- ing is, therefore, not imaginary, as many have believed, but real, and owing to this plain cause. Phil. Trans. N° 383. p. 90. See CARTILAGE and SPINE. VERTEBRE, Disease of the. See SPINE. VERTEBRAE, Dislocations of. See LuxATION. VERTEBR.E., Fractures of Sec FRACTURE. VERTEBRAE of Fish. The vertebrae of fish are ex- tremely different in shape in the several kinds, and even vary in number in the different species of the same ge- nus. The anterior vertebrae in some have three apo- physes, as in the cyprini, esoces, pleuronecti, &c.; and in the clupeac they have no iess than seven of these apo- physes, but they are slender and capillary. Artedi Ichthyol. VERTEBRAL Artery and Wein, in Anatomy, branches of the subclavian vessels. See ARTERY and VEIN. VERTEBRAL Canal, the canal of the spine, which con- tains the medulla spinalis. See SPINE. VERTEBRAL JWerves, the nerves sent off from the medulla spinalis, and passing out at the lateral holes of the spine. See NERVE. VERTEBRAL Theca, the sheath of dura mater inclo- sing the medulla spinalis. See BRAIN. VERTEILLAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 7 miles N. of Ri- berac. VERTEN EGGI, a town of Istria; 11 miles S. of Capo d’Istria. VERTERIS, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Great Britain, in the second route of Antonine, between Bro- vonacae or Kirby thure and Lawatrae or Bowes, and in the fifth route between Lava trac and Brocavum, or Broug- ham Castle, placed at Brugh under Stanemore. VERTEUIL, in Geografiſhy, a town of France, in . the departureſt of the Charente ; 3 miles S. of Ruffec.— Also, a town of France, is the department of the Lot and . Garenns' ; 6 miles N.N. E. of Tonneins. VERTEX, in Anatomy, the crown of the *. thałł V E. R. V E R that uppermost and middle part situated between the sinciput and occiput. See HaAD. Hence, also, vertex is figurately used for the top of other things. Thus, the vertex of a cone, pyramid, co- nic section, &c. is the point of the upper extremity of the axis, or the top of the figure. VERTEx of an Angle, is the angular point, or the point A, (Plate II. Geometry. Jig. 15.) in which the legs meet. VERTFx of a Figure, is the vertex of the angle op- posite to the base. Such is the point M (Plate XV. Geometry, fig. 17.) opposite to the base A. B. VERTEx of a Curve, is the point A (Plate XV. Ge- ometry, Jig. 18.) from which the diameter is drawn; or it is the intersection of the diameter and the curve. VERTEx of a Glass, in Optics, the same with the pole of it. VERTEX is also used, in Astronomy, for the point of heaven perpendicularly over our heads, called the zenith, VERTEx, Path of the. See PATH. VERTIBULUM, a word used by some writers to express the round head of a bone, which, in its articu- lation, is inserted into the sinus or cavity of another bone. VERTICAL, in Botany, is technically used to ex- press the perpendicular position, or insertion, of certain parts of a plant. Vertical Leaves are such as stand so erect, that neither of their surfaces can properly be called the upper or under, of which nature are all sword- shaped leaves, folia ensiformia. (See LEAF.) But the term is usually restricted to such leaves as have pro- perly an under surface, different in nature from the up- per one, and yet stand upright; witness Lactuca Sca- 7-iola, and perhaps several succulent leaved plants. Vertical Anthers, as in the Tulip, terminate the fila- ments, and being inserted by one of the extremities, stand no less upright than the filaments themselves, be- ing opposed to incumbent anthers, whose insertion is generally lateral, and whose position is more or less ho- rizontal, over the stigma, as in the Passion-flower. In both these instances the anthers are remarkably versa- tile, antherae versatilis ; allowing themselves to be turned round many times without separating from the filament. Vertical stalks, &c readily explain themselves. VERTICAL Circle, in Astronomy, is a great circle of the sphere, passing through the zenith and the nadir, and any other given point on the surface of the sphere. The vertical circles are also called azimuths ; which see. The meridian of any place is a vertical circle. All the vertical circles intersect each other in the zenith and nadir. The use of the vertical circles is to measure the height of the stars, and their distances from the zenith, which is reckoned on these circles; and to find their eastern and western amplitude, by observing how many degrees the vertical, in which the star rises or sets, is distant from the meridian. VERTICAL, Prime, is that vertical circle, or azimuth, which passes through the poles of the meridian ; or which is perpendicular to the meridian, and passes through the equinoctial points V Eatic ALs, Prime, in Dialling. See PRIME Verticals. VERTICAL of the Sun, is the vertical which passes through the centre of the sun at any moment of time. Its use is, in dialling, to find the declination of the plane on which the dial is to be drawn, which is done by observing how many degrees that vertical is distant from the meridian, after marking the point, or line of the shadow, upon the plane at airy time. VERTICAL Dial. See Vertical DIAL. VERTICAL Line, in Comics, is a right iine drawn on the vertical plane, and passing through the vertex of the cone. VERTICAL Line, in Dialling, is a line in any place perpendicular to the horizon. This is best found and drawn on an erect and recli- ning plane, by holding up a string and heavy plummet steadily, and then marking two points of the shadow of a thread on the plane, a good distance from one another; and drawing a line through those marks. VERTICAL Line, in Persfiedtive. See Vertical LINE. VERTICAL Plane, in Conics, is a plane passing through the vertex of a cone, and parallel to any conic section. VERTICAL Plane, in Pershective. See PLANE and PERSPECTIVE. VERTICAL Point, in Astronomy, the same with ver- tex or zeilith. Hence a star is said to be vertical, when it happens to be in that point which is perpcndicularly over any place. VERTICILLARIA, in Rotany, Fl. Peruv. 69, a Peruvian genus of plants, so called because its branches are disposed in regular whorls, one above the other. De Theis. See VERTIci LLUs. VERTICILLAT/E, Whorled-flowered plants, form the 42d natural order in Linliaºus’s natural system, be- ing precisely analogous to Jussicu's LABIATA: (see that article); as well as to the order oi Didynamia Gymnosfermia in the Linnaean artificial system, ex- cept that it includes also several diandrous genera of the latter arrangement. Ray first established this older, under the above name, and distinguished it, though not by a very clear or infallible definition, from his own J4sferifoliae. Hermann injudiciously combined these two orders. Linnaeus first clearly defined their differ- ences. Both have four naked seeds, and a monopeta- lous corolla ; which is regular in all the Asherifolia, except ECHIUM ; irregular in all the Verticillatae and also ringent, or at least two lipped, except MIENTHA and Lyco PUs; see those articles. The Asſ, erifoliae have, moreover, alternate or scattercq leaves; the Verticillatae opposite ones ; the former are more of a mucilaginous quality; the latter more aromatic. Linnaeus however detected the true characters of the orders in question in their stamens. These in the Asferifoliac are five, all of equal length; in the Verticillat as either four or two; if four, two are longer, or more perfect, than the rest. For the genera which compose this order of Perticil- 1atae, and their general characters and propel ties, the reader is referred to the article LABIATA. Their par- ticular mode of inflorescence is explained under VER- TIcILLUs ; though in many instances their wborls are so crowded together as to form a spike, or cluster, the ſo- liage diminishing, or changing, into bracteas. Of this, examples occur in Salvia, Mentha, and Origanum, with some other genera. This being one of the most natural of all the orders in the whole vegetable kingdom, few botanists have suc- ceeded in defining its genera. Lipi.aeus has been emi- nently successful in this point, having happily seized some essential character by which each genus is clearly marked, in one part or other of the fructification; such characters being, on the whole, as well supported by the habit as can be expected in so natural an order. VERTICILLUS, V E. R V E R VERTICILLUS, a Whorl, is a mode of inflores- cence, in which the flowers surround the stem in a sort of ring. There is seldom a perfectly whorled insertion of the flowers, around a stem or stalk, independent of the leaves, though the rare genus GNETUM, (see that ar- ticle,) may afford an instance. It is most usual for each flower to be axillary, or accempanied by a leaf, as in Hiſ furis. Nevertheless the natural order of VERTICI- LATAE, so denominated from this circumstance, is consi- dered as having truly whorled flowers, though inserted on two opposite sides of the square stem; as they, being commonly very numerous and crowded, spread into one dense uninterrupted mass. Such may, or may not, be accompanied with leaves or bracteas. Folia Verticillata, whorled leaves, are when more than two leaves surround the stem at one point, or articula- tion. Examples occur in Galium and its allies, thence called by Ray and following authors filant a stellatae; as well as in a few of the first species of VERONICA. Peru- vian shrubs are remarkably inclined to bear three or four leaves in a whorl, though the genera, or natural orders, to which they respectively belong, have merely opposite leaves. See under the article LEAF, folia, bina, terna, &c. Whorled Cotyledons are very rare, but they do occur in PINUs and Dom BEYA.—Even if such were, as Jussieu suggests, merely opposite cotyledons in numerous deep segments, they might perhaps, according to the analogy of the above-described inflorescence, be called cotyle- domes verticillatae. - VERTICITY, is that property of the load-stone by which it turns or directs itself to some particular point. The attraction of the magnet was known long before its verticity. - VERTICORDIA, in Mythology, one of the epithets of Venus. See VENUs. VERTIGO, in Medicine, from verto, I turn, giddi- mess, dizziness, or swimming of the head, a well-known affection, in which external objects appear to move in various directions, though stationary, and there is a diffi- culty of maintaining the erect posture, often accompan- ied with sickness. Philosophers have differed in their opinions respect- ing the cause of vertigo, when it is produced under va- rious circumstances, Independently of internal disease; as from swinging, turning round rapidly, looking from a high station, riding across a broad undulating stream, or over a plain covered with Snow, or looking at the walls of a room painted with equal small figures, at a whirl- ing wheel, &c. &c.; circumstances which might appear upon a casual view not explicable upon one common principle. Dr. Darwin, however, has very ingeniously explained the origin of giddiness from these various causes. He observes, that in learning to walk, we judge of the distance of the objects which we approach by the eye, and by observing their perpendicularity determine our own; and that at all times we determine our want of perpendicularity, or inclination to fall, by attending to the apparent motion of the objects within the sphere of dis- tinct vision. Hence, when we are placed upon the sum- mit of a high cliff or tower, and look down, we become diz- zy, because the objects below are out of the sphere of distinct vision, and we are obliged to balance ourselves by the less accurate feelings of our muscles. Hence also, on going into a room hung with a paper which is covered all over with similar small black lozenges, many Peºple become giddy; for the objects around being so Vol. XXXVIII attends it. Small, that they do not perceive their minute parts, or so similar, that they do not distinguish them from one an- other, they begin to lose their balance; for on inclining to one side or the other, the next and the next lozenge succeeds on the eye, which they mistake for the first, and they are not aware that they have any apparent mo- tion; but if you fix a sheet of paper, or draw any other figure in the midst of the lozenges, the charm ceases, and no giddiness is produced. Giddiness is occasioned in a similar way in riding over an extensive plain of snow or sheet of water, in which no distinct object presents itself by which we can ascertain our perpendicularity. But the circumstance which occasions vertigo in the other cases, is the difficulty of distinguishing our own real motions from the apparent motions of external ob- jects; and the difficulty is still greater, when both our- selves and the circumjacent objects are in motion. Our daily practice of walking and riding soon instructs us with accuracy to discern the modes of motion, and to ascribe the apparent motion of the ambient objects to ourselves; but those which we have not acquired by re- peated habit, continue to confound us. Hence whirling round, Swinging, skating on the ice, sailing, riding back- wards in a coach, and a thousand other movements, pro- duce giddiness, which, if long enough continued, brings on sickness and vomiting. When first an Euro- pean mounts an elephant sixteen feet high, and whose mode of motion he is not accustomed to, the objects seem to undulate as he passes, and he frequently becomes sick and vertiginous. And when we first go on ship- board, where the movements of ourselves, and the move- ments of the large waves are both new to us, the vertigo is almost unavoidable, with the terrible sickness which Yet in persons habituated to these motions, no vertigo occurs; even the most continued whirling, as practised by the dervises in Turkey, as a religious cere- mony, and by European waltzers, may be learnt to be performed without giddiness. Dr. Darwin mentions several other circumstances, which prove that we require experience in the motions of surrounding objects, even while we ourselves are at rest, in order to determine our own perpendicularity by them. Whence some people become dizzy at the sight of a whirling wheel, or by gazing on the undulations of a river, if no steady objects are at the same time with- in the sphere of their distinct vision. And he mentions the following curious experiment, illustrating this fact. When a child first can stand erect upon his legs, if you gain his attention to a white handkerchief steadily ex- tended like a sail, and afterwards make; it undulate, he instantly loses his perpendicularity, and tumbles on the ground. See Zoonomia, vol. i. sect. 20. Vertigo, however, arising from any of these causes, is not properly the subject of medical treatment; and it is only when it occurs independently of external cir- cumstances, that it becomes the object of pathological inquiry. It is not in itself, indeed, considered as a dis- tinct disease, but is always systematic of some other morbid affection, against which our remedies must be directed. Whence Dr. Cullen has excluded it alto- gether from his classification of diseases. Vertigo occurs under three different states of the constitution, or is a symptom of three different species of disease, which it is necessary to distinguish, in order to apply the appropriate remedies. The first, and the only variety of vertigo that is accompanied with danger, is 4 * : that V E R V E R that which arises from an over-fulness of the vessels of the head, and which is sometimes the precursor of apo- plexy or palsy. The vertigo from intoxication is pro- bably chiefly produced in this way, though it may be partly explained upon the principle of debilitated mus- cular energy, by which the person is disabled from direc- ting the eye steadily upon surrounding objects, and which even occasions double vision. The vertigo originating from a plethoric state of the vessels of the brain will be indicated by the presence of certain other symptoms. If it occurs in a person of san- guine temperament, of a full habit of body, florid com- plexion, in the meridian of life, or past that period, and in one accustomed to free living; and if it is accompanied by occasional head-ache, throbbing of the vessels of the head, noise in the ears, and drowsiness; little doubt can remain that it originates from a plethoric condition of the vessels, and that the proper remedies will be, the ab- straction of blood, either from the system at large, or by opening the temporal artery or jugular vein, or by the application of leeches to the temples; at the same time administering moderate purgative medicines, and enjoin- ing an abstinence from fermented liquors, and high- seasoned food, as well as great moderation in respect to the quantity of the latter. If these remedies are not re- sorted to, and these precautions not adopted, the result may be a sudden attack of apoplexy, which may prove immediately fatal, or leave behind it a hemińlegia, or pal- sy of one side. The second variety of vertigo, to which we have allu- ded, is attended with little hazard, though sometimes ve- ry distressing. It occurs in an opposite condition of the body, a state of nervous debility, and accompanies many of those anomalous affections which are comprehended under the appellations of hysteria and hyflochondriasis. This vertigo occurs in persons of a different tempera- ment from that above described; in thin and spare habits, or in those of a certain degree of corpulency, but pale and relaxed constitution. It is accompanied also by other symptoms characteristic of the hysterial and hypo- condriacal diseases; and cannot easily be"mistaken for the plethoric vertigo. The cure, of course, will depend up- on the general features of the whole complaint, of which the vertigo is but a passing symptom, and we need not here enlarge upon the subject. See HypochoNDRIASIS and HYSTERIA. There is a third variety of vertigo, which is also tran- sient and void of danger; which is a symptom of indiges- tion; and is connected with particular conditions of the stomach. This is not permanent, but comes on sudden- ly for a few seconds or minutes, and then goes off; but during this short interval, the person, if walking, will seize a rail, or post, or fix himself against a wall, to pre- serve his perpendicularity; or even if sitting, will be ob- liged to hold the back of his chair firmly, or to lean for- ward on the table for the same purpose. This slight attack is generally attended with a feeling of beginning nausea, which subsides with the vertigo. As this occurs in persons who are neither plethoric nor hypochondriacal, is unaccompanied by head-ache, and generally attended by flatulence, irregularity of bowels, or some other symptom of disturbance in the digestive organs, so it is easily distinguished from the preceding species. It is generally soon removed by the use of an absorbent, and gentle laxative, in some mode- rately cordial vehicle; as by a little carbonate and sul- phate of magnesia in mint-water, or in an infusion of cha- gº momile, or orange-peel; or by a portion of magnesia and rhubarb, or similar medicines. VERTIGO, in Animals. G.E.R.S. VERTILLAGE, in Agriculture, the tilling or pre- paring of ground to receive the seed, by turning, stir- ring, or tossing it. See APopLExY and STAG- VERTINAE, in Ancient Geography, a small town of Italy, in the interior of Lucania, according to Strabo. pººr OBRIGE, a town of Hispania, in Betica. Iny. VERTON, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Loir 4 miles N.E. of Nantes. VERTOT D’AUBCEUF, RENE’ AUBERT DE, in Biografthy, a French historian, was born in 1655, at the seat of Bennetot in Normandy. Inclined to retirement, he entered, at the early age of 15 or 16, among the Capu- chins, whose austerities so impaired his constitution, that he was under a necessity of obtaining a brief for exchang- ing this order for that of the regular canons of Prémon- tré, with which he connected himself in 1677. Some disputes, however, occurred in this order, which occa- sioned his abandoning it. After several changes of situa- tion, humorously called the “ Abbé de Vertot's revolu- tions,” he settled at Paris in 1701, where he was employ- ed in compiling the memoirs for the house of Noailles, engaged in a contest with that of Bouillon, for which ser- vice he obtained a pension. In 1705 he became a pen- sioner of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, which was revived in 1701; and afterwards occupied se- veral posts in connection with the duke and dutchess of Orleans. In 1715 he was appointed, by the grand mas- ter of Malta, historiographer to that order, with its atten- dant privileges, and the right of wearing the cross; and the commandery of Santeny was added to his other pre- ferments. Some have said that he was sub-preceptor to Lewis XV., but he was deprived of this honour. As he advanced in life, his infirmities increased, so that he died in 1735, at the age of 80. His disposition and character were highly estimable. His principal works were, “ L’Histoire des Revolutions de Portugal,” 1689, 12mo, much commended by Bouhours for its style, though the memoirs upon which it was founded were not worthy of confidence:–% L’Histoire des Revolutions de Suede,” 2 vols. 12mo. 1696, which is characterized as an interes- ting performance; though in this, as well as some other works, the author inclines to the romantic:- “L’Histoire des Revolutions Romaines,” 3 vols. 12mo, considered as his principal performance;—“Histoire de Chevaliers de Malthe,” 4 vols. 4to., and 7 vols. 12mo. 1727, less esteemed than the preceding:- « Traité de la Mouvance de Bretagne:”—“ Histoire cri- tique de l’Etablissement des Bretons dans les Gaules,” works that have not been popular:—“Origine de la Gran- deur de la Cour de Rome, et de la Nomination aux Evêchés et aux Abbayes de France,” a posthumous pub- lication. Several of his learned dissertations were inser- ted in the Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres. The abbé Mably appreciates Vertot highly as an histo- rian, from a preconceived notion that perfect history cor- responds very much with epic poetry; but by others he has been deemed a pleasing and eloquent writer, and de- nominated “ The French Quintus Curtius,” whilst his style has been extolled, and his manner of treating his subjects has been regarded as interesting. Some º: \ V E. R. V E R the best judges have disputed his thorough knowledge of mankind, and the accuracy of his research. Moreri. VERTUE, GEORGE, an eminent artist and antiquary, of whom we have given an account under the article EN- GRAVING, VERTUMNALIA, among the Romans, a festival ce- lebrated in honour of the god Vertumnus, in the month of October. VERTUMNUS, in Mythology, a god who presided over gardens and orchards, honoured among the Etrus- cans, from whom the worship of this deity was transmit- ted to the Romans. - Ovid (Met. lib. xiv.) has described the various forms assumed by this deity, in order to obtain the love of Po- mona. Some have supposed that Vertumnus, whose name they derive à vertendo, because he had power to change his form at pleasure, marked the year and its va- riations; and thus, they say, he pleased Pomona, by bring- ing the fruits to maturity. Eccordingly, Ovid says that he assumed the form of a labourer, reaper, vine-dresser, and old woman, to represent the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. - Vertumnus had a temple and a statue near the market- place at Rome, being represented as one of the tutelary deities of the merchants. To this Horace is supposed to allude, where, addressing his book, he says, “ Me- thinks, my book, you often turn your eye towards Ver- tumnus and Janus;” that is, you are longing to be hand- somely bound, and exposed to sale. Accordingly Vertumnus, says an ancient scholiast on Horace, “deus est preses vertendarum rerum,” i. e. “Ven- dendarum acemendarum.” At the feast instituted in honour of him, he was repre- sented as a young man crowned with different sorts of herbs, dressed in a robe, which reached to his middle; holding fruit in his left hand, and in his right a cornu- copia. The commentators on Ovid say, that he was an ancient king of Etruria, who, by his diligent and successful cul- tivation of fruits and gardens, obtained the honour of be- ing ranked among the gods. In proof of this, they refer to Propertius, eleg. l. iv. At Rome, in the street called tº vicus Thuscus,” was a statue of Vertumnus, of which Cicero spakes, on occasion of Verres’ avarice; “who is there but has traced thy avarice all along the way that leads from Vertumnus's statue to the great Circus:” VERTUS, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 15 miles S.W. of Châlons- sur-Marne. VERU, a comet according to some writers, resemb- ling a spit, being nearly the same as the lonchites, only its head is rounder, and its train longer and sharper Poin- ted. VERVA, a word used by some authors to express an ivory amulet to be worn for the epilepsy. VERVAIN, in Botany. See VERBENA. The common vervain, or verbena officinalis of Lin- naus, is very common on the sides of roads, foot-paths, and farm-yards, near habitations; for although there is scarcely any part of England in which this is not found in plenty, yet it is never found above a quarter of a mile from a house; which occasioned its being called simpler’s joy, because, wherever this plant is found growing, it is a sure token of a house being near; this is a certain fact, says Miller, but not easy to be accounted for. It is rare- Iy cultivated in gardens, but is brought to the markets by those who gather it in the fields. It is annual, and flow- ers in July or August. Vervain was used among the ancients at their sacrifi- ces, and was thought to contain something divine. The Romans, in the beginning of the year, made a present of this herb to their friends. It appears to be the Iseo. 8072, n, or regt sees a voc of Dioscorides. It is destitute of odour, but manifests a slight degree of astringency. The root, worn at the pit of the stomach, an infusion, and an ointment prepared from the leaves, are said to produce good effects in scrophulous cases. Morley’s Ess. On Scrophula. But this, says Dr. Withering, wants confirmation from the more rational and less enthusiastic practitioner. Its sensible qualities, says Dr. Lewis, afford little or no foundation for the abundance of virtues for which it has been celebrated. Its use in medicine seems to have originated from some superstitious idea of its efficacy, when suspended about the neck as an amulet. In or- der to obtain its virtues more effectually, the vervain was directed to be bruised before it was appended to the neck; and of its good effects thus used for inveterate head-aches, Forestus relates a remarkable instance. In still later times it has been employed in the way of ca- taplasm, by which we are told the most severe and ob- stinate cases of cephalalgia have been cured; for which we have the authorities of Etmuller, Hartmann, and more especially De Haen. Notwithstanding these testimonies in favour of ver- vain, it has deservedly fallen into disuse in Britain; nor has the pamphlet of Mr. Morley, written professedly to recommend its use in scrophulous affections, had the effect of restoring its medical character. This gentle- man directs the root of vervain to be tied with a yard of white sattin ribband round the neck, where it is to re- main till the patient recovers. He also has recourse to infusions and ointments prepared from the leaves of the plant; and occasionally calls in aid the most active medi- cines of the Materia Medica. Woodville’s Med. Bot. VERVAIN, Mallow. See MALvA and URENA. - VERUDA, in Geography, a small island in the Adri- atic, near the coast of Istria; 4 miles S. of Pola. * VERUES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afri- ca, in Mauritania Tingitana, S. of the Succosii and of the Macanitaº, according to Ptolemy. VERVIC, Geography. See WERwic. VERVIERS, a town of France, in the department of the Ourthe, situated on the river Weze. It was anci- ently walled, but when the French were masters of Lim- burg, they compelled the inhabitans of Verviers to demo- lish the walls. The body of citizens is represented by seven commissaries, appointed by the magistrates whose office is for life, independent of the bishop. The inhabitants carry on a very considerable traffic in cloth, which they export to Germany, the northern parts of Europe, Italy, and Turkey; 17 miles E.S.E. of Liege. N. lat. 50° 36'. E. long. 5° 53'. x VERVINS, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Aisne; 4 posts N. N. E. of Laon. N. lat. 49° 50'. E. long. 3° 58'. VERULAE, or VERULANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Latium, in the country of the Hernici, according to Florus. Frontinus reckons it in the num- ber of Roman colonies. VERULAM, in Geografi.hy. 4 I 2 See St. Alban’s. VERULAMIA, V E R V E. S VERULAMIA, in Botany, received this appellation from the learned Decandolle, now botanical professor at Geneva, in memory of our immortal BAcon, baron of Verulam; see that biographical article. That lord Ba- con’s speculations in natural knowledge may allow us to claim him as a botanist, we are two much interested in the honour of our science to dispute; but we must deep- ly regret that his real name, so universally known and venerated, was not preferred, to one which serves but to perpetuate the remembrance of his lamentable disgrace. We should, on any future occasion, presume to establish Baconia, in preference to the above, as being, in addition to the above reasons, authorised by Linnaean rule and custom. The characters of this genus, in a paper read before the French Institute, were communicated by the above author to M. Poiret, from whom we adopt them. —Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8. 543.—Class and order, Te- trandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubiacea, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-sha- ped, in four obtuse segments. Car. of one petal, funnel shaped, longer than the calyx; tube cylindrical, shorter than the limb, its orifice beset with hairs; limb in four spreading segments. Stam. Filaments four, short, in- serted into the upper part of the tube; anthers prominent, linear, twisted after discharging their pollen. Pist. Germen superior, nearly globular, umbilicated at the top; style thread-shaped, hardly so long as the anthers; stigma simple, cylindrical. Peric. Berry somewhat globular, compressed at the summit, nearly dry, of two cells. Seeds solitary, hemispherical, with a cartilaginous albumen, and straight cylindrical embryo. Ess. Ch. Corolla funnel-shaped, bearded in the mouth. Calyx four-cleft, inferior. Berry of two cells. Seeds solitary. 1. V. corymbosa. Decand. Mem. t. 1. unpublish- ed. Poiret n. 1.-Found by Mr. Stadman, in Africa, near Sierra Leone. A Shrub, differing from all the known ge- nera of this order besides, in having a superior germen. It is said to be most akin to GABRTNERA, but we know not what these writers intend under that name; certainly not what we, in its proper place, have described. The bran- ches are cylindrical and smooth. Leaves opposite, stal- ked, crossing each other in pairs, elliptical, entire, smooth on both sides, six or seven inches long, two or more in breadth. Stiftulas in pairs, entire, scarcely pointed, permanent. Flowers in terminal branched co- rymbs, without bracteas. Calyx wide, obtuse. Berry the size of a pea. VERULUM, VERo1.1, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Latium, at a small distance from Alatrium; exhibiting some relics of antiquity. VERU-MONTANUM, in Anatomy. RATION and URETHRA. VERURIUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of His- pania, in Lusitania. Ptolemy. VERUS, Lucius, in Biografthy, a Roman emperor, son of L. Verus, who had been adopted by Adrian, was born about A.D. 131; and on his father’s death, in 138, adopted by Titus Antoninus, at the same time with M. Aurelius. In early life Verus neglected all serious stu- dies, and attached himself to amusement and frivolous pursuits; and, therefore, T. Antoninus, at his death in 'i 61, devolved the imperial power solely on M. Aurelius; but this emperor, with an almost unexampled generosi- ty, declared Verus to be an associate in the empire, with the titles of Caesar and Augustus, and other appendages See GENE- of imperial authority; consolidating the union by mar- rying his daughter Lucilla to Verus; nor was the new emperor insensible of the condescension and kindness of his father-in-law. Upon an invasion of Armenia and Sy- ria by Vologeses, king of Parthia, Aurelius, with a view of rescuing Verus from the temptations of the capital, appointed him to the command of an army which mar- ched against this formidable foe. His attachment to li- centious pleasure and dissipating amusements disqulified him for a service so important; his march was slow; and on reaching the voluptuous capital, Antioch, in the year 162, he totally neglected all military operations, and for four years devoted himself to almost every species of li- centious gratification and idle amusement. At the con- clusion of the war, rendered successful by subordinate Roman commanders, he returned to Rome, and partook of a triumph with Aurelius. Such, however, was the pernicious effect of the course he pursued in Syria, that he addicted himself, without restraint, to all the follies and excesses which have disgraced the most profligate and contemptible of the Roman emperors. Cruelty ex- cepted, he vied in vice and folly with Nero and Caligula, or any of the imperial monsters that had preceded him. His virtuous colleague beheld his conduct with regret, and used every effort which wisdom could suggest for restraining and reforming him. With this view, he took Verus with him in the war against the Marcomanni, which commenced in the year 166. The two emperors wintered together at Aquileia; but Verus was soon tired of the war, and when the frontiers were secured from the barbarians, he determined to return to Rome. But up- on their route from Aquileia, in the year 169, he was seized with an apoplectic fit, which terminated his life in three days, in the 39th year of his age, and the ninth of his partnership in the empire. Aurelius interred him with magnificence, and culpably lavished all kinds of di’ vine honours upon his memory, whilst in his speech to the senate he expressed his satisfaction that death had re- moved an impediment to his designs and efforts for pro- moting the public welfare. Crevier. VERY Lord and VERY Tenant, are those that are im- mediate lord and tenant to one another. See LoRD and TENANT. VERZELLINO, in Ornithology, the name of a bird common in Italy, and kept in cages for its singing, cal- led by authors citrinella, and thraufis. VERZINO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Cala- bria Citra; 3 miles S.W. of Umbriatico. VERZUOLO, a town of Piedmont, a late France, in the department of the Stura, situated in a fruitful soil and salubrious air, near the Vratia. The country about it seems an agreeable garden, covered with fruit-trees, vines, pulse, &c. It is surrounded with an ancient wall, and flanked with towers. It has two parish-churches, besides several chapels and religious houses. It has also a castle or palace; 2 miles S. of Saluzzo. VERZY, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 9 miles S.E. of Rheims. VESALIUS, ANDREw, in Biography, a very eminent anatomist, was born at Brussels in 1513 or 1514; pursued his classical studies at Louvain, and with a view to medi- cine and anatomy, frequented the schools of Cologn, Montpellier, and Paris, attending, in the last-mentioned capital, the lectures of Gunther and James Sylvius. Up- on occasion of the war between Francis I. and Charles V. he was obliged to quit Paris, and in the Low Coun- -- - --- tries. V E S V E S tries he served as physician and surgeon in the imperial troops from 1535 to 1537. In the latter year he removed to Padua, and taught anatomy there with great applause till the year 1543. He afterwards delivered lectures in the schools of Bologna and Pisa, and in the beginning of 1544, he became physician to Charles V., and resided chiefly at the imperial court. In the midst of his ca- reer of professional reputation, a singular circumstance occurred. Being summoned to examine by dissection the body of a Spanish gentleman who died in 1564, and too precipitately commencing the operation, a palpita- tion was observed in the heart of the subject. This in- cident being known to the family, Vesalius was accused before the Inquisition, and in order to avert some dread- ful sentence, Philip II. interposed, and procured injunc- tion of a pilgrimage to the Holy Land as an expiatory penance. Accordingly the unfortunate anatomist went first to Cyprus, and from thence to Jerusalem. During his abode in that city, he received an invitation to occu- py the chair of anatomy at Padua. Having, as it is sup- posed, accepted this invitation, the vessel in which he was returning to Europe was wrecked on the coast of Zante, on which island he died in 1564, about the 50th year of his age. A jeweller of the island procured an honourable interment for his remains in the church of the Holy Virgin at Zante. Vesalius has been represented as the first person who rescued anatomical science from the slavery imposed up- on it by deference to ancient opinions, and who led the way to modern improvements. His first publication of note was a set of anatomical tables, entitled “ Suorum de Corporis Humani Anatome Lirborum Epitome,” Ba- sil, 1542, fol. max. The plates were for the most part given again in his great work, “De Corporis Humani Fabrica, Lib. Vl I.” Basil, 1543, fol. which has been frequently reprinted in several countries. He is most correct, says one of his biographers, in the bones, mus- cles, and viscera; the muscles, says Haller, he des- cribes more accurately than any other writer, to the time of Winslow. The earliest impressions of the plates are considered as the most valuable; but the author correc- ted his explanations in the second Basil edition, 1555. His treatise “De Radicis Chinae usu Epistola,” publish- ed in 1546, contains a severe critique on the anatomy of Galen, and a correction of his errors; and his reply to the defence of Galen by Fallopio is the subject of his “Anatomicarum Gabrielis Fallopii Observationum Ex- amen,” 1561. The medical and chirurgical writings of Vesalius are held in no high estimation. His paraphrase on the 9th book of Rhazes, published in 1537, is a com- pendium of medical practice. After his death, his dis- ciple, Borgarucci, published “Chirurgia Magna” under his name, a work scarcely worthy of its alleged author. An edition of all the anatomical and chirurgical works of Vesalius, with fine plates, was published under the care of Boerhaave and Albinus at Leyden, 1725, 2 vols. folio. Haller. Tiraboschi. Eloy. Gen. Biog. VESBOLA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in the vicinity of the Ceraunian mountains, about 60 stadia from Trebula, and 40 from Suna, attributed by Diony- sius Halicarnassus to the Aborigines. VESCAVATO, in Geography, a town of the island of Corsica; 9 miles N.E. of La Porta. VESCI, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Hispania, in the interior of Betica, at the foot of mount Illipula, be- longing to the Turduli. VESCIA, a town of Italy, in Ausonia. Livy mentions this town and its territory. VESCIS, a port of Hispania Citerior. VESCONTE, in Geografthy, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 3 miles N.W. of St. Severina. VESCOVATO, a town of Italy, in the department of the upper Po; 8 miles N.N.E. of Cremona. VESCOVIO, or V Escovio Dr SABINA, a town of the Popedom, in the province of Sabina; 12 miles S. of Narni. VESCOVO, LA, a town of Naples, in Principato Cit- ra; 14 miles W.S.W. of Amalfi. VESERIS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in Campania, on the plains at the foot of mount Vesuvius. Livy says that it was in this place that Decius devoted himself to the gods Manes, on occasion of a battle be- tween the Romans and Latins. VESICA, in Anatomy, a bladder; a membranous or skinny part in which any humour is contained. V Esic A Bilaria. See GALL-Bladder. VESICA, among Chemists, is a large copper vessel tinned on the inside, used in distilling ardent spirits; so called, as resembling the figure of a blown bladder. VESICAE Shhincter, in Anatomy. See SPHINCTER. VESICARIA, in Botany, a genus of Tournefort’s, thus named from the bladdery appearance of its very large inflated seed-vessel.—Tourn. Cor. 49. t. 483.− Linnaeus reduces this plant to Alyssum; see that article, n. 16. Tournefort makes a singular remark, that “if the root were fleshy, it would belong to the same genus as Leontohetalon;” see LEONTICE. He subsequently per- haps discovered it to be a true cruciform flower, as it undoubtedly is. No other botanist seems to have met with this plant; though Willdenow, like ourselves, had seen a dried specimen, and he finds fault, we think un- justly, with the figure. Tournefort met with this spe- cies in a bare and uncultivated valley of Armenia, not far from Baiboul, early in June. The root is woody, and appears to be perennial, crowned with tufts of linear, channelled, toothed, nearly smooth, bright-green leaves, not an inch long. Stems three or four inches high, sim- ple, clothed with smaller, more entire, leaves. Flowers corymbose, small, yellow. Pouch somewhat ovate, in- flated, four-sided, an inch long, and nearly as broad, membranous, smooth, with four longitudinal angles and ribs, and many reticulated veins, pale-green, purplish on one side, crowned by the permanent style. It consists of one cell, with two opposite, linear, marginal, mem- branous receptacles, into which the three or four oval seeds are inserted.—All things considered, we cannot but think this plant entitled to rank as a genus by itself, nor is the name exceptionable. Though not furnished with materials to draw up its full generic character, we can give the essential distinctions.—Class and order, Tetradynamia Siliculosa. Nat. Ord. Siliquosa, Linn. Cruciferae, Juss. ... " Ess. Ch. Pouch inflated, quadrangular, acute, of one cell, with two linear marginal receptacles. Seeds seve- ral. 1. V. dentata. Toothed Bladder-cress. (V. orienta- lis, foliis dentatis; Tourn. Cor. 49. Voyage, v. 2. 109, with a plate. Alyssum Vesicaria; Linn. Sp. Pl. 910. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 470. Mill. Diet. ed. 8. n. 9.)—Na- tive of Armenia. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that Miller merely adopted this plant from Tournefort, with- out having seen it alive, nor can we discover his author- --- - - ity Steph. Byz. V F. S v Es ity for saying the stems spread on the surface of the ground. They appear by our specimen, as well as by Tournefort's figure, to be upright. VESICATORY, VESICATor1UM. CANTH ARIDEs, and EMPLASTRUM. Vesicatories are a stronger sort of sinapisms, and a kind of potential cauteries. i VESiCULA, VESIcLE, a diminutive of vesica; signi- ſying a little bladder. - The lungs consist of vesiculae, or lobules of vesiculae, admitting air from the bronchiae; and not only air, but also dust, &c. There are several parts in the body which bear this appellation; as, V Esic ULA Fellis, Cistula Fellis. See GALL-Bladder. Vesiculae Seminales. See GENERATION. V EsicU Le Seminales. These vessels are very evident in fish; the females of most fish have double ovaria, though in some they are single, as in the osmerus, and perca fluviatilis of Bellonius; but the vesiculae seminales in the males are two in number in all fish, not excepting the males of those here mentioned. They differ, how- ever, very much in regard to their figure and situation. As to their situation, they in some fish occupy almost the whole length of the abdomen, as in the spinose kinds in general, and in the petromyzum, acipenser, and many of the other cartilaginous kinds. In some fish, they are placed only in the lower part of the abdomen, as in the cetaceous kinds, &c. As to figure, in the generality of fish they are oblong and compressed, but in some they are round, as in the cel aceous kinds. The other parts of generation are wanting in most fish. Artedi's Ichthyology. VEsicULAE Adifiosae. See ADEPs, and CELLULA: Adi- fios 42. VESICULAR GLANDs. See GLANDs. VESIDIA, or VERSIGLIA, in Ancient Geografi.hy, a small river of Italy, in Etruria. VESINNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne; 10 miles S.E. of St. Florentin. VESIONIC ME, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in Umbria, S.W. of Iguvium. V ESIRE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Lignon, near its union with the Loire. VESLE, a river of France, which runs into the Aisne, near Veilly.—Also, a river of France, which runs into the Sãone, opposite Varenne-le-Grand. VESLING, John, in Biografthy, a physician, anato- mist, and botanist, was born at Minden, in Westphalia, in the year 1598; and having studied medicine at Padua, he travelled into Egypt, and upon his visit to Jerusalem, he became a knight of the Holy Sepulchre. Upon his return, he was appointed, in 1652, to occupy the first chair of anatomy at Padua, lecturing also in surgery and botany, and in 1638 superintending the botanical garden. In order to enrich this garden, he travelled to Candia, and other parts of the Levant, where he collected a large number of rare plants. At length, exhausted by his labours, he died at Padua in 1649, at the age of 51 years. See BLISTER, As an anatomist, he published “Syntagma Anatomicum publicis Dissectionibus diligenter aptatum,” Patav. 1641, and again with additions and figures, Patav. 1647; a work which has been often reprinted and translated, into vari- ous languages, and which, though for the most part a compilation, contains new observations, especially per- taining to the organ of hearing. A posthumous work, entitled “De Pullitione AEgyptiorum, et aliae Observa- tiones Anatomicae, et Epistolae Medicae posthumae,” Hafn. 1664, is highly commended by Haller, and contains some curious observations on the hatching of eggs in Egypt, and evolution of parts of the chick, the anatomy of the viper, crocodile, and hyaena, the human lacteals and lymphatics, &c. His principal publications in botany were, “De Plantis AEgypti Observationes, et Notae ad P. Alpinum,” Patav. 1638; “Opobalsami Veteribus cogniti Vindiciae,” Patav. 1644; and “ Catalogus Planta- rum Horti Patavini,” Patav. 1642-1644. Haller. Eloy. VESLY, in Geography. See VEILLY. VESOUL, a city of France, and capital of the depart- ment of the Upper Sãone, situated on a mountain, called Mott de Vesoul; near it is a medicinal spring; 5% posts N. of Besançon. N. lat. 47° 38'. E. long. 6° 14'. VESPA, Wash, in Entomology, a genus of the Hy- menoptera order of insects, the characters of which are these: the mouth horny; the jaw compressed, without proboscis; the palpi or feelers four, unequal, filiform; the antennae filiform, the first joint being longer and cylin- dric; the eyes lunated; the body smooth; the sting con- cealed; and the upper wings plicated. This is a very extensive genus, comprehending, in Gmelin's System of Linnaeus, 159 species; but in the history and arrange- ment of this species there remains much confusion. We may observe in general, that they are remarkable, like those of the apis, or bee, for the dexterity with which they construct their nests, which in those of many species is of considerable size. We shall confine ourselves, in this article, to a description of two species; viz. the Vul- garis and Crabro. VULGAR1s; or Common Wasp. This has an interrup- ted small line on both sides of the thorax; a four-spotted scutellum, and the incisions of the abdomen marked with black spots. It is suggested by Dr. Shaw, that the V. vulgaris of Linnaeus, which he represents as building its nest under projecting roofs, may not be the same with the common English wasp, so well known to us, which builds its nest under ground; as under the surface of some dry bank. M. Reaumur (Hist. Acad. Sc. Paris, 1719,) and Dr. Derham (Phil. Trans. N° 382. p. 53, or Abr. vol. viii. p. 404.), agrees in distinguishing three sorts of wasps; viz. the queens or females, the males, and the common labouring wasps, called mules, which, according to Reaumur, are neither males nor females, and consequently barren. The queens, of which there is a considerable number, though fewer than the males, and of course much fewer than the neutral or labouring wasps, are much longer in the body, and larger than any other wasp: they have a large heavy belly, correspond- ing in size to the prodigious quantity of eggs with which they are charged. The males are less than the queens, but longer and larger than the common wasps, which are the smallest of the species: they have no stings, with which both the queens and common wasps are furnished. There are in one nest two or three hundred males, and as many females; but their number depends on the size of the nest; and Dr. Derham observed that the males were bred, or at least mostly resided, in the two cells or partings, between the combs, next to the uppermost cell. The antennae or horns of the male wasps are long- er and larger than those of either of the other sorts; but the chief difference, says Dr. Derham, consists in their parts of generation, which are altogether different from those of other wasps. The mules are the labourers belonging to the nest, and V E S P A and are employed in procuring materials for the nests, and in constructing them, and also in furnishing the other wasps, and the young, with provisions. M. Reaumur has observed, that when the females that: have survived the winter begin, at the return of spring, to lay their eggs, they first lay those which hatch mules, and at this time they build cells of a smaller size to lodge the eggs from which they are produced: they afterwards build larger cells, and fill them with the largest eggs, which are those of the males and females. says, that the copulation of the males and females is visible, and he has given a particular account of it; ob- serving that it is performed in October, like that of all other flies. - At the beginning of winter the wasps destroy all the eggs, and all the young ones without exception; all the mules and males which have been employed in this work, being unfurnished with provisions, perish; and none sur- vive, except some few females, which, according to Reaumur, were fecundated in October, and raise a new colony in the beginning of spring. The wasps construct regular combs, and rear their young in the cells of these combs, in the manner of bees: wherever there is a young worm in a cell, the old wasps frequently thrust their heads into it, and cast up the food, being a coarse kind of honey, for the young one out of their mouths: their cells are hexagonal; and when they have a mind to enlarge their habitations, and make more or bigger combs in them, they are seen very busily com- ing out of the mouth of the hole, very one loaded with a parcel of earth, till they have carried out as much as is necessary for the intended enlargement. They support their combs, one over another, by cross- pieces of about an inch long, so that there is ample room for the wasps to pass in their several businesses. Those cells which stand in the centre of a comb are always per- pendicular; the others all stand more or less obliquely; and in the centre, the comb is somewhat hallowed and depressed on the face, and convex on the back; and in this part is inserted the principal cross-piece that serves for a support. A wasp’s nest is commonly round, or oval, measuring about ten or twelve inches in diameter, and made of materials resembling the coarser kinds of whitish-brown paper. These materials consist of the fibres of various dry vegetable substances, agglutinated by a tenacious fluid, discharged from the mouths of the insects during their operations. The common covering of it, which is formed of several leaves or layers, with intermediate spaces, is pierced by two holes at a distance from one another, one of which is used for the entranee of the wasps, and the other only for their exit. The space within this covering is cut by a number of horizontal planes, with intervals between them of the size of about half an inch; they are suspended from one another by ligaments, and attached to the covering by their edges; they all have hexagonal cells in their lower surface. The eggs, larvae, or maggots of the wasp are of an oblong form, and resemble those of a common fly, but they are larger; they are always fastened to the angles of a cell, never to the sides of it. They are usually placed single: it is very rare to find two in one cell; and, if they are laid so, it seems that only one succeeds; for there is never found more than one worm in a cell. The heads of all the nymphs are turned toward the Centre of the comb, and their tails go obliquely downward This writer toward the base of the cell. They are continually seen opening their mouths, and moving their forcipes, seem- ing ever hungry, and impatiently waiting for food from their parents. The cells are left open till the nymph is at its full growth; then the wasps cover it over with a thin lid, under which the worm undergoes its transfor- mation; and as soon as it arrives at the wasp state, it eats its way through this thin cover, and comes to work with the rest. The wasps do not, like bees, prepare and lay up, a store of honey for winter use, but the few which survive the season of their birth remain torpid during the colder months. Wasps in general are both carnivorous and frugivorous. CRABRo; or Hornet. This hastits thorax black on the fore part, and unspotted, having the incisures of the ab- domen marked with a double contiguous black spot. This species is of a much more formidable nature than the common wasp, and of considerably larger size: its colour is a tawny yellow, with ferruginous and black bars and variegations. The nest of this species is ge- nerally built in the cavity of some decayed tree, or im- mediately beneath its roots; and not unfrequently in timber-yards, and other similar situations. It is of small- er size than that of the wasp, and of a somewhat globu- lar form, with an opening beneath; the exterior shell consisting of more or fewer layers of the same strong paper-like substance with that prepared by the wasp: the cells are also of a similar nature, but much fewer in number, and less elegantly composed. The hornet, like the wasp, is extremely voracious, and preys on almost any kind of fresh animal substances which it can obtain, as well as on honey, fruit, &c. &c. Its sting is greatly to be dreaded, and is often productive of very serious con- sequences. A highly elegant wasp’s-nest is sometimes seen during the summer season, attached, or hanging as it were, by . its base to some straw or other projecting substance, from the upper part of unfrequented buildings or out- houses. It does not much exceed the size of an egg, but is of a more globular form, and consists of several con- centric bells, with considerable intervals between each, the interior alone being entire, and furnished with a small round orifice; the rest reaching only about two-thirds from the base of the nest. In the centre of the complete or entire bell is situated the congeries of cells, built round a small central pillar attached to the base: the cells are not very numerous, and their orifices look down- wards. This nest is attributed by M. Latreille, in the work entitled “ Annales du Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle,” No. 4. to the Vespa Holsatica of Fabricius, and appears to be found both in England and France, as well as in many other parts of Europe. Shaw’s Zoology, vol. vi. Mr. Ray mentions a peculiar species of wasp, which builds a much smaller nest. This is usually fixed to a beam of some old building, and has only one aperture, which is about half an inch wide, and serves for the Wasps to go in and out at. This aperture is always exactly opposite to that part of the hive where it adheres to the beam. The hive or nest is covered with a thin membra- naceous substance resembling paper, of a brown colour, with streaks of white, disposed in regular circles. The whole nest is about three inches in diameter, and is usu- ally composed of about nine crusts; when these are cut away, there appears a round comb in the centre, and a - • * smaller V E S. V E S smaller above it, fixed up by a pedicle arising from the centre of each. In every one of these cells, which are hexagonal, as those of the common wasp, is reared one worm, which, in fine, becomes a wasp. The species of wasp which builds in this manner dif- fers from the common wasp in that it is somewhat larger; it is smoother also, and has rings of a deeper yellow on the back: the black spots are not so regular in this as in the common wasp; and the forehead in this is of a per- fect yellow, without any spots. These marks, with the differences of hanging a small nest against a beam, and building a large one in the ground, are sufficient to dis- tinguish this as an absolutely different species. Besides these two, Mr. Ray mentions four other species of wasps. We have an account in the Philosophical Transac- tions, No. 476, of some wasp-nests made of clay in Penn- sylvania. M. Reaumur, in his History of Insects, vol. vi. men- tions clay-nests from St. Domingo, somewhat different from these. The common wasp has four wings and six feet; its bo- dy is yellow, with black triangular spots: the common wasp breeds in the ground. There is another kind much more fierce, but very rare: these breed in woods and mountains; they are lar- ger, and have broader bodies, and much more black about them; their sting is so large, that it seems dispro- portioned to the size of their bodies. The application of vinegar is said to be good against their stinging. To these are to be added the ichneumon wasps, which are smaller than the others, and have very slender bo- dies, but of the same colours with the common kind; these usually live in the holes of mud-walls, and make a sort of porch of mud before the doors of their habitations. Of this insect, Mr. Ray mentions not less than thirty- two species; the greater part of which are common on the sides of mud-banks in the borders of fields. These have all slender bodies, and are armed with stings. The origin of this creature is very strange; it is usual- ly found issuing from the body of the common cabbage caterpillar; the occasion of which is this: the parent fly strikes her tail through the skin of the back of this ca- terpillar, and deposits her eggs in the creature’s flesh. The eggs hatch into small maggots of the carnivorous kind; and these prey upon the flesh of the caterpillar till they arrive at their full growth: the creature that supports them keeping itself alive all this time by the vast quan- tities of nourishment it is continually taking in. At length, when these worms are arrived at their full growth, they spin themselves a web, under which they change into chrysales, and soon after come out in form of the fly that laid the egg. This is not peculiar to this single species of fly; but many are formed thus in the bodies of caterpillars of several kinds: some of these spin their webs under the skin of the caterpillar and eat their way through it, when arrived at their perfect state; but others crawl out while yet in their worm state, after hav- ing eaten their full time, and bury themselves under ground in order to spin their webs. There is also another wasp common about Vienna; this is three times as large as the common kind, and seems of two different species, the one having rough antennae, and the other smooth: they are both variegated with black and a bright yellow. Mouffet's Hist. Insects, p. 6. VESPA-Ichneumon. See the preceding article. VESPASIAF, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in the country of the Sabines, on the summit of a moun- tain, six miles from Nursia. Many monuments indicat- ing the antiquity of the Vespasian family, are found in this place, according to Suetonius. VESPASIAN, TITUs FLAvius VESPAsianus, in Bio- grafhy, a Roman emperor, was born near Reate, in the country of the Sabines, A.D. 7, and brought up by his paternal grandmother near Cosa, in Tuscany. In the year 38 he was edile, and disgraced himself by his adula- tion of the tyrant Caligula: actuated by the same mean spirit, he married Domitia or Domitilla, the mistress of a Roman knight. In the reign of Claudius he distinguish- ed himself by the command of a legion, obtained for him by the interest of Narcissus, first in Germany, and afterwards in Great Britain, and he was rewarded for his services by the triumphal ornaments, a double priest- hood, and at last a consulate. During the early years of Nero's reign he lived in retirement, but at length he was appointed proconsul of Africa; and in this office he in- curred the detestation of the people, according to Taci- tus, whereas Suetonius says, that he discharged his du- ties with integrity and dignity. By way of reconciling these contradictory accounts, it has been stated, that in levying the public impositions on the province he was rigorous, whilst he exacted nothing for himself, and that he administered justice with impartiality. Upon his re- turn he was reduced to pecuniary embarrassments, from which he was relieved by mortgaging his landed proper- ty, and by some mean practices. In the attentions ex- pected from a courtier he was deficient; for he is said to have fallen asleep during one of Nero's public musical performances, and to have thus hazarded his ruin. He accompanied this emperor in his tour to Greece, and A.D. 66, he was appointed imperial lieutenant in the Jewish war. In this station he had full scope for exhi- biting his good qualities as a military commander. With three legions, a body of cavalry, and ten auxiliary co- horts, he invaded Judaea, his son Titus serving under him as lieutenant. His progress was irresistible; and af- ter capturing Jotapa and Joppa, and reducing almost the whole of Galilee, he withdrew to Caesarea, where he witnessed the conflict of two Jewish parties, who were destroying one another. Whilst he was preparing for the siege of Jerusalem, the death of Nero, A.D. 68, presented to him new prospects. As soon as he recei- ved intelligence of the accession of Galba, he sent his son Titus to pay homage to the new emperor; but on his journey Titus received an account of the murder of the emperor. This event produced a contest between Otho and Vitellius for the imperial throne. Vespasian decla- red for Vitellius, who, by Otho's death, was ieft in pos- session of the throne. But the new emperor was both hated and despised; and Vespasian’s reputation was so generally acknowledged in the East, that in the year 69 he was proclaimed emperor by the legions of Judea, Syria, and Egypt, and his sovereignty was every where recognized. When Italy submitted to his name, Ves- pasian was at Alexandria; and as the senate and people concurred in his elevation to the imperial throne, he left this city A.D. 70, and hastened to Rome, where his arrival was eagerly expected. He was received with general congratulation and rejoicing; and his conduct confirmed the hopes that were entertained at the com- mencement of his reign. To the revival of the ancient discipline of the army his first attention was directed; and as soon as he assumed the censorial office, he revised the - list V E S V E S list of senators and knights, displacing the unworthy, and augmenting the number by the admission of several meritorious citizens. Whilst he restrained luxury by his example and authority, and administered justice with impartiality, he manifested in his general conduct the clemency and mildness of his disposition. He avoided every kind of parade, nor did he ever attempt to disguise the meanness of his origin. With the senators he lived upon easy and familiar terms, receiving and returning their visits; and, as an historian observes, acting the em- peror only by his vigilance for the public welfare. The principal blemish of his character was his avarice. Ac- cordingly, he had recourse to various mean and oppres- sive expedients for raising money. Nevertheless, the wealth which he accumulated by sordid methods was destributed with munificence, in improving the capital and the country, and in providing for poor senators, for literary professors, and for the encouragement of the al"tS. If we advert to the public events of his reign, the first year was distinguished by the termination of the rebel- lion of the Guals under Civilis, and the capture of Jeru- salem by Titus; and in the following year he shut the temple of Janus, and erected a magnificent temple to peace. In the year 72, Comagene was reduced to a Ro- man province by the deposition of its king Antiochus. The liberty granted to the people of Greece by Nero, in recompence of their adulation, was restricted A.D. 73, on account of some tumults which occurred, and they were again subjected to tribute and the Roman government. The island of the AEgean sea were likewise constituted a Roman province, and Rhodes was made the metro- polis. The honour of this reign was justly reproached for the death of the virtuous patriot Helvidius Priscus, who, for freedom of speech, and action scarcely compa- tible with monarchical government, was first banished and afterwards sentenced to death by the senate, a sen- tence which, it is said, was executed by the contrivance of Mucianus, contrary to the orders of Vespasian. The tragical fate of Sabinus, and his wife Eponina, was very derogatory to the character for clemency by which he was distinguished. (See SABINUs.) Vespasian has also been blamed for the banishment of the Stoic and Cynic philosophers from Rome, under an apprehension that they were enemies to absolute power. This emperor, having enjoyed the benefit of a good constitution to advan- ced age, was attacked with a fever in the insalubrious climate of Campania, and having drank too copiously of a cold mineral water, he was seized with a complaint in his bowels, which soon reduced him to a state of perilous debility. Apprised of his danger, and jesting upon the usual imperial apotheosis, he said, “ In my opinion, I am going to become a god.” Afterwards, as he found himself fainting, he attempted to rise out of his bed, ob- serving, that “an emperor ought to die standing.” He expired in the arms of his attendants, in June A.D. 79, in the seventieth year of his age, and tenth of his reign; lamented by the Roman people, who under his govern- ment had enjoyed several years of peace. Titus, one of his sons, was the great support of his father’s throne, and the other, Domitian, was the cause of much trouble and vexation to him. Tacitus. Suetonius. Crevier. VESPER, in Astronomy, called also Hesſierus, and the evening star, is the planet Venus, when she is east- ward of the sun, and consequently sets after him. See VENUs. Vol. XXXVIII. VESPER, in Geografthy, a small island in the Pacific ocean, about 36 miles in circumference, discovered by Roggewin in 1722; about 60 miles W. of Pernicious isl- and. - VESPERIES, in Ancient Geography, a town of His- pania Citerior, belonging to the Varduli; situated N.E. of Flaviobriga. VESPERS, in the Romish Church, Evening Song, that part of the office which is rehearsed after noon; an- swering to our evening fºrayers; except that it differs more from the office of the morning, called matins. VESPERs, Sicilian, denote a famous era in the French history; or a general massacre of all the French in Sicily, in the year 1282, to which the first toll that called to vespers was the signal. Some will have it to have happened on Easter eve; others on the day of the Annunciation; but most authors assign it to Easter day. It is ascribed to one Prochites. a Cordelier, at the time when Charles of Anjou, count of Provence, was king of Naples and Sicily. The women with child by Frenchmen were not spared. After the like manner we say, the matins of Moscow, speaking of the Muscovites assassinating their prince Demetrius, and all the Poles, his adherents, at Moscow, the 27th of May, 1600, under the conduct of their duke Choutsky, at six o'clock in the morning; and French ma- tims to the massacre of St. Bartholomew, in 1572. VESPERTILIO, Bat, in Zoology, a genus of the order Primates, in the class of Mammalia; which, though ranked by Linnaeus in the order of Primates, differs greatly from the rest. The charaters of this genus aré, that the teeth are erect, sharp-pointed, and approximated; and that the hands are palmated with a membrane sur- rounding the body, and giving the animal the power of flight. Dr. Shaw observes, that the curious formation of these animals cannot be contemplated without admira- tion; the bones of the extremities being continued into long and thin processes, connected by a most delicate membrane or skin, capable, from its thinness, of being contracted at pleasure into innumerable wrinkles, so as to lie in a small space.when the animal is at rest, and to be stretched to a very wide extent for occasional flight. The species of this extraordinary genus are numerous, and may be divided into the tailed and tailless bats. Gmelin, in his edition of the Linnaean System, enumerates twen- ty-three species, and distributes them into several divi- sions, according to the number of the fore-teeth in the upper and lower jaw. * Bats with four Fore-teeth in both Jaws. VAMPYRUs. Tailless bat, with the nose simple, or without any appendage, and the flying membrane divid- ed between the thighs. This is the ternate bat of Pen- nant; and this, or the variety & of Gmelin, the colour of which is chiefly black, is the V. ingens of Clusius, the V. volans of Bontius, the chien volant of Daubenton, and roussette of Buffon. Gimelin enumerates two other va- rieties, differing in size and colour; one the great bat of Edwards, or rougette of Buffon, and the other the lesser ternate bat of Pennant. See VAMPyRE. SPECTRUM. Tailless bat, with a funnel-shaped, sharp- pointed membrane on the nose. This is the andira gua- cu, vespertilio cornutus of Piso, the vampyre of Buffon, or spectre bat of Pennant. See VAMPYRE. 4 H. PERSPICILLATUS. VESPERTILIS. PERspicili.Arus. A tailless bat, with a nose furnished with a plane le. f acuminated. This is found in South America, and is supposed by some to be the javelin bat of Pennant. SPASMA. A tailless bat, with a doubly heart-shaped leaf-like membrane on the nose. This is the glis Volans ternatanus of Seba, and cordated bat of Pennant. The colour is reddish-brown; the extent of wing about fifteen inches, and length of body nearly four, inches; it is a nar tive of Ceylon and the Molucca islands. Hastatus. A tailless bat, with a trefoil-shaped up- right membrane on the nose. This is the javelin bat of Pennant, with large pointed ears, a membrane at the nose in the form of an ancient javelin, with two upright processes on each side, cinereous fur, and of the size of the common bat: synonimous, according to Pennant, with the V. perspicillatus of Linnaeus, and inhabiting the warmer parts of America. SoRicinus. A tailless hat, with lengthened-snout, fur- nished with a heart-shaped, leaf-like membrane. This is the leaf bat of Pennant, and bat from Jamaica of Ed- wards; with small rounded ears, a web between the hind- legs; fur of a mouse colour, tinged with red, and size of the common bat. Found in South America. LEpoRINUs. Tailed bat, with the upper lip bifid. This is the Peruvian bat of Pennant. It has a head resem- bling that of a pug-dog; the ears are large and straight, sharp at the ends, and pointing forwards; tail inclosed in the membrane which joins to each hind-leg, and suppor- ted by two long cartilaginous ligaments, involved in the membrane; colour of the fur iron-grey; body of the size of a middling rat, and extent of wing two feet five inches. * * Fore-teeth in the uſifier Jaw four, in the lower six. AURITUs. Tailed bat, with simple or inappendicula- ted mouth and nose, and double ears larger than the head. This is the long-eared English bat of Edwards, the oreiller of Buffon, and the long-eared bat of Pennant. This very much resembles the next species, but is rather smaller, and the fur has less of the reddish tinge; but it is distinguished by the very large size of the ears, which are more than an inch long, and very considerably wide; slightly rounded at the tips, and furnished internally with a kind of secondary auricle or internal flap, so pla- ced as to serve by way of a valve or guard to the audito- ry passage. MURINUs. Tailed bat, with simple nose, and ears smaller than the head. This is the chauve-souris of Buf- fon, the short-eared English bat of Fdwards, and the common bat of Pennant. It is about two inches and a half from the nose to the tip of the tail, and the extent of the wings, fully expanded, is about nine inches: it is of a mouse-colour, tinged with reddish; the wings and ears black, the latter being small and rounded. -- This and the former bats are the two most common species in this country; and they are those which are seen fluttering about in the evenings of summer and autumn; often uttering a sharp, stridulous note or scream during their flight, and pursuing the various insects on which they feed, particularly moths. They are some- times taken by throwing up the heads of burdock whi- tened with flour, being thus caught by the hooked pric- kles and brought to the ground. The bat is, like the mouse, capable of being tamed to a certain degree. In- sects are its favourite food, though it will not reject raw flesh when offered; so that the notion that bats go down chimneys and gnaw men’s bacon is not improbable. The vulgar opinion, that bats, when on a flat surface, can- not get on the wing again, is erroneous. Bats are com- monly supposed to produce two at a birth, which they suckle for a considerable time. When recently born, they adhere so tenaciously to the breast of the parent, as not to be removed without great difficulty: they lodge in great numbers in the cavities of old buildings, under the projections of walls, in the hollows of trees, in rocky pla- ces, &c. &c. In these recesses they lie torpid during winter, till the warmth of the vernal atmosphere invites them abroad to make their evening excursions. When taken torpid, and brought into a warm situation, they awake from their slumber, and again expand their wings. During their state of torpidity, the circulation of the blood is not perceivable in the smaller vessels, but when awakened by warmth, it becomes visible by the micro- scope. Bats are said to drink on the wing by sipping the surface, like swallows, as they play over pools and streams. They are fond of frequenting waters, not only for the sake of drinking, but on account of the insects that hover over them. The general appearance of the bat, together with its nocturnal flight, excites the idea of something that is hideous and dismal; and therefore the ancients consecrated it to Proserpine, and conceived it as one of her dusky regions; and hence painters, in their representations of fiends and demons, usually exhibit them with the leathern wings of the bat. It is also no less evident, that the larger bats of India and Africa . might, by a little poetical exaggeration, serve very well in a general description of the fabulous Harpies. Spal- lanzani, having found that bats would fly in the darkest chamber with precision, and without touching the walls, discovered also the same exactness in their motions, when their eyes were closely covered; and he even de- stroyed the eyes and covered their sockets with leather; and in this state they were equally accurate in all their movements. Similar experiments were tried by several other naturalists with the same result. In order to ac- count for these phenomena, professor Jurin of Geneva makes a variety of pertinent observations. Neither the touch, nor ear, nor smell, nor taste, is sufficient in his opinion to supply the want of sight; but from some ana- tomical investigations of these animals, he concluded that a very large proportion of nerves is expanded on the upper jaw, the muzzle, and the organ of hearing; and these appeared to him, in a great degree, to account for the extraordinary faculty above-mentioned. Mr. Car- lisle’s observations on this subject lead us to conclude that the sense of hearing in the bat is extremely delicate, and that this is one of the principal causes of the dexte- rity with which these animals, even when blinded, avoid objects which would impede their flight. Mr. Carlisle found, that when the external ears of the V. auritus in a state of blindness were closed, it struck against the sides of the room, without being at all aware of its situation. These bats refused every kind of food for four days, as was also the case with others which were preserved in a dark box for above a week. During the day-time they w-re very desirous of retirement and darkness; and, while confined to the box, never moved nor endeavoured to get out during the whole day, and when spread on the carpet, they crawled slowly to a dark corner or crevice. At sun-set the scene was quite changed; every one of them then endeavoured to scratch its way out of the box; a continued VESPERTILIO. a continued chirping was heard, and no sooner was the Iid of their prison opened than each was active to escape, either flying away immediately, or running nimbly to a convenient place for taking wing. When these bats were first collected, several of the females had young ones clinging to their breasts in the act of sucking. One of them flew with perfect ease, though two little ones were thus attached to her, which weighed nearly as much as their parent. All the young were destitute of down, and of a black colour. Noctul.A. Tailed bat, with nose and mouth simple; oval ears, and very small valves. This is the noctule of Buffon, and great bat of Pennant. This species is lar- ger than the V. auritus, its extended wings measuring from fourteen to fifteen inches; the length from the nose to the tip of the tail being about four inches and a half; the nose is slightly bilobated; the eyes are small and rounded; the body is fleshy and plump; the shoulders very thick and muscular; the fur very soft and glossy, and of a bright chesnut-colour. This is an inhabitant of Britain and France; and is said to be common in some parts of Russia, sheltering in caverns. It flies high in the air in search of food, and does not skim near the sur- face, like the smaller bats. It has been found occasion- ally in great numbers under the eaves of old buildings, and its smell is generally strong and unpleasant. SERoti NUs. Tailed yellowish bat, with short emar- ginated ears. This is the serotine of Buffon; its length from nose to rump two inches and a half. A native of France, and found in Russia. PIPISTRELLUs. Tailed blackish-brown bat, with con- vex front and ovate emarginated ears, scarcely longer than the head. The pipistrelle of Buffon and of Pen- nant. This is a small species, and found in France. The length from nose to rump scarcely an inch and a quarter; the extent of wings somewhat more than six inches. & BARBASTELLUs. Tailed bat, with elevated hairy checks, and large ears angulated on the lower part. The barbastelle of Buffon and of Pennant. Length abo it two inches from nose to tail; extent about ten in- ches; upper part of the body dusky-brown, lower part ash-coloured; ears broad and long; nose short; cheeks full; and end of the nose flattened. Found in France. HISPIDUs. Tailed hairy bat, with channelled nostrils, and long narrow ears. The bearded bat of Pennant; a small species: above reddish-brown; beneath whitish, tin- ged with yellow; nostrils open; hair on the forehead and under the chin very long; tail included in a very veiny membrane. * * * Fore-teeth in the upper Jaw four, in the lower eight. Pictus. Tailed bat, with simple nose, and funnel- shaped appendiculated ears. The autre chauve-souris of Buffon, and striped bat of Pennant. A Ceylonese species, measuring from nose to the end of the tail two inches; above brown; wings striped with black, or with tawny and brown; changing in colour of the body, which is reddish-brown, with the under parts whitish; the nose small and short; the ears short, broad, and pointing lor- wards. * * * * Fore teeth in the unfier Jaw two, in the lower six. Nigºrt A. Tailed yellowish-brºwn be , with tie fore- part of the head, the feet, and the tail b.cº.k. T. Sene- gal bat of Pennant, with a long head, nose a little poin- ted, ears short and pointed, head and body tawny-brown, mixed with ash-colour; under parts paſer; the two last joints of the tail extending beyo.d the membrane; length from nose to rump above four inches; extent of wing twenty-one inches. A native of Senegal. ' * * * * * Fore-teeth in the upper Jaw two, in the lower jour. MoLossus. Tailed bat, with pendulous upper lip, and long tail, stretching beyond the connecting membrane. This is the bull-dog bat of Pennant, which has a thick nose; broad and round ears; the upper part of the body of a deep ash-colour, the lower paler; the five last joints of the tail disengaged from the membrane; length above two inches; extent of wings nine and a half. Found in the West Indies. Gmelin reckons two varieties, one greater, the autre chauve-souris of Buffon, and the other lesser, the autre chauve-souris of Buffon. Found in the American isl- ands. * * * * * * Four-teeth in the thfier Jaw two, in the lower 720726. CEPHALOTEs. Tailed yellowish-grey bat, with large head, extended lips, spiral nostrils, subocular warts, and small ears without valves. This is a native of the Mo- lucca isles: the end of the tail reaches beyond the mem- brane; the tongue covered with papillae and minute spines; the claw or thumb joined to the wing by a mem- brane, and the first ray of the wing terminated by a claw; the head and back of a greyish-ash colour; length from nose to rump three inches and three-quarters; extent of wings about fifteen. * * * * * * * Fore-teeth in the upper Jaw none, in the *. lower four. LEPTURUs. Tailed bat, with tubular nostrils, slender tail, and a purse-shaped cavity on the interior part of each of the wings. This is the pouched pat of Pennant. The colour of the body is cinereous-brown; the under parts pale; length an inch and a half. A native of Surinam. FERRUM Equin UM. Bat with horse-shoe shaped nose; ears without valves; and tail half the length of the body. This is the fer-a-cheval of Buffon. The upper part of the body is deep cinereous; the lower part whitish. Gmelin mentions two varieties, greater and smaller, which may be the male and female, the greater above three inches and a half long from the nose to the tip of the taij, and extent of the wings above fourteen. Found in France, very rarely in England; also about the Caspian SČ3. * * * * * * * * Wo Fore-teeth. NoveBoRAcENsis. Long-tailed ferruginous bat, with short sharp lose, short round ears, and wºite spot at the base of each wing. This is the New York bat of Pen- nant; 23 inches long from nose to tail; tai: 14% inch; ex- tent of wings 10% inches; head shaped hike that of a mouse; tip of the nose bifid; tail inclosed in a conic-sha- ped membrane; head, body, and upper side of the mem- brane inclosing the tail, covered with long soft hair of a uright tawny colour; the wings thin, naked, and tººlsky, and the bonds of the hind legs very slender. A native of North America, and also found in New Zealand. 4 H 2 - ######### JWu màe?" V E S V E S * * * * * * * * * Wumber and Order of Fore-teeth un- Ánown to Gmelin. LAsſopterus. Tailed bat, with the membrane con- necting the feet very broad, and covered on the upper part with hair. The forehead of this species, which is one of the largest, is very prominent and rounded; nose short; general colour ferruginous; the upper part of the wings of a paler cast; the ends and lower parts black. LASIURus. Tailed bat, with tumid lips, and broad hairy tail. A small species, of unknown native country, with upright small ears; tail broad at the base, terminat- ing in a point thickly covered with hair; colour reddish- brown. - Dr. Shaw adds the following species, viz. AURIPENDULUS. Tailed bat, with obtuse nose, and large pendent ears, with pointed tips. This is the slouch- eared bat of Pennant; tail long, included in a membrane, and terminated with a hook; colour above deep chesnut, lighter on the belly, cine reous on the sides; length three inches and four lines; extent of wing fifteen inches., Na- tive of Guiana. - NAsutus. Tailless ferruginous bat, with long nose, sloping at the tip; and long upright rounded ears. This is the great serotine of Pennant; colour of the upper parts a reddish-chesnut; sides of a clear yellow; remain- der of a dirty white: length five inches eight lines; extent of wings two feet. A native of Guiana, assembling in great numbers in meadows and other open places; fly- ing in company with goat-suckers in such multitudes as to darken the air. SPEoR1s. Tailed bat, with a transverse frontal cavity. This is the pit-nose bat, and from Schreber’s discrip- tion appears to be about the size of the common bat, and to resemble it in its general aspect, but differing in co- lour, which is a pale yellowish ash-brown. Its principal character, though not peculiar to it, is a remarkable transverse concavity situated on the forehead, lined with a naked blackish skin; the nostrils seated in a similar con- cavity at the tip of the nose. A native of India. VESPERTILIo, in Conchology, the name of an elegant species of voluta, supposed to have some resemblance to the colour of a bat. VESPERTILION UM ALE, Bats’ wings, among Jºnatomists, two broad membranous ligaments, with which the bottom of the womb is tied to the bones of the ilium; they are so called from their resembling the wings of a bat. V ESPERTINE, VESPERTINUs, in Astronomy, is when a planet is seen descending to the west after sun-set. V ESPIVORUS BUTEo, in Ornithology, a name giv- en by some authors to the bird, called in English the honey-buzzard, from its feeding its young with the mag- got worms out of honey-combs. See APIvo Rus. VESPOLA, in Ancient Geografhy. See V EspoilA. V ESPOLATE, in Geografthy, a town of Italy, in the department of the Gogna; 6 miles S. of Novara. VESPRIN, a town of Hungary, the see of a bishop; 16 miles S.W. of Stuhl Weissenburg. N. lat. 47° 4'. E. long. 17° 49'. VESPUCCI, AMERIGo, in Biografthy, was the son of a Florentine of noble family, and became famous by giv- ing name to the largest quarter of the world. He was born in 1451, and having been educated under a paternal uncle, he was sent by his father, in the year 1490, to Conduct a commercial concern in Spain. At Seville he was informed of the discoveries made by Columbus, and imbibed the desire of distinguishing himself by a similar pursuit. Whether he had been previously engaged in any nautical expeditions has been a subject of contro- versy, since he has claimed the honour of being the first discoverer of the American continent. Of himself he says, that having been engaged by Ferdinand, king of Spain, to prosecute the discoveries in the New World, he sailed from Cadiz in May 1497, and after touching at the Canaries, arrived in thirty-seven days at a land which he conceived to be Terra Firma; and if this aecount be true, he must have anticipated Columbus’s view of the cost of Paria by a whole year. But this expedition de- pends merely on his own statement; and if we consider the high estimation in which Columbus was held, in the year 1497, at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, and that he possessed the privileges of viceroy and governor of all the newly discovered countries, we cannot suppose it credible, that any other person should be employed to prosecute the object above stated. Accordingly it has been generally believed, that Vespucci's account of his first voyage is a mere fiction, or that it is antedated, in order to support his own claims. It has also been dis- puted, whether in the voyage which he really made in 1499, Vespucci was a commander or merely a passenger. It is most probable that he was a passenger, and that be- ing skilful in astronomy, a science at that time imper- fectly understood, he was very useful to the navigators, and much esteemed by them. After his return he resid- ed for some time at Seville; and upon being repeatedly invited to the court of Manuel, king of Portugal, he se- cretly quitted Spain, and went to Lisbon, where the king engaged him to undertake a voyage of discovery. With this view he had the command of three vessels, and sail ed in May 1501, making land 5° S. of the equinoctial line, which must have been Brazil, though he has not mentioned it. Herrera, however, asserts, that at this time he was with Ojedo in the gulf of Darien, and the discovery of Brazil is attributed by the Portuguese to Cabral in the year 1500. But it appears from the testi- mony of Peter Martyr, a contemporary writer, that Ves- pucci really sailed in the service of Portugal some de- grees to the south of the line. In May, 1503, he propo- sed in another voyage pursuing his course to the East In- dies, but was thrown on the coast of Brazil, and moored in the bay of All-Saints, to which he gave name; and from thence he returned to Lisbon in 1504. Being again taken into the service of Spain, he resided at Se- ville in 1507, with the title of pilot-major and a yearly pen- sion, in consideration of marking out the tracts to be followed by navigators, with the power of examining all pilots. This employment afforded him an opportunity of connecting his own name with new discoveries; and as he drew charts for mariners, he distinguished the newly discovered countries by the name of “ America,” as if it were “Amerigo’s Land;” so that the true discoverer, notwithstanding the complaints of the Spaniards, was de- frauded of the honour that belonged to him. Vespucci, however, cannot vie in the public estimation with Colum- bus. He is supposed to have died in 1516, and to have been buried on one of the Azores. Vespucci drew up a compendium of his four voyages, which was first publish- ed by Simon Grineus, in his “ Novus Orbis,” at Basil, in 1537, and afterv ºrds in Ramusio’s Collections. The Italian originals were afterwards discovered and publish- ed by Bandini. Tiraboschi. Gent. Biog. - VESSA, V E S V E S VESSA, in Ancient Geografthy, a large and flourish- ing town of Sicily. Phalaris is said to have taken pos- session of it by stratagem from Tautus, its prince. VESSAU X, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Ardèche; 9 miles S.W. of Privas. V ESSEL, VAs, Vase, a thing proper to hold or con- tain liquor. See VAs. - Thus, a ton, or hogshead, &c. are vessels fit to contain ale, wine, &c. The chemists use a great diversity of vessels in their operations; as copper alembics, with their refrigeratories; worms and receivers; alembics of glass, stone, and ear- then-ware; adopters, or small receivers with two necks; aludels, balloons, bottles, glass jars and basons of various sizes; capsules, or dishes of glass, stone-ware, crystal glass, crucible earth, and plate-iron; the cone, cruci- bles, glass funnels, ingot moulds, matrasses, mortars, muffles, pelicans, retorts, receivers, circulatory vessels, subliming vessels, &c. See each article. See also LABORATORY. Among anatomists, &c. all the tubes or canals in which the blood, and other juices or humours, are secre- ted, conveyed, deposited, &c. as the veins, arteries, lym- phatics, spermatics, &c. are called vessels. Some even extend the word vessel to the nerves; as supposing them the conduits of the animal spirits. VEssBL, a general name given to the different sorts of ships, from the first-rate man-of-war to the smallest, which are navigated with masts and sails. It is, how- ever, more particularly applied to those of the smaller kind. Plate VI. will represent most European vessels, with little description. The first-rate is a ship of the line, of one hundred guns and upwards, having three decks or tiers of guns; and the seventy-four is also of the line, with two decks or tiers of guns. The gun-vessel is rigged like a sloop of war, which is the sixth or smallest rate. The brig has only two masts, which are rigged like the main and fore-masts of a ship, but has a fore and aft main-sail. A smow only differs from a brig by hav- ing a try-sail, which hoists upon a small mast abaft the main-mast, and thereby can carry a square main-sail. A Ketch, has two masts, similar to the brig, but has no fore- mast, but a main-mast and a mizzen-mast rigged as a ship’s. The lugger has two masts, with square sails that are hoisted by their yards, not in the middle, as vessels in general, but at one-third of their length. Schooners are vessels of a similar size to luggers, having two masts, whose main-sail and fore-sail are suspended from gaffs at the head; and the foot stretched out by a boom, like a man-of-war’s long-boat. Both luggers and schooners sometimes carry top-sails, as the brig. Sloofs, or ves- sels having one mast, have a main-sail, fore-sail, and jib, as the man-of-war's long-boat. Foreign vessels, not rig- ged like the above, are mostly like the cebec; which see. A vessel is said to be of three or four hudred tons; meaning, that it will carry three or four hundred times two thousand weight; or that, when immerged in water, it possesses the space of three or four hundred tons of water; which are equal to the weight of the vessel, and all the loading it can carry. A vessel is said to draw ten or fifteen feet of water; meaning, that when loaded, it sinks so deep under water. The figure of vessels is an object of great importance, with regard to their motion, sailing, &c.; and in the de- termining what form is most commodious, the new doc- trine of infinites becomes of apparent service to naviga- tion and commerce. A body moving in an immoveable fluid, is obliged to sever the parts thereof: and they resist such separation. —Now, setting aside a certain tenacity, by which they are, as it were, glued together, and which is different in different fluids; the whole force of the resistance depends on that of the shock, or impulse: for a body that is struck, strikes at the same time; but a perpendicular stroke is that which a liquid resists the most, as being the greatest; and for a body to move freely therein, it must be of such figure, as to present itself as obliquely as possible. If it were triangular, and moved with the point foremost, it is certain all its parts would strike the fluid obliquely; but they would all strike it with the same obliquity; and it were more advantageous that each should strike more obliquely than the next adjacent. Now, such a perpetual augmentation of obliquity can no where be had in a curve line; each point of which is considered as an infinitely small right line, always inclined to the other little right lines contiguous to it. To find what curve it is, whose perpetual change of obliquity, or inclination in all its parts, renders it, of all others, the fittest to divide the fluid easily, is a problem much more difficult than it appears to be, and, in effect, is only to be solved by the new geometry; the solution was first given by sir Isaac Newton, in his investigation of the solid of the least resistance. That author, however, did not publish his analysis; yet the marquis de l’Hôpital hit upon it; and afterwards M. Fatio resolved the same problem, though by a much lon- ger, and more perplexed way. See Solid of the least RESISTANCE, SHHP, and SHIP-BUILDING. V Ess ELs, Book of See Book. VEssel. Bay, in Geograf hy, a bay on the E. coast of lake Champlain. VESSIEGONSK, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Tver; 48 miles N.N.E. of Tver. N. lat. 58° 20'. E. long. 37° 34'. VESSIGON, a term formerly applied to the puffy swelling termed wind-gall on the legs of animals. It is sometimes written vession. VEST, and VESTITU RE. See INVESTITURE. VESTA, in JAstronomy, one of the new planets, which was discovered by Dr. Olbers in March 1807, and obser- ved by S. Groombridge, esq. at Blackheath, near Lon- don, in April of the same year. For an account of this planet. See Pi.ANET, Planetary NUMBERs, and Solar SYSTEM. VESTA, in Mythology, one of the principal deities of the Pagans. Those who have diligently investigated the religion of the Pythagorean philosophers pretend, that by Vesta, they meant the universe, to which they ascribed a soul, and which they worshipped as the sole divinity, some- times under the name of a o way, the whole, and some- times under the appellation of Moyes, unity. However, fabulous history records two goddesses under the name of Vesta; one the mother of Saturn, and wife of Coelum, and the other the daughter of Saturn, by his wife Rhea. The first was Terra, or the Earth, called also Cybele, and derived, her name Vesta, according to, some, from clothing, because the earth is clothed, vestitur, with plants and fruits, or, according to Ovid, from the stability of the earth, because stat vi terra sta, or it supports it- self. V ES W E S self. Hence the first oblai ions in all sacrifices were of. fered to her, because whatsoever is sacrificed springs from the earth; and the Greeks both began and conclu- ded their sacrifices with Vesta, because they esteemed her the mother of all the gods. The second was fire, and Vesta, whose power was exercised about altars and hou- ses, derives her name, according to Cicero, from *sta, jire or hearth. Accordingly the poets frequently use Vesta for fire or flame; as they do Jupiter for air, Ceres for corn, &c. An image of Vesta, to which they sacri- ficed every day, was placed before the doors of the hou- ses at Rome; and the places where these statues were erected, were called vestibula, from Vesta. This goddess was a virgin, and so great an admirer of virginity, that when Jupiter her brother gave her leave to ask what she would, she besought that she might always be a virgin, and have the first oblations in all sacrifices. This goddess is called by Horace acterna Vesta, and it was in honour of her that Numa erected a temple at JRome, and dedicated virgins to keep a perpetual fire upon her altars, “ut ad simulacrum coelestium siderum custos imperii flamma vigilaret,” as Florus says. One way of representing this goddess, it is said, was in the habit of a matron, holding in her right hand a flambeau or lamp, and sometimes a Palladium, or small Victory. Mr. Spence, however, doubts, whether the figures, that are generally looked upon as Vestas, do really repre- sent that goddess or not. There is nothing, he says, which he has seen, that would not be as proper for one of the vestal virgins, as for the goddess who presided over them. To this purpose Ovid expressly says (Fast. vi. ver. 298.) they had no representations of this god- dess: “effigiem nullam Vesta nec ignis habent.” And he explains away another passage in the third book of his Fasti, ver. 46. where he speaks of a figure of Vesta. (Polymetis, p. 82.) The titles that are given to Vesta upon medals and ancient monuments are, Vesta the Happy, the Mother, the Saint, the Eternal, &c. The worship of Vesta and of fire was brought from Phrygia into Italy by Æneas and the other Trojans who resorted thither. To this purpose Virgil observes ( En. lib. ii.) that Æneas, before he left the palace of his father, had taken away the fire from the sacred hearth: “Afternum- que adytis effert penetralibus ignem.” Vesta was one of the eight great gods of the Egyp- tians, often mentioned by Herodotus. The name Vesta, called by the Greeks ºria, was sy- nonimous with the Chaldaean and Persian Avesta; and hence, according to the learned Hyde, Zoroaster gave to his famous book on the worship of fire, the name of .4vesta, or 46esta, i. e. the custody of fire. VESTALIA, feasts held in honour of the goddess Vesta, on the fifth of the ides of June; i.e. on the ninth day of that month. On that day, banquets were made before the houses; and meats were sent to the Vestals, to be offered by them to the goddess. See VESTALs. The asses, that turned the mills for grinding corn, were, on this occasion, led about the city, crowned with flowers, and chaplets formed of pieces of bread; and the mill-stones were likewise decked with garlands and CFOW IMS, The ladies went barefooted in procession to the tem- ple of Vesta; and an aitar was erected to Jupiter the Baker, Jovi Pistori, in the Capitol. The Vestalia had their names from that of their god- dess Vesta. VESTALS, VESTArºs, in Antiquity, virgins in an- cient Rome, consecrated to the service of the goddess Vesta; and particularly to watch the sacred fire in her temple. Numa first instituted four Vestals; and Plutarch tells us, Servius Tullius added two more; but Dionysius Halicarnassus and Vaierius Maximus ascribe this aug- mentation to Tarquinius Priscus; which number, six, lasted as long as the worship of the goddess Vesta. The Vestals made a vow of perpetual virginity; their em- ployment was, the sacrificing to Vesta, and keeping up the holy fire in her temple. If they violated the vows of chastity, they were punished with remarkable seve- rity; being shut up, or buried, in a deep pi, or cavern, in a place called “agger et sceleratus campus,” with a lighted lamp, and a little water and milk, and there left to be devoured by hunger. If they let out the fire, they were whipped by the pontifex maximus; and the fire was rekindled by the sun-beams. It is said, that they always lighted it anew on the first of March in every year, whether it had gone out or not. To be secure of their virginity, at their admission, it was provided, that they should not be under six, nor above ten years old. They were chosen by lot, out of twenty virgins, carried by the pontiff to the comitia, for that purpose. They were only consecrated for thirty years; after which time they were at liberty to go out, and be mar- ried. If they continued in the house after that time, they were only to be assistants, in point of advice, to the other Vestals. The first ten years they were to employ in learning their functions; the ten following they were to exercise them; and the last ten, to teach them to others. Their order was very rich; both on account of the endowments of the emperors, and of legacies of other persons. The Vestals had a particular place allotted them at the amphitheatres and games of the Circus. Their ve- hicle was the carpentum, or pilentum. The veil in which they sacrificed was called suffibulum. At first, they were nominated by the kings; but after the extinction of monarchy, by the pontifex maximus, or high-priest. The eldest of them was called maxima, as the first pontiff was maximus. * They had divers privileges: disposed of their effects by testament, in their father’s life-time; had the same gratification as a mother of three children; and when- ever they met a criminal going to execution, they had a power to pardon him. Whenever they went abroad, they had the fasces carried before them, a consul, or the praetor, being obliged to give way to them. The fire which the Vestals were to watch, was not on an altar, or an hearth, but in little earthen vessels with two handles, called cafleduncula. This fire was held a pledge of the empire of the world. If it went out, it was judged a very unlucky prognostic, and was to be explated with infinite ceremo- nies. Among the Romans, Festus tells us, it was only to be rekindled by the rubbing a kind of wood, proper for the purpose. But among the Greeks, Plutal cº, in the life of Numa, observes, it was to be rekindled by exposing some inflammable matter in the centre of a - concave vessel held to the sun. For it is to be noted, the Romans were not the only is opie who kept the perpe- tual fire of Vesta, in imitation of the celestial fires; . the + V E S V E S the Greeks were possessed with the same superstition; particularly the Delphians, Athenians, Tenedians, Ar- gives, Rhodians, Cyzicenians, Milesians, Ephesians, &c. This order of Vestals is said to have subsisted about a thousand years, i. e. from the time of Numa to that of the emperor Theodosius. See SIBYLs. VESTALs Ferry, in Geography, a town of Virginia, on the Shennando; 18 miles N.W. of Leesburg. VESTED LEGAcy. See Conting ENT Legacy. VESTED Remainder. See REMAINDER. VESTIA RIUS, VESTIARy, in Antiquity, master of the wardrobe; an officer under the Greek empire, who had the care and direction of the emperor's apparel, robes, &c. The firoto-vestiarius, or first vestiary, was the grand- master of the wardrobe. But among the Romans, ves- tiarius simply was only a salesman, or taylor. VESTIBULE, VESTIBULUM, in the Ancient Archi- tecture, a large open space before the door, or entrance, of a house. Martinius derives the word from vesta stabulum; be- cause the fore-part of the house was dedicated to Vesta. Daviler derives it from vestis and ambulo; because peo- ple there begin to let their trains fall. The Romans had places called vestibules, at the en- trance of their houses, to shelter people obliged to stand at the door from the weather; and we have still vesti- bules of the like kind, in many old churches, houses, &c. called forches. Vestibules only intended for magnificence, are usually between the court and the garden: these are sometimes simple; that is, have their opposite sides equally en- riched with arches; and sometimes their plan is not contained under four equal lines, or a circular one, but forms several van-corps, and rear-corps, furnished with pilasters. VESTIBULE is also used for a kind of little anti-cham- ber before the entrance of an ordinary apartment. VESTIBULE is also an apartment in large buildings, which presents itself at the entrance into a hall or suite of rooms, or offices. The area, in which a magnificent staircase is carried up, is sometimes called a vestibule. And also when the ends of corridores, or passages, ter- minate in a room, without being separated from them by doors, either to receive light or air, or for appear- ance; such rooms are called vestibules. VESTIBULUM, in Anatomy, a cavity belonging to the labyrinth of the ear. See EAR. VESTIGIA, a Latin term frequently used by Eng- lish writers, to signify the traces or footsteps any thing has left behind it. The word is particularly applied to the marks re- maining of something antique, gone to ruin by time. Vl:STINCH, in Geografthy, a town of Bosnia; 44 miles S. of Bihacs. VESTINI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, regarded as Samnites; but being of Sabin origin, they were sºmetimes comprehended under the name of Mar- si. They were situated between the Praetulii, Marracini and Peiigni. VESTINUS, a mountain of Italy, in the environs of Minturna.-Also, a river of Italy, in Campania, which discharged itself into the Sarnus. VESTIS ANGELIA. See ANGELIC Garment. VESTITZA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea; 44 miles E.N.E. of Chiarenza. VESTMENT. See VESTURE, VESTRY, VESTIARIA, a room adjoining to a church, where the priests’ vestments, and the sacred utensils, are kept, and parochial assemblies are held. Hence the term vestry is applied to the parochial as- sembly itself. On the Sunday before a vestry is to meet, Public notice ought to be given, either in the church, after divine service is ended, or else at the church door, as the Parishioners come out, both of the calling of the said meeting, and also the time and place of assembling it, and sometimes of the business for which it is con- Vened. And it is usual, for half an hour before it be- gins, to give notice, by tolling one of the church bells. Anciently, at the common law, every parishioner who paid to the church rates, or scot and lot, and no other Person, had a right to come to these meetings, the mi- nister excepted, who is responsible to the bishop, whe- ther he be rector or vicar, for his attendance, and who presides in every parish meeting. Out-dwellers also, occupying land in the parish, have a vote in the vestry, as well as the inhabitants; and when they are met, the major part present will bind the whole parish. The Power of adjourning the vestry is not in the minister or any other person as chairman, nor in the churchwardens, but in the whole assembly, to be decided by a majority of votes. Every vestry act, in order to prevent disputes, should be entered in the parish-book of accounts, and every man’s hand consenting to it be set thereto. Burn’s Eccl. Law, art. Vestry. VESTRY-Men, a select number of the principal persons of every parish within the city of London, and elsewhere; Who yearly choose parish-officers, and take care of its COIl Cel'In In entS. . They are thus called, because they usually meet in the vestry of the church. By these select vestries, the parishioners have in some places lost not only their right to concur in the public management as often as they would attend, but also the right of electing the managers. And yet such a custom of the government of parishes hath been ad- judged a good custom, as the churchwardens accounting to them has been adjudged a good account. In some parishes, these select vestries have been thought op- pressive and injurious, and great struggies have been made to set them aside. Prescription and constant im- memorial usage seem to be the basis and only support of these select vestries. In the act of the 10 Ann. c. 11. for building fifty new churches, the commissioners are empowered to appoint a convenient number of sufficient inhabitants to be vestry-men; and from time to time, upon the death or removal, or other voidance, of any such vestry-man, the rest, or majority of them, may choose another. In the several private acts for building particular churches, sometimes the minister, church- wardens, overseers of the poor and others, who have served or paid fines for being excused from serving these offices; sometimes the minister, churchwardens, overseers of the poor, and all who pay to the poor rate; sometimes only all who pay a certain sum to the poor rate; sometimes all who rent houses of so much a year, are appointed to be vestry-men within such parishes, and no other persons. VESTRY. Clerk, an officer chosen by the vestry, who keeps the parish accounts, and who has the custody of all books and papers relating to them. The beadte is also chosen by the vestry; and his business is to attend the vestry to give notice to the parishioners when and where V E S V ES where it is to meet, and to execute its orders as their messenger or servant. VESTURE, VESTMENT, a garment or clothing. In our law-books, it is also used metaphorically ; as in vestura terrae, i.e. segetes quibus terra vestitur ; the corn with which the earth is clothed, or covered. VESTURE of an Acre of Land, is the produce on it; or the wood, corn, &c. growing on it. It shall be in- quired how much the vesture of an acre of ground, and how much the land, &c. 4 Ed. I. 14 Ed. III. &c. VESTURE, Vestura, also signifies a possession, or seisin. In which sense it is borrowed from the feudists; with whom investitura signifies a delivery of possession by a spear, or staff; and vestura, the possession itself. See INVESTITURE. VESUBIA, in Geografhy, a river of France, which runs into the Var; 8 miles N. of Nice. VESUBIANI, in Ancient Geograft hy, a people be- longing to Italy, though they were inhabitants of Liguria. VESULIO, in Geografthy, a mountain of France, in the department of the Stura. It is a part of the Alps. VESULUS Mons, Mount Viso, in Ancient Geogra- fihy, a mountain of Gallia Transpadana, in which was the source of the Padus or Po. VESUNI, a people of Africa, in Mauritania Tingi- tana. Pliny. VESUNNA, afterwards Petrocorii, the capital of the Petrocorii, according to Ptolemy. The vestiges of the ancient town, still subsisting at Perigueux, are called J.a Visome. , VESUVIAN, in Mineralogy, (Idocrase, Haüy,) a mineral originally found in the vicinity of Vesuvius, and classed by some mineralogists with the garnet family, of which it forms a distinct species. It is generally crys- tallized in four-sided prisms, the edges of which are truncated, forming prisms with eight, fourteen, or six- teen sides, differently terminated by low planes. The sides of the crystals are streaked longitudinally; the terminating planes are smooth. The crystals are gene- rally middle-sized; they occur in groups, or lining ca- vities of other minerals. Vesuvian sometimes occurs massive. The colour of this mineral is either a liver- brown or reddish-brown, or blackish or yellowish-green. The lustre of the crystals is splendent or vitreous. The fracture is small-grained and uneven. It is more or less translucent. It is suffiéiently hard to scratch glass, but is brittle. Vesuvian melts before the blow-pipe into a yellowish translucent glass. The specific gravity varies from 3.36 to 3.42. The analysis of Vesuvian gives its constituent parts as under: From Vesuvius. From Siberia. Silex e 35.5 42 Lime o 33 34 Alumine . 22.25 I 6.25 Oxyd of iron 7.5 5.5 Manganese O.25 . Loss p 1.5 2.25 | OO l Q0 Vesuvian has been found in various parts of Europe as well as near Vesuvius: the opinions respecting its formation will be referred to under VolcAN1c Products. VESUV IANAE Aquie, in Ancient Geography, the name given by Tacitus to a small river of Campania, which watered the town of Neapolis. - VESUVIUS, in Geography, a celebrated volcanic * mountain in Italy, situated in the kingdom of Naples, about six miles S.E. of the capital. Vesuvius appears an isolated mountain, standing in the middle of a plain, but is considered as connected with the Apennines. The base of the mountain is about 40 miles in circum- ference; the height is stated at from 3700 to 3900 Eng- lish feet. Vesuvius has two summits; the most north- ern is called Somma, the other is properly called Ve- suvius. Somma is supposed, with much reason, to have been part of the cone of a larger volcano, in which the present volcanic cone of Vesuvius was formed. “It is impossible,” says sir James Hall, “to see the moun- tain of Somma, which in the form of a crescent embra- ces Vesuvius, without being convinced that it is a frag- ment of a larger volcano, nearly concentric with the present cone; which in some great eruption has de- stroyed all but this fragment. In our own times, an event of no small magnitude has taken place in the same spot: the inner cone of Vesuvius having undergone so great a change during the eruption in 1794, that it now bears no resemblance to what it was in 1785.” Trans- actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. vii. From the building of Rome to the year 79 of the Christian era, a period of seven centuries, Vesuvius appears to have been in a state of profound repose, as no mention is made of any eruption during the whole of that time; and the ancient writers who refer to this mountain always speak of its extraordinary beauty and fertility. There were, however, certain appearances near the summit which left no doubt of its prior volca- nic state, and the cities in its vicinity were paved with the lavas of ancient eruptions. Vitruvius, who flourished in the reign of Augustus, says (lib. ii. cap. 6.) “ that Vesuvius had formerly been burning, and had covered all the adjacent country with its fires.” Diodorus Siculus, who wrote at the latter end of the same reign, refers to a tradition of a volcanic erup- tion of Vesuvius seen by Hercules. Strabo, a contem- porary writer, describing this mountain, says, “here ri- ses Vesuvius, inhabited through all its delicious fields, the summit alone excepted, which spreads into a barren plain, displaying ashes and caverns formed of burnt rock;” whence it may be conjectured, that this summit was formerly in a state of conflagration, and presented fiery craters, which became extinguished when the ma- terials were exhausted. Silius Italicus, in the time of Nero, says, “Vesuvius, by its fires, had formerly caused great ravages both on the land and at sea.” The first great eruption on authentic record took place in the reign of Titus, on the 24th of August, A.D. 79; and on the same the towns of Herculaneum, Pom- peii, and Stabiae were buried under showers of volcanic sand, stones, and scoriae. Such was the immense quan- tity of volcanic sand (called ashes) thrown out during this eruption, that the whole country was involved in pitchy darkness; and according to Dion, the ashes fell in Egypt, Syria, and various parts of Asia Minor. The particulars of this eruption are described in a letter from the younger Pliny to Tacitus: his uncle, the elder Pliny the naturalist, lost his life by this event. He had the command of the Roman fleet on the coast of Campa- nia, and wishing to succour those persons who night desire to escape by sea, and also to observe this grand phenomenon more nearly, he left the cape of Misenum, and approached the side of the bay nearest to Vesuvius. He landed and advanced towards it, but was involved in whirlwinds of sulphureous vapour, in which he º: After V E S U V [ U. S. After this period, Vesuvius continued a burning mountain for nearly a thousand years, having eruptions of lava at intervals. The fire then appeared to become entirely extinct, and continued so from the beginning of the 12th century to the beginning of the 16th, a period of about 400 years. Woods were growing on the sides of the crater, and pools of water were collected in its centre. Since the eruption of 1506, it has remained burning to the present time, having violent eruptions of lava and ashes at intervals. These have been more frequent dur- ing the last century and the beginning of the present, than at any former period. Of twenty-nine eruptions which took place from the time of Titus to 1800, four- teen occurred in the last century: several have taken place since the commencement of the present century, and the volcano is at this time (1817) in a state of activi- tW. - y The eruptions of Vesuvius are always preceded by earthquakes more or less violent and extensive, and by a succession of subterranean explosions, growing louder before the stones or lava are ejected. Sir William Ha- milton, the English ambassador to the court of Naples from the year 1766 to the latter end of the century, has given several interesting descriptions of the eruptions that took place under his own observation, which are published in the Transactions of the Royal Society. From 1769 to 1779 there were nine eruptions, many of them considerable. Most of the eruptions of Vesuvius take place from the crater at the summit, but the erup- tion of 1794, which destroyed Torre del Greco, a city containing 10,000 inhabitants, flowed from a large open- ing made near the bottom of the cone. The volcanic products of Vesuvius differ considera- bly from those of Ætna, and still more from those of the volcanoes in the Ilipari islands, more immediately in its vicinity. White pumice and obsidian, a volcanic glass, have not been found among the lavas of Vesuvius; but they contain imbedded crystals of leucite, vesuvian, and som mite, which are almost peculiar to this volcano. The lavas of Vesuvius, besides iron, contain also copper, and some of them are said to contain a portion of gold, silver, and other metals. See VolcANIC Products. Breislak, an Italian geologist, has given an account of the present state of Vesuvius, and an interesting descrip- tion of the very remarkable eruption of 1794; the most important particulars of which we shall select. This eruption was so great as to change the very form of Vesuvius, as we have before observed. “The present cone of Vesuvius is truncated, so as to form an inclined plane, sloping from the N.E. to the S.W. The circumference of the summit, which forms the brin) of the cauldron, is about 3000 feet; and at the bottom is distinguished an oblong plain, the greatest dia- meter of which is from E. to W. Having since ascen- ded several times to the top of the cone, I perceived that its depth had gradually diminished, and that the bottom of the crater became higher daily, owing to the different. matter which falls down, especially from the almost perpendicular sides on the E. and N. One can at this time easily scan the extent and depth of its mouth, but occasionally it is much encumbered, and sometimes to- tally clogged. In 1755, the bottom of the funnel rose so considerably, that it presented a vast plain only twenty- three feet beneath the brin), and in the midst of this plain was another cone from eighty to ninety feet high, with a small crater, from which the eruptions proceeded. Vol. XXXVIII, \ “Braccini has left us a curious description of the state of Vesuvius, after a long period of rest, and before the grand eruption of 1631. The whole of it, or at least the greater part of it, had become accessible. Having himself descended into the crater, he says, he found it covered with plants and trees, and that a road down it was practi- cable for the space of a mile; at this depth a very deep ca- vern was seen, which having passed, the way was again open for two miles by a very steep but at the same time very safe road, owing to the trees growing near to each other. At length a large plain presented itself, surrounded by a number of grottoes and caverns, which might be en- tered, but which the party were deterred from on account of their darkness. This plain, which was not accessible otherwise than by a very rapid slope, nearly three miles in length, must assuredly have been much beneath the level of the sea. “Whel; the volcano is at rest, vapours are seen to arise from the cauldron's brim, or from the interior of its sides, which are very perceptible. “When the mouth of Vesuvius is observed from any distance, and during the prevalence of moisture in the atmosphere, a mass of vapour seems to rise from it which mingles with the clouds. “The western portion of Somma must be considered as connected with the cone of Vesuvius by a hill of smaller eminence, denominated Monte Cantaroni, on which is the hermitage del Salvatore. This hill is inter- sected by three valleys, that deserve to be examined with attention, on account of the quantity of primitive substances which the volcano has thrown thither during old eruptions. The northern valley is that termed La Possa di Pharaone, near the plain, and Vallone della Ve- trana, in its more elevated part, where the current of la- va flowed in 1785. This vale, hollowed by rains, is the only interval between mount Somma and mount Canta- roni. South of this vale are two others, nearly parallel, the first called Rio Cupo, the second Fossa Grande, which, taking a direction from east to west, emerge in the plain of St. Jorio. Its northern side, nearly perpendicu- lar, rises to a considerable height above the valley, and being composed only of cemented fragments of porous lava, called capillo, of masses of spongy lava, and other substances of an inadhesive quality, is subject frequently to crumble and fall in large quantities. Along the whole extent of the southern side, at its upper part, is seen an ancient current of lava, which at first sight appears to be several strata of lava imposed one on the other, but which a little attention shows is but one current, in which horizontal chasms have been occasioned by refri- geration, and into which the wind has since introduced a slight quantity of vegetable earth. This lava is hard and compact; it contains but few fragments of augite or pyroxene, and seems to be an assemblage of leucites, the superficial crystalline lustre of which having been impaired by decomposition, makes it resemble variolite in its exterior. Many detached masses of this current have fallen to the bottom of the valley. Each fall of matter brings down calcareous stones, mica, and mix- tures of felspar and vesuvian. The lava of 1767, which threatened the villages of La Barra and St. Jorio, dis- charged itself into this valley, which it filled to a certain height, and afterwards flowed further, spreading itself to the plain. As it is already covered by the crumblings from the flank, in order to examine it, the inquiry must repair to the plain of St. Jorio, in the neighbourhood of 4 I the V E S U V I U. S. the chapel of St. Vito. Its grain is crystallized but fine, and oftentimes so close as to be nearly equal to petro- silex, or horn-stone. It contains many small crystals of pyroxene and fragments of leucite, which is rarely found in its perfect form of crystallization. “The lava of La Scala passes beneath the garden of La Favorita. It is of the colour of ashes, whitish, and of a crystallized grain. It contains many crystals of py- roxene, few of leucite, and small pieces of felspar, in groups in its cavities. This lava, where it is hewn on the sea-shore near La Cavalleria, is worthy of attention. Un- der an uniform bed, from fifteen to twenty feet in thickness, the lava is found divided into strata of from three to four feet: these divisions are formed by parallel and horizon- tal lines; and where these are dug down to, the lava is found to have separated itself spontaneously into beds. Below them are large prisms, commonly hexagonal, which are disjoined with great ease: in some places these prisms, instead of the lower, are found in the upper part of the current. “The same tendency to a basaltic conformation, which is noticed in the lava of La Scala, is observed again in the neighbouring current of Calastro. This, af- ter passing through a defile below Vallelonga, spreads to a broad front on reaching the sea. What most deserves observation in the lava here are the small crystallizations it presents, which seem to be the olivine of Werner. It is moreover of a deeper colour than the lava of Scala, more porous, and like that contains many crystals of au- gite and fragments of felspar. “Next to this lava is found that of the eruption of 1794. Of the different eruptions of Vesuvius, this is the most recent, and was one of the most considerable. “Vesuvius had continued tranquil for a long time. On the 12th of June, 1794, towards eleven in the evening, a very violent shock of an earthquake was felt, which in- duced many of the inhabitants of Naples to leave their houses for the night. The tranquillity of the mountain did not, however, appear disturbed, either on the 13th, 14th, or 15th, nor did it exhibit any symptom of an approach- ing eruption; but towards nine in the evening of the last day many symptoms were manifested. The houses about the mountain experienced violent shocks, which gradu- ally increased in force: a very powerful one was felt at ten o’clock in Naples and its environs. At this instant, on the western base of the cone, at the spot called La Pe- damentina, and from the midst of ancient torrents, a new mouth disgorged a stream of lava. This opening was 2375 feet in length, and 237 in breadth. Scarcely had the stream of lava begun to flow, before four comical hills, each having its small crater, (the third alone ex- cepted, which had two distinct mouths,) arose out of the stream itself. From these different mouths stones were darted into the air with great noise, and in a state so high- ly ignited, that they resembled real flames; the explo- sions indeed were so quickly repeated, that they seeined but one, and formed a continued sheet of fire in the air, which received no other interruption than what was oc- casioned by the inferiority of force of some of the ejections. They sometimes vomited substances, I may say, in a fluid state, for they expanded in the air like a soft paste, so that one may imagine they were either a part of the running lava or masses of old lava fused and projegted. Some of these hills were contiguous one to the other; and it seems as if the force by which they were produced had met with obstruction to the disgorge- ment of the substances at one point, and consequently effected several issues in the same line. The lava flow- ed in one body for some time, and at intervals flashes of light arose from the surface of it, produced by jets of hy- drogenous gas, which disengaged itself from the lava, precisely in the same manner as the gases expand from the surface of a fluid. Its first direction was towards Portici and Resina, so that the inhabitants of Torre del Greco already bewailed the fate of their neighbours, and began their thanksgivings to the Almighty for their es- cape. Collected together in the church, they were still singing hyms of joy, and expressing their gratitude, when a voice announced to them the fatal news of their altered destiny. The stream of lava, on flowing down a declivity it met in its way, divided itself into three bran- ches; one, bearing towards Sta Maria de Pugliano, tra- versed a space of 2063 feet; another, directing its course towards Resina, flowed to the distance ot 3 181 feet; while the remainder of the stream, falling into the valley of Malomo, flowed towards La Torre. On reaching the chappel of Bolzano, it formed a branch towards the south-east, which terminated in the territory of Aniello Tirone, after hāving run the length of 1490 feet; the residue of the lava pursuing its course flowed upon Torre, presenting a front from 1200 to 1500 feet in breadth, and filling several deep ravines. º “On reaching the first houses of the town, the stream divided according to the different slopes of the streets, and the degrees of opposition presented by the buildings. An idea may easily be formed of the accidents conse- quent on such a flood of fire; accidents which bear rela- tion to the scite of the manufactories, the thickness of their walls, and the manner in which they were assailed by the lava. Had not the mass of the stream suffered a diminution from the different divergencies noticed, not a single house would have been left standing in Torre del Greco. The lava, after a serpentine course through the town, at length reached the sea-shore. The con- tact with the water diminished the speed of its course: still the current flowed into the sea in a body l 127 feet in breadth, and advanced into it a distance of 362 feet. Its entrance into the sea was not marked by any singular phenomenon; it began to issue from the volcano at ten at night, and reached the sea-shore by four in the morn- ing; continuing a very slow progressive movement into the sea throughout the whole of the 16th, and the fol- lowing night. The main stream, from the point where it issued from the volcano to that at which it stopped in the sea, measured 12,961 feet. Its breadth varied greatly; in some places it scarcely exceeded 322 feet, but in the plain it spread to l l l l; and at a medium, without risk of any great error, it may be computed to have been 725 feet broad. In thickness also it dif- fered according to the depth of the hollows it filled; in the plain it was constantly from twenty-four to thirty-two feet thick: and if its mean thickness be reckoned at the latter number of feet, it may possibly be nearest the truth. According to these data, the mass of molten mat- ter is 1,869,627 cubic fathoms. During the eruption the convulsion of the mountain was so great, that even the houses in Naples were shaken by it. Still it was not constantly alike. At the beginning the trembling was continual, and accompanied by a hollow noise, similar to that occasioned by a river falling into a subterranean ca- vern. The lava, at the time of its being disgorged, from the impetuous and uninterrupted manner in which it was ejected, by striking against the walls of the vent, occasioned V E SUV I U. S. occasioned a continual oscillation of the mountain. To- wards the middle of the night this vibratory motion ceas- ed, and was succeeded by distinct shocks. The fluid mass, diminished in quantity, now pressed less violently against the walls of the aperture, and no longer issued in a continual and gushing stream, but only at intervals, when the interior fermentation elevated the boiling mat- ter above the mouth. About four in the morning the shocks began to be less numerous, and the intervals be- tween them rendered their force and duration more per- ceptible. One might compare them to the thunder heard in Italy during storms in summer, the loudest claps of which are succeeded by rumbling sounds, which gradually die away. “While I was making my observations on this grand eruption at the foot of Vesuvius, its summit was tran- quil, and no phenomena were visible about its crater. I passed the night at sea, between Calastro and La Tor- re, to have a nearer view of this great operation of na- ture, and to prove the truth of the opinion generally re- ceived, that great eruptions are accompanied by extra- ordinary phenomena in the sea. A more grand specta- cle there could not be. On one of those serene and brilliant nights, known only in the delightful climate of Naples, a majestic stream of fire, l 1,868 feet in length, and 1483 in breadth, was seen at the foot of Vesuvius; its reflected surface formed in the atmosphere a broad and brilliant aurora borealis, regularly spread and ter- minated at its upper part by a thick and dark border of smoke, which, dilating itself in the air, covered the disc of the moon, the shining silvery light of which was en- feebled and obscured. The sea again reflected the illu- minated sky, the surface of it corresponding with this portion of the atmosphere appearing as read as fire. At the source of this river of fire, inflamed matter was in- cessantly spouted out to a prodigious elevation, which, as it diverged on all sides, resembled an immense fire- work. On the sea-shore, finally, the mournful specta- cle of the conflagration of La Torre completed the pic- ture. The vast clouds of thick black smoke which rose from the town, the flames which occasionally crowned the summits of the houses, the ruins of the buildings, the noise of the falling palaces and houses, the rumbling of the volcano, these were the principal incidents of this horrible, yet sublime scene. The ruins of Pompeia, buried beneath heaps of drosses and powders, did not certainly present a spectacle near so striking. To these objects, so powerfully calculated to fix the senses, was added another, which forcibly touched the heart: this was a doleful group of fifteen thousand persons, bewailing the destruction of their city and property, who had had but a moment’s notice to flee and abandon their homes for ever, and were reduced to become wanderers, and dependent on the world for refuge. “About dawn, the summit of Vesuvius ceased to be visible: it was covered with a thick cloud, frequently fur- rowed with lightning. This cloud gradually spread itself, and in a little time overshadowed the gulf, the ci- ty of Naples, and its vicinage. It was formed of a large quantity of that fine sand called ashes, and prevented all sight of the fire of the volcano. The sun, as it appear- ed above the horizon, presented a still more dismal pic- ture. From the abundance of ashes in the air, it seem- ed more pale than during the strongest eclipse; and a black Scarf appeared to be spread over the whole of the gulf and the country. At the extremity of the horizon, towards the west, the day was more clear, while the light at Naples was fainter than twilight; and, with Pliny the younger, one might have said, “Jam dies alibi illic nox omnibus nigrior densiorque.” “During this mournful night the air was perfectly unagitated, and the sea calm: it was not disturbed even in the slightest degree, at least in the gulf of Naples. The slightest action of the volcano on it would have been perceptible at the base of the mountain, and I was within a distinct view of this part of the sea; but its in- fluence on that element was absolutely null. “ While one current of lava flowed over the western flank of Vesuvius, spreading ruin and desolation; ano- ther fell down its eastern slope, from an opening of infe- rior height, and a greater distance from the summit. This current was not visible at Naples: all that was per- ceived of it was a great light in the atmosphere, produc- ed by reflection from the rolling fire. At first it took an eastern direction, turned afterwards to the south, and de- scended to the spot called Cognolo. There it fortunate- ly found the valley of Sorienta, 65 feet wide, 121 deep, and 1627 long. This valley the lava filled; but as the volcano still continued to emit fresh matter, the current afterwards spread into the plain of Forte, near to Pozzel- le, where it divided into three branches: one proceeded towards Bosco, another towards Mauro, and the third to the plain of Mulara. The length of this current of lava was not less than an Italian mile; but as it flowed con- stantly over old lavas, it did but little harm, merely lay- ing waste and occupying a small extent of vineyard. From the spot where it diverged from its first direction, it projected a small branch in a continued line: falling to this point over a very rapid slope, the speed with which it flowed must have been considerable; and a portion of its mass preserving its first impulse, naturally fell in this small stream, in which were four mouths in the shape of an inverted cone, the base of which is in the surface of the lava. This stream terminates in a small and regu- lar hill of a conical figure, on the summit of which are two mouths in form of inverted cones. The dimensions of this second current are nearly half those of the first; consequently the mass of the whole is adequate to 2,804,440 cubic fathoms. “ The coincidence and perfect resemblance of these two currents of lava sufficiently prove that they had but one common origin, and but one cauldron in which the matter was fused of which they were composed. How great then must that recipient be in which such an enor- mous mass could be contained! And what powerful exertion of strength must have been required to break through the mountain in such opposite directions! The lava agitated by the expansion of elastic fluids made its first efforts to liberate itself on the eastern flank, and found a passage; but the resistance it met with from the mountain no doubt occasioned its reflux or rebound against its opposite flank. “ The western current, taking its departure from a more elevated mouth, more quickly terminated its course; but the cauldron chiefly emptied itself by the eastern opening. The lava issued from it very slowly, compared with the celerity with which that flowed which proceeded from the eastern mouth, because it was no longer driven forward, or compressed by the total mass, which was already greatly diminished. “ On the morning of the 16th, the lava ceased to 4 I 2 4- flow V ET V ET flow over the western side, and the mouth of the volca- no began to resume activity. The whole of its cone was covered with a very thick rain of ashes or powders, which totally hid it from sight, so that nothing could be distinguished on Vesuvius, which was wholly inaccessi- ble. In this state it continued four days, during which many shocks of earthquakes were felt, and loud claps of thunder were heard. Thunders raged in every part of the adjacent country, and the flashes of lightning by which they were accompanied at intervals, for an instant allowed a view of the mountain through the darkness in which it was involved by the rain of powders. This dark- ness was so prodigiously great, that at Caserto, and other places ten or twelve miles from Vesuvius, it was impos- sible to walk the streets at mid-day without torches, and that circumstance was renewed which is related by Pii- ny on the occasion of the eruption in the time of Titus, “faees multae, variaque lumina solvebant obscuritatem.” It is utterly impossible to determine with precision the quantity of ashes or powders that fell in the course of these days, as it was different in different places, ac- cording to the direction of the wind; it is, however, com- puted, on the base of observations at different places, that fourteen inches and six lines in depth fell on an area, the radius of which is three miles, the summit of Vesu- vius being the centre.” It would be erroneous to conclude, that all this mass of matter proceeded from the entrails of the mountain, the greater part was the offspring of the ruins of the crater, which during the three last days fell into the abyss. For, after the rain of volcanic sand had ceased, and the mountain became visible, its appearance excited much surprise, the summit had fallen, and its mouth was con- siderably enlarged. Incessant rains followed this eruption, which continu- ed to the 3d of July. Whenever a cloud appeared above the horizon, it seemed attracted by the volcano, and scarcely did it reach its summit, ere immense streams were visible, precipitating themselves with horrible roar. ings to the base of the mountain. These impetuous tor- rents of water, mingled with volcanic powders, overturn- ed the bridges, harrowed up the roads, tore up the trees, and utterly devastated the fields of one of the most rich and flourishing countries in the world. Mephitic va- pours were also exhaled, which destroyed all other ve- getation, except the olive and the pear-trees, which re- tained their verdure and strength. It is remarkable, that during the whole of this eruption the barometer at Na- ples was not sensibly affected, and exhibited no change, although the temperature and moisture of the atmos- phere experienced considerable variation. Though the quantity of matter thrown out of Vesuvi- us, during any single eruption, is not so great as from Aïtna, Vesuvius being of diminutive size, compared with the latter mountain; yet the magnitude of some of the stones ejected is truly surprising, and the quantity pro- digious. According to sir William Hamilton, during the eruption of 1779, the town of Ottacano, at the foot of Somma, was half buried under the showers of sand and fragments of volcanic matter. A stone, measuring one hundred and eight feet in circumference and seventeen feet in height, was thrown a quarter of a mile clear of the mouth of the volcano. One of ninety-two feet in circumference was thrown much farther, and lay in the valley between Vesuvius and the Hermitage. From the fragments which surrounded this mass, it appeared to have been much larger when in the air. For further observations on the volcanic phenomena of Vesuvius and the adjacent country, see VolcANo. VETAS, a town of South America, in New Grenada; 15 miles E.S.E. of Pamplona. VETAVELUM, a town of Hindoostan, in the Car. natic; 12 miles N. of Tricalore. VETCH, in Botany; a word of one common origin with Vic LA; see that article, as well as LATHY RUs, Oro- BUS, and ASTRA GALUs. VETCH, in Agriculture, a well-known wild plant of the fodder kind, which in some of its sorts promises, from the few trials that have yet been made with it, to be benefi- cial when cultivated in the field. In this view, it has been suggested, that some of the plants of this kind may be useful to the farmer either as affording a good full pastur- age for live-stock, or as supplying large quantities of green food to be consumed in other ways; though nothing satisfactory has hitherto been done in ascertaining how far they may be of superior utility in feeding or fattening, pasturing, and being eaten green in the cut state by ani- mals, to fully justify any decision as to their particular merits in any of these modes of application. They are, however, in general, plants that are, in their nature, not only very productive as to the quantity of food, but from many trials, extremely nutritious and fattening in their properties. In addition too, they have mostly the very de- sirable quality of being fed upon by almost all sorts of live- stock with great avidity; and it is not by any means to be concluded in consequence of their appearing of a coarse nature and quality, that they may not be of advantage even as pasture herbage, as it is now well known that close, hard, judicious feeding or eating down is capable of bringing the coarsest and roughest kinds of herbage into a fine grassy state of produce. Of these wild plants, that which is usually known by the name of bush vetch, is a sort which would seem capable of being introduced as a pasture plant with considerable benefit in different cases. It is asserted by some, that its roots spread much in a lateral manner just under the surface of the soil of the land, and send forth numerous stems or sprouts at the spring of the year, close to each other, which, as they have a broad bushy top, covered with many leaves, a close pile or surface grass is formed without the assis- tance of any other plant. It is a plant which is not found to rise to any great height of growth; but from its spring- ing up rapidly, after being cut over or cropped and eat off by animals, it would seem not ill suited to the pur- pose of pasturage. On such lands as are of the more rich and fertile kind, it, however, grows to a good height for the production of hay; but as the stalks rise so closely together, there is some danger of its rotting at the bot- tom in moist rainy seasons. It affords great abundance of seed, but which is very liable to be destroyed in the pod by insects while in their vermicular or worm state. It is contended by some, that it would appear to succeed best in lands of the clayey kind, where it abounds in foliage pretty much, affording seeds very similar to those of the cultivated plants of this nature. It is stated too in the Transactions of the Bath Society, that it has been found to shoot earlier in the spring than any other plant that is eaten by cattle, and to vegetate late in the autumn, continuing green all the winter. In good rich land, when cultivated V ET V ET cultivated in the drill manner, it may, in the second year, it is said, be cut five times, producing at the rate of twenty-four tons the acre of green food, which would be nearly four and a half tons when dry and made into hay. It is noticed, that the principal difficulty in introdu- cing this plant into field culture, would arise from the seed being so apt to be devoured by the larvae of a spe- cies of attelobas, as Mr. Swayne has fully shown. Another sort of this wild plant which might be useful to the farmer in somewhat the same way, is that of the kind usually called the tufted vetch, which, in conse- quence of its rising to a considerable height in the stem, and affording much foliage, is capable of yielding a large proportion of green fodder for cattle-stock; and from its being easily cultivated, might also be made to afford a great deal of hay. It is therefore equally applicable in pastures and meadows. Plott, in his History of Stafford- shire, has indeed long since remarked it to improve the condition of poor lean cattle, more than any other plant then known. There are probably some other sorts of these wild plants that might be usefully grown in the field, if properly attended to by the farmer. The cultivated plants of this nature are considered under their proper heads. See TARE. VETCH, Mace, Securidaca. See CoRo NI LLA. VETCH, Bitter or Pea. See OROBUs. VETch, Bitter, and Corn Vetch. See ERVUM. VETch, Bindaveed-leaved. See LATHYRUs. VETCH, Chickling. See LATHYRUs. VETCH, Grass. See GRAss. VETch, Crimson-grass. See LATHYRUs. VETCH, Hatchet, Securidaca. See CoRoNILLA. VETCH, Clusius’s Foreign Hatchet. See BISERRULA. VETCH, Horse-shoe. See HIPPoc REPIs. VETCH, Kidney. See ANTHYLLIs. This is a plant of the weed kind, and is common in lands of the chalky and calcareous sorts, of which sheep are very fond. It affords a yellow dye. VETCH, Liquorice, or Wild Liquorice. See Ast RA- GALUS. VETCH, Knobbed-rooted Liquorice. VETCH, Milk. See AstBA.GALUs. VETCH, Bastard Milk. See PHAC A. VETCH, Venetian. See ORobus. VETCHLING, in Botany, is the English name of Lathyrus Afthaca, expressive of its diminutive size. The same appellation is sometimes given, though improper- ly, to one or two of the smallest species of Wicia. VET.cHLING, Meadow, in Agriculture, a wild plant common in meadow lands, for the cultivation of which a premium has been offered. It bears a large number of succulent leaves, and seems well suited as an addition to the meadow grasses. As it makes good hay, it is pro- bably the most useful in mixture with grasses for this purpose; for though cattle and horses-eat it, they do not feed upon it with avidity. It is very prevalent in some districts. VETCHLING, Yellow. See APHACA. The seeds of this, and of all the other species of vetch- ling, are nutritious, either eaten in broth, or made into bread. Withering VETERAN, VETERANUs, in the Roman Militia, a soldier who was grown old in the service; or who had made a certain number of campaigns; and, on that ac- count, was entitled to certain benefits and privileges. See GLycINE. These privileges consisted in being absolved from the military oath; in being exempted from all the func- tions of a solder; and in enjoying a certain salary or ap- pointment, &c. The time of service fixed by the Roman laws was from seventeen to forty-six years; and among the Athenians forty years. The use of the term veteran was not intro- duced till about the close of the republic; but its origin may be traced to the first distribution which Servius Tullius made of the Roman people into classes and cen- turies; under which the centuriae seniorum, or old sol- diers, were appointed to guard the city. They were at- terwards employed to guard the camp, whilst the centit- ride juniorum fought in the field of battle. After they had served some years, they were called veteres, in con- tradistinction to the moviții or tirones. In process of time, those who had served a certain number of cann- paigns were called veterans, and were exempt from the obligation of military service, except on urgent occasions. See Evo CAT I. The rewards conferred on veterans were at first very inconsiderable, e. gr. a few acres of land in a foreign country, where they established colonies; but at length they became immense. Tiberius Gracchus distributed among them the treasures of Attalus, who had made the Roman people his heirs. Augustus also bestowed upon them pecuniary recompense, and almost all his succes- sors augmented their privileges. In France, the term veteran is still retained for such officers as have held their post twenty years, and who en- joy certain of the honours and privileges affixed there- to, even after they have laid them down. A veteran counsellor has a voice and seat at audiences, though not at processes by writing. A veteran secreta- ry of the king acquires the privilege, &c. of nobility, to himself, and his children. VETERIN ARIA, MULO-MEDICINA, or medicine ap- plied to the diseases of cattle. Whence, VETERINARIUS, a farrier, or horse-leech. VETERINARY, a term applied to and signifying that part or department of cattle-medicine, which relates to the treatment and cure of morbid animals of the do- mestic kind. VETERINARY College, an institution first established, in this country, in the year 1792, at St. Pancras, in the vicinity of the metropolis. It is stated in “ Boardman’s Dictionary of the Veterinary Art,” that the public are indebted for this truly national foundation to the huma- nity, discernment, and patriotic exertions of a country agricultural society, that of Odiham, in Hampshire; and that the first professor of it was a Frenchman of the name of St. Bel, who had previously distinguished him- self as a veterinary anatomist and writer in this country, by dissecting and describing different parts of the famous race-horse Eclipse, so much known and admired for his swiftness. It is added, that the college is supported by public subscription; that the annual contribution is two guineas, but the payment of twenty guineas at one time consti- tutes a subscriber for life. In some recent instances, too, the institution has shared, it is said, the bounty of parliament; an important saving having resulted to the nation from the appointment of veterinary surgeons to the different regiments of British cavalry, in conse- quence of it. The -- V E T , V E T The different views and objects of the college or es- tablishment appear in the statement, printed by the au- thority of the governors, and given below. It is said, that the grand object is the improvement of veterinary knowledge, in order to remedy and obviate the ignorance and incompetency of farriers, so long and so universally complained of. For this end, a range of stables, a forge, a theatre for dissections and lectures, with other necessary buildings, have been erected; and a gentleman, properly qualified for the purpose, has been appointed professor, with other requisite officers. . The anatomical structure of quadrupeds and other animals, such as horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, and others, the diseases to which they are subject, and the remedies proper to be applied, are investigated and regularly taught; by which means, enlightened practitioners of li- beral education, whose whole study has been directed and devoted to the veterinary art in all its branches, may be gradually prepared, provided, and dispersed over the whole kingdom, on whose skill and experience confi- dence may be securely placed. That the pupils to the college, in addition to the lec- tures and instructions of the professor, and the practice of the stables, at the present enjoy, in consequence of the great liberality of some of the most eminent of the faculty of medicine in London, the advantage of free admission to their medical and anatomical lectures. These pupils, previous to leaving the college, are strictly examined by a medical committee, from whom they receive a proper certificate; and several, examined and approved, have, it is said, already left the college, and are at this time practising in various parts of the country with great suc- CCSS, That subscribers have the privilege of sending their diseased animals to the college, without further expense than that of their daily food; and that these, in general, form a sufficient number of objects for the practice of the professor and pupils to be tried and exercised upon. That on fixed days, the professor prescribes for animals belonging to subscribers, who find it inconvenient to spare them from home, provided the necessary medi- cines be furnished and compounded at the college. Sub- scribers’ horses are there also shod at the ordinary price, and new improved modes of shoeing practised in differ- CInt CaSéS. And that his royal highness the commander-in-chief having been pleased to appoint a board of general offi- cers to take into consideration the objects of this insti- tution, they have reported the continual loss of cavalry to have been very heavy, in consequence of the almost to- tal ignorance of those who have hitherto had the veteri- nary department in the army. This report his majesty has approved; and henceforward, to qualify for the mili- tary service, a veterinary surgeon must be provided with a regular diploma from the college. A number of gen- tlemen, subscribers to the institution, attend once a fort- night, for the purpose of inspecting the discipline of the stables, and seeing that the regulations are duly compli- ed with. These form the most material objects and regulations of the establishment; from which it is evident, that it is capable of being of great use and advantage, if properly directed, and confined to the points which it has princi- pally in view., VETERNA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria; 9 miles S.W. of Dristra. VETERNITZA, a river of Servia, which rises in the Karadagh mountain, and runs into the Morava. VETERNUS is used, by some physicians, for a le- thargy, or other drowsy disease. VETERSEN, in Geografhy, a town of the duchy of Holstein; 15 miles N.W. of Hamburgh. VETIL, NEDER, a town of Sweden, in the province of Wasa; 16 miles E. of Jacobstadt. VET1L, Oſwer, a town of Sweden, in the province of Wasa; 32 miles E.S.E. of Jacobstadt. VETINA, in Ancient Geografhy, a town of Italy, in Magna Graecia, supposed to lie between Sybaris and Metapontum; but its exact situation is not known. VETITUM NAMIUM, in Law, imports a forbidden distress. See NAMIUM. VETITZA, in Geography, a river of Walachia, which runs into the Kotmana, 10 miles N. of Rusei. VETLIANSKOI, a fort of Russia, on the Volga; 32 miles S.E. of Tchernoiyar. VET.LUGA, a river of Russia, which runs into the Volga, near Kozmodemiansk, in the government of Kazan.—Also, a town of Russia, in the government of Kostrom, on a river of the same name; 140 miles E. of Kostrom. N. lat 58°. E. long. 45° 44'. VETO, in Roman Antiquity, was the solemn word, used by the tribunes of the people, when they inhibitcd any decree of the senate, or law proposed to the people, or any act of other magistrates. See INTERcEssl on. VETOLA, in Ornithology, a name used by the Vene- tians, and from them by many others, for a water-bird of the scolopax kind, called by Aldrovand the totano, and by Gesner the fedoa secunda. In the Linnaean system it is the scolofiaac limosa. It usually weighs about nine ounces; its beak is shaped like that of the woodcock, and is red all over, except at the end, where it is blackish; its neck is grey; its belly and breast white; its head of a brownish-grey, and its back brown; but its rump has a white ring on it; its tail is composed of black and white feathers. Ray’s Ornitho- logy, p. 216. VETRALLA, in Geografhy, a town of the Popedom, in the Patrimonio; 9 miles S. of Viterbo. VETSCHAU, a town of Lusatia; 28 miles S.W. of Guben. N. lat. 51°47'. E. long. 14°. VETTICUTTY, a town of Hindoostan, in the Car- natic; 22 miles W.N.W. of Tritchinopoly. VETTINGEN, a town and abbey of Switzerland, in the county of Baden; 2 miles S. of Baden. VETTONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Umbria. VETTONES, a people of Hispania, in Lusitania, who extended themselves from the south towards the north, in the eastern part. VETTONIANA, a town of Vindelicia. Itin. Anton. VETTONICA, in Botany, the ancient way of spel- ling the word betonica, the name of a plant, called in En- glish betony. It is called vettonica by Pliny, who says it obtained that name from a people of Italy so called, among whose woods it grew. If any thing certainly can be judged of the betonica of the ancients, it is that it was our serratula. VETTORI, V E. V. V E Z VETTORI, PIETRo, (Lat. VICTORIUS,) in Bio- graphy, a descendant of a noble family at Florence, was born in 1499. Educated at his native city and at Pisa, he visited Spain, and returned to Italy with a collection of ancient incriptions. At Rome he complimented Clement VII. on his accession to the pontificate; and settling at Florence, joined the party opposed to the house of Me- dici, and supported it with his eloquence and arms. Upon the assassination of Alessandro di Medici in 1537, he withdrew to Rome. In the following year, duke Cos- mo appointed him public professor of Greek and Latin eloquence at Florence, and he sustained this office with distinguished reputation for many years. He was much esteemed by several popes, and Marcellus II, drew him to Rome; but upon the death of this pontiff, he resumed the chair at Florence, and held it nearly to the close of his life. He died in 1585, regretted and eulogized by the learned, on account of his virtuous and amiable manners, as well as his extensive erudition. Vettori took great pains in improving the editions of the ancient Greek and Latin writers. Of the latter we may mention Cicero, Terence, Varro, and Sallust; and of the former, Euripides, Porphy- ry, Demetrius Phalereus, Plato, Xenophon, Dion. Hali- carn., Aristotle, Æschylus, and Clemens Alexandrinus. His commentaries upon the rhetoric, poetics, ethics, and politics of Aristotle, and upon the elocution of Deme- trius Phalereus, are much valued. He was also the au- thor of many Italian and Latin letters, and of some poems, of an elegant Latin tract on the culture of the olive, and of other pieces in MS. Tiraboschi. Gen. Biog. VETULA, in Ancient Mythology, a goddess who pre- sided over pleasures. w VETULONIA, or VETULoNiFNSEs, in Ancient Geo- grafi hy, a town of Italy, in Etruria, situated towards the west, on the sea-coast. It was one of the cities of the Etruscans, and described by Silius Italicus as one of the most pleasant of their cities; but it was destroyed at the commencement of Rome. VENTULONIUM, a town of Italy, in the interior of Etruria, according to Ptolemy; called Vetulonia by Silius Italicus. VETUSSALINA, or VETUsALINAE, a town of Va- leria Ripensis, siturated, according to Anton. Itin., on the route from Taurunum in the Gauls, pursuing the shore of Pannonia, between Anamascia and Campona. VEVAY, in Geography, the ancient Wibiscum, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Bern, and the principal town of the bailliage, situated near the lake of Geneva. This town is clean and well-built, stands on a small plain at the foot of the mountains, on the margin of the water, and is one of the few places in the canton of Bern which carry on any trade. The chief manufacture is that of hats, and the trade in cheese is considerable. The bor- ders of this part of the lake are much more contrasted, wild, and picturesque, than those about Geneva; the mountains of the Vallais and Savoy projecting bold- ly into the water, and forming a semicular chain inclo- sing the lake, except where they are divided by the Rhone, a few leagues from Vevay. This town was ta- ken from the house of Savoy in the year 1474, but soon after restored. In 1536 it was again taken, and from that time has been attached to Bern. It has a college for the instruction of youth, and two churches, one for the French, and the other for the German language. Vevay was distinguished as the residence of Edmund Ludlow, the famous parliamentary general; and here he found an asylum from the attempts of his enemies, un- der the protection of Bern. Here he was interred, and his monument is a plain grave-stone of black mar- ble, on which is a Latin inscription. Over the door of the house which he inhabited is still preserved, from respect to his memory, the following uncouth motto: “ Omne solum forti patria est, quia patris.” Vevay is 10 miles E. of Lausanne. N. lat. 460 30'. E. long. 6° 48'. VEULLES, a town of France, in the department of the lower Seine; 9 miles N.E. of Cany. VEURDRE, LA, a town of France, in the department of the Allier; 13 miles N.W. of Moulins. VEUVEY, a town of France, in the department of the Côte d’Or; 12 miles N.W. of Beaune. V EXALA, in Ancient Geograft hy, an estuary of Britain, which is probably the bay at the mouth of the river Brent, in Somersetshire. VEXES. See NE injuste weares. VEXILLARII, among the Romans, were veteran soldiers; the same with those the old Romans called tri- arii. There were six hundred of them in every legion. V EXILLUM, a pair of colours belonging to each century of a Roman legion, for the preservation of which, ten of the best soldiers in the century were allotted; and all those, in the different centuries of a legion, (ten centuries composing a cohort, and ten cohorts constitu- ting a legion,) formed a very choice body of men, which was called the vexillation of that legion, and was some- times separated from it, and sent upon particular ser- vices. The vexillation of a legion was equal in number of men to a cohort, and had an equal proportion allotted to it in the execution of all public works. V EXILLUM, in Botany. See STANDARD and PAPILIo- NA CEO US. V EXIN, in Geografhy, before the revolution a country of France, situated along the river Epte, which divided it into two parts, called “Vexin François,” and “Vexin Normand.” The principal towns of the former are Pontoise, Chaumont, and Magny, included in the department of the Oise. The capital of the latter was Gisors, in the department of the Eure. V EXO E, a small island of Denmark, near the north coast of the island of Laland. N. lat. 54° 58'. E. long. 1 10 41’. VEYNE, a town of France, in the department of the Higher Alps; 12 miles W. of Gap. VEZ DE MARBAN, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 8 miles N. of Toro. V EZEDERINA, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria; 36 miles S.E. of Viddin. V EZELAY, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne. Theodore Beza was a native of Vezelay; 7 miles W. of Avallon. VIEZELIZE, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Meurte; 12 miles S. of Nancy. N. lat. 48° 30'. E. long. 6°11'. - VEZEN OBRE, a town of France, in the department of the Gard; 6 miles S.S.E. of Alais. n VEZERE, LE, a river of France, which runs into the Dordogne, at Limeuil. $ VEZINES, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne; 4 miles N., of Tonnerre, t VEZINS, U GE U G. H. *9 VEZINS, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire; 7 miles N.E. of Collet.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron; 6 miles S.W. of Severacle Château. VEZIRKAR, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 25 miles S.E. of Isnik. VEZOUZE, a river of France, which runs into the Meurte, about 3 miles below Luneville. V EZZANO PIETRoso, a town of the island of Cor- sica; 13 miles S.E. of Corte. UFALE, a town of the state of Georgia, on the Oak- fuskee. N. lat. 32° 55'. W. long. 85° 57'. UFENS, or OUFENs, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in New Latium, east of the Pontine marsh, which discharged itself into the sea; mentioned by Virgil and Silius Italicus.-Also, a river of Gallia Cispa- dana, mentioned by Livy. UFFENHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the principality of Anspach; 18 miles S.S. E. of Wurz- burg. N. lat. 49° 37'. E. long. 10° 19'. UFFINIAC, a town of France, in the department of the North Coasts; 3 miles S.E. of S. Brieuc. UFFUGUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a pretty con- siderable town of Italy, in Brutium. Livy. UFHOLZ, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Rhine; 17 miles S.S.W. of Colmar. UFN AU, an island of Switzerland, in the lake of Zu- rich; about a mile in circumference. UFTER GEFTEN, a mountain of Switzerland, in the eanton of Bern; 23 miles S. of Thun. UFVERSO, a small island in the Baltic, E. of Aland. N. lat. 60° 7'. E. long. 20° 20'. UGAB, a very ancient instrument of the Hebrews, mentioned by Moses before the deluge. Many wild conjectures have been formed concerning this instru- ment. It has been construed into an organ by some, who did not recollect that organ was the generical name for instruments of all kinds; and it is very improbable that a machine, so complicated as a modern organ of the most simple kind, should have been invented before the deluge. Don Calmet, whose ideas concerning Hebrew instruments are not always happy, thinks the ugab was only a syrinx, similar to Pan's pipe; for all the descrip- tions tell us that the ug ab was a wind-instrument with many pipes. See SYRINX. UGARA, in Geograft hy, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the goverment of Sivas; miles W. of Tocat. UGENA, in Botany, so named by Cavanilles, Ic. Plant. v. 6. 73. t. 594, 595, is the same genus of Filices, which Willdenow, in his Sh. Pl. v. 77, has called Hy- droglossum, from 53aº, water, and yaw a 72, a tongue, al- luding to its damp place of growth, and the tongue- like shape of the fructifying parts of the frond. Cava- milles meant to commemorate an excellent Spanish draughtsman, employed to delineate the new plants of the Madrid garden. Whether Willdenow's authority may restore Hydroglossum, we cannot here venture to foretell; but the genus in question is established by Swartz under the name of Lygod IUM (see that article); and Mr. Brown has sanctioned this last appellation, both in his Prodr. JWow. Holl. v. 1. 162, and in Ait. Hort. Rew. v. 5. 497, which we presume will decide the question. UGENTO, in Geografthy, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto; 16 miles S.W. of Otranto. N. lat. 40° 12'. E. long. 77° 8'. - UGERNUM, in Ancient Geografhy, or, as Strabo has it, Gernum, a place which lay on the way from Nines to Aquae Sextiae, or Aix. - UGEST, in Geografthy, a town of the duchy of Warsaw, in the palatinate of Rawa; 6 miles S.E. of Rawa. UGGADE, in Ancient Geografthy, a place marked in the Itinerary of Antonine between Rotomagus and Mediolanum Aulercorum, which is Evreux. * UGGER-ZEHM, in Geografhy, a town of the duchy of Courland, in the gulf of Riga; 33 miles E.N.E. of Goldingen. UGGIATE, a town of Italy, in the department of the Lario; 5 miles W. of Como. . UGGIONE, or OGG10 NE, MARco DA, in Biograft hy, was a native of Oggione, in the Milanese, and was born about the year 1480. He was one of the most able scholars of Lionardo da Vinci. Avoiding the minute elaborate finish of his master’s smaller works, which was imitated by his fellow pupils generally, and at- taching himself to the study of the great princi- ples of the art, he became a skilful painter in fresco. He must have been greatly aided in his progress, by having copied the most renowned and the greatest of Da Vinci's works, the Last Supper, painted in the re- fectory of the Dominican convent at Milan. Uggione’s copy is of the same size as the original, near 30 feet long, and was painted on canvas for the refectory of the Carthusians at Pavia, where it remained till the revolu- tion, when it was removed and sold to a rich grocer at Milan; and is lately brought to this country for public ex- hibition, and for sale. Lanzi says of it, “that in measure it compensates for the loss of the original,” and is justi- fied by the merit of the work. The characters of the heads appear to have been well rendered, except that of the Saviour. Those of St. John, St. Simon, and St. James, are excellently wrought, the former especially: indeed it appears so distinctly more complete than any other in colour and character, that one might think the great master’s hand had been employed upon it. The hands, however, are ill drawn, and tamely executed; and the feet much too large, and out of keeping. The drape- ries also are laboured, and a part is cut off the top of the picture, which injures the perspective of the room in which the figures are seated. His fresco pictures in the church of La Pace at Milan still preserve their lines and colours unimpaired: some of them are in the body of the church itself; but the Crucifixion, his most copious composition, is in the re- fectory; a work, Mr. Fuseli has observed, “ which sur- prises by its variety and spirit: few Lombards have reached that degree of expression which strikes here, for the art of its composition, and the fancy of its drape- ries.” Of his oil pictures, two of the most esteemed are at Milan, one at St. Paolo in Compito, the other in St. Eufemia; but they are inferior to his frescoes. He died in 1530, aged about 50. UGGLIBO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Ges- tricia, on a lake; 16 miles N.W. of Gefle. UGH, a town of Hungary, near the Theisse; 32 miles N. of Zegedin. UGHELLI, U G O V I A UGHELLI, FERDINANDO, in Biography, an ecclesi- astical historian, was born of a good family at Florence in 1595; in his youth entered into the Cistercian order, and finished his studies at Rome. After having passed through various offices in different monasteries, he was elected abbot of St. Vincent, &c. at Rome, theologian to cardinal Carlo de Medici, and consultant of the congre- gation of the Index. He was also domestic prelate to pope Alexander VII., who gave him a pension, augment- ed by Clement IX. He declined accepting any bishop- ric, though several were offered him, because he pre- ferred pursuing his studies at Rome. Having underta- ken to give a series of the bishops of all the churches in Italy, with an illustration of each church, deduced from documents in their respective archives, he employed several persons to assist him; and the work was printed at Rome in 9 vols., from 1642 to I 648, under the title of “Italia sacra, sive de Episcopis Italiae et Insularum ad- jacentium, rebusque aliis praeclare gestis, deducta serie ad nostram usque AEtatem, Opus singulare.” A new edition of this work was begun at Venice in 1717, and completed in 1733, in 10 vols. folio, with considerable additions. Ughelli also made additions to the lives of the popes by Ciaconius, and published eulogies of the cardi- nals of the Cistercian order, and those of the Colonna family, and genealogies of the Marsciano and Capisuc- chi families. He died at Rome in 1670, at the age of 75. Moreri, Gen Biog. UGIA, in Ancient Geograft hy, a town of Hispania, in the interior of Betica, belonging to the Turdetani, ac- cording to Ptolemy; marked in the Itin. Anton. between Asta and Orippo. UGIE, in Geograft hy, a river of Scotland, which runs into the German sea, about a mile N. of Peterhead. N. lat. 57° 27'. W. long. 1947. UGINE, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc; 20 miles E.S.E. of Chambery. UGLIANI, a town of France, in the department of the IDora; 16 miles E.S.E. of Aosta. UGLIANO, a small rocky island in the Adriatic, near the coast of Dalmatia, about 3 miles W. from Zara. The inhabitants suffer considerably from the want of fresh water. Illyrian snails, esteemed by the Romans as one of the most delicate luxuries of their table, abound here. N. lat. 40° 18'. E. long. 15° 16'. UGLICH, a town of Russia, in the government of Ja- roslavl, on the Volga. The principal trade is in leather and soap; 60 miles W. of Jaruslavl. N. lat. 57° 30'. E. long. 38°22'. UGLUM, a town of Sweden, in West Gothland; 16 miles S. of Uddevalla. UGOD, a town of Hungary; 14 miles N.W. of Stuhl Weissenburg. UGOG.NA, or Vogo.G.NA, a town of Italy, in the de- partment of the Gogna, on the river Tosa; 15 miles N. W. of Arona. UGONE, MATTIA, in Biografhy, was a native of Brescia at the commencement of the 16th century, a doctor of laws, and bishop of Famagosta, in the island of Cyprus. His principal performance is a treatise on coun- cils, entitled “Synodia Ugonia,” approved by a bull of Paul III. in 1543, and printed at Venice in 1565. Du- pin pronounces it one of the best and fullest treatises written on that subject in the 16th century. This wri- ter maintains, that a council is superior to the pope, and may depose him, not only for heresy and schism, but for Vol. XXXVIII. the spot now called Mont-Dragone. any notorious crime, persisted in after admonition; and that, in matters of faith, and such as concern the state of the church, or its head, the judgment of the council is to be preferred to that of the pope. He died in 1616. Dupin. Gen. Biog. UGROCZ, in Geografthy, a town and castle of Hun- gary; 1.6 miles N. of Topoltzan. UGUALE, Ital., in Music, equal; as, a farti uguali, two vocal or instrumental parts, of equal consequence. UHERCE, in Geography, a town of Austrian Poland, in Galicia; 64 miles S.W. of Lemberg. UHLERSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Neustadt; 5 miles S.W. of Weyda. UHLFELD, a town of Germany, in the principality of Bayreuth; 19 miles N.W. of Nuremberg. UHRTSCHUIA, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz; 10 miles S.W. of Olmutz. N. lat. 49° 23'. E. long. 17°. * UI, a river of Russia, which runs into the Irtisch, near Malanova, in the government of Tobolsk. V1 et Armis, q, d. by force and arms, a law-term used in an indictment; to denote the forcible and violent com- mission of any crime. V1 Laica Removenda, in Law, a writ lying where de- bate being between two parsons, or provisors, for a church, one of them makes a forcible entry into it, with a number of laymen, and holds the other out. VIA, Way. See WAY, and RoAD. VIA Lactea, in Astronomy, the milky way, or galaxy; which see. - VIA Militaris, in our Law-Books, is used for a high- way. “Quae publica dici poterit, et ducit ad mare, et ad portum, et quandoque ad mercata.” Bracton, lib. iv. C. l 6. ViA Militaris, in Roman History. See MILITARY Ways, and WAY. VIA Regia, the King’s Highway, is defined in Leg. Henry I. to be “that which is always open, and which nobody may shut by any means, as leading to a 'city, port, or town.” Its breadth the same laws prescribe to be such, as that tWO Carts may pass each other, and sixteen horsemen armed may go abreast. See HIGH way. VIA Solis, the Sun’s Way, in Astronomy, is used, among some astronomers, for the ecliptic line; so called, because the sun never goes out of it. - VIA, Turreta Chica, in Ancient Geogaſhhy, a place of Africa, in the eastern part of Mauritania Caesariensis, situated on the sea-coast, some miles W. of Icosium, in which are the remains of some Roman walls and cisterns. . VIA, Ulla, a river of Hispania Citerior, which ran from the N.E. to the S.W., passed iy Iria Flavia, and discharged itself into the sea. VIA Afiftia. See APPIAN TWay, and VIAE Roman ae. VIA Domitiana, took its name from Domitian, by whose orders it was executed. It detached itself from the Appian way at a small distance from Sinuessa, on This way opened under a triumphal arch, which was richly ornamented with marbles and metals, and passed along the sea by Vulturnum, Liternum, Cumae, and Bayae to Puteoli. VIA Curia, a Roman way marked by Dionysius of Ha- licarnassus in the Sabine territory, on which were the following towns, viz. Cursula, 80 stadia from Reaté, and Issa near Cursalin. Some have represented this as the same with the Latin way. Vºinº Which, according to Dion. Hal, belong- 4. ed & V I A. * ed to the Sabines. Holstenius suggests that it was the same with the Via Salaria. Dion. Halic. places upon this way Palatium, 25 stadia from Reaté; Trebula, 60 stadia from Palatium; Vespola, 60 stadia from Trebula; Sima, 40 stadia from Vespola; Mephyle, 30 stadia from Suna; and Orvinium, 40 stadia from Mephyle. V 1A, Roman ae, or Roman Ways, were public roads on which the ancient Romans impressed marks of grandeur and celebrity, as well as of utility, that have not been al- together effaced during an interval of more than 2000 years. In the construction of these roads they began with making a deep excavation, on each side of which they erected walls, and on these walls formed a parapet. The space between the walls was filled with layers of different materials, one of which was mortar made of the volcanic produce called puzzolano. Above these they placed the hardest stones which they could procure, and which they fastened together by an intermediate cement; and the salient angles were so constructed as to form a large mass. The elevated parapet served not only to give solidity to the way, but to afford a convenient seat for those who travelled on foot; and at certain intervals they placed stones of a greater height, which served for the convenience of horsemen. On these ways they had temples and monuments, which contributed to their or- nament; and the distances were marked on columns of stone. Originally they marked the distance of any place from a column in the city of Rome; but in process of time they noted the distance from the capital of the province, or from any other town which they selected for this purpose. The first of these Roman ways was the Afiftian way, which commenced at the gate of Rome bearing this denomination, and took a S.S.E. direction. To the right commenced the Via Ardeatina, which pro- ceeded from the south as far as Ardea, almost perpendi- cularly to the meridian. Within the compass of Rome, at the foot of mount Coelius, and to the left of the Appian way, commenced the Via Latina, the direction of which was to the S.E. At seven miles and a half com- menced, to the left of the Latin way, the Via Tusculana. To the E. commenced the way, which, in the city, bore the name of Via Sacra. From this way, in the interior of the city, proceeded the Via Camfiana towards the S.E. The Via Labicana has an almost S.E. direction. To- wards the E. is the Via Praenostina. To the left of this way, about the fifth mile from Rome, is the Via Collati- na. Towards the N.E. the first way is the Via Tiburti- na, passing, as its name indicates, to the Tiber. The second is the Via Momentana, proceeding towards the N.E. to the tenth mile, and then turning directly north- wards to Nomentum. The third is the Via Salaria, which is detached to the Colline gate from the left of the Nomentane way, and proceeding directly towards the N. as far as the eighth mile, rejoins the same way at Ere- tum. It is called Salaria from the salt which the Ro- mans used to bring to Rome along this way from the sea. It was through the gate Salaria, that the Gauls entered Rome, under the command of their leader Brennus, when that city was first taken by them. Towards the N.W. the first way is the Via Lata, which formerly turning by the Capitoline mount, passed by the ancient triumphal gate. This way afterwards assumed the name of Flaminia. The second is the Via Claudia, which ad- vanced towards the N.W.; and at the sixth mile proceed- ed the third way in this direction, or the Via Cassia, which proceeded to Veii. The fourth way is the Via Thiumſhalis, which at the ninth mile joined the Claudian way. The fifth bore the name of Via Cornelia, which proceeded by the W. & N. to the tenth mile; and the sixth was the Wia Aurelia, which left Rome at the gate of Ja- niculum, and proceeded a little towards the S.W., but changing its direction towards the N.W. it gained the sea-coast, along which it pursued its course. r Towards the S.W. the first way was the Via Portuen- sis, so called, as well as the gate by which it left the city, from their leading to the place called Portuensis, now called by corruption “Villa Portese.” It passed by the S.E. and joined the route which followed the windings of the Tiber under the name of Via Littoralis, which last advanced to the “Portus Augusti.” The second was the Wia Ustrensis, which passed N.W. of the Circus Maximus, aſid crossing the Almo at the gates of Rome, it turned to the S.W. towards Ostia. The third way commenced five miles and a half on this way towards the left, under the name of Via Laurentina, which proceeded to the S. as far as Laurentum. We have above enume- rated twenty-one ways or roads, which separating at the centre of Rome extended more or less to different parts of Italy. Bergier, to whom we are indebted for this de- . tail on the Roman roads, proceeds, after having surveyed them at and near Rome, to trace their length and direc- tion in various parts of Italy. The military ways proceeding immediately from the gates of Rome, according to the table of Peutinger, and recorded in history, are eleven, agreeably to the follow- ing arrangement: viz. Via Flaminia, Salaria, JWumenta- na, Tiburtina, Pranestina, Lavicana, Latina, Aſhia, Hostien8 is, Aurelia, and Triumf halis. The construction of the Flaminian road is ascribed by Some authors to Flaminius, who was killed at the battle of the lake of Thrasymene, under the consulate of Lu- cius Veturius and Cains Lutatius, in the year of Rome 533; but Strabo ascribes this work to the son of this Fla- minius, and he says expressly that he formed two grand roads in Italy, one from Rome to Ariminium (Rimini), call- ed Via Flaminia; and another from Ariminium to Bono- nia (Bologna), and to Aquileia, which was denominated Pia Zmilia. The distance from Rome to Rimini, accord- ing to the Itinerary of Antonine, was 222 Roman miles; but according to the table of Peutinger, 194 miles. His- tory records nine military ways which parted from the Pia Flaminia; and of all these ways, that called Via At milia was the most ancient, the most known, and the grandest of all; its length surpassed that of the Flaminian way, and it was equally ancient. As to its antiqui- ty, Strabo says that it was made at the same time with the Flaminian way, and Palladio ranks it among the three most renowned and most excellent, viz. Via Aſhfia, Via Flaminia, and Via AEmilia. This latter extended from Ariminium to Bononia, and thence to Aquileia, a distance, according to Antonine’s Itinerary, of 485 miles, and according to the table of Peutinger of 527 miles. The poet Martial, speaking of this famous way, and of one of the cities which he found upon it, (lib. iii. ep. 4.) says, “Roman vade, liber, si veneris undé requiret, Æmiliae dicas de regione viae, Siquibus in terris, qua simus in urbe rogabit, Corneli referas me licet esse fero.” The second branch of the Flaminian way is that called Cassian. It commenced at pons Milvius (or Ponte Mole), * V IA. Mole), built upon the Tiber, two miles from Rome. From thence it took its direction by the town of Sutri. The third branch, which detached itself from the Fla- minian way, was the Claudian way, of which Ovid (l. i. de Ponto) says, “Nec quos pomiferis positos in collibus hortos Spectat Flaminiae Claudia juncta viae.” According to the Itinerary, the distance from Lucca to Rome was 239 miles, and according to the chart of Peutinger 145 miles. Besides these, the Annienne, Augustan, Cimine, Ame- nienne, Sempronian, and Posthumian, commencing at different parts of the Flaminian way, extended them- selves across the different regions of Italy, between the city of Rome and the Po. Of all these ways, that called the Annienne is known by an ancient inscription found in the ruins of the town of Axuma. The Cimine way was between a mountain and the lake of its name near Vi- terbo. Virgil thus speaks of it, (AEn. vii.) “Cimini cum monte Lucum, Lucosque Capenos.” The Amenienne way took its name from the town of Amelia, near Spoleto. The Sempronian way had its name from the town of Forum Sempronii, whence it ex- tended as far as Fulginia or Fulcinium in Umbria. The Posthumian passed into Gaul, called by the Romans To- gata; and Tacitus thus speaks of it: “Sistere tertiam legionem in ipso viae Posthumiae aggere tubet.” The Pia Salaria commenced at the Colline gate, and extended towards the N. across the country of the Sa- bines, receiving the Nomentane way at the village of Hercelum, eighteen miles from Rome, on the bank of the Tiber. Its route, indicated by the Itinerary from Eretum to Hadria, was 166 miles, and according to Peu- tinger's table 168 miles. Near this way were built the temples of Ericina and Venus Verticordia, and also several magnificent tombs. From the Via Salaria branch- cd out two other ways, viz. the Quinctian and the Junian. The JWomentane way took its origin at the Viminal gate, and extended N.E. as far as Nomentum, a town of the Sabines, in ancient Latium. Ovid thus speaks of it, (Fast. l. iv.) “Haac mihi Nomento Roman cum luce redirem Obstitit in media Caudida Turba via.” Two miles from the city, on the Nomentane way, was a temple of Bacchus, which afterwards became the tomb of the family of the Constantines. On this way were also several temples and sepulchres. It has been said by some authors, that the Porta Ti- burtina and the Porta Gabinia or Gabiosa were the same, and also the Pia Tiburtina and Via Gabinia or Gabiosa. Others have maintained that they were different, issuing from the same gate; the Gabiana being more to the east than the Tiburtina; the former taking its course to the right, towards the Praenestine Way, and the latter to the left, towards the N.E., passing by delightful piaces near the Tiber. From the Esquiline gate proceeded the two grand roads, called Praenestina and Lavicana. The Prae- nestine, according to Bergier, commenced at Rome, not far from the Forum; and at Anagnia, joined the Via Latina. The Lavicana also commenced in Rome; and having passed between two aqueducts, joined the Latin Way at Anagnia. Strabo does not conduct the Lavicana Sº far; and the table of Peutinger terminates it at Lanu- Vium, twenty-nine miles from Anagnia. The Via Latina commenced at the gate of this name, and proceeded be. tween the W. and the S. to join the grand Appian way, nineteen miles from Capua. The Appian, Latin, and Valerian ways were the most considerable in Latium: the Valerian way, -upon leaving Rome, proceeded towards the left, the Appian towards the right, and the Latin way between the two. We may here observe, that there were two ways under the name of Valerian, the ancient and the new. The Itinerary mentions one, and Strabo the other. The Latin way was called by the ancients the Ausonian way; accordingly Martial has given it these two names. On this way was found the temple of female Fortune, with her statue, which married women only were allowed to touch without committing sacri- lege. Of the .4/fian way we have given a brief ac- count under that article: and for a farther account of other ways, we refer to the preceding part of this article; our limits allowing of no farther enlargement. The Ro- mans extended their ways through the whole extent of their empire, and it would fill a volume to trace them in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Itinerary of Antonine, and the table of Peutinger, will afford the curious in this research great assistance. For an account of the Roman roads in Britain, see WAY. r In connection with the Roman roads, it may not be im- proper to enumerate, as briefly as possible, the gates of Rome. When Rome was founded, it comprehended only mount Palatine and the neighbouring valley, where was the Forum; and it had only three gates. When the Sabines were admitted by Romulus into a participation of the freedom of the city, it was enlarged, and the Capi- tol inclosed; and for admission on the side of the Capitol, a fourth gate was added. The first gate had the name of forta Mutionis, from the bellowings of the horned beasts which were sent through it to the adjoining pas- tures; the next called Romula, from the name of the city; and the third Janualis, from the god Janus, who inhabit- ed this quarter. The fourth had the name of forta Carmentalis, from Carmenta, wife of Evander, who had his abode in that quarter, at the foot of the Capitol: which last gate is mentioned by Solinurs, Plutarch (Life of Ca- millus), and Virgil (Æneid. viii.) In subsequent ages Rome was several times enlarged, and it became neces- sary to construct new gates; the four first serving merely for the fortress and the inclosure of the city. Numa, the successor of Romulus, added to the city a part of the Quirinal mount; and as the inhabitants rmultiplied, Tul- Ius Hostilius joined to it mount Coelius; Ancus Martius, the Janiculum; Servius Tullius, the rest of the Quirinal and the Viminalis. A long time afterwards, Sylla, Ju- lius Caesar, Augustus, and Tiberius, enlarged the com- pass of the city, so as to include a variety of magnificent edifices. Nero having set fire to it, added to its former grandeur; Trajan also augmented it, as did also Aurelian, who inclosed the Campus Martius; and, finally, Constan- tine the Great enlarged it on the side of the Viminal and Tiburtine gates. Authors have differed as to the, num- ber of gates which belonged to the city of Rome. Pliny, in his time, reckoned twenty-four; but Procopius states them at fourteen, besides those less considerable gates, which he calls portulae. In order to reconcile these dis- cordant statements, it has been Said that Rome had four- teen royal and principal gates, which might be denomi- nated imperial and military, and to which all the military ways of Italy were directed; and besides these it had, in Pliny’s time, ten others of inferior importance. The 4 K 2 first : : : . . v I A V I A first fourteen, with their ancient and modern names, were the following, viz. P. Flamentana, afterward Flami- nia, now the gate of the people, or del Popolo, from a church built near it by pope Pascal II., dedicated to the Virgin Mary, under the appellation of Sta. Maria del Popolo:—Collatina, so called because it led to a town of that name in the country of the Sabines, not far from Roume, since Pinciana:—.19 onensis, bearing that name from the Agonalia celebrated just without it; since Quiri- malis, from a chapel sacred to Romulus (Quirinus), which stood near it; also Collatina, or Collina, from its situation at the junction of the hills Quirinalis and Vimi- nalis; and last of all, Salaria:— Viminalis, so called on account of the osiers that grew near it, and because it was situated on the declivity of mount Viminalis; called also JWomentana, or Mumentana, because the road through it led to Numentum; and now the gate of St. Agatha, or St. Agnes.— Gabiosa, so named from its leading to a road called Gabina; called by St. Gregory Aſſetroni:— Esquilina, originally so called from its situation on mount Esquiline; Taurina, from the head of an ox engraved upon it; Tiburtina, from its leading to Tibur, now Ti- voli; Libitensis, on account of the dead bodies that used to be carried through it to be interred in the Campus Esquilinus, the burying place of the common people; Jabicana and Praenestina, because the roads passing through it led to these places; now, as some say, the gate of St. Laurence, to whose magnificent church it leads; but others ascribe the name of St. Laurence to the Ga- biosa, and say this is the Porta major or greater gate; hence it is said that this name, as well as that of Sancti Crucis, or of the Holy Cross, is applied to P. JWevia, so called, says Varro, from the memoribus or woods that for- merly stood near it, or from an adjacent wood belonging to one Naevius; and it is observed that the Claudian aqueduct runs close,by it:—Caelimontana, so denomina- ted from its situation on mount Coelius; since Asinaria, so called either from a road of that name to which it led, or from gardens, called the Asinarian, situated near it, or from Asinius Pollio or Asinius Gallus, consuls under Augustus, who built or repaired it; its oldest name was Querquetulana, under which name it is mentioned by Cicero; now St. John’s gate, because it leads to St. John J lateran:—Ferentina, a name derived from Ferentinum, a place on the Latin way; since Latina, from its leading to Latium, now the Campagna di Roma; near it is now a chapel dedicated to St. John the afiostle, from whom the gate is at present called:—Cañena, so called from Capua, an old city of Italy, the way to which led through this gate; since Afiftiana, from its leading to the Appian way; or Triumphalis, from some triumph in which the proces- sion passed through it; it was also, as some say, called Fontinalis, from the aqueducts which were raised over it; now the gate of S. Sebastian, from a church dedicated to that saint, which stands near it:—Trigemina, anciently so named from the three Horatii, who went out at this gate to fight the Curiatii; called also Aſhfia, from its being near the Appian aqueduct; Fontinalis, from its being near a number of springs; and Ostiensis, on ac- count of the road to Ostium, which began there; now the gate of St. Paul, from a noble church dedicated to that apostle, to which it leads, without the walls:—Wava- lis, so called from its being near the river; and Portuen- sis, from its leading to the city of this name:—Janicu- lensis, named probably from a bridge of that name which led to this gate; sometimes called Trajana, as having been repaired by the emperor Trajan; and Aure- liana, from the emperor Aurelian, who either built or re- paired it; now St. Pancras's gate:— Fontinalis, called also Sefitimiana, from the emperor Septimius Severus, who built it, and whose baths are just without this gate; it was repaired by pope Alexander VI.:—and Aurelia, near the gate of Adrian. The other ten gates were of less importance; they were called Portule by Procopius, but there is a confusion in their names, which are as follow, compared with those of the other class: viz. Querquetula, or Querquetulana, on mount Viminal:—Piacularis:— Catularia:-Minutia:—Mugiona:—Sanqualis:—Wavia: -Rauduscula, or Rawdusculana:—Lavernalis:—and Libitensis. , Besides these twenty-four gates, there is yet one which served for an entrance into the city of Rome, on the side of mount Vatican, and on this side of the Tiber, not comprehended under those which we have already recounted. It is the most celebrated of all, and bore the name of P. triumphalis, ascribed by some to Cafena, already mentioned. VIA, in Geography, a town of Persia, in the province of Segestan; 15 miles S.E. of Ferah. VIA Reggia, a sea-port town of the state of Lucca, and the only port of the republic; 20 miles W. of Lucca. VIACHA, a town of Peru, in the diocese of La Paz; 8 miles S.W. of La Paz. VIACIENSES, or VIATIENSEs, in Ancient Geogra- flhy, a people of Hispania Citerior, comprehended un- der the general name of Oretani. VIA DANA, LoDovico, in Biografhy, the inventor of the expedient of expressing chords by figures in accom- paniment or thorough-base, which the Italian:s call basso continuo, was born at Lodi, in the Milanese, the latter end of the sixteenth century. His first preferment was that of maestro di cappella of the cathedral of Fano, and the second that of Mantua. He was one of the most dis- tinguished ecclesiastical composers of his time. The in- dication of chords by figures in accompanying on keyed instruments, lutes, harps, and, in recitatives, even violon- cellos, has been doubted, as several instances of the mi- nute beginnings of this expedient have been observed previous to the time of Viadana; but he was, doubtless, the first who drew up general rules for expressing har- mony by figures over the base in 1615. Draudius, in an ample list of his ecclesiastical compositions, which were very numerous, tells us of one that authenticates his claim to this invention, which was a collection of all his choral pieces, of one, two, three, and four parts; “ with a continued and general base, adapted to the organ ac- cording to a new invention, and useful for every singer as well as organist; to which are added short rules and ex- planations for accompanying a general base, according to the new method.” Viadana was therefore the first who composed an organ base different from the voice-part, in the execution of which the new invented figures ena- bled the performer to give the singers the whole har- mony of the several parts of a full composition, without seeing the score. - As the construction of perpetual fugue, or canon, re- quired more meditation and science than any other spe- cies of composition, there were several musicians dur- ing the seventeenth century, who, from an ambition to excel in such difficult undertakings, seem to have devo- ted as great a portion of their lives to these labours as holy men ever did to severe acts of piety and devotion, in order to be canonized. Though V I A V I A Though the learned and elaborate style in which both the music of the church and chamber continued to be cultivated at this period, till near the middle of the se- venteenth century; yet a revolution in favour of melody and expression was preparing, even in sacred music, by the success of dramatic composition, consisting of recita- tion and melodies for a single voice, which now began to be preferred to music of many parts, in which canons, fugues, and full harmony, were the productions which chiefly employed the master’s study and hearer’s atten- tion. And this rendered the art of accompaniment or thorough-base more necessary. See CHORDs, Accom PA- NIMENT, and THoRough-base. VIADANA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de- partment of the Mincio, on the Po; 23 miles S.S.W. of Mantua. VIADUS, or VIADRUs, in Ancient Geography, a riv- er of Germany, which had its source in Suevia, and dis- charged itself into the Suevian sea, or Codanus Sinus, This river is called Guttalus by Pliny. VIAE PRIMAE, the first passages; a technical term for the stomach and intestines. ~, In this sense we say, an obstruction in the primae viae. Purging and emetic medicines operate chiefly on the primae viae. And sudorifics, alteratives, cardiacs, &c. suspend their action till after they have passed the pri- mae viae. VIAL, or PHIAL, a small and thin glass bottle. See PHIAL. - - VIALA du Tarn, Le, in Geograf hy, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron, near the Tarn; 9 miles S.W. of Milhaud. VIALES, in Mythology, a name given, among the Romans, to the gods who had the care and guard of the roads and highways. Such were Mercury and Hercules. The Dii Viales, according to Labeo, were of the number of those gods called Dii Animales; who were supposed to be the souls of men, changed, into gods: these were of two kind; viz. the Viales and Penates. The Viales were the same with those otherwise call- ed Lares; at least, some of the Lares were denominated Viales; viz. such of them as had the more immediate superintendency of the roads. Hence the two names are sometimes joined, and those highway-deities are called Lares Viales; witness that in- scription in Gruter: Y ORTUNA E RED UCI LA RI VI. A LI ROMAE A ETERNAE q, Axius AELIA NU S-V E. PROC, A U. G. I ONI. VIAMON, in Geografhy, a town of Brasil, in the ju- risdiction of Rio de Janeiro. VIANA, in Ancient Geografthy, the name of a town of Norica. Pliny. VIANA, in Geografthy, a mountain of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo; 3 miles S. of Evora.-Also, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo; 12 miles S. of Evora.--Also, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 30 miles E.S.E. of Orense.—Also, a town of Spain, in Navarre, on the Ebro; 16 miles S.W. of Estella. VIANA de Foz de Lima, a sea-port of Portugal, in the province of Entre Duero e Minho, situa ed on the N. side of the Lima, near its mouth, containing two parish- es, an hospital, seven convents, and about 7000 inhabi- tants; the harbour is choaked up, and only capable of re- ceiving small vessels; 9 miles W.S.W. of Ponte de Li- ma. N. lat. 41°41'. W. long, 8° 26'. VIANDEN, or WWYANDEN, a town of France, in the department of the Forests, late the duchy of Luxemburg, called by the Germans Vyenthal, situated on the river Uren, which divides it into New and Old Town, in the midst of rocks and mountains. In the Old Town is a castle, situated on a rock of prodigious height, where a garrison was kept, Vianden is a very ancient and illus- trious comté, which comprehends forty villages and hamlets, that belonged to the house of Nassau. The inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in manufactur- ing cloth and the tanning of leather; 18 miles N.N.E. of Luxemburg. UJAND INSKOE YAs Asch No E, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, on the Indigirda; 148 miles N.N.E. of Zashiversk. N. lat. 68° 40'. E. long. 1329 14'. VIAN EN, or VY ANEN, a town of Holland, situated on the S. side of the Leck; 7 miles S. of Utretch. VIAN INA, a town of the duchy of Piacenza; 20 miles S. of Piacenza. VIANO, a town of the duchy of Piacenza; 13 miles S. of Piacenza. VIANOS, a town of Spain, in New Castile; 3 miles S. of Alcaraz. \. VIAREDEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker Mark; 1 mile N. of Schwedt, VIAS, a town of France, in the department of the He- rault; 6 miles N.W. of Agde. VIASDUM, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Rawa; 16 miles W. of Rawa. VIAST. See VIEST. VIATICUM, among the ancient Romans, was the allowance or appointment, which the republie gave to such of its officers as were sent into the provinces to ex- ercise any office, or to perform any service or commis- sion; as also to the officers of the army, and even the sol- diers, &c. Tacitus makes mention of it, Annal. lib. i. c. 37. Wi- aticum amicorum, if siusque Caesaris; meaning the ap- pointments which the republic paid to Germanicus and his officers. This viaticum, however, did not consist altogether in money: the ring given to the magistrates and officers sent into the provinces was part of it; so were the clothes, baggage, tents, and the rest of the equipage. Some have also given the name of viaticum to the piece of gold, silver, or copper, which the ancients used to put into the mouths of the dead, to pay Charon for their passage. In the Romish church, viaticum is still the allowance made a religious, to defray the expenses of a journey, mission, &c. *. VIATICUM is also used for the communion, or eucha- rist, which is given to the people in the pangs of death or who are about to make the voyage of the other world. The viaticum is not to be given to persons executed in course of justice. VIATKA, in Geografthy, a town of Russia, and capi- tal of the government of Viatskoe: the environs of this city abound in excellent pasture for sheep, of which §rc&t V I B v 1B # great numbers were sent hither from Germany, and a woollen manufacture was established by the great Peter. Some tanners likewise were brought by him from Eng- land, to teach the art of tanning leather; 624 miles E. of Petersburg. N. lat. 58° 25'. E. long. 50° 22'.— Also, a river of Russia, which passes by Viatka, Orlov, Kotelnitch, &c. and runs into the Kama, 40 miles E. of Kazan. VIATOR, in Antiquity, an officer of justice among the Romans. The term, originally, had no other signifi- cation than that of a public messenger, or servant, sent to advertise the senators and magistrates when assem- blies were to be held, where their presence was required. Hence, because, in the first ages of that empire, the Roman magistrates lived mostly at their country houses; these officers being obliged to be frequently upon the road, were called viatores, travellers; from via, highway. In process of time, the name viator became common to all officers of the magistrates, lictors, accensi, scribes, statores, and criers; either by reason these names and offices were confounded in one; or because viator was a general name, and the rest particular ones, specifying the particular functions they discharged, as A. Gellius seems to insinuate, when he says, that the member of the company of viatores who binds a criminal condemned to be whipped, was called a lictor. Be this as it will, the names lictor and viator are often used indiscriminately for each other; and we as often meet with Send to seek, or advertise him by a lictor, as by a viator. None but the consuls, praetors, tribunes, and aediles, had a right to have viatores. They were not to be Ro- man citizens, and yet they were required to be free. VIATORE, in Geografhy, a town of Hindoostan, in the country of the Nayrs; 25 miles N.E. of Tellichery. VIATSKOE, a government of Russia, bounded on the N. by the government of Vologda, on the E. by Permskoe, on the S. by Uphinskoe and Kazanskoe, and on the W. by Kostromskoe; 260 miles long, and from 80 to 180 broad, N. lat. 55° 40' to 60° 25'. E. long. 46° to 54°. VIAZMA, a town of Russia, in the government Smolensk. This town is situated on an eminence, and covers a great extent of ground; it is irregularly built, chiefly of wooden houses, a few only of the more mod- ern being of brick. It contains more than twenty church- es, a great number for the town, which is far from being populous; 76 miles E.N.E. of Smolensk. N. lat. 55° 20'. F. long. 24° 26'. VIAZNIKI, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, on the Kliazma; 52 miles E. of Vladimir. N. łat. 56° 10. E. long. 41° 50'. VIAZOVSKOI, a town of Russia, in the government of Upha, on the Ural; 36 miles E.S.E. of Orenburg. VIBANT ANARIUM, or VIBANTAvARIUM, in An- cient Geograft hy, a town of European Sarmatia. Strabo and Ptolemy. VIBELLI, a people of Italy, in Liguria. Pliny. . VIBEX is sometimes used, by Physicians, for a black and blue spot on the skin, occasioned by an afflux or ex- travasation of blood. VIBI FORUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Ita- ly, in Gallia Cisalpina. VIBINUM, a place of Italy, in Apulia, making a part of Magna Graecia. - this town; 186 miles N. of Hamburgh. VIBISCUS, a town of Gallia Celtica, or the Lyon- nese, among the Helvetians. Anton. Itin. VIBO, VIBonA, or Vinoba, a town of Italy, in Bru- tium, upon the route from Rome to Colonne, by the Appian way, between Ad Turres and Nicotera. Cice- ro calls it Vibo. VIBORG, or WIBoRG, in Geography, a city of Den- mark, capital of a diocese, and all North Jutland, situa- ted near the centre of the province, on a lake, called As- mild, which abounds in fish. It is one of the most ancient towns of the kingdom, and was formerly large and rich, containing, prior to the reformation, twelve churches and six convents. At present it is about two miles in cir- cumference, and contains three parish churches. It is still the residence of a governor, and the see of a bishop; and a provincial court is held here every month for all North Jutland. In 1528, the reformation first began in N. lat. 36° 32'. E. long. 9° 18'. VII, or G, or Wyborg, a sea-port town of Russia, and capital of a government, to which it gives name, in the gulf of Finland; the see of a bishop. This town was built in the year 1293, and was heretofore the capital of Ca- relia. It was founded by Birger Jahl as a military hold, that should enable him to check the increasing power of the republic of Novgorod, so famous in those days. Pe- ter the Great having taken this town by capitulation in the year 1710, improved its fortifications, which have ever since been kept in tolerable good condition, so that Viborg was looked on as the bulwark of Russia against Sweden. They are now, however, in a somewhat dila- pidated state, and not regarded as of much use. The principal exports are planks, tallow, pitch, and tar, for which the English are the greatest customers: their imports are mostly purchased from France and Holland, and are chiefly wine, spices, and salt; 360 miles S.W. of Archangel. N. lat. 60° 50'. E. long. 28° 50'. VIBORGIA, in Botany, erroneously written Wibor- gia, received its name in honour of Mr. Eric Viborg, a learned and acute Danish botanist, author of several bo- tanical and economical treatises in his own language, published eighteen or twenty years ago at Copenhagen. —Thunb. Prodr. n. 45. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 9 19.-- Class and order Diadelfiſhia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Pa- filion a ceae, Linn. Leguminosa, Juss. ESs. Ch. Stamens all connected. Calyx five-toothed, with rounded interstices. Legume turgid, furrowed, winged. 1. V. oãcordata. Thunb. Prod r. 121. Willd. n. 1. —Leaflets smooth, obtuse. Branches elongated, lax — A shrub, found at the Cape of Good Hope. 2. V. fusca. Thunb. ibid. Willd. n. 2.-Leaflets smooth, pointed. Branches wand-like, erect.—A shrub, from the same country. - 3. V. sericea. Thunb. ibid. Willd. n. 3.-Leaves downy, as well as the wand-like branches.—This is also a Cape shrub. We have seen none of the species. The genus seems well defined, though we lament the meagre- ness of its history. :* VIBORSKOI, in Geografthy, a government of Rus- sia, of which Viborg is the capital; bounded on the N. and W. by Finland, on the S. by the gulf of Finland and the government of Petersburg, and on the E. by lake Ladoga and the government of Olonetz; its form is very irregular. Its extent from N. to S. about 152 miles, where longest, in other places scarcely 60; its breadth from V IB Aºk V I B from 60 to loo. N. lat. 60° 15' to 62° 40'. E. long. 26° to 32°. VIBRAIS, or VIBRAYE, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Sarte; 9 miles N. of St. Calais. VIBRANT, or VIBRIon, in Matural History, the name of a class of flies, commonly known by the name of the ichneumons. The word is derived from the Latin vibro, to shake or quiver, and is applied to these flies, from the continual vibrating motion observed in their antennae. VIBRATION, in Mechanics, a regular, reciprocal motion of a body, e. g. a pendulum; which, being sus- pended at freedom, swings, or vibrates, first this way, then that. For the bob being raised, falls again by its gravity; and with the velocity thus acquired, rises to the same height on the other side; whence its gravity makes it fall again; and thus its vibrations are continued. Mechanical authors, in lieu of vibration, frequently use the terrn oscillation; which see. The vibrations of the same pendulum are all isochro- nal; that is, they are performed in equal time, at least in the same climate: for, towards the equator, they are found somewhat slower. See PENDULUM. A pendulum 3 feet 34% inches, according to Huygens, or 39.25 inches, according to sir J. Moor and lord Brouncker, vibrates seconds, or makes 3600 vibrations in an hour. - The vibrations of a longer pendulum take up more time than those of a shorter one, in a subduple ratio of the lengths. Thus, a pendulum three feet long will make ten vibrations, while another nine inches long makes twenty. For 10 is the half of 20, and 3 feet, or 36 inches, are the square of 6 inches; which is double of 3, whose square is 9; so that 10 is to 20 in a subduple ratio of 36 to 9. The same thing is meant when we say, that the num- ber of vibrations of pendulums, in a given time, is in a reciprocal subduple ratio of their lengths. The following table shows the number of vibrations in a minute, corresponding to pendulums of different lengths, expressed in inches. Length. Vibrations. Length. Vibrations. Length. Vibrations. 4. | 87 l O | | 8 35 63 5 } 67 12 1 O7 40 59 6 153 } 5 97 5 O 53 7 142 2O 84 6O 47 8 1 32 25 75 | 9 || 125 3O 68 | M. Mouton, a priest of Lyons, wrote an express trea- tise to show, that, by means of the number of vibrations of a given pendulum, in a certain time, one might establish an universal measure throughout the whole world; and fix the several measures in use among us, in such manner, as that they might be recovered again, if at any time they should chance to be lost, as is the case of most of the ancient measures; which we now only know by conjecture. See Universal MEASURE and STAN- DARD, + The vibrations of a stretched chord, or string, arise from its elasticity; which power being of the same kind with that of gravity, the vibrations of a chord follow the same laws as those of pendulums; consequently, the vi- brations of the same chord equally stretched, though they be unequal in length, are equidiurnal, or are per- formed in equal times; and the squares of the times of the vibrations are among themselves, inversely, as the powers by which they are equally bent and inflected. (See Chord and STRING...) On this subject, see Young's Philos. vol. ii. p. 546. The sounding body in action quits its tranquil state by slight, but sensible and frequent undulations, each of which is called a vibration. These vibrations, commu- nicated to the air, convey to the ear, by that vehicle, the sensation of sound; and this sound is grave or acute, in proportion as the vibrations are more or less frequent in the same time. See Sou N'D. The vibrations of a string (which see), too, are pro- portionable to the powers by which it is bent: these fol- low the same laws as those of the chord, or pendulum; and, consequently, are equidiurnal; which is the founda- tion of spring watches. For Pythagoras's account of the doctrine of vibrations, See PYTHAGoRAs. VIBRATIONs are also used in Physics, &c. for divers other regular alternate motions. Sensation is supposed to be performed by means of the vibratory motion of the contents of the nerves, begun by external objects, and propagated to the brain. This doctrine has been particularly illustrated by Dr. Hartley, and extended farther by him than by any other writer, in establishing a new theory of our mental opera- tions. The doctrine of vibrations, and its use in explaining our sensations, are comprised by this writer in the foll lowing propositions: that the whole medullary substance of the brain, spinal marrow, and the nerves proceeding from them, is the immediate instrument of sensation and motion: that this white medullary substance of the brain is also the immediate instrument by which ideas are pre- sented to the mind; or, in other words, whatever changes are made in this substance, corresponding changes are made in our ideas, and vice versd: that the sensations re- main in the mind for a short time after the sensible ob- jects are removed: that external objects impressed upon the senses occasion, first in the nerves on which they are impressed, and then in the brain, vibrations of the small, and, as one may say, infinitesimal, medullary particles: that these vibrations are excited, propagated, and kept up, partly by the ether, i. e. by a very subtile and elastic fluid, and partly by the uniformity, continuity, softness, and active powers of the medullary substance of the brain, spinal marrow, and nerves; which Dr. Hartley supposes are rather solid capillaments, according to sir Isaac Newton, than small tubuli, according to Boer- haave; and that the phenomena of sensible pleasure and pain, and also those of sleep, appear to be very suit- able to the doctrine of vibrations. Hence he proceeds to establish the agreement of the doctrine of vibrations with the phenomena of ideas. Sensations, he says, by being often repeated, leave certain vestiges, types, or images of themselves, which may be called simple ideas of sensation; because the most vivid of these ideas are those where the corresponding sensations are most vigo- rously impressed, or most frequently renewed; whereas, if the sensation be faint or uncommon, the generated idea is also faint in proportion, and, in extreme cases, evanescent and imperceptible. The exact observance of the order of place in visible ideas, and of the order of time, v1B \ V I B #: time in audible ones, may likewise serve to show, that these ideas are copies and offsprings of the impressions made on the eye and ear, in which the same orders were observed respectively; and though it happens that trains of visible and audible ideas are presented in sallies of the fancy, and in dreams, in which the order of time and place is different from that of any former impressions; yet the small component parts of these trains are co- pies of former impressions; and reasons may be given of the varieties of their compositions. Sensory vibra- tions, by being often repeated, beget, in the medullary substance of the brain, a disposition to diminutive vibra- tions, which may be also called vibratiuncles and minia- tures corresponding to themselves respectively: so that if it be allowed that original impressed vibratory motions leave a tendency to miniature ones of the same kind, place, and line of direction, this author infers, that sen- sations must beget ideas, not only in the senses of sight and hearing, where the ideas are sufficiently vivid and distinct, but in the three others, since their sensations are also conveyed to the mind by means of vibratory II, Otl OTS. .* Any sensations, says Dr. Hartley, by being associated with one another a sufficient number of times, get such a power over the corresponding ideas, that any one of the sensations, when impressed alone, shall be able to ex- cite in the mind the ideas of the rest: and any vibrations, by being associated together in a sufficient number of times, get such a power over the corresponding minia- ture vibrations, that any of those vibrations, when im- pressed alone, shall be able to excite the miniature of the rest. Hence he argues, that simple ideas will run into complex ones, by means of association, and that when this is the case, we are to suppose, that the minia- ture vibrations corresponding to those simple ideas run, in like manner, into a complex miniature vibration, cor- responding to the resulting complex idea; some of which complex vibrations, attending upon complex ideas, may be as vivid as any of the sensory vibrations excited by the direct action of objects. See Association and Men- tal PHILosophy. - Dr. Hartley also applies the doctrine of vibrations to the explication of muscular motion, which, he thinks, is performed in the same general manner as sensation, and the perception of ideas. For a particular account of his theory, and the manner in which it is largely illustrated, and the arguments by which it is supported, we must re- fer to his Observations on Man, vol. i. passim. The several sorts and rays of light sir Isacc Newton conceives to make vibrations in the ether of several magnitudes or velocities; which, according to those magnitudes or velocities, excite sensations of several co- lours; much after the same manner as vibrations of air, according to their several magnitudes or velocities, ex- cite sensations of several sounds. See Colour and Soux D. Heat, according to the same author, is only an acci- dent of light, occasioned by the rays putting a fine, a subtile, ethereal medium, which prevades all bodies, into a vibrative motion, which gives us that sensation. See AETHER and HEAT. From the vibrations or pulses of the same medium, he accounts for the alternate fits of easy reflection and easy transmission of the rays. See REFLECTION and UN- pulation. See also LIGHT. In the Philosophical Transactions, it is observed that the butterfly, into which the silk-worm is transformed, makes one hundred and thirty vibrations, or motions of its wings, in one coition. VIBRATIUNCLES. See VIBRATIons, supra. VIBRATO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which runs into the Adriatic, 2 miles N.N. E. of Giulia Nova. VIBRISSF, a word used by medical writers to ex- press the hairs in the nostrils. VIBURNUM, in Botany, reckoned by Linnaeus, Phil. Bot. 174, among the Latin names whose origin can- not be ascertained, is traced by Vaillant, Ainsworth, and Martyn to the verb vied, to bind; which is perfectly con- sistent with virgil’s expression of lenta viburna, but does not decide the old doubt, whether the poet ment our Wiburnum, or any shrub of the willow or osier kind. Matthiolus has led modern botanists to apply this name to the genus before us, one of whose species, V. Lantana, he conceives to be Virgil’s plant, on account of its great pliability and humble flexible growth, well contrasted with the tall and upright cypress.-Linn. Gen. 147. Schreb. 197. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1, 1486. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 334. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. l. 206. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 166. Pursh 20 l. Juss. 213. Tourn. t. 377. Lamarck, Illustr. t. 21 l. Gaertn. t. 27. (Opulus; Tourn. t. 376. Tinus; Tourn. t. 377.)—Class and order, Pentandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Dumos (c. Linn. Caſhrifolia, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth superior, very small, in five deep permanent segments. Cor. of one petal, bell- shaped, cut half way down into five obtuse, reflexed or spreading segments. Stam. Filaments five, awl-shaped, the length of the corolla; anthers roundish. Pist. Ger- men superior, roundish, crowned with a turbinate gland; styles scarcely any; stigmas three. Peric. Berry round- ish, of one cell. Seed solitary, roundish, bony. Ess. Ch. Calyx superior, deeply five-cleft. Corolla in five segments. Berry with a solitary seed. Viburnum is technically distinguished from SAM BU- cus, (see that article,) by having one seed instead of three. The stem is shrubby, scarcely arborescent, with tough and pliant branches. Leaves simple, opposite, stalked, mostly elliptical, undivided, except in the Oſlu- lus of Tournefort and its nearest allies. Flowers gene- rally terminal, cymose, copious, whitish. Berry red, blue, or black; in some cases eatable. The plants are hardy, natives of Europe, America, or Japan. - 1. V. Tinus. Common Laurus-Tinus. Linn. Sp. Pl. $83. Willd. n. 1, Ait. n. 1. Cult. Mag. t. 38. (Ti- nus, n. 1, 2, and 3; Clus. Hist. v. 1. 49. Laurus Tinus; Ger. Em. I 409.)—Leaves ovate, entire; their veins fur- nished with axillary tufts of hair underneath. Cymes smooth.-Native of Spain, Portugal, and Italy, especial- ly about the coasts of the Mediterranean. In our gar- dens it is a valuable evergreen, thriving best near the sea, seldom injured, except by very hard and lasting frosts, which sometimes destroy it nearly to the root. In a pure air it flowers all winter long, even when partially covered with snow; but in close or smoky situations, the plant is easily killed, and never blossoms. The berries are seldom perfected but in a green-house. At Vienna this shrub, like the Prunus Lauro-cerasus, is always treated as a greenhouse plant. We have lately seen what is now become the English name, affectedly ac- cented Lauritstin us. But it is a compound word, meaning Laurus, which is called Tinus; and Ovid teaches us that the first syllable of TINUs is long: see that V IB U R N U M. that article. The species before us is very bushy, spread- ing widely, seldom above five feet high; the twigs smooth, dark red; angular when young. Leaves two or three inches long, acute, veiny; dark shining green above; pa- ler beneath, with glandular hairs at the origin of each large vein. Flowers tinged with red. Berries blue, like burnt steel, very beautiful. The leaves are occasional- ly more or less hairy, whence Clusius and Aiton distin- guish three or four varieties. 2. V. tinoides. Mexican Laurus-Tinus. Linn. Suppl. 184. Willd. n. 2.-Leaves elliptical, entire; the origin of their veins slightly hairy underneath. Cymes and young branches hairy.—Sent by Mutis from Mexico. Like the preceding, but the leaves have shorter foot- stalks, and are elliptical rather than ovate; the young branches, and all the flower-stalks, are clothed with brist- ly hairs. 3. V. villosum. Downy Jamaica Viburnum. Swartz Ind. Occ. 564. Willd. n. 3.-Leaves ovate, acute, en- tire; hoary and downy beneath.-Gathered by Masson and Swartz on hills in the southern part of Jamaica, flow- ering in autumn. A shrub about six or eight feet high, with a grey bark. The young branches, like the foot- stalks, cymes, and backs of the leaves, are clothed with soft, starry, hoary pubescence, particles of which are al- so scattered over the green upper surface of each leaf. A lowers white. 4. V. scandens. Climbing Viburnum. Linn. Suppl. 184. Willd. n. 4. (V. virens; Thunb. Jap. 123.)—Stem twining. Leaves lanceolate, serrated. Cymes lax. Styles twice as long as the calyx. Outer flowers radi- ant.—Native of Japan. A slender climbing shrub, with short, leafy, opposite branchcs. Leaves two inches long, thin, tapering at each end, bright green, smooth. Cymes slender, hairy, of three unequal branches. Flowers white; a few of them imperfect, with large, dilated, unequal, radiant calyx-leaves instead of fetals, as in the Guelder- rose, &c. Thunberg describes ten stamens, but this is an accident, or error, his own specimen before us having but five. The three elongated styles, with club-shaped stigmas, are remarkable. Nothing is known respecting the fruit. The germen is turbinate, encircled with the calyar, as in Hydrangea. - 5. V. nudum. Smooth Oval-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pi. 383. Wiid, n. 5. Ait. n. 2. Pursh n. 4. (V. foliis ovato-lanceolatis integerrimis; subtüs venosis; Mill. Ic. 183, t. 274.)—Leaves elliptical, bluntish, somewhat revolute, nearly entire, very smooth; as well as the cymes, branches, and footstajks.—Native of North Ame- rica, in Swamps, particularly on a Sandy soil, from Cana- da to Georgia, flowering in May and June. Every part is very smooth. Leaves three or four inches long; ever- green in the southern states of North America, but not in our gardens. The cymes are large, on large termi- nal stalks. Flowers copious, white. Berries black. 6. V. obovatum. Smooth Obovate Viburnum. Walt. Carol. 1 16. Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8, 658. Pursh n. 5. —Leavi S obovate, obtuse, smooth, entire or somewhat notciled. Cymes sessile. Berries roundish-ovate.—In shady woods of Carolina and Georgia, flowering in May and June. Pursh. Flowers white, small. Berries blackish. This is supposed to be V. cassinoides of Mi- chaux, Boreal.--Amer. v. 1. 179, though not that of Lin- in 38 U. S. ~. 7. V. frunifolium. Plum-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 383. Willd. n. 6. Ait, n. 3. Pursh n, 1. (V. Vol. XXXVIII, - Lentago; Moench Hort. Weissenst. 140. t. 8. Mespi- lus prunifolia virginiana; Pluk. Phyt. t. 46. f. 2.)— Smooth, with wide-spreading branches. Leaves round- ish-obovate, finely serrated. Footstalks even. Cymes sessile. Berries roundish.-Common in hedges and fields, from New England to Carolina, flowering in May and June. A hardy shrub, cultivated by Miller. The leaves are scarcely an inch and a half long, full an inch broad, minutely and sharply serrated. Flowers white. Berries dark blue. 8. V. flyrifolium. Sharp-leaved Viburnum. Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8. 653. Pursh n. 2.)—Smooth. Leaves ovate, pointed, serrated. Cymes somewhat stalked. Berries elliptic-oblong.—On the banks of rivers, in Penn- sylvania, New Jersey, &c. flowering in May and June. Resembles the former, but is not so straggling in its growth. Berries black. Pursh. Our wild Pennsylva- nian specimen has copiously serrated leaves, two inches and a half long, with taper entire points. The fruit seems rather obovate. This may perhaps be V. arbore- um, Muhlenb. Catal. 32, n. 12, our specimen having been sent by that excellent botanist, without a name, and for- merly referred by us to frunifolium, to which it is cer- tainly near akin. 9. V. dauricum. Siberian Viburnum. Pallas Ross. v. 1. p. 2. 30. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 4. (Lonicera mon- golica; Pall. Ross. v. 1. p. 1. 59. L. dauurica; ibid. t. 38. L., n. 8; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 1 35. t. 25.)—Leaves ovate, ser- rated, dotted and hairy. Cymes of few flowers.-Found in the fissures of rocks, in various parts of Siberia. The late Mr. Bell, to whom our English gardens are so much indebted for plants from that country, introduced this in 1785. It flowers in June and July, but is not ornamen- tal. The Leaves are an inch and a quarter long, about half as broad. Flowers white, very few in each cyme, compared with most of the species. Corolla with an elongated tube. In his first account of this plant, above cited, Pallas attributes five, six, or seven seeds to the jruit; in the second he says one of his pupils imposed upon him with a wrong specimen, and that the real fruit of this shrub is an oval berry, red at first, then black, like W. Lantana, but more oblong, with a solitary, compress- ed, ribbed seed. He gives figures of these parts, with the leaf of a smaller variety, in his tab. 58. fig. F, G; which he calls tab. 7. Pallas further remarks, that the scattered pubescence of this species is stcl lated, and that a portion of such is found on the flower-stalks; all which brings it nearer to the Lantana, a circumstance hardly to be divined from his figure. *, 10. V. dentatum. Shining Tooth-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 5, 2. Pursh n. 9. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. l. l 3. t. 36. –Leaves roun!- ish-ovate, acute, furrowed and somewhat plaited, strong- ly toothed, nearly smooth on both sides. Cymes stalk- ed. Berries almost globular.— In mountainous woods frequent, from New York to Carolina, flowering in June and July, and known by the name of Arrow-wood. Ber- ries dark blue. Pursh. The leaves of this species are three inches long, and nearly as broad, somewhat heart- shaped at the base; besprinkled on the upper side with fine, simple, distant hairs; paler and smooth beneath. They are strongly ribbed. Flowers rather small, hairy in the middle. Calyx white as well as the fetals. 11. V. fºubescens. Downy Tooth-leaved Viburnum. Pursh n. 10. (V. dentatum g; Ait. n. 5. Willd. n. 8.) —iº ovate, pointed, furrowed and somewhat P. 4. €d? V IB U R N U M. ed, strongly serrated; soft and downy beneath. Cymes stalked. Berries oblong.—In the lower parts of Vir- ginia and Carolina, flowering in June. The whole of the shrub smaller than the preceding. Pursh. We have a specimen of this from the Paris garden, marked W. dentatum longifolium, Juss. The leaves are downy on both sides, but particularly soff at the back; their form oblong-ovate; length two or two and a half inches; margin sharply serrated; transverse veins numerous, di- vided. Flowers much like the last. 12. V. ſilicatum. Plaited Japanese Guelder-rose. Thunb. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 332. Willd. n. 9. (V. dentatum; Thunb. Jap. 122, excluding the reference to Jinnaeus. Fundān, vulgö Te Mariqua; Kaempf. Am. ICxot. 854.)—“ Leaves ovate, abtuse, with tooth-like ser- ratures, plaited.”—Found by Thunberg near Famma.- mato, in Fakona, and other parts of Japan, flowering in April and May. The flowers are radiated, like our Guilder-rose; but the leaves, as Kaempfer observes, are rounder than in that species, with crowded ribs, and a serrated margin. Thunberg says the leaves are plaited, cSpecially before they fully expand; their form rounder, and their teeth finer, than in the true V. dentatum, n. 10. 13. V. erosum. Jagged Japanese Viburnum. Thunb. Jap. 124. Willd. n. 10,—Leaves obovate, pointed, sharply notched, nearly smooth. Footstalks downy, as well as the cymes. –Native of Japan. Branches grey, somewhat spreading, smooth, except when young. Foot- stalks slender, near an inch in length; Thunberg calls them very short; we suspect he wrote fetiolus for fle- dunculus, (the common flower-stalk,) which is very short, and downy like the cyme, (not flanicle nor umbel,) which it supports. The flowers are numerous and crowded, but not radiated. Leaves pliant, strongly veined, two or three inches long, dilated upwards. 14. V. Lantana. Mealy Guelder-rose; or Way-far- ing Tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n. 1 1. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Ingl. Bot. t. 331. Jacq. Austr. t. 341. (Vibur- num; Matth. Valgr. v. l. 194. Camer. Epit. 122. Lan- tana, sive Viburnum; Ger. Em, 1490.)—Leaves heart- shaped, sharply serrated, veiny; downy beneath, with starry hairs. Cymes stalked, downy.—Native of hedges and thickets, in the more temperate parts of Europe, on a chalky or marly soil, flowering in May, and not rare in various parts of England, especially Oxfordshire. It has justly been described by Ray, as of a taller stature in the northern counties than in the south. In general it is a tufted bush, with round, pliant, mealy twigs. (See the explanation of the generic name.) All the stalks, the backs of the elliptic-heartshaped veiny leaves, and in some measure their upper surface, are clothed with dºt.se, hoary, starry hairs, often, loaded with dust from the road, which scarcely adds to the powdery aspect of plant. Flowers white, in large, rather convex, stalked cymes. Stigmas Sessile, very short and thick. Berries roundish, abrupt, compressed; when young red on the outermost side, yellow on the other; finally quite black, mealy and astringent, with a large, flat, furrowed seed. The foliage turns in autumn to a dark red. 14. V. grandifolium. Large-leaved, or American, Way-faring Tree. (V. Lantana 3, grandifolium; Ait. ed. }. v. 1. 372. ed. 2. n. 6, 3, by mistake called grandiflo- rum. Willd. n. 1 1, 3, V. lantanoides; Michaux Bore- al-Amer. v. 1, 179. Pursh n. 11.)—Leaves ronndish- heartshaped, abruptly pointed, unequally and obtusely serrated; their ribs and stalks downy, with starry hairs, Cymes quite sessile. Berries ovate.—In shady woods, on high mountains, from Canada to Virginia, principally in the forests called Beech-woods, flowering in June and July. Known by the name of Hobble-bush. Berries red; but when ripe, black. Pursh. Of more humble growth than the last, with more trailing branches, and larger greener leaves. Michaux has well separated it from the European Lantana, but we cannot adopt his barbarously-formed specific name, though too many such illiterate deformities are unaccountably introduced daily by more classical writers. The error of grandiño- rum, for grandifolium, is one of those very few which es- caped the late supremely accurate Dryander. It were an injury to his memory not thus to correct him. 15. V. to mentosum. Downy Japanese Viburnum. Thunb. Jap. 123. Willd. n. 12. (Sijo, vulgó Adsai, &c.; Kaempf. Am. Exot. 854.)—“Leaves ovate, pointed, serrated, veiny; downy beneath. Cymes lateral.”—Ob- served by Thunberg, in various woods between Miaco and Jedo, as well as cultivated, in Japan, flowering in April and May. The branches are round, smooth, red- dish, divaricated, subdivided. Leaves ovate, (not heart- shaped,) ribbed; the upper ones most downy beneath. The youngest branches, and all the stalks, are downy. Cymes axillary, at the extremities of the small branches. Flowers radiant. Thunberg. Kampfer says the ſlow- ers are blue, composing a large dense ball, the outer ones largest. 16. V. hirtum. Hairy Japanese Viburnum. Thunb. Jap. 124. Willd. n. 13.—“Leaves ovate, serrated, vil- lous. Footstalks hairy.”—Native of Japan. Stem as- cending in a zigzag manner, round, smooth; its branches alternate, round, smooth at the base, hairy at the extre- mity. Leaves opposite,” resembling those of a nettle, acute, deeply and equally serrated, an inch long, veiny; the veins clothed with white close hairs. Foots talks and flower-stalks covered with horizontally spreading hairs. Flowers minute, not radiant, Stigma two-lobed. Thun- berg. 17. V. acerifolium. Maple-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 7. Pursh n. 12. Venten. Jard. de Cels, t, 72.-Leaves three-lobed, pointed, sharply serrated; downy beneath. Footstalks hairy, without glands.—In rocky mountainous situations, from New England to Carolina, flowering in May and June. Berries black. Pursh. The branches are round, finely downy, with starry hairs. Such are found also on the footstalks, but intermixed with simple much coarser ones. The leaves are rather acutely lobed, and strong- ly serrated, very much resembling those of the Com- mon Vine. Stifulas setaceous, in pairs on the base of each footstalk. Cyme of many downy branches, on a long terminal common stalk. Flowers not radiant. This appears by the manuscripts of the celebrated Pe- ter Collinson, to have been imported by him in 1736. 18. V. orientale. Oriental Guelder-rose. Pallas Ross. v. 1. p. 2. 31. t. 58. f. H. Willd. n. 15. Opulus orien- talis, folio amplissimo tridentato; Tourn. Cor. 42.)— A leaves three-lobed, pointed, coarsely and rather bluntly toothed. Footstalks smooth, without glands.-Native of rather alpine situations in Imiretta. Pallas. Differs from the last, to which it is very nearly akin, in having leaves strongly toothed, not serrated, and an oval seed, with three ribs and two furrows at each side, as in V. Lantana, instead of the heart-shaped seed of the acerifo- livin. Willdenow. Berries red. Pallas. 19. V. VIB U R N U M. Common Guelder-rose, Water El- der, or Snow-ball Tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n. 16. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 332, Fl. Dan. t. 661. (Sambucus aquatilis sive palustris; Ger. Em. 1424. S. aquatica; Camer. Epit. 977.)—Leaves three-lobed, sharp- ly toothed. Footstalks smooth, furnished with glands. Cymes radiant.—Native of watery thickets and hedges throughout Europe, flowering in June. A small bushy tree, smooth in all its parts, only the backs of the leaves being occasionally downy. Their three lobes are une- qually toothed or serrated. The footstalks bear, to- Wards the top, several cup-like glands, and towards the base, a pair or two of linear stihulas. Cymes large, smooth, stalked, of numerous white flowers, the margi- nal ones abortive, dilated and radiant. Berries oval, drooping, scarlet, very succulent, not eatable. Seed heart-shaped. A variety with globose cymes, composed entirely of radiant flowers, is commonly cultivated in gardens and shrubberies, as a companion to the lilac and laburnum. The foliage turns in autumn to a beau- ti'ul pink or crimson, as in many genera of trees and shrubs that are principally American. 20. V. molle. Soft-leaved American Guelder-rose. Michaux Boreal,-Amer. v. 1. 180. Pursh n. 13. (“V. alnifolium; Marsh. Arb. 162.”)—“ Leaves roundish- heart-shaped, plaited, furrowed, toothed; downy beneath. Foot-stalks slightly glandular. Cymes radiant. Berry oblong-ovate.”--In hedges in Kentucky, near Danville, as well as in Tennessee and Upper Carolina, flowering in June and July. Berries red. This species resem- bles the following. Pursh. The leaves are undivided, not three-lobed. The flowers are radiant. The bark falls off every year in thin shreds. Michauac. 21. V. Oacycoccus. Cranberry Guelder-rose. Pursh p. 14. V. Opulus g; Ait. n. 8, Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 180. “V. trilobum; Marsh. Arb. 162.”)—Leaves three-lobed, acute at the base, three-ribbed; lobes divari- cated, elongated, pointed, sparingly toothed. Footstalks furnished with glands. Cymes radiant.—In Swamps and shady woods of Canada, and on the mountains of New York and New Jersey, flowering in July. Berries red, of an agreeable acid, resembling that of Cranberries, Paccinium macrocarfion, for which they are a very good substitute. Pursh. We have never examined this spe- cies, though it probably may be found in the London nurseries. If the fruit answers to the above character, and is plentiful, it would be worth cultivating for the table. The twigs are described of a shining red. 22. V. edw le. Smaller Eatable Guelder-rose. Pursh n. 15. (V. Opulus y; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 1. 180.)—Leaves three-lobed, bluntish at the base, three- ribbed; lobes very short, serrated with minute pointed teeth. Footstalks furnished with glands. Cymes radi- ant.—On the banks of rivers, from Canada to New York, flowering in July. A smaller and more upright shrub than the preceding species. Berries of the same colour and size, but, when completely rfpe, more agree- able to eat. Pursh. 23. V. dilatatum. Spreading Japanese Viburnum. Thunb. Jaq. 124. Willd. n. 17.-Leaves obovate, poin- ted, unequally toothed, villous. Cymes axillary.—Gath- ered by Thunberg in Japan. Stem shrubby, erect, somewhat angular, grey, villous. Leaves two inches long, stalked, ribbed, jagged at the margin, villous on both sides; the lower ones Smaller. Footstalks round, villous, three-quarters of an inch long, Cyme axillary 19. V. Oflulus. repeatedly compound, four-cleft and three-forked, very Widely spreading, with downy stalks. Flowers not radi. ant. Thunberg. The learned author uses the terms fanicle, umbel, and cyme indifferently in his descriptions of this genus; but from what we have seen, even of his own species, we, without scruple, substitute the latter throughout. 24. V. macrofthyllum. Large-leaved Japanese Vir- burnum. Thunb. Jap. 125. Willd. n. 18.-Leaves obo- vate, pointed, toothed, smooth. Cymes radiant, termi- pal.--Native of Japan. The whole plant is smooth. Stem and branches round. Leaves ribbed, paler beneath, four inches in breadth, and somewhat more in length. Pootstalks one-third the length of the leaves. Thunb. 25. V. cusfidatum. Pointed-leaved Japanese Vibur, num. Thunb. Jap. 125. Willd. n. 19.—Leaves ovate, pointed, serrated, villous. Cymes radiant.—From the same country as the two last. Leaves equally and acute- ly serrated, of the size of the preceding species, clothed with scattered hairs. Cymes terminal, repeatedly com- pound. Thumb. - 26. V. Lentago. Pear-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pi. 384. Wild, n. 20. Ait. n. 9. Pursh. n. 3.-Leaves Smooth, broad-ovate, pointed, finely and sharply serrated. Footstalks bordered, crisped. Cymes sessile.—Frequent in hedges, alſdon the borders of woods, from New En gland to Carolina, flowering in July. , More inclined to grow to a tree than any of the rest of the American species. Berries black. Pursh. Cultivated in England, by Mr. James Gordon, in 1761. Aiton. The leaves are three inches long, and nearly half as broad, rather coriace- ous, very smooth, with many transverse ribs. Footstalks Channelled, with a curled dilated border at each side. *ds large, ovate, with a long point. We never saw the flowers. 27. V. squamatum. Scaly Viburnum. Willd. Enum. 327. (V. nudum; var. squamatum; Muhlenb. Catal. 32.)—“, Leaves oblong, bluntly and finely serrated. Footstalks and flower-stalks clothed with Scaly pubes- cence.’’-Native of Pennsylvania. A hardy shrub in the open air at Berlin, Leaves two inches long, with a very short point; their base somewhat contracted; their edges unequally, distantly, bluntly, and very slightly Serrated; smooth, except the under side of the younger Ones, which is besprinkled with small, brown, very distant, scales. Foostalks, as well as the long lanceolate ðuds, thickly covered with minute, brown, hairy scales. Cyme terminal, as in W. nudum, n. 5, which the present spe- cies greately resembles; but it is distinguished by the scales of all the stalks, and the finely-serrated, less cori- aceous, leaves, which are neither Shining nor revolute. Willdenow. •r 28. V. cassinoides. Thick-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 384. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 10. Pursh n. 6.— Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute at each end, smooth, cre- nate, slightly revolute. Footstalks keeled, without glands,--In Swamps from New York to Carolina, flow- ering in June and July. Berries blueish-black. Pursh. The Whole plant is smooth. Leaves two inches long more or less, and one broad, coriaceous; paler beneath: the transverse ribs scarcely visible. Footstalks an guiar, gibbous at the base, but not decurrent. Cymes ter- minal, on short stalks. 29. Y. *vigatum. Cassioberry Viburnum, or Para- guay Tea, Ait. n. 12. Willd. n. 23. Pursh n. 7, (Cassine Peragua; Linn. Mant. 220. C. foliis oyato. 4 L 2 - lanceolatis. V IB U R N U M. ianceolatis serratis oppositis deciduis, floribus corymbo- sis; Mill. Ic. 55. t. 83. f. 1. C. verae perquam simi- lis arbuscula, phylly reas foliis antagonistis; Pluk. Mant. 40. Hortui. Angl. 16. t. 20.)—Leaves lanceolate, smooth, unequally serrated; entire at the base. Branches two-edged.— Found near the sea-coast, in Virginia and Carolina, flowering in June and July. Berries black. Pursh. The smooth wand-like branches are marked at cach side with a narrow prominent line, running down from the insertion of the footstalks, which are rather short and thick, carinated, bodered, and somewhat cris- ped. Leaves scarcely two inches long, bluntish. Cymes at the end of short lateral branches. Flowers white, not radiant. Berries globular, red. A. 30. V. mitidum. Shining Narrow-leaved Viburnum. Ait. n. 1 1. Willd. n. 22. Pursh n. 8.-‘‘ Leaves, linear-lanceolate, very smooth, entire, or slightly serrat- ed; shining above. Branches quadrangular.”—in sandy barren woods of Carolina and Georgia. A low shrub, with sumall leaves. Pursh. Mir. Aiton speaks of it as hardy, flowering in May and June; cultivated in 1758, by Mr. Christopher:Gray, who had at that time, and long before, a well-furnished nursery-ground at Fulham. VIBURNUM, in Gardening, contains plants of the deci- duous and evergreen flowering kind, among which the species cultivated are, the pliant mealy or wayfaring tree (V. lantana); the water elder or guelder rose (V. opulus); the pear-leaved viburnum (V. lentago); the thick-leaved viburnum (V. cassinoides); the shining-lea- ved viburnum (V. nitidum); the cassioberry bush (V. Iaevigatum); the oval-leaved viburnum (V. nudum); the plum-leaved viburnum (V, prunifolium); the tooth- leaved viburnum (V. dentatum); and the laurustinus, or laurustine ( V. tinus). The first is a thickly-branched shrub, the flowers of which are whitish, in large terminating, solitary, many- flowered cymes. It is sometimes known by the name of pliant mealy tree; and according to Withering, the bark of the root is used to make bird-line. There is a variety in North America with larger leaves, of a bright green; and with variegated leaves in nurseries. The second sort is a small bushy tree, with numerous white flowers, smooth in all its parts, and very much branched. There is an American variety, which is a shrub, that has the twigs of a shining-red colour, and which rises eight or ten feet high, with many side-branches, cover- ed with a smooth purple bark: the leaves cordate-ovate, ending in acute points, deeply serrate, having many strong veins, and standing upon very long slender footstalks. There is also another beautiful variety common in plantations, under the name of guelder-rose, bearing large round bunches of abortive flowers only, which rises to the height of eighteen or twenty feet, if permit- ted to stand: the stem becomes large; the branches grow irregular, and are covered with a grey bark; the leaves are divided into three or four lobes, somewhat like those of the maple; they are about three inches long, and two and a half broad, jagged on their edges, and of a light green colour: the flowers come out in a large corymb, are very white, and being all neuters, are barren: from their extreme whiteness, and swelling out into a globu- lar form, some country people have given this shrub the name of snow-ball tree. It is also sometimes called elder rose, and rose elder. In the seventh sort there are varieties with deciduous and evergreen leaves. The eighth sort has a woody stalk ten or twelve feet high, and is commonly called black haw in North America. The ninth has the stalks soft, pithy, and branching, with white flowers. There are varieties with the leaves smooth on both sides, and with the leaves downy underneath, and drawn out to a point. In the tenth sort there are several varieties; as the smaller hairy-leaved, in which the umbels (cymes) of flowers are smaller, and appear in autumn, continuing all the winter. The plants are much hardier than in the original sort. The shining-leaved, in which the stalks rise higher, and the branches are much stronger: the bark is smooth. er, and turns of a purplish colour: the leaves are larger, of a thicker consistence, and of a lucid green Colour: the umbels (cymes) are much larger, and so are the flow- ers; these seldom appear till the spring, and when the winters are sharp, the flowers are killed, and never open unless they are sheltered. There is a sub-variety of this with variegated leaves, with gold-striped and silver-striped; in which the bran- ches are warted, the younger ones four-cornered; the leaves opposite, ovate, on short petioles, rigid, shining, Perennial; the younger ones hirsute, with short ferrugi. Rous villose hairs: flowers in crowded cymes, with little bracteas between them: the corolla white; and the ber- ries, when ripe, blue. The common, with narrower leaves, hairy only on the edge and veins underneath: the fruit smaller. And the upright laurustinus. AZethod of Culture.—These plants may some of them be increased by seeds, most of them by layers, many by cuttings, and a few by suckers. The seeds in the deciduous kinds should be sown in the autumn or spring in beds of light fine mould, being Well covered in. The plants appear in the first or se. cond year; and when they are of a twelve month’s growth, they should be planted out in nursery rows, to be continu. ed till of proper growth to plant out in the shrubberies or other parts of pleasure grounds, as from two to five feet. In the laurustinus kinds, the seeds, after being mixed with mould in the autumn, soon after they become ripe, and exposed to the air and rain in the winter, should in the spring be sown on a gentle hot-bed, or in pots plunged into it; the plants being continued in the bed till the au- tumn, when they should be removed and managed as in the layer method. The plants raised in this way are said to be hardier than those raised from layers. The first sort is tedious in being raised from seeds. In the layer, which is the most expeditious mode of raising most of these plants, the young lower branches should be laid down in the autumn or spring, being pegged down in the usual manner in the earth, when they mostly become well rooted in a twelve month, and may then be taken off and planted out where they are to remain, or in the nursery; and sometimes, in some of the kinds, a few are put in pots. The best season for removing the tenth sort is in the early autumn, that they may be well rooted before the winter sets in. The V I C V I C The first sort succeeds best by layers put down in the autumn; and the striped variety may be increased by budding it upon the plain sort. - +- The cuttings may be made in the autumn from the strong young shoots being planted in a moist border in rows, when in the following summer many of them will be rooted, and form little plants. Most of the deciduous sorts may be raised in this way. The suckers should be taken up in the autumn or spring with root-fibres, and be planted out in nursery rows to have a proper growth. The guelder-rose may be readily increased in this way, and sometimes the laurustinus. The fourth sort is rather tender in winter while in its young growth, as well as the sixth, and should have pro- tection in that season. A plant or two should be constant- ly laid in pots under shelter. This last sort is easily increased by layers. These plants afford much variety and effect in shrub- bery and other parts of pleasure-grounds, when planted out in a mixed order. The evergreen sort are often used to cover disagreeable objects. The flowering ever- greens are likewise often set out in pots. They are some- times trained to a single stem, to the height of one or two feet, being encouraged to branch out into a close bushy round head. They should all mostly be permitted to take on their own natural growths, except the occa- sional retrenching of their lower straggling branches, and pruning the long shoots from their heads. VIBURNUM-Galls, in JVatural History, the name of a species of galls, or small protuberances, frequently found on the leaves of the viburnum. These are of a very singu- lar nature, and seem to be composed of a different sub- stance from that of the leaf. They appear in form of brown circular spots, of which there are sometimes forty or more on one leaf: they are about the fifteenth of an inch in diameter, and rise a little above the surface of the leaf, as well on the under as the upper side; each of them has also a small prominence in the center, on each side of the leaf, looking like a nipple standing on the breast. These are found in great plenty in the months of June, July, and August, and, when opened, each contains one insect, which is a small worm of a white colour, with six legs, and two hooks of a brown colour at the head. M. Reaumur found that these worms became, in fine, a very small species of beetle. They were of a cinnamon colour, and had conic and granulated antennae of a beau- tiful figure. Reaumur’s Hist. Insects, vol. vi. p. 209. VIC, in Geografhy, a town of France, and seat of a tribunal, in the department of the Meurte; 15 miles E. of Nancy.—Also a town of France, in the department of the Vienne, on the Gartempe; 18 miles N. of Mont- morillon. - Vic, or Picq, a town of France, in the department of the Indre; 18 miles N. of Châteauroux. Vic. See V13 UE. Vic Bigorre, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Upper Pyrenées; 18 miles E. of Pau. N. lat, 43° 22'. E. long. 8'. VIc en Carladez, or Vic sur la Cére, a town of France, in the department of the Cantal, situated at the foot of the Cantal, with a medicinal spring; 21 miles W.S. W. of St. Flour. Vic le Comte, a town of France, in the department of the Puy de Dôme. About half a league from the town is a medicinal spring; 6 miles S.W. of Billom. Vic Dessos, a town of France, in the department of the Arriege; 6 miles S.W. of Tarascon. Vic Fezensac, a town of France, in the department of the Gers; 12 miles S. of Condom. VICAR, Vic ARIUs, a person appointed as deputy of another, to perform his functions in his absence, and under his authority. The word is formed from vicarius, qui alterius vices gerit. The pope pretends to be vicar of Jesus Christ on earth. He has under him a grand vicar, who is a cardinal; and whose jurisdiction extends over all priests, both secular and regular; and even, in many cases, over lay men. 24hostolical vicars are those who perform the functions of the pope in churches or provinces which he has com- mitted to their direction. Among the ancient Romans, vicarius, vicar, was a le- gatus, or a lieutenant, sent into the provinces where there was no governor; so that the vicarii were properly the emperor's vicars, not those of governors. Cod. de Offic. Vicar, Italy, in the time of the eastern empire, was govern- ed by two vicarii: the one vicar of Italy, who resided at Milan; the other vicar of the city, who resided at Rome. Cujas observed, that the word vicar was sometimes, though rarely, attributed to the lieutenant-generals of proconsuls, or governors of Roman provinces. VICAR, in the Canon Law, denotes a priest of a parish, the predial tithes of which are impropriated or appro- priated; that is, belong either to a chapter, religious house, &c. or to a layman, who receives them, and only allows the vicar the smaller tithes, or a convenient Salary, anciently called fortio congrua. He is thus called, quasi vice fungens rectoris, as ser- ving for, or in lieu of, rector, who whould be entitled to the great tithes. - Hence, the part or portion of the parsonage allottcd to the vicar, for his maintenance and support, or the pro- motion or living which he has under the parson, is call- cd a vicarage. This part or portion is, in some places, an annual sum of money certain; but in most places, it is a part of the tithes in kind, which most commonly is the Small tithes; and in some places he has a part of the great tithes, and also of the glebe. The stipend of vicars was formerly at the discretion of the appropriators; but, on account of their neglect, it was enacted by 15 Rich. II. c. 6. that in all appropria- tions of churches, the diocesan bishop should ordain (in proportion to the value of the church) a competent surn to be distributed among the poor pai ishioners annually, and that the vicarage should be sufficiently endowed. However, the vicar was liable to be removed at the plea- sure of the appropriator; and, therefore, by 4 Hen. IV. c. 12. it is ordained, that the vicar shali be a secular per- son, not a member of any religious house; that he shall be vicar perpetual, not removable at the caprice of the monastery; and that he shall be canonically instituted and inducted, and be sufficiently endowed, at the discre- tion of the ordinary, for these three express purposes, to do divine service, to inform the people, and to keep hospitality. Institution and induction seem to be the spe- cific difference between a vicar and a perpetual curatc; both can only be in a church that was appropriated. But this must be understood, only where the curacy is paro- chial; for as to curates of chapels, there sveins to be no similitude V I C A R. similitude between them and curates of parishes. In ap- propriated churches, where no vicar has been endowed, the officiating minister is appointed by the appropriator or impropriator, and is called perpetual curate. The endowments in consequence of these statutes have usually been by a portion of the glebe, or land belong- ing to the parsonage, and a particular share of the tithes, called small or vicarial tithes; which see. Some, how- ever, were more liberally, and some more scantily en- dowed; and hence many things, as wood in particular, is in some countries a rectorial, and in some a vicarial title. The distinction therefore of a parson and vicar is this: that the parson has generally the whole of all the ecclesi- astical dues in his parish; but a vicar has generally an appropriator over him, entitled to the best part of the profits, to whom he is in effect a perpetual curate, with a standing salary. Though in some places the vicarage has been considerably augmented by a large share of the great tithes; which augmentations were greately as- sisted by the statute 29 Car. II. c. 8, enacted in favour of poor vicars and curates, which rendered such tempo- rary augmentations (when made by the appropriators) perpetual. See AUGMENTATION. Blackst. Comm. book i. A vicar who has a part of the great tithes, and also of the glebe, is called a vicar endowed. Those vicars were anciently called fierſhetui vicarii; because not appointed by the impropriator, and licensed by the bishop to read service; but presented by the pat- ron, and canonical institution given them by the hands of the ordinary; and so having constant succession, or corporations, and never dying. The act of endowment by the bishop might be made either in the act of appropriation, or by a subsequent act or separate instrument. Upon the making of an appro- priation, an annual pension was reserved to the bishop and his successors, commonly called an indemnity, and payable by the body to whom the appropriation was made. See APPROPRIATION and IMPROPRIATION. A vicarage by endowment becomes a benefice distinct from the parsonage. As the vicar is endowed with sepa- rate revenues, and is now enabled by the law to recover his temporal rights without aid of parson or patrºn; so hath he the whole cure of souls transferred to him, by institution from the bishop. It is true, in some places, both the parson and the vicar do receive institution from the bishop to the same church as it is in the case of sine- cures; the original of which was thus: The rector (with proper consent) had a power to entitle a vicar in his church to officiate under him; and this was often done; and by this means two persons were instituted to the same church, and both to the cure of souls, and both did actu- ally officiate. So that however the rectors of sinecures, by having been long excused from residence, are in the common opinion discharged from the cure of Souls (which is the reason of the name); and however the cure is said in the law-books to be in them habitualiter only; yet in strictness of law, and with regard to their original institution, the cure is in them actualiter, as much as it is in the vicar. Gibs. 719. Cro. Joc. 518. 1 Sid. 426. The parson, by making the endowment, acquires the patronage of the vicarage. For in order to the appro- priation of a parsonage, the inheritance of the advowson was to be transferred to the corporation to which the church was to be appropriated; and then, the Vicarage being derived out of the parsonage, the parson of com- mon right must be patron thereof. So that if the parson makes a lease of the parsonage (without making a spe- cial reservation to himself of the right of presenting to the vicarage), the patronage of the vicarage passeth as inci- dent to it. (2 Roll. Abr. 59.) But it was held in the 21 Jac. that the parishioners may prescribe for the choice of a vicar. And before that, in the 16 Ja.. it was declar- ed by the court, that though the advowson of the vicar- age of common right is appendant to the rectory, yet it may be appendant to a manor; as having been reserved specially upon the appropriation. Gibs. 719. Moore, 894. 2 Roll. Rep. 304. Sometimes, upon appropriation, the right of presenting the vicar was given to the bishop, probably to induce his consent: as appeareth from divers instances. There were no vicarages at common law; or, in other words, no tithes or profits of any kind do de jure belong to the vicar, but by endowment or prescription; which cannot be presumed, but must be shown on the part of the vicar. For which reason, the payment of tithes to the par- son is firima facie a discharge against the vicar. Gibs. 7 19. Palm. l l 3. Yelv. 86. 4 Mod. 184. The first endowment of the vicars cannot be prescri- bed against by the parson. Which original endowments therefore being of such authority as no time can destroy; and such causes between parson and vicar as relate to them, or depend on them, being also cognizable in the spiritual court: it were much to be wished, says Dr. Gibson, for the sake of the poor vicars, that diligent search were made after them in the ecclesiastical offices, and other repositories of records; in order to bring to light as many as can possibly be found. Especially, since it hath been also adjudged, that if a vicar hath used time out of mind, or for a long time, to take particular tithes or profits, he shall not lose them, because the original endowment is produced and they are not there: but inas- much as every bishop had an indisputable right to aug- ment vicarages as there was occasion, and this, whether such right was reserved in the endowment or not; the law will presume, that this addition was made by way of augmentation. Gibs. 720. The loss of the original endowment is supplied by prescription; that is, if the vicar hath enjoyed this or that particular tithe by constant usage, the law will pre- sume that he was legally endowed with it; by the same reason that it presumes some tithes might be added, by way of augmentation, which were not in the original en- dowment. Gibs. 720. 2 Keb. 729. Hardr. 328. It is said that all compositions for the endöwments of vicarages shall be expounded by the judges of the common law; and if the spiritual court neddle with that matter, they are to be prohibited. Wats. c. 39. Lit. Rep. 263. - But where the dispute is between rector and vicar, being both spiritual persons, it seemeth that the proper cognizance of the cause belongeth to the ecclesiastical judge. 2 Brownl, 36. See, however, Moore, 457. But the courts of equity frequently determine upon the interpretation of endowments. The canonists mention four species of vicars: some fierſhetual; others, appointed for a certain time, and on some special occasion, called mercenarii: others, called sfiediales, appointed not for the whole cure, but for some certain place, article, or act; others, generales, neither V I C W I C neither perpetual, nor appointed for any certain act, but for all things in the general. VIcAR-General was a title given by Henry VIII. to Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex; with full power to oversee the clergy, and regulate all matters relating to church-affairs. VICAR-General is now the title of an office, which, as well as that of official principal, are united in the chan- cellor of the diocese. The proper work of an official is to hear causes between party and party, concerning wills, legacies, marriages, and the like; which are matters of temporal cognizance, but have been granted to the ec- clesiastical courts by the concensions of princes: whereas that of a vicar-general is the exercise and administration of jurisdiction purely spiritual, by the authority and un- der the direction of the bishop, as visitation, correction of manners, granting institutions, and the like, with a general inspection of men and things, in order to the preservation of discipline and good government in the church. These two offices have been ordinarily granted together; but Dr. Gibson wishes they might be still kept separate; the office of vicar-general to be vested in the hands of some grave and prudent clergyman, usually re- sident within the diocese; and that of official (as being con- versant about temporal matters) in the hands of a layman, well skilled in the civil law. VICARDI, the name of an office in the island of Candia. The word is probably a corruption of the Latin vicarii. The vicardi is the governor of a village, and is sometimes the parish priest; his office is to levy the pub- lic taxes, and to send offenders to the cadic. This of. fice is always appointed yearly. Pococke’s Egypt, vol. ii. part. ii. p. 12. VICARELLO, in Geography, a town of the Pope- dom, in the Patrimonio, near the lake of Bracciano, celebrated for its baths; 3 miles N.W. of Bracciano. VICARIO deliberando occasione cujusdam recogniti- onis, &c. in Law, an ancient writ that lies for a spiritual person imprisoned. VICARO, in Geografthy, a town of Napels, in Capi- tanata; 9 miles S.E. of Volturara. VICE, VITIUM, in Ethics, is ordinarily defined an elective habit, deviating either in excess, or defect, from the just medium in which virtue is placed. It is called a habit, to distinguish it from sin, which is only an act; hence, a sin is looked upon as something transient; and a vice, as something permanent. In the common use of the terms vice and sin, there is no ground for this subtle distinction. Vice, aas oppos- ed to virtue, is better defined the disagreement of the actions of any inteliigent being with the nature, circum- stances, and relation of things; hence called the moral unfitness of such actions. See VIRTUE. Some authors distinguish three states of vice: the - first incontinentia, of incontinence, in which a person sees and approves the good, but is hurried to evil by the vio- ience of his passions. The second intemperantia, of in- temperance; in which even the judgment is depraved and 'perverted; the third feritatis, obduracy; in which the person is totally immersed in vice, without any sense or feeling of it. The state of incontinency is considered as infirmity, in which the person feels the sharpest stings of conscience: that of intemperance, as malice, in which the remorse is not so lively. In that of obduracy there is none. , VICE, in Smithery, and other arts employed in metals, is a machine, or instrument, serving to hold fast any thing they are at work upon, whether it be to be filed, bent, or rivetted, &c. The parts of the vice are, the face, or filame, which is its uppermost part; the chafts, which are cut with a bas- tard-cut, and well tempered; the screw-ſlin, cut with a square, strong worm; the nut, or screw-boar, which has a square worm, and is brased into the round box; the shring, which throws the chaps open; and the foot, on which the whole is mounted. Vic E, Hand, is a small kind of vice, serving to hold the less works in, that require often turning about. Of this there are two kinds, the broad chaft hand-vice, which is that commonly used; and the square-nosed hand- vice, seldom used but for filing Small round work. Vic E is also a machine used by the glaziers, to turn, or draw lead into flat rods, with grooves on each side, proper to receive the edges of the glass. This machine consists of two iron chaps, or cheeks; joined with two cross iron pieces. In the space between the chaps are two steel wheels, and their spindles, or axes, passed through the middle, each of which has its nut or pinion with teeth, that catch into each other; and to the lowest is fitted a handle, by which the machine is turned. There are some of these vices double, and that will draw two leads at once: these have three wheels. Some glaziers will turn lead of different sizes in the same vice; by changing their cheeks for each size. With another pair of spindles, whose nuts almost meet, they turn lead for tier8; which, when it comes out of the vice, is almost cut asunder, in two thicknesses, easy to be parted. Before the invention of this vice, they used a plane: accordingly, in all the ancient win- dows, we find the lead planed and grooved that way. VICE is also used in the composition of divers words, to denote the relation of something that comes instead, or in the place, of another. In this sense the word is Latin, vice, stead, place, turn, &c. VICE-Admiral. See ADMIRAL. Vic E-Chamberlain, called also, in ancient statutes, wnder-chamberlain, is an officer in the court, next under the lord-chamberlain; and who, in his absence, has com- mand and control of all officers belonging to that part of the household called the chamber above stairs. VICE-Chancellor of an university is an eminent mem- ber, chosen annually to manage affairs in the absence of the chancellor. * VICE-Comes, in Law. See Viscount. Vic E-Comitem, 4ccedas ad. See AccEDAs. Vic E-Comitis, Resfectu habendo computi. SPECTU . VICE-Consul, an officer who discharges the duty of a consul, under his orders or during his absence. VICE-Doge is a counsellor of Venice, who represents the doge when sick, or absent; that the signory may ne- ver be without a chief. - The vice-doge never takes the ducal chair, nor bears the horn, nor is addressed under the title of serenissimo: yet the foreign ambassadors, speaking to the college, use the common apostrophe of Seremissimo firinciſe; and he performs all the offices of doge, and gives answers to ambassadors, without moving his cap. VICE-Dominus, a viscount, sheriff, or vidame. VICE-Dominus Abbatić, or Ecclesia, in the Civil and £'a now? See RE- V IC V IC Canon Law, an advocate, or protector, of an abbey or church. See ADvocate. -- - VICE-Dominus Efiscofii, in the Canon Law, is the commissary or vicar-general of a bishop. VICE-Gerent, Vicegerens, a vicar, deputy, or lieute- Inant. V1CE-Legate, an officer whom the pope sends to Avignon, and some other cities, to perform the office of a spiritual and temporal governor, at a time when there is no legate, or cardinal, to command there. All the Gaul Narbonnoise, as Dauphiné, Provence, &c. has recourse to the vice-legate of Avignon, for all ecclesiastical dispatches; in like manner as the other provinces address themselves to Rome. See LEGATE. VICE-Roy, a governor of a kingdom, who commands therein in the name and stead of a king, with full and sovereign authority. Thus, when Naples and Sicily were subject to Spain, vice-roys were sent thither; and the name is now given to those who govern in Mexico and Peru. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland is also sometimes called the vice-roy. VICE-Versé, a Latin phrase, frequently retained in English writings; signifying as much as on the contrary. Thus, as the sun mounts higher and higher above the horizon, insensible perspiration increases; and, vice versä, as he descends lower, it diminishes. VICEGRAD, or VISSEGRAD, in Geograft hy, a town of Hungary, near the Danube, with a castle, formerly the residence of the kings of Hungary. It was enlarg- ed, and magnificently fitted up by Charles I., who, in 13 [0, ordered the royal crown to be deposited here. In this castle likewise he entertained John, king of Bohemia, and his son Casimir, king of Poland, and Nemagna, king of Bosnia and Servia. After the death of Louis II. it was taken by the Turks, since which it has been ne- glected; 9 miles S.S.E. of Gran. VICENNALIS, in Antiquity, something of twenty years, or that returns after twenty years. Among the Romans, vicennalia particularly denoted the funeral feasts, held on the twentieth day after a per- son’s decease. VIcENNALIA, or Vicennales Ludi, were also games, feasts, and rejoicings, held every twentieth year of the reign of a prince. On medals we frequently meet with vicennalia vota; the vows put up on that occasion for the safety of the emperor and the enlargement of the empire. These are expressed by vot. x. & xx, in the medals of Tacitus, Gallienus, and Probus; vor. x. M. xx, in those of Valerius Maximianus and Galerius Maximianus; vot. x, MUL. xx, in those of Constantine, Valentinian, and Valens; vot. X, MULT. xx, in those of Dioclesian, Constantine, Julian, Valentinian, Theodosius, Arcadius, Honorius; votis x. MULT. xx, in those of Julian, Valen- tinian, Gratian; vot. x. SIC. xx, in those of Valerius Con- stantius; vot. XII. FEL. xx. in the younger Licinius; vot. xv. FEL. xx, in Constantine. VICENTE, or VINCENT, St., in Geografthy, a pro- vince of Brasil, containing the noted republic of St. Paul (which see); and as this is the first province in which the Portuguese established themselves, so it was one of the most fertile, till the discoveries of the mines divert- ed the channels of commerce. It is now chiefly re- markable for hams, esteemed equal to any in Europe; and, if Estalla may be credited, for tanned hides of large SWITC." - - VICENTIA, VicBNzA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Italy, in Venetia, upon the Medoacus Minor (the Barchiglione). Of its foundation nothing is known; but it appears to have been a Roman colony, and muni- cipal. The partisans of Vespasian took possession of it, A.D. 69. Tacitus, Hist. l. iii. c. 8. VICENTIN, in Geography, a country of Italy, bounded on the north by the Tyrolese, on the east by the Trevisan and the Paduan, on the south by the Paduan, and on the west by the Veronese and Tyrolese; about 45 miles in length, and from 10 to 24 in breadth. This territory was formerly a part of Lombardy. It is partly hilly, and partly flat; but in general uncommonly plea- sant and fertile. The plains abound in all kinds of corn, fruit, and mulberry-trees; and the mountainous parts af- ford good pastures, and most excellent wine, called “vino Santo.” The breeding of cattle is so very con- siderable here, that the country of Vicenza is proverbial- ly called the shambles of Venice. The sheep are in tolerable plenty, and the wool is excellent. The culture of silk is so important, that it produces annually upwards of 200,000 pounds of that article; there are also silver and iron mines, medicinal springs, paper, and saw-mills, which are abundantly provided with timber from the forests. Fish and venison are in abundance. The hill Sumano is celebrated on account of the great variety of Salubrious herbs which grow there; and on the other hills petrified shells and fish are found, some of which differ entirely from those that live in the Adriatic sea. The larger rivers and rivulets are the Astico, Agno or Gua, the Temonchio, the Cerison, and Tergola, all which run into the river Bachiglione, and discharge themselves afterwards into the Po. The territory of Vicenza belonged formerly to ancient Venetia, and in the sequel raised itself to the rank of one of the thirty duches of Lombardy, and was incorporated by Charle- magne with the Marca Trevisana. In the progress of time, the country of Vicenza assumed again a republi- can form; and in the 13th century, fell under the domin- ion of the tyrant Ezzelin. After his death, it came under the government of Padua, from which it was taken by the family of Scala, who were again dispossessed of it by John Galeazzo Visconti, duke of Milan. It did not, however, remain long in his hands; for in the year 1404, it rescued itself from the government of Milan, and submitted voluntarily to the republic of Venice. In the year 1796, it became part of the Austrian monarchy, in virtue of the peace of Campo Formio. This province comprehends one city, 13 small towns and boroughs, and upwards of 300 villages. The whole population amounts, according to the last enumeration made by the French, to 286,000 souls. - VICENTINO, Don N1colo, in Biograft hy, pub- lished at Rome, 1555, a work in quarto, entitled “L’An- tica Musica ridotta alla moderna Prattica,” or “ Ancient Music reduced to modern Practice,” with precepts and examples for the three genera and their species; to which is added, an account of a new instrument for the most perfect performance of music, together with many musical secrets. During the 16th century, and a great part of the next, many of the most eminent musical theorists of Italy em- ployed their time in subtle divisions of the scale, and vi- sionary V IC * V I C sionary pursuits after the ancient Greek genera; nor was this rage wholly confined to theorists, but extended itself to practical musicians, ambitious of astonishing the world by their deep science and superior penetration, though they might have employed their time more profitably to themselves, and the art they professed, in exploring the latent resources of harmonic combinations and effects in composition, or in refining the tone, heightening the ex- pression, and extending the powers of execution, upon some particular instrument. These vain inquiries certain- ly impeded the progress of modern music; for hardly a single tract or treatise was presented to the public, that was not crowded with circles, segments of circles, dia- grams, divisions, subdivisions, commas, modes, genera, species, and technical terms, drawn from Greek writers, and the now unintelligible and useless jargon of Boethius. Vicentino, by the title of Don prefixed to his name, seems to have been an ecclesiastic of the Benedictine order. He was a practical musician, and appears to have known his business. In his treatise he has explain- ed the difficulties in the music of his time, with such clearness, as would have been useful to the student, and honourable to himself, if he had not split upon enharmo- nic rocks, and chromatic quicksands. He gives a cir- cumstantial account of a dispute between him and another musician at Rome, Vicentino Lusitanio, who maintained that modern music was entirely diatonic; while Vicentino was of opinion, that the present music was a mixture of all the three ancient genera, diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic. This dispute having produ- ced a wager of two gold crowns, the subject was discus- sed in the pope’s chapel, before judges appointed by the disputants, and determined against Vicentino; whether justly or unjustly, depends upon the precise sense as- signed to the term chromatic by the several disputants. What use was made of the enharmonic genus in the music of the l6th century, we know not; but whenever other sounds are used than those of the scale, strictly diatonic, by introducing F, C, or G sharp, or any flat, except that of B, which the Greeks themselves allowed in the synemmenon tetrachord, and the most scrupulous writers upon canto-fermo, in the modes of the church, the diatonic is mixed with chromatic; and to this licence the first contrapuntists were reduced, at a cadence in D and A minor, as well as G major. Though Vicentino lost his wager by the decision of the judges against him, he recovered his honour some time after, by his antagonist, Lusitanio, recanting, and coming over to his opinion. According to Kircher, Vi- centino was the first who imagined that the proportions or ratios of the ancient diatonic genus were inadmissible in our counterpoint; and tried in his work to establish the tetrachord to consist of a major, semitone, and two tones, one major and one minor; which forms the diato- nic syntonas of Ptolemy, which Zarlino has propagated, and which is now in general use. VICENZA, in Geografhy, a city of Italy, and capital of the Vicentin, situated at the union of two small rivers, in a plain, between two hills. The celebrated architect, Andrea Palladio, was born and lived here. Among the buildings are seen several regular stately palaces, and other elegant edifices, particularly the council-house, the grandeur of which is heightened by two very lofty co- lums, with St. Mark’s winged lion on one of them, and Vol. XXXVIII. on the other the image of our Saviour. The Monte della Pieta is a stately fabric, and has a very fine library. Of the churches, which are 57 in number, 14 are paro- chial, and 29 conventual, with several good hospitals. The cathedral strikes the eye with nothing particular. The great altar of the Dominican church is a most au- gust piece of Palladio’s architecture, as is also the beau- tiful convenient theatre in the building where the Acad- emia Olympicorum meets. The seats are disposed in the manner of the ancient amphitheatre, and the perspec- tive is surprisingly beautiful, chiefly by reason of the many statues of Roman emperors, and some philoso- phers. This academy is a society of men of learning, who meet at stated times, for the improvement of the Italian language. By the same skilful architect is like- wise the copy of the triumphal arch of the Campo Martio, without the city, erected for the embellishment of the public walk. The church della Madonna di Monte, on a mountain, without the city, is much frequented by pil- grims, and possesses a fine frontispiece, with a convent built close by. The Scaligeri were once for a consider- able time lords of this city; afterwards it passed through several hands, and, in 1304, submitted to the republic of Venice; 35 miles W. of Venice. N. lat. 45° 31'. E. long. 11° 22'. - VICES, a term used by the dealers in horses to express certain faulty habits or customs in that creature, which render him troublesome to the rider, and are never to be worn off, but by attention to the regular methods. The following are the tricks generally understood as vices by dealers, and their methods of preventing, cor- recting, and curing them. 1. If a horse carry his head or neck awry, strike him twice or thrice with the spur on the contrary side; but if he be very stiff necked on the right side, and very ply- ing or bending on the left, the rider is to hold the right rein shorter than the other, and give him sudden checks every time he inclines that way, having a sharp wire fas- tened in the reins, that striking in his neck, he may be compelled to hold it straight; but in this, care must be always taken to check him upwards, for otherwise he will get a habit of ducking his head, which will prove very troublesome. 2. If a horse is apt to shake his head and ears upon the least occasion, or move his ears when he is going to kick or bite, or cast his rider; the way of curing this is to strike him on the head with a wand, as soon as he shows the first attempt to it; and, at the instant of strik- ing him, he is to be checked with the bridle, and struck with the spur on the contrary side: this will put him out of his pace, and he is then to be stopped, that he may have leisure to understand the rider’s meaning. Every time that he starts or winces, which are signals that he is going to bite, or to strike with his heels, the same is to be done, and he will, by degrees, be broke of these habits, 3. If a horse is subject to ducking down his head fre- quently, the rider must every time he is guilty of it, check him suddenly with his bridle, and at the same time strike him with the spurs, in order to make him sensible of his fault. If he be standing, he is thus to be made to bring his head in the right place as he stands; and when he does so, he is to be cherished, that he may understand the rider's meaning, which, in time, he will certainly do. 4. If a horse be skittish, and apt to start, so that the 4 M rider V I C •- V IC rider is never free from danger while on his back, the cause of the malady is first to be carefully inquired into: if it be found to proceed from a weak sight, which re- presents objects to him other than they really are; the rhethod of curing him is, every time he does it, to give him leisure to view the things, and see what they really are; he must have time to view them well, and then be rid gently up to them. If, on the contrary, his skittishness depends on his being naturally fearful, and alarmed at every noise, he is to be cured of it by the inuring of him to loud noises of many kinds, as firing of guns, drums, trumpets, and the like; and he will, in time, coune to take delight in that of which he was before afraid. 5. If a horse be restive, and refuse to go forward, the rider is to pull him backwards, and this will often occa- sion his going forward: this is using his own fault as a means of reclaiming him. The rider is first cautiously to find whether this vice proceeds from real stubborn- ness, or from faintness: if from the latter, there is no re- medy but rest; but if actual stubbornness be the fault, the whip and spur, well employed, and persisted in, will at Pength be found a certain cure. 6. If a horse rear up an end; that is, if he rises so high before as to endanger his céming over the rider, the horseman must give him the bridle, and bear forwards with his whole weight. As he is going down, he should have the spur given him very roundly; but this must by no means be done as he is rising, for then it will make him rise higher, and probably come over. 7. If a horse be subject to lie down in the water, or upon the ground, there is no better remedy than a pair of sharp spurs resolutely applied. But there is some caution to be used in the application of them, for bad horsemen generally are the occasion of the faults in horses, by correcting them out of due time. The proper moment of spurring is just when he is go- ing to lie down; but when this has diverted him from the thought of it, he is not immediately to be spurred again. For the doing this frightens the creature, and puts him into confusion to that degree, that he at length becomes restive, and thus one fault is only changed for another, and that perhaps a worse. - 8. If a horse be apt to run away, very cautious means must be used to break him of it. The rider must be gentle, both with a slack curb, and keeping an easy bri- dle-hand. He is first to be walked without stopping him; but only staying him, by degrees, with a steady, not a violent hand, and always cherishing him when he obeys: when he is thus made very manageable in his walk, he is to be put to his trot, and finally to his gallop; and from these he is to be brought into a walk again, always by degrees, and staying him with a steady hand. By using this me- thod from time to time, with judgment and patience, it is probable he may at length be cured. 9. If a horse is apt to fly out violently, it is certain, that the more the bridle-rein is pulled, and the more he is hurt by tugging the curb, the faster he will run: the best method is therefore, if there be field-room enough, to let him go, as soon as he is going, by slackening the bridle, and giving him the spur continually and sharply, till he slacken of his own accord. Thus, by degrees, he will find that himself is the sufferer by all his flights, and he will then leave them off, though he could be never broke of them any way else. 10. Some horses will not endure the spurs when they are given them, nor ever go forwards; but fastening them- selves to them, they will strike out and go back; and if they are pressed more hard, they will fall to staling without ever going out of the place. If the horse who has this vice be a gelding, it will prove very difficult to cure him of it. A stonehorse, or mare, are much easier cured; but even these will be trying at it again after- wards; and if they ever get the better of their rider, they will not fail to keep it up in this particular, Every horse, of whatever kind, that has this fault of cleaving to the spurs, as the jockeys call it, and not go- ing forwards with them, is to be rejected, in the buying for any gentleman’s riding, for it is a sign of a restive nature, and is a fault generally accompanied with many others. VICESIMATIO, in Roman Antiquity. CIMATION, VICH, in Geografhy, a river of Russia, which runs in- to the Oby, N. lat. 61° 20'. E. long. 76° 14'. VICHEREY, a town of France, in the department of the Vosges; 9 miles E. of Neufchâteau. VICHNOU, or VISNE, in Mythology, a deity in the East Indies, of whom the Brachmans have a tradition, that he was metamorphosed into a tortoise; and they ex- plain this fable by saying, that by the fall of a mountain the world began to stagger and to sink down gradually towards the abyss, where it would have perished, if their beneficent god had not transformed himself into a tor- toise to bear it up. See VISHNU. VICHY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Allier, on the Allier; near it are some medicinal springs; 3 miles S.W. of Cusset. VICIA, in Botany, the Vetch, an old Latin name, is by some etymologists derived from vincio, to bind to- gether, as the various species of this genus twine, with their tendrils, round other plants. De Theis traces this word to its Celtic synonym, Gwig, whence also, accor- ding to him, comes the modern Greek name of the vetch, Gizi oy or 32x2.—Linn. Gen. 376. Schreb. 497. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1093. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 768. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 69. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 310. Pursh 47 l. Juss. 360. Tourn. t. 221. Lamarck Illustr. t. 634. Gaertn. t. 15 1. (Faba; Tourn. t. 212.)—Class and order, Diadelfiſhia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Pañilionaceae, Linn. Leguminosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, erect, cloven half way down into five acute segments; the upper ones shortest, converging; all of equal breadth. Cor. papilionaceous. Standard oval, with a broad ob- long claw; its summit emarginate with a small point; the sides reflexed; the back marked with a longitudinal, compressed, elevated line. Wings two, oblong, erect, half-heartshaped, shorter than the standard, with oblong claws. Keel shorter than the wings, half-orbicular, com- pressed, with a divided oblong claw. Stam. Filaments in two sets, one simple, the other in nine divisions; anthers erect, roundish, with four furrows. A nectariferous gland, short and pointed, arises from the receptacle, be- tween the compound filament and the germen. Pist. Germen linear, compressed, long; style shorter, thread- shaped, bent upwards at a right angle; stigma obtuse, transversely bearded underneath. Peric. Legume long, coriaceous, of one cell and two valves, terminating in a point. Seeds several, roundish. Obs. Faba of Tournefort has oval compressed seeds. Vicia of that author and Rivinus has roundish seeds. Ess. Ch. Stigma transversely bearded on the under side. An See D E- VI C I A. An extensive genus of herbaceous, perennial or annual plants, climbing by means of tendrils, which terminate the common footstalk of their abruptly pinnated leaves. It is nearly akin to LATHY RUS, (see that article,) differ- ing essentially in the stigma, and in a generally more slen- der habit, with smaller, more oblong, flowers. The spe- cies are mostly natives of Europe, a few of Barbary, and North America, scarcely any occurring in tropical cli- mates. The flowers are axillary: either racemose on a longish common stalk; or nearly sessile, solitary or two or three together; their colour crimson, purplish, or pale yellowish, rarely white or blue. Sect. 1. Flower-stalks elongated. 1. V. his iformis. Pea Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1034. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Jacq. Austr. t. 364. (Pisum sylvestre; Clus. Hist. v. 2. 229. P. perenne sylvestre; Ger. Em. 1220. Cracca flore ochroleuco; Rivin. Te- trap. Irr. t. 52.)—Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets ovate; the lower pair close to the stem.--Native of woods in Hungary, Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and near Constantinople; a hardy perennial, flowering in July and August in our botanic gardens. The stem is angu- lar and striated, branched, climbing to the height of several feet. Leaves of three or four pair of not quite opposite, broad, blunt, smooth leaflets, about an inch long, all on very short partial stalks, attached to a straight footstalk from three to five inches in length, which ends in a branched tendril; the lowest pair largest, and close to the stifivalas, which are ovate, acute, with an awl-shaped descending lobe. Flower-stalks half as long as the leaves, each bearing a dense cluster of nu- merous, oblong, pale-yellowish flowers, all drooping one way. Legume an inch and half long, near half an inch broad, smooth, veiny, of a rusty brown. 2. V. caroliniana. Carolina Vetch. Walt. Carol. 182. Willd. n. 2. Pursh n. 5. (V. parviflora; Mi- chaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 69.)—Stalks with many dis- tant flowers. Leaflets numerous, elliptic-lanceolate, nearly smooth. Stipulas ovato-lanceolate, entire. Stem smooth.—Native of mountains in North America, from Pennsylvania to Carolina, flowering in July and August. Resembles V. Cracca, but the flowers are white, with a black-tipped standard, and a great deal smaller. Pursh. The stem is angular, furrowed. Leaflets eight or ten, not quite opposite. Stiftulas small. Clusters three inches or more in length, of above twenty flowers, hang- ing all one way. Walter, Willdenow. 3. V. fontica. Euxine Vetch. Willd. n. 3. (V. multiflora spicata, floribus albidis, calyce purpureo; Tourn. Cor. 27.)—Stalks with many crowded flowers. Leaflets numerous, lanceolate. Stipulas lanceolate- swordshaped, entire. Stem downy.—Native of the coun- try near the Euxine sea. Stem angular and furrowed. Tendrils of the leaves three-cleft. Leaflets from twenty to twenty-seven, elliptic-lanceolate, an inch or more in length, bearing, on the under side especially, many scat- tered close-pressed hairs. Stiftulas almost half an inch long, hairy, ribbed. Clusters six inches, the lower ones a foot, in length. Flowers drooping, crowded, the size of V. Cracca. Willdenow. 4. V. dumetorum. Great Wood Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1035. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 2. (V. n. 427; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 185. Cracca sylvatica; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 51.) Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets reflexed, ovate, pointed. Stipulas somewhat toothed.—Native of France, Switzerland, Germany, and the neighbourhood of Con- stantinople; a hardy perennial, flowering in May or June, but seldom cultivated here, except for curiosity. The leaflets are smaller, more numerous, and more alternate than in the first species, the lower one only situated near the base of their common foots talk. Flowers fewer, and much larger, purple, not yellow. Legumes lanceolate, tapering at each end. 5. V. sylvatica. Common Wood Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1035. Willd. n. 5. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 79. Fl. Dan. t. 277. (V. n. 426; Hall. Hist. v. 1, 185. t. 12. f. 2 .V. multifora maxima perennis, tetro odore, floribus albentibus, lineis caeruleis striatis; Pluk. Phyt. t. 71. f. 1.) —Stalks many-flowered, longer than the leaves. Leaflets numerous, elliptical. Stipulas lunate, with capillary teeth.—Native of rather mountainous woods and thickets, in Sweden, Germany, France, and England, flowering in July and August. An elegant plant, with a branching perennial root. The stems are much branched, climb- ing over bushes, which they decorate with long-stalked clusters of white flowers, delicately striated with pur- plish-blue. The leaflets are scattered, smooth, blunt, or emarginate, with a small point; their length from a quarter to half an inch. Legume lanceolate, pointed, smooth, with about four seeds. This species is well worthy of a place in gardens and shrubberies. In the north of England it often makes a beautiful appearance in hedges and mountain thickets, flowering copiously for several weeks. 6. V. americana. American Wood Vetch. Muh- lenb. Cat. 65. Willd. n. 6. Pursh n. 3.-Stalks with several flowers, shorter than the leaves. Leaflets elliptic- lanceolate, obtuse, smooth. Stipulas half-arrowshaped, deeply toothed.—Discovered in Pennsylvania, by the late Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, from whom we have a spe- cimen. It flowers in May, and is perennial. Pursh compares this species with V. sylvatica, as to the size of its flowers and general resemblance. But the leaflets are rather larger, somewhat toothed. Stiftulas with deep, but not capillary segments. Flowers much fewer, their common stalks never longer than the leaves. . 7. V. grandiflora. Large-flowered Vetch.-Stalks with several flowers, shorter than the leaves. Leaflets ovate, smooth. Stipulas lunate, with sharp teeth. Calyx- teeth taper-pointed.—Gathered by Mr. Menzies, at the upper edge of the forest, on the mountain called Mowna- rooa, in Owhyhee, which is 6000 feet high. This mag- nificent species is much larger than any of the preceding. Its leaflets, near an inch and half long, are the shape of W. dumetorum, but twice as large. Flowers pale pur- ple, full thrice the size of dumetorum; their standard and other fetals all strongly recuved. Calyx half as long as the corolla, with long, very finely pointed, teeth. The clusters are lax, with slender, somewhat downy, partial stalks, three-quarters of an inch in length. We have not seen the legume. 8. V. variegata. Parti-coloured Oriental Vetch. Willd. n. 7. Prodr. Fl. Graec. n. 1700. (V. orienta- lis multiflora argentea, flore variegato; Tourn. Cor. 27.) —Stalks with many imbricated flowers. Leaflets ellipti- cal, villous. Stipulas deeply divided at the base, ovato- lanceolate.—Native of the Levant. Tournefort. Found by Dr. Sibthorp in the Peloponnesus. His specimens an- swer well to Willdenow’s description, except that the leaves, though clothed with shining hairs, are scarcely “whitish, or silvery.” The stems are about a foot high, square, striated, villous. Leaflets from fourteen to twenty, obtuse; those of the lower leaves obovate, emar- ginate, pointed, crowded, Tendrils short, cloven. Com- 4 M 2 mon ~ V I C I A. mon stalk dilated, semi-cylindrical. Stiftulas pointed. Clusters rather longer than the leaves. Flowers the size of V. sativa, turned all one way. 9. V. cassubica. Cassubian Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1035. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 4. (V. Gerardi; Jacq. Austr. t. 229. V. pedunculis multifloris, petiolis polyphyllis, foliolis villosis, stipulis acutis integris appendiculatis; Gerard Gallopr. 497. t. 19, excellent. V. multiflora cas. Subica frutescens, lentis siliquā; Pluk. Phyt. t. 72. f. 2.) —Stalks many-flowered, shorter than the leaves. Leaf- lets elliptic-oblong, slightly downy. Stipulas lanceolate, entire, with a divaricated awl-shaped spur at the base. —Native of mountainous woods and meadows, in Pro- vence, Pomerania, and Austria. Perennial, flowering in June, and ripening seed in August. This, it seems, has been formerly confounded with V. Sylvatica, but the stems are only about eighteen inches high, erect, not climbing. The whole of the herbage is somewhat dow- ny. Leaflets very numerous, opposite or alternate, ob- tuse or emarginate. Stiftulas narrow, with a capillary point. Flowers light purple, from six to twenty, droop- ing, the size and shape of V. Sylvatica. Legumes ovate, hardly an inch long, likewise resembling those of the sylvatica. The name cassubica, taken from a province of Pomerania, is extremely exceptionable, for a plant found in so many different countries. 10. V. atrofitarfi urea. Dark-purple Vetch. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 164. Willd. n. 9.-Stalks many-flowered, shorter than the leaves. Calyx-teeth bristle-shaped, ve- ry villous. Leaflets lanceolate, villous. Stipulas half- arrow shaped, deeply toothed. Legume hairy.—Native of the isles of Hyeres, and of Algiers. Annual. The whole plant is villous. Stem square, striated. Leaf. Acts from eight to twelve, bluntish, pointed. Stiftulas ovate, with deep, linear-lanceolate, pointed teeth. Calyx clothed with, long spreading hairs. Corolla of a deep blood-red. Legume covered with short reddish hairs. Very different from the following species. Willdemow. ll. V. villosa. Villous Vetch. Roth Germ. v. 2. part 2. 182. Host. Syn. 399. Willd. n. 10.—“ Stalks longer than the leaves, with many imbricated flowers. Leaflets oblong-ovate, villous. Stipulas half-arrowshap- ed, ovate; bluntly toothed at the base.”— Native of Ger- many, Austria, and Hungary. Resembles W. Cracca, but the root is annual; flowers larger; stem weaker; herbage more villous; legumes twice as broad, and half as long again, as in that species, with seeds twice as large, grey covered with sooty powder, not black and smooth. Roth. 12. V. folyhhylla. Many-leaved Vetch. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 162. Willd. n. 1 1. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 699, unpublished. angustissimo folio; Tourn. Cor. 27. Buxb. Cent. 5.46. f. 35.)—Stalks longer than the leaves, many-flowered. Leaflets linear-lanceolate, acute, downy. Stipulas half- hastate, lanceolate, entire.— Native of Hungary, Greece, mount Hymettus, and Barbary. Perennial. Stems branched, angular, climbing, clothed, like the rest of the herbage, with soft silky hairs. Leaflets very nu- merous, near an inch long. Stalks rather longer than the leaves, each bearing a cluster of larger, less nume- rous and crowded flowers, than in the following. Calyx- teeth very unequal. Standard sky-blue, with purple veins. Wings and keel white; the latter tipped with violet. Legume oblong, smooth. - 13. V. Cracca. Tufted Vetch. Ilinn. Sp. Pl. 1035. Willd. n. 12. Fl. Br. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1 168. Pursh (V. orientalis multiflora incana, n. 4. Curt. Lond. fasc. 5. t. 54. Mart. Rust, t. 117. Fl. Dan. t. 804. (Cracca; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 50.)— Stalks the length of the leaves, with many imbricated flowers. Leaflets lanceolate, bluntish, downy. Stipu- las half-arrowshaped, mostly entire. Found in thickets, hedges, and fields throughout Europe, as well as, in North America, flowering in July and August, when the dense clusters of numerous blue flowers make a hand- some appearance. The fetals are all blue; flowers more crowded; leaflets shorter and rather blunter than the last. In the stiftulas we find no permanent differ- ence, the lower lobe being more or less divaricated or deflexed. Curtis justly remarked that the stigma is hairy ali round. 14. V. tenuifolia. Slender-leaved Vetch. Roth Germ. v. 2. pt. 2. 183. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 6. Donn Cant. ed. 5. 176. —“Stalks longer than the leaves, with many imbricated flowers. Leaflets linear, three-ribbed, smoothish. Stipulas linear, entire.”—Native of sandy hillocks in Germany, as well as in Tauris. Said to be very like the preceding; but of a more humble and up- right growth. The lower stiftulas only are half-hastate; the upper ones simple and linear. Flowers fewer in each cluster, always violet-coloured. Legumes about half as large. Roth. 15. V. onobrychioides. Saint-foin Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1036, Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 7. Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 325. t. 42. f. 1. (V. onobrychidis flore; Bauh. Prodr. 149.)—Stalks longer than the leaves, with many distant flowers. Leaflets linear, rather abrupt, smooth. Stipulas lanceolate, deeply toothed at the base.— Native of Switz zerland, Italy, the south of France, Greece, Cyprus, and the Archipelago, flowering in summer. The root is annual. Herb branched, climbing, with the habit of V. Cracca, but smooth, and much more variable in size, as well as in the breadth of the leaflets, which are moreover sometimes acute, sometimes obtuse or abrupt, always tipped with a bristly point. Flowers thrice as large as in Cracca, fewer and more remote, parti-coloured with crimson and white. Legume an inch and a half long, lanceolate, pointed, with many small seeds. 16. V. biennis. Biennial Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1036. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 8. (V. n. 9; Gmel. Sib. v. 4, 10. t. 2.)--Stalks much longer than the leaves, with many scattered flowers. Leaflets elliptic-lanceolate, smooth. Common footstalks angular, furroyed. Stipulas half- arrowshaped, stalked.—Native of Siberia. A tall, smooth, biennial plant. Leaflets ribbed, an inch and quarter or inch and half long. Flowers half the size of the last, whitish, with a blue standard. 17. V. altissima. Tall Vetch. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 163. Willd. n. 16.-4: Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets about twelve, elliptical, abrupt, smooth. Stipulas tooth- ed.”—Native of Barbary, in hedges near Arzeau. Akin to the foregoing, but the abrupt leaflets, and toothed stiftulas, distinguish it. Desfontaines. We would ob- serve that nothing is more variable than the termination of the leaflets in this tribe; yet we do not dispute the dis- tinctness of the present species. The herb is perennial, perfectly smooth throughout, six feet high. Flower- stalks longer than the leaves, angular. Flowers nume- rous, pale blue, scarcely larger than in V. señium; see the Second section. 18. V. Bivona. Blue Sicilian Vetch.-Stalks as long as the leaves, about three-flowered. Leaflets elliptical, obtuse, hairy. Stipulas lunate, deeply toothed. Legume oblong, reticulated, smooth-Native of Sicily, from whence V I C I A. whence it was sent us by the baron Bivona Bernardi. Akin to several of the foregoing, but decidedly distinct. Root perennial. Stems several, climbing, eighteen inches or more in height, sharply angular, hairy like the rest of the herbage. Leaflets half or three quarters of an inch long, pale green, rather silky. Flowers two three, or four on each stalk, light purplish-blue, much shorter than those of V. Cracca. Calyac-teeth all re- remarkably long, tapering, finely fringed. Legume an inch and quarter long, half an inch broad, flat, with four or five seeds. 19. V. nissoliana. Red Oriental Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1036. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 9.-Stalks shorter than the leaves, with few flowers. Leaflets elliptic-oblong, obtuse, downy. Stipulas lanceolate, entire. I_egumes compressed, ovate-oblong, silky.—Native of the Levant. A hardy annual, said to have been first introduced at Kew, in 1773, by the celebrated earl of Bute. The whole plant is downy, or somewhat silky. Leaflets an inch long, tapering at the base into little partial stalks. Stiftulas narrow, undivided. Flowers five or six, dark purple, the size of the last. Calyx-teeth long and slen- der, but not quite so long in proportion to the tube as in that species. Legume above an inch long, flat, very silky, with four or five large prominent seeds. Linnae- us cultivated this species at Upsal. We have never ob- served it in any collection here. 20. V. benghalensis. Bengal Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1036. Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 10. (V. benghalensis, hirsuta et incana, siliquis pisi; Herm. Ilugd.-Bat. 623. t. 625. Cracca benghalensis; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 50.) —Stalks shorter than the leaves, about three-flowered. Leaflets elliptic-oblong, obtuse, downy. Stipulas Ian- Ceolate, entire. Legume turgid, oblong, silky.—Native of Bengal, from whence sir Joseph Banks procured seeds for the Kew garden, in 1792. An annual stove- plant, flowering in June and July. This is nearly related to the last, in general habit, pubescence, stiftulas, and calyx; but the flowers are scarcely more than three; their fetals longer, said to be of a very deep scarlet, at least their upper half, the keel tipped with black. We have not seen them, except dried. The legume differs essentially from the foregoing, having concave valves, like a Pisum, with five large round seeds. 21. V. canescens. Hoary Syrian Vetch. Billard. Syr. fasc. l. 17. t. 7. Willd. n. 19. Ait. n. 1 1.-Stalks many-flowered, about the length of the leaves, which scarcely bear tendrils. Leaflets elliptic lanceolate, downy. Stipulas half-arrowshaped. Legume turgid, ob- long, silky.—Gathered by La Billardiere, towards the summit of mount Lebanon, and by Sibthorp in Greece. Sir Joseph Banks sent seeds to Kew in 1800. If this and the two preceding exist at present, in any garden, they ought to be figured in one, not both, of our periodi- cal works. The present is marked as a hardy annual, flowering in July and August. The whole herb is hoary with soft down. Stem erect, a foot or more in height, square, striated. Lower leaves numerously pinnate, with an odd leaflet, in whose place the upper ones have only a short straight point, or abortive tendril. Flowers blue, full as large as the last, and more numerous. Le- gume swelling as in that, downy, but with fewer seeds. 22. V. cafensis. Cape Vetch. Berg. Cap. 215. Willd. n. 20. Thunb. Prodr. 125.-Stalks elongated, many-flowered. Leaves pinnate with an odd leaflet, without tendrils; silky beneath. Stipulas lanceolate, undivided.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Peren- nial. Stem a span high, ercot, angular, smooth; branch- ed at the base; the branches short; procumbent. Leaf: lets about twenty-one, linear, abrupt with a point, or slightly emarginate; smooth above; scarcely half so long as the finger-nail. Stiftulas membranous, ovate or lan- ceolate, simple and entire. Clusters roundish, hairy, rather dense, on long stalks. Calyx-teeth lanceolate, acute, nearly equal. Bergis. Linnaeus has made a manuscript note in this author’s book, saying “ this plant resembles Hiffiocreflis comosa, but it has a racemus, not an umbella. It cannot be a Vicia, because of the odd leaflet.”—The last remark is invalidated by V. canes- cens, n. 21. We have seen no specimen, on which to found any opinion. 23. V. fellucida. Transparent Vetch. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.— v. 2. 59. t. 222. Willd. n. 21. Stalks shorter than the leaves, with several flowers. Leaves pinnate with an odd leaflet, without tendrils, downy. Stipulas lanceolate, undivided. Legume falcate, many-seeded. —Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Jacquin’s figure answers so well to the remark of Linnaeus under the last species, that we are much inclined to think the present is the very same plant. Willdenow indeed, who had seen a dried specimen of the former, thought them distinct; but he indicates no material difference. The ſlowers of Jacquin’s plant have a roundish, elegantly striated, stan- dard, with purple wings and keel. The legume is com- pressed, curved, near two inches long, with ten or more seeds, separated by transverse strictures. Bergius has not described the fruit of his plant. 24. V. fruticosa. Willd. n. 22. (Lathyrus tomento- sus: Cavan. Ic. v. 1, 58. t. 84. Orobus tomentosus; Des- font. Tabl. 224.)—Stalks shorter than the leaves, two- flowered. Leaves abruptly pinnate, without tendrils, downy. Stipulas awl-shaped, undivided. Legume straight, downy, many-seeded.—Found on hills near Huanuco, in Peru. A shrub, flowering in the Madrid, garden from July to November. The stem is two feet high, with nu- merous, drooping, downy, round branches. Leaftets about twenty pair, elliptical, uniform, entire, a quarter of an inch long, without an odd one, or any terminal point. Flowers yellow, in shape and size not unlike the last, nor is the legume very dissimilar, except being straight, and gradually dilated upwards.-We feel little confi- dence as to the genus of this plant, but a certain resem- blance to the two last, notwithstanding the want of an odd leaflet, induces us to retain it here. Perhaps they might all three, if all distinct, be removed from Vicia, and on more complete examination and comparison, mightform a genus. ... * 25. V. biflora. Two-flowered Sharp-leaved Vetch: Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 166. t. 197. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 13. —Stalks two-flowered, shorter than the leaves. Leaflets linear, tapering at each end. Tendrils divided. Stipulas half-arrow shaped.—Native of Algiers. A har- dy annual, sent to Kew, by M. Thouin, in 1801, flower- ing from June to August. The stem is slender, angular, procumbent. Leaflets eight or ten, alternate, very nar- row. Stiftulas minute, occasionally toothed. Stalks slender, bearing one or two rather large, oblong, blue jlowers, and tipped with a small point. Calyx-teeth rather short. Corolla most like V. benghalensis, or biennis, in shape and dimensions. 26. V. ciliaris. Fringed Vetch. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. n. 1706, Fl. Graec. t. 700, unpublished.—Stalks single-flowered, pointed, as long as the leaves. Leaflets emarginate. Stipulas in many setaceous segments.- Gathered VI C I A. - * Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in Asia Minor, probably near Smyrna. We know not whether the root be annual or perennial. The Stems are weak, climbing, two or three feet long, branched, angular. Leaflets about seven pair, half an inch long, smooth. Tendrils many-cleft. Stiftu- 1as lunate, very remarkable for their numerous, spread- ing, almost capillary, segments. Point of the flower- stalk elongated three-quarters of an inch beyond the flower, which is therefore lateral, about the size of the last, pale blue streaked with purple. Legume an inch long, elliptical, acute, compressed, with two seeds. 27. V. graminea. Grassy-leaved Vetch.—Stalks about four-flowered, shorter than the leaves. Leaflets linear, pointed, smooth. Stipulas ovate, entire, slightly half-arrowshaped.—Gathered by Commerson, at Bue- nos Ayres. We do not find any account of this species, a specimen of which was given by Thouin to the youn- ger Linnaeus. The whole herb is nearly or quite smooth. Stem two feet or more in height, slender, angular, fur- rowed, scarcely branched. Leaves remote, each of three pair of very narrow leaflets, above an inch long, with a simple or divided tendril at the end of their common stalk. Flowers very small, pale, apparently tinged with purple. Calyx a little downy, the teeth shorter than the tube. Legume smooth, compressed, not an inch in length, elliptic-oblong, with an oblique incurved point, and six or seven small round seeds. 28. V. longifolia. Long-leaved Vetch. Poiret in Lam. Dict, n. 15.-Stalks much longer than the leaves, with many distant flowers. Leaflets numerous, linear, elongated, smooth. Stipulas lanceolate, half-arrowsha- ped, entire.—Gathered in Syria, by La Billardiere. Stems straight, angular, striated, stiff, smooth, branched. Leaflets from sixteen to twenty, alternate, distant, very narrow, an inch and a half long, ribbed, entire. Stiftulas narrow and acute. Tendrils in two or three divisions. Flowers yellowish-white, drooping, in very 1oose clus- ters. Legume not observed. Poiret. 29. V. oroboides. Four-leaved Vetch. Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 323. Willd. n. 25. Host. Syn. 399. (Orobus pannonicus quartus; Clus. Hist. v. 2. 231.)— Stalks about four-flowered, shorter than the leaves. Leaflets two pair, ovate, pointed, without a tendril. Sti- pulas half-arrowshaped, toothed at the side.—Found by Wulfen, in the mountainous woods of Carinthia and Carniola, flowering in May and June. We have speci- mens from Jacquin. The root is perennial, tuberous. Stems erect, a foot and half high, simple, leafy, angu- lar, strongly furrowed, smooth. Leaves of two pair of large, smooth, reticulated leaflets, an inch, or inch and half, long, with a small awl-shaped stipulaceous point in the place of a tendril. Clusius’s figure erroneously represents an odd leaflet here and there. Flowers an inch long, yellow, with a purplish calyz, about four to- gether, in short, lax, axillary clusters. For V. Ervilia, Willd. n. 23. see ERVILIA and ERv UM. We are now convinced that this plant is an Ervum. 3. Sect." 2. Flowers a cillary, nearly sessile. 30. V. sativa. Common Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pls 1037. Willd. n. 26. FI. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 3.34. Pursh n. 22 Mart. Rust. t. 116. Fl. Dan. t. 522. (Vicia; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 54. Ger. Em. 1227. Lob. Ic. v. 2. 75. Camer. Epit. 320.) . 8. Fl. Brit. V. angustifolia; Willd. n. 28. Rivin Tetrap. Irr. t. 55. (V. lathyroides; Huds. 318, 2. Dicks. H. Sicc, fasc. 4, 12. V. Sylvestris, sive Cracca major; Ger. Em. 1227. V. globosa; Retz. Obs, fasc. 3. 39? Willd. n. 27?) 2. Fl. Brit. (V. sylvestris, flore ruberrimo, siliquà longá nigrä; Rai Syn. 321. V. angustifolia; Sibth. Oxon. 224. V. folio angustiore, flore rubro; Dill. Giss. append. 47.) . - Legumes sessile, solitary or in pairs, nearly erect. Lower leaves with abrupt leaflets. Stipulas toothed, marked with a dark depression.—Native of cultivated ground, and grassy pastures, throughout Europe, flow- ering in May and June. A very variable annual plant, more or less hairy, distinguished by a brown or blackish depressed mark on each stiftula, which is visible in ali the supposed varieties; but we are not sure that those varieties may not be specifically distinct; at least our y, which is characterized by its long, cylindrical, black le- gumes, and very elegant crimson solitary flowers. The leaflets of V. sativa, usually from four to six pair, vary much in breadth; those of the lower leaves are shorter, abrupt, or even inversely heart-shaped; the rest lanceo- late or linear; all tipped with a bristle. Tendril of the common stalk long and branched. Flowers variously shaded with red and blue. Legume compressed, rough, or a little downy, with many globose, or slightly lenti- cular, very smooth seeds. The use of this plant for fod- der is well known. The seeds are the favourite food of pigeons. 31. V. amflhicarfia. Subterraneous Vetch. Dorthes in Journ. de Phys. v. 35. 131. Willd. n. 29. (Ara- cus 34 at ov; Clus. Exot. 87. t. 88.)—Legumes solitary, sessile; the lower ones subterraneous, ovate. Leaflets linear, abrupt, three pair. Stipulas half-arrowshaped, toothed.—Native of Provence. Root annual. Stems a span long, diffuse, angular. Leaves slightly hairy, with more or less of a tendril. Flowers crimson, most like W. 8ativa y. Legume lanceolate, acute, above and inch long, with many seeds. Such is the ordinary fructifica- tion; but several flowers are produced from subterraneous leafless stalks. These are very small, consisting of a closed colourless calyz, in which, when examined against the light with a magnifying glass, stamens may distinctly be seen. Each of these flowers produce an oval-pointed legume, with one very perfect seed. Orobus saaratilis, Venten. Jard. de Cels, t. 94, may possibly be this plant, though the author did not observe its two- fold fructification. Many persons have taken the present Wicia for Lathyrus amfiſhicarfios, which exhibits a similar phenomenon, but is widely distinct in other respects. 32. V. fusilla. Small American Vetch. Muhlenb. Cat. 65. Willd. n. 30. Pursh n. 1,–Stalks solitary, sapillary, single-flowered. Legumes oblong, smooth. Leaflets about six, linear-lanceolate, bluntish. Stipulas half-arrowshaped, entire.—Found by the Rev. Mr. Muh- lenberg, in Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. Mr. Pursh says, it grows in low grassy grounds, from Pennsylvania to Virginia, flowering in July and August. The flowers are exceedingly small, white, with a tinge of red. Pursh. Root annual. Stem four or five inches high, ascending. Tendril of the lower leaves simple, of the upper divided, and very long. Legume small. Willdenow. 33. V. lathyroides. Spring Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1037. Willd. n. 31. Fl. Brit n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 30. Jacq. Misc. Austr. v. 2. 299. t. 18. Fl. Dan. t. 58. Huds. 319, y. (V. minima; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 55. Ervum soloniense; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1040.)-Legumes sessile, solitary, smooth. Leaflets about six; the lower ones abrupt. Stipulas half-arrowshaped, nearly entire. - Seeds VI C I A. Seeds cubical, tuberculated. Native of France, Britain, Norway, and the Levant. With us it grows in fallow fields, or grassy pastures, on a gravelly or chalky soil, flowering in April and May; at which time of the year it may al- ways be found in Hyde-park, near Kensington gardens. The root is annual, though beset with red fleshy tuber- cles. Herb downy, or rather silky. Stems procumbent, spreading, from three to six inches long. Tendrils sim- ple, generally very short, or wanting. Leaflets mostly inversely heart-shaped; those about the top of the stem more oblong and narrower. Stiftulas not marked, and seldom-toothed. Flowers small, blueish. Legume erect, very smooth, by which, and especially the cubical rough seeds, this long-obscure species is at any time to be known from all the varieties of V. sativa. Sometimes the flowers are white, or striated. The tendrils are never divided, nor the leaflets more than six. 34. V. lutea. Rough-podded Yellow Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1037. Willd. n. 32. F). Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 48l. (V. flore ochroleuco, siliquis hirsutis propendentibus; Moris. sect. 2. t. 21.)—Legumes soli- tary, nearly sessile, reflexed, hairy. Stems diffuse. Stipulas coloured. Standard smooth.—Native of the pebbly sea-shores of the south and east of England, as well as of France, Spain, Italy, Barbary, Greece, and the Levant, flowering in July and August. The root is perennial and creeping, much divided. Stems diffuse, not much branched, smooth, angular, striated, from one to two feet long. Leaflets numerous, elliptic-oblong, hairy beneath; sometimes abrupt. Tendrils much branched. Stiftulas triangular, brown or reddish. Flowers long, pale yellow, streaked or stained with grey or purple. Le- gumes ovate, pointed, an inch and half long, rough with hairs springing from small tubercles. Seeds from five to eight. Some of the flowers and legumes are often subterraneous, as in W. amphicarfia, n. 31. . 35. V. hybrida. Hairy-flowered Yellow Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1037. Willd. n. 33. Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot. t. 482. Jacq. Austr. t. 146–Legumes solitary, nearly sessile, reflexed, hairy. Standard villous. Leaf- lets emarginate.—Native of bushy places in Austria, the south of France, and of England. Found chiefly in Somersetshire, about Glastenbury, flowering in June. This is nearly related to the last, but the stems are tall- er and more upright. Leaflets generally more obtuse than in lutea, though variable, as in that and other Vicia. Stihulas always entirely green. Back of the standard clothed with yellow silky hairs. We presume not to say how far this is really a distinct species, though we have little faith in its being, as the name indicates, a mule production. 36. V. melanohs. Black-eyed Yellow Vetch. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. n. 1711. Fl. Graec. t. 701. unpubl.- Legumes solitary, reflexed, linear, smooth. Stems diffuse. Stipulas marked. Wings of the corolla depressed, incumbent.—Found by Dr. Sibthorp in Laco. nia. The root seems perennial. Herb very like the last, but rather smoother, and the legumes differ essentially in their long narrow figure, and smooth surface. Flowers of a dull greenish-yellow; their wings, which converge horizontally, tipped with a very dark brown, almost black. 37. V. fiannonica. Hungarian Yellowish Vetch. Jacq. Austr. t. 34. Willd... n. 34. Ait. n. 19. (V. Sylvestris albo flore; Clus. Hist. v. 2. 235.)—Legumes stalked, about three together, hairy as well as the stand- ard. Stipulas marked. Native of meadows in Austria and Hungary. Annual. Said to have been cultivated in the Oxford garden, in 1658. We have a specimen from Jacquin's own herbarium, by which this species appears to be very like W. hybrida, especially in its hairy standard; but the flowers are paler, and grow two or three together. The calyx is reddish. Legumes dark brown when ripe, hairy, and shaped like P. lutea and hybrida. Willdenow speaks of a variety with violet-co- loured flowers, the Picioides uncimata, Moench. Meth- od. 136, which may be a distinct species, as the colour is not altered by culture. We have no knowledge of any such plant. 38. V. laevigata. Smooth-podded Sea Vetch. Fl. Brit. n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 483. Willd. n. 35. Ait, n. 18. (V. hybrida; Huds. 319.)—Legumes sessile, soli- tary, reflexed, ovate, smooth. Stems nearly upright. Leaflets elliptical, very smooth. –Found cn the stony sea- beach at Weymouth, Dorsetshire, flowering in July and August. We have never met with a specimen from any other country, yet there is no doubt of the species being perfectly distinct. The root is perennial, with many fleshy knobs. Whole plant entirely smooth, especially the legume, which differs in that respect from P. lutea, hybrida, and fiannonica, with all which it agrees in shape. The seeds are rarely more than five. The stems are from six to twelve inches long, much less spreading than those of lutea. Leaflets elliptic-lanceolate, hardly ever abrupt oremarginate. Tendrils branched. Stiftulas green, or pale brown. Calyx-teeth nearly equal. Flowers the size of V. lutea, varying between pale purplish-blue and yellow. Both Hudson and Lightfoot knew this spe- cies well, but could not agree about its synonyms. 39. V. sordida. Dingy Vetch. “Waldst. et Kitaib. Hung.” Willd. n. 36. —Legumes nearly sessile, in pairs, reflexed, linear-oblong, reflexed at the point, smoothish. Leaflets obovate-oblong, emarginate. Stipu- las marked.—Native of meadows in Hungary. Com- municated by M. Thouin to the writer of this. It flow- ered in Mr. Mackie’s garden, near Norwich, in 1813. The root is annual. Plant totally distinct from the last, notwithstanding Willdenow's doubts, being larger, with emarginate leaflets, seldom quite smooth: twin flowers of a dull or dirty yellow; but particularly a much longer, linear, not ovate, legume, which, though not hairy, is somewhat roughish to the touch, and curved upwards, not downwards, at the point. 40. V. fieregrina. Broad-podded Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1038. Willd. n., 37. Ait. n. 20. (V. peregrina, angustissimis foliis, siliquà latā glabrá; Pluk. Phyt. t. 233. f. 6.)—Legumes solitary, on short stalks, reflexed, ovate, smooth. Leaflets linear, very narrow, smooth, abrupt, emarginate.—Native of the south. of France, from whence Linnaeus received specimens in the herbari- um of Sauvages. Dr. Sibthorp found it in Caria. M. Thouin sent seeds to Kew garden, in 1779. The plant is annual, flowering in July, of a slender smooth habit. Lea- Jiets extremely narrow in a wild state, with two divaricat- ed terminal points; in a luxuriant cultivated specimen they are rather wider, and more obtuse, but scarcely ex- ceeding an inch in length; they are from seven to ten, scattered, on a stalk ending in a divided tendril. Flowers stalked, pendulous, of a reddish-purple, shorter and thicker than several of the preceding, and more like those of Orobus tuberosus. Legume shaped like V. lutea, hybrida, &c. with a deflexed point, but longer, flatter, and quite smooth. Seeds six in our specimens. A very dis- tinct species, little known to modern botanists, of which a good figure is wanted. 41 V, V I C I A. 4}. V. monantha. Single-flowered Spur-stalked Vetch. Retz. Obs. fasc. 3. 39. Willd. n. 38. Ait. n. 21. (V. calcarata; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 166; Will- denotv.)—Stalks much shorter than the leaves, spurred under the solitary flower. Leaflets lanceolate, obtuse. Stipulas divided. Legumes smooth, drooping.—Native of Barbary. A hardy annual, flowering in July and Au- gust. Herb smooth. Stem angular, decumbent, two feet long. Leaflets twelve or thirteen, gradually decreas- ing, obtuse with a point. Flower the size of V. sativa, red with blueish veins. Seeds six or seven. Retzius. The description of Desfontaines answers very well to this, except that he speaks of the leaves as slightly villous, and of the flowers as pale blue, half the size of sativa, to which species nevertheless he thinks his plant related; but the stiftulas are not marked. * 42. V. seſhium. Common Bush Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. , 1038. Willd. n. 39. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl. Bot. t. 4515. Fl. Dan. t. 699. Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 56. (V. maxima dumetorum; Ger. Em. l 227. Aphace; Fuchs. Hist. 1 (0.)—Stalks about four-flowered, much shorter than the upright smooth legumes. Leaflets numerous, ovate, obtuse, gradually smaller upwards.- Common in hedges and bushy places throughout Europe, flowering with us in May and June. The root is perennial, somewhat creeping. Stems about two feet high, weak, but little branched, furrowed, clinging to other plants by the tendrils of their leaves. The whole herb is clothed with scattered short hairs. Leaflets twelve to fifteen, of a dull greyish-green; the lowest an inch in length, the uppermost half as much. Stiftulas ovate, acute, marked with a brown depression; the lower ones generally half- arrowshaped. Flowers crowded, dull purplish-blue, rather short and thick. Legumes nearly erect when ripe, linear-lanceolate, an inch and a half long, blackish, mi- nutely dotted, not hairy. Seeds about six or eight glo- bular, Smooth. & 43. V. bithynica. Rough-podded Purple Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1038. Willd. n. 40. Fl. Brit. n. 9. Engl. Bot. t. 1842. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. t. 147. Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 325. t. 26. f. 2. (Cracca flori- bus albis, foliis circa caulem denticulatis; Buxb. Cent. 3. 25. t. 45. f. 2.)—Legumes stalked, solitary, erect, rough. Leaflets two pair, elliptic-lanceolate, or nearly linear. Stipulas toothed.—Native of Greece, Italy and Bavaria, in cultivated fields; as well of bushy places in Yorkshire and Worcestershire, and of fields, or rocky situations, near the coast of Hampshire, Dorsetshire, and Devonshire, flowering from May to July. The root is perennial, branching, with many small fleshy knobs. Steins angular, trailing or climbing, two feet long, smooth. Leaflets from one to two inches long, varying from a line to one-third of an inch in breadth, acute; rather hairy underneath. Stiftulas large, half-arrowshap- ed, very deeply, but variously, toothed. Flower-stalks various in length, from half an inch to an inch and a half, hairy as well as the long-toothed calyx. Flowers near- ly as large as V. lutea, purple, occasionally white, Le- gume oblong-lanceolate, an inch and half long, half an inch broad, reticulated, rough with tawny hairs. Seeds five or six, speckled. The keel and wings of the flower, pure white, tipped or tinged with blue or violet, when fresh, turn greenish or brownish twelve hours after gathering. - 44. V. flatycarfios. Flat-podded Vetch. “ Roth. Abhandl. 10, t. 1.” Willd. n. 41. Ait. n. 24. (Ara- cus fabaceus, et Faba Kayrina, cuisemina minora; Bauh. Hist, v. 2. 286.)—“Legumes solitary, nearly sessile, compressed, somewhat inflated. Leaflets ovate, toothed at the end. Stipulas with fringe-like teeth.”—Native of Germany. Annual. Cultivated in Chelsea garden in 1723, flowering in July and August. Aiton. Stem a foot and half high, thick, angular, hollow, a little hairy. Leaflets four, like those of W. Faba, hairy, dark green, with a long branching tendril. Stiftulas broad. Flowers purple. Legumes large, longish, hairy. Seeds the size of peas, of a strong disagreeable taste and smell; black when ripe. Bauhin. 45. V. narðonensis. Broad-leaved Narbonne Vetch. Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 737. Willd. n. 42. Ait. n. 25. “Roth. Abhandl. 10. t. 2.” Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 57. (Faba Sylvestris; Matth. Valgr. v. 1. 381. Ger. Em. 1209.)-Legumes about three together, nearly sessile, compressed. Leaflets ovate, obtuse, entire. Stipulas fringed; toothed at the base.—Native of the south of Europe. Annual. The size of the last. Leaflets one or two pair, with a divided tendril, obtuse, quite en- tire, an inch and a half long, one broad, hairy at the rib and margin. Flowers solitary; in a cultivated state two or three, dark purple. Germen fringed. Legume ob- long, rather hairy. Seeds globose. 46. V. Faba. Common Garden Bean. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1039. Willd. n. 43. Ait. n. 26. (Faba; Matth. Valgr. v. 1. 380. Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 23. F. major, hortensis; Ger. Em, 1209.—Stalks with several flowers, very short. Legumes ascending, tumid, coriaceous. Leaf- lets elliptical, acute, entire. Tendril abortive. Stipulas half-arrowshaped, toothed at the base.—Native of the borders of Persia, near the Caspian Sea, according to Lerche. Commonly cultivated throughout Europe, for the food of men and horses; there being many varieties, differing in the size, roundness or flatness, as well as quality, of the seeds. Annual, flowering in June and July. The stem is from three to five feet high. Leaflets smooth, larger, more acute at each end, and more alter- nate in the two last. Flowers from six to ten or more, on a short racemose stalk, deliciously flagrant, white, with a broad black; velvet-like spot on each wing. Calyz whitish, with ovate taper teeth. Legume large, thick, oblong, pulpy within while unripe, containing four or five seeds. The Faba minor sive equina: Bauh. Pin. 338. F. mi- nor; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 24; is the variety called the Horse Bean, known by its small fiod and roundish seeds. Of this also cultivators observe many subordinate vari- eties, and perhaps V. maāonensis is often confounded among them. 47. V. serratifolia. Saw-leaved Vetch. Murr. in Linn. Syst. Veg. ed. 14. 665. Jacq. Austr. append. t. 8. Willd. n. 44. Ait. n. 27. (V. narbonensis; Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. n. 1715. V. supina, latissimo folio Serrato; Tourn. Inst. 397. Aracus fabaceus serra- tus; Bauh. Hist. v. 2. 287.)—Legumes about three to- gether, nearly sessile, fringed. Leaflets elliptical, obtuse serrated throughout, as well as the stipulas.-Native of Hungary, Greece, and the island of Cyprus, in moist cultivated ground. A hardy annual with us, flowering in June and July. This is nearly related to the two last, and still more perhaps to V. flatycarfios; but differs from all in the copious sharp serratures of the leaflets, which are usually four pair, with a branched tendril. Stiftulas broad, sharply and copiously toothed. Flow- ers three or four, on a very short stalk, dark purple. Legume compressed, with seven or eight globular “º. € VI C I A. We believe the Linnaean synonyms, as here arranged, are correct; and yet Linnaeus, like other botanists from time to time, certainly confounded these four last spe- cies more or less together. His specimen marked nar- bonensis, from the Upsal garden, answers to the cha- racter of platycarf,08, the leaflets being toothed towards the extremity. Hence, in the second edition of Sp. Pl. he altered the specific character, to stipulisque denti- culatis. But this is not an original specimen, answering to the first edition of Sp. Pl. which latter we take as the most certain authority; and it is in this case consonant with the sentiments of all authors, as above quoted. The plant of the Prodr. Fl. Graec. therefore, by mistake called there narbonensis, is really serratifolia, with which its synonyms agree. Possibly flatycarhos may be a variety of serratifolia ; but for want of an authentic specimen, from some author who has written upon it, we decline any decision upon that point. These two, and the real narbonensis, agree in hairiness; the blunt rounded shape of their leaflets ; the presence of ten- drils ; the dark purple of their flowers ; and the strong bristly fringe of their germens and legumes; in all which points they differ from W. Faba. V1c1A, in Gardening, furnishes plants of the biennial, perennial, and annual hardy kinds, among which the species cultivated are, the common vetch or tare (V. Sa- tiva); the Narbonne vetch or tare (V. narbonensis); the many-flowered Siberian vetch (V. biennis); the wood many-flowered vetch (V. sylvatica); the tufted vetch (V. cracca); the Cassubian ligneous vetch (V. cassubica); and the common bean (V. faba.) The first sort does not rise to any great height, but is a plant that varies with common purple flowers; with white flowers. And there is the early summer vetch ; the black-seeded vetch; and the white-seeded vetch. It is the sort which is commonly cultivated in the field for the purpose of green fodder, &c. as well as the production of seed. Sometimes also in pleasure-grounds, &c. as a low climbing plant. See TARE. ** The second has long climbing stalks, with dark pur- ple flowers. The third sort also rises to some height, with nume- rous light blue flowers coming from the sides of the branches. The fourth rises with climbing stalks to the height of five or six feet, having many pale blue flowers. It is a twining plant among trees or bushes. The fifth has the same sort of stalks and flowers, The sixth sort has lower trailing woody stalks, and pale blue flowers. - The last sort has an annual root, with an upright stalk from two to three or four feet in height in the larger garden varieties. - There are several varieties of garden beans; as the Mazagan bean, which is the first and best sort of early beans at present known. It is brought from a settlement of the Portuguese on the coast of Africa, just without the straits of Gibraltar, and is smaller than those of the horse-bean kind. The early Portugal or Lsbon bean, which is the next, and appears to be the Mazagan sort saved in Portugal, as it is very like those which are the first year saved in this country. It is the most common sort used by the gardeners for their first crop, but they are not near so well tasted as the real Mazagan. Yol. XXXVIII The small Spanish bean, which comes in soon after the Portugal sort, and is rather a sweeter bean. And of the small early varieties, there is one which is chiefly planted for curiosity. It is a dwarf, six or ten inches in height, with branches spreading like a fan, and flowers succeeded by small pods, both in clusters; whence it is called the dwarf fan or cluster bean. - Further also of the middle-sized later beans, a sort now very commonly cultivated is the long-podded bean, a yard or more in height, a great bearer, the pods long and narrow, closely filled with oblong middle-sized seeds. Of this there are several sub-varieties, as the early, the tall, the Turkey, &c. The broad Spanish, which is a little later than the other, but comes in before the summer sorts, and is a good bearer. - The white-blossomed bean, which has none of the black mark on the wings. The seed is semi-transparent, and having less of the peculiar bean flavour, when young, than any of the others, is by many in much es- teem. It bears abundance of smallish, long, narrow pods, and the seeds are almost black when ripe. And there is a red-blossomed bean, with smallish pods and seeds, but which is not near so palatable as that with white blossoms. There are also some other varieties, as the Mumford, the green Venetian, &c. In the large late kinds, the Sandwich bean, which comes soon after the Spanish, and is almost as large as the Windsor bean, but, being hardier, is commonly sown a month sooner. It is a plentiful bearer, but not very delicate for the table. - The Toker bean, which comes about the same time with the Sandwich, and is a great bearer. The white and black blossom beans, which are also by some much esteemed; the beans of the former, when boiled, are almost as green as peas; and being a tolera- ble sweet bean renders it more valuable. These sorts are very apt to degenerate, if their seeds are not saved with great care. The Windsor bean is allowed to be the best of all the sorts for the table : when these are planted on a good soil, and are allowed sufficient room, their seeds will be very large, and in great plenty ; and, when they are gathered young, are the sweetest and best tasted of ali the sorts; but these should be carefully saved, by pul- ling out such of the plants as are not perfectly right, and afterward by sorting out all the good from the bad beans. This sort of bean is seldom planted before Christmas, because it will not bear the frost so well as many of the other sorts; so it is generally planted for the main crop, to come in in June and July. Method of Culture in the Vetch Kind.—All the sorts of vetches may be propagated by sowing the seeds in the autumnal or spring seasons, but chiefly in the latter, and mostly where the plants are to remain and grow, as in the large open flower borders, in those of the shrub- beries and pleasure-grounds, as well as in the woody walks, wilderness parts, and in the thickets; or in any other place where they are to run and climb up any sort of wood. They should be sown in patches near to: shrubs or bushes on which they may climb, and some- times in the open spaces, to climb upon sticks set for the purpose, - AMethºt!" V I c V IC Aſethod of Culture in the Bean Kind.—These crops are raised with much facility by sowing them at differ- ent times from October to March, or later. The small sorts are mostly used for the earliest crops, and the first two or three of the above sorts are the most proper for the purpose; but the Mazagan kind is the earliest of all, and most proper to plant for the first crop, and the Pol tugal and small Spanish bean next, all of which should be planted early on warm south borders, or other sheltered sunny exposures, under or near walls, pales, or hedges, or other warm defended quarters, every month from October till the beginning of February ; in order that if the first planting should fail by inclement weather in winter, the others may succeed; and if all the crops should survive the frost, they will succeed one another regularly in bearing. The planting should be performed in rows, ranging south and north, two feet and half asunder, an inch and half deep, and two or three inches apart in each row. They may also be planted in one row lengthways close along under a south Wall, &c. -- The dwarf bean is not proper to be planted for any general crop, only a few for variety; for which purpose it may be put in in autumn or winter; or in any of the spring or summer months till June or July, in rows two feet asunder, or in patches about the borders. Of the middle-sized sorts, the long-pods, broad Spa- nish, and white-blossomed bean are the best for general culture ; though some of all the others may be planted occasionally ; and the season for these sorts being put in, is for the first crop in November or December, on a broad warm border, or in any of the most sheltered kitchen-garden quarters, in rows two feet and a half or a yard asunder, three inches distance in the row, and two or three inches deep ; repeating the planting every month till March, in the open quarters. Of the large kind, the Sandwich and Toker bean, being generally more plentiful bearers, and of somewhat less succulent growth than the Windsor, are rather har- dier to resist the frost, and may be planted earlier, as before Christmas for the first crop ; and any time after till May, if required; and of the Windsor, a small or moderate crop may be planted in December, in open mild weather, and a dry soil; in a larger supply in Ja- nuary; and a first full crop in February; and thence in full supplies, of these or any of the other larger sort, every three or four weeks, till the end of April, for the main crops; continuing planting them till the end of May, to have successions as long in the season as pos- sible. These should constantly be planted in open ex- posures, in rows a yard asunder, or three feet and a half for the large Windsor sort; four or five inches asunder in each row, and three deep. They succeed in any common soil, but where the land is manured for them it is the best. The general method of planting them is by the dib- ble, or in drills; for early planting in dry ground, a shal- low drill may be first made, then planting the beans in a row along the bottom, allowing from two to four or five inches distance in the row, according to the size or growth of the different varieties, and from one and a half to three inches deep in the small and large beans; and when the plants are come up about three inches high, they should be earthed up on each side of the row with a drawing hoe, keeping them clear from weeds by oc- casional hoeing in dry weather; and after having advan- ced nearly to full growth, and in bloom, it is proper te top the plants in general, which throws all the nourish- ment to the embryo pods, and greatly promotes their setting, and forwards their growth; and in the latter crops Prevents their being so much annoyed with the small black fly. As the use of garden beans is very considerable for Some length of time, a pretty large portion of kitchen- garden ground should be allowed for the different crops . each year, in order to have a proper succession. They Succeed well, as has been seen, in any common soil, but the best where manure is employed, and in free open si- tuations, where they are not injured by the shade or droppings of trees, selecting the driest and warmest places for the early crops, and the strongest moist ground for the late ones, In gathering the crops, avoid pulling up the stems, especially when the land is moist. ſº The plants of the vetch kind are, for the most part, introduced for the purpose of variety and ornament in their climbing growth and the curious appearance of the flowers. VICINAGE, and VICINITUM, a neighbourhood. See VENUE. \ VICINAGE, Common fier Cause de. See Common. VICIOLA, in Geography, a river of Naples, which runs into the Trontino, at Teramo. VICIOSAS, a cluster of small islands, near the coast of Honduras. N. lat. 15° 12'. W. long. 839 4'. VICIS et Venellis Mundandis, in Law, a writ lying against a mayor, bailiff, &c. for not taking care that the streets be well cleansed. VICISSITUDE, VIcissitudo, the succeeding of one thing after another. As, the vicissitude of seasons, for- tune, &c. - VICK, in Geograft hy, a town of Sweden, in West Gothland; 37 miles N. of Uddevalla. VICKERYVANDY, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic; 18 miles W.N.W., of Pondicherry. VICO, ENEA, in Biography, a native of Parma in the 16th century, was one of the first persons who illustrated the medallic science. By profession he was an engraver of copper; and at his death in Ferrara, among other re- mains, he left copper-plates of all the coins in Europe, with their weight, standard, and value. See ITALIAN School of Engraving. Vico, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra, the see of a bishop, suffragan of Sorento; near the sea. Its situation is delightful, on the brow of a hill, backed by an amphitheatre of mountains. The strata of these eminences incline contrary ways to one centrical point, as if there had originally existed a similar mass in the centre, torn asunder and swallowed up by one of those shocks which must have often overturned this un- stable country. Charles II. and Joan I. raised Vico out of obscurity, on account of the charms of its situation. In 1694, it was almost destroyed by an earthquake; 3 miles E.N.E. of Sorento.—Also, a town of Naples, in Capitanata; 10 miles W. of Vieste.—Also, a town of Corsica, in which is the cathedral of the bishop of Sa- gona; 30 miles S. of Calvi. N. lat. 43° 3’. E. long 8°, 56'.—Also, a village of Dalmatia, near the river Norin, in a marshy spot, where the ancient Narona once stood. The inhabitants, who go often to cut reeds in the marsh, say that the vestiges of that large city may still be seen under water. It must have been extended over the plain a great V I C *. VI C a great way, and undoubtedly above-three miles in length, at the foot of the hills. The ancient roads are now un- der water, and the present passage over a very steep and craggy hill, on which, probably before the Roman times, the fortifications were erected. Along the path are to be seen traces of ancient inscriptions on the rock. A poor hamlet now occupies the spot where temples and palaces of the conquering Romans once stood; and grand vestiges still remain of baths, aqueducts, walls, and noble edifices; even the wretched cottages of the Morlack inhabitants are all built of fine ancient hewn stone; 5 miles N.W. of Citluc. Vico di Pantano, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 12 miles S.W. of Capua. . VICOMAGISTER, among the Romans, an officer whose business it was to take care of the streets, that nothing might obstruct, or render them any wise incom- modious. & VICONTIEL. . See Vicountiel. VICOVARO, in Geografi.hy, a town of the Popedom, in the Sabina, on the Teveroni; 20 miles E.N.E. of Rome. VICOUNT, Vice-com Es, in our Law-Books, signi- fies the same with sheriff; between which two words there seems to be mò other difference, but that the one came from our conquerors, the Normans; and the other from our ancestors, the Saxons. VI count, or Viscount, is also used for a degree of no- bility, next below a count or earl, and above a baron. Camden observes, that this is an ancient name or of fice, but a new one of dignity never heard of among us till Henry VIth’s days, who, in his eighteenth year, cre- ated, in parliament, John lord Beaumont, vicount Beau- mont; but it is much more ancient in other countries. Du-Cange, indeed, will have the dignity to have had its first rise in England; but it is much more probable it was first brought over hither by the Normans. The privileges of a viscount are, that he may have a cover of assay held under his cup when he drinks, and may have a travers in his own house. And a viscountess may have her gown borne up by a man, out of the pre- sence of her superiors; and, in their presence, by a WOInan. VICOUNTIELS, Vicontiels, Vicecomitalia, in our Law-Books, denote things belonging to the sheriff, par- ticularly certain farms, for which the sheriff pays a rent to the king, and makes what profits he can of them. VI countiel, Writs, are such as are triable in the county or sheriff’s court, and which are not returned to any superior court, till finally executed by him. Of which kind are divers writs of nuisance, the writ of AD- MEASUREMENT of Pasture, &c. which see. VIcountiFL or Vicontiel Jurisdiction, is that jurisdic- tion belonging to the officers of a county; as sheriffs, eoroners, escheators, &c. VICQ, in Geography. See Vic and VIQ. VICQ-D’AZYR, FELIx, in Biography, was born at Valognes, in Normandy, in 1748, and distinguished him- self both as a physician and a man of letters. Settling at Paris in 1765, he pursued with diligence every branch of study connected with medicine, and paid particular attention to the physiological part of anatomy. In 1773 he commenced a course of lectures on human and com- parative anatomy, in which pursuit he was very popu- lar; but he was interrupted by a spitting of blood, which made it necessary for him to return to his native place. Here he applied to the anatomical examination of fishes, the result of which he communicated to the Academy of Sciences, which associated him as a member. When a murrain appeared among the cattle in Languedoc in 1775, Vicq-d’Azyr was commissioned by the minister Turgot to discover means for restraining it, which charge he executed with success. A medical society was form- ed at Paris about this time, which he zealously pro- moted, and of which he was secretary. He also, in con- nection with this society, performed the office of eulo- gist, very much to his own reputation, and to the honour of many considerable persons, whose talents and servi- ces he commemorated. In his private character he ex- hibited, with gentle manners, a very considerable de- gree of ardour and sensibility; so that he is represented as a warm friend and philanthropical citizen. He ob- tained both fame and fortune, employing the latter liberally in collecting a costly apparatuš and a well- chosen library. Agitated and exhausted by the disas- trous effects of the revolution, he died in June 1794, at the age of forty-six. His “Eloges Historiques” were collected and published, with notes, and a memoir on the author, by J. L. Moreau, three vols. 8vo. 1805. His other writings were communicated to the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences and of the Medical Society. Nouv. Dict. Hist. VICTIM, VicTIMA, so called, either because vincta fiercussa cadebat, or because vincta ad aras ducebatur, a bloody sacrifice, offered to some deity, of a living thing; either a human person, or a beast, which is slain. to appease his wrath, or to obtain some favour. See SACRIFICE. It is not certain who was the first person that intro- duced bloody sacrifices among the Pagans. If the au- thority of Ovid be at all regarded, he alleges that the sow was the first animated victim which was offered to Ceres, on account of the ravages which that animal makes in the field. (Fast. l. i.) From Homer we learn, that the use of such sacrifices was common in the time of the Trojan war. Whenever they were introduced, it is certain that they were very ancient in the Pagan world. It may be observed, however, that when victims of this kind were offered, they blended with them herbs, salt and meal. Pliny informs us, that Numa prohibited the Romans from using bloody victims, or any other sa- crifice, besides those in which they employed fruits, salt, and corn. Dion. Halic. ascribes this prohibition to Romulus; and he adds, that this usage subsisted in his time, although they had superadded to it that of bloody sacrifices. At length, however, superstition prevailed to such a degree, that they offered to their deities human victims; and this barbarous custom, the origin of which is not satisfactorily ascertained, was propagated. to almost every known nation. These horrid sacrifices, prescribed even by the oracles of the gods, were known in the days of Moses, and constituted a part of those abominations with which this legislator reproached the Amorites. The Moabites sacrificed their children to Moloch, and burned them in the cavity of the statue of that god. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, they offered men in sacrifice to Saturn, not only at Tyre and Carthage, but even in Greece and Italy. The Gauls, if we may believe Diodorus Siculus, sacrificed to their gods their prisoners of war; those of Tauris, all. the strangers who landed upon their coasts: the inhabi- tants of Pella Sacrificed a man to Peleus. Those of 4. Nº. 2 Tepnessa, V I C T I M. Temessa, as Pausanius has it, offered every year a young virgin to the Genius of one of Ulysses’ associ- ates, whom they had stoned; and Aristomenes, the Mes- senian, sacrificed three hundred men at one time. Stra- bo mentions those abominable sacrifices offered by the ancient Germans. Athanasius gives the same account of the Phoenicians and Cretans; and Tertullian of the Scythians and Africans. In the Iliad of Homer we see twelve Trojans sacrificed by Achilles to the manes of Patroclus. In fine, Porphyry gives a long detail of all the places where, in old times, they offered up human sacrifices; among which he enumerates Rhodes, the island of Cyprus, Arabia, Athens, &c. From all these testimonies put together, and from several others, which it is needless to quote, it follows, that the Phoenicians, the Egyptians, Arabians, Canaan- ites, the inhabitants of Tyre and Carthage, those of Athens and Lacedaemon, the Ionians, all Greece, the Romans and Scythians, the Albanians, the Allemans, the Angles, the Spaniards, and the Gauls, were equally guilty of this horrid superstition, For the public sacrifices there were authorized minis- ters or priests who made a choice of victims; and several names were given to these victims from some circum- 'stances that attended the oblations. Such as were offered ºup the day before the solemnity, were called “ praeci- daneae hostiae;” as the sow, sacrificed to Ceres before harvest, was called “praecidanea porca.” Again, they gave the name of “ succedaneae hostiae” to such sacrifi- ces as they offered up, when the former ones had been neglected; and thus it was they atoned for the omission. There were others named “eximiae hostiae;” meaning not that these victims had any peculiar excellence, as the word properly signifies, but that they were separated from the flock in order to be sacrificed, “ eximebantur grege.” The ewes that had two lambs, which they sa- crificed with the mother, were termed “ambiguae oves,” and the victims whose entrails were adherent, “harungae” or “harugae;” such as were consumed, “ prodigiae;” and such as had two teeth higher than the rest, “ bidentes.” Of whatever nature the victims were, great care was to be taken in the choice of them; and the same ble- -Imishes, that excluded them from sacrifices among the Jews, rendered them also imperfect among the Pagans; whence it would seem that they borrowed several rites from the Hebrews. All sorts of victims were not offered indiscriminately to every divinity, or for every purpose. It was com- monly a sow, big with young, that they offered to Cybele and to the goddess Tellus; the bull to Jupiter; to Juno, heiſers, ewe-lambs, sheep; and at Corinth they sacrifi- ced to her a she-goat. To Neptune, a bull and lambs, as appears from Homer; to Pluto, likewise, a bull; and to Proserpine a cow, both of them black: and when that goddess was taken for Hecate, they sacrificed to her a dog, an animal whose barking they thought drove away the apparitions sent by that goddess. The most accept- able victims to Ceres, were the boar and the sow: they made her likewise an offering of honey and of milk. To. Venus the dove, the he-goat, the heifer, a white she- goat, &c.; to Bacchus, a he-goat. They sacrificed the cow and the bull to Hermione, as we learn from AElian, who adds, that in these sacrifices, a bull, which ten phen had much ado to master, of his own accord fol- howed an old priestess to the altar. To the Sun some- times honey; but the Armenians and Massagetes sacri: ficed to him horses. To Apollo (for frequently he was distinguished from the Sun) they offered the ram, the she-goat, the ewe, and the he-goat; and when they con- founded him with the Sun, a young bullock, with gilded horns, as an emblem of his beams: they offered to him likewise a raven. To Mars, the horse, the bull, the boar, and the ram. The Lusitanians sacrificed to him. he-goats, she-goats, and sometimes their enemies; the Scythians offered to him asses; and the Carians, dogs. We learn from Homer, that the victims most grateful to Minerva were the bull and the lamb; or, according to Fulgentius Planciades, oxen which had never known the yoke. To Diana, stags, she-goats, more especially among the Athenians; and, in some places, cows. To the Dii Lares, a bullock, or an ewe-lamb, according to the ability of those who offered. To them they also sa- crificed cocks and swallows, and the hog, whence they got the name of Grundiles. In fine, every god had his favourite animal, tree, or lant. Among the animal kind, the lion was consecrated to Vulcan; the wolf to Apollo and Mars; the dog to the Lares and to Mars; the dragon to Bacchus and Minerva; the griffins to Apollo; the serpents to Esculapius; the stag to Hercules; the lamb to Juno; the horse to Mars; the heifer to Isis. Among the birds, the eagle was sa- cred to Jupiter; the peacock to Juno; the owl to Miner- va; the vulture and the wood-pecker to Mars; the cock likewise to Mars, to Esculapius, Apollo, and Minerva; the dove and sparrow to Venus; the king's-fisher to Te- thys; the phoenix to the Sun; and the cicada, a sort of flying insect, to Apollo. Among the fishes, which be- longed all to Neptune, the concha marina, and the small fish named apua, which Festus says is produced by the rain, were acceptable to Venus, and the barbel to Diana. Among the trees and plants, the pine was consecrated to Cybele, for the sake of Atys; the beech to Jupiter; the oak, and its different species, to Rhea; the olive to Mi- nerva; the laurel to Apollo, from his armour with Daphne; and the reed to Pan, from the story of Syrinx: the lotos and the myrtle were likewise consecrated to Apollo and Venus; the cypress to Pluto; the narcissus and the maiden-hair, termed likewise capilli veneris, to Proserpine; the ash-tree and dog's-grass to Mars; purs- lane to Mercury; the myrtle and the poppy to Ceres; the vine, and its leaves, to Bacchus; the poplar to Her. cules; dittany and the poppy to Lucina; garlick to the I)ii Penates; the alder-tree, the cedar, the narcissus, and the juniper-tree, to the Furies; the palm to the Muses; the plane-tree to the Genii; the alder to the god Sylva- nus; the pine to Pan, &c. The Greeks offered Iphige- nia, at Aulis, for a victim to obtain a favourable wind. As there were different sorts of victims, the mode of offering them was also different. Some were wholly burnt, and others consumed only in part: and it belonged to the diviners among the Greeks, and to the aruspices - among the Romans, to order the time, form, and man- ner of the sacrifices. We may further remark with Lucian, that the sacrifices differed according to the qua- lity of the persons. “The husbandman,” says he, it of. fers up an ox; the shepherd, a lamb; the goat-herd, a goat; there are some who make only a simple offering of cakes or incense; and he that has nothing, makes his sacrifice by kissing his right hand.” Artificial or factitious victim, denotes a victim made of baked pastes in the form of an animal which was offered t *{}. VI C W I C to the gods, when they had no natural victims or no op- portunity of offering them. Thus, according to Por- phyry, Pythagoras offered a sacrifice of an ox in paste; Empedocles is also said by Athenaeus to have done the same. Pythagoras derived the practice from Egypt, where it was very ancient, and where it was used in the time of Herodotus. VICTIMARIUS, a minister, or servant of the priest, whose office was to bind the victims, and prepare the water, knife, cake, and other things, necessary for the sacrifice. See SACRIFICE. To the victimarii it also belonged to knock down, and kill, the victims: in order to which, they stood close by the altar, naked to the waist, but crowned with laurel; and hoiding a hatchet or a knife up, asked the priest leave to strike; saying Agone? Shall I strike? Whence they were called agones, and cultellarii, or cultrarii. When the victim was killed, they opened it; and, after viewing the entrails, took them away, washed the carcase, and sprinkled the flour on it, &c. The same victimarii also lighted the fire in which books were condemned to be burnt. See Liv. lib. xl. cap. 29. and A. Gellius, lib. i. cap. 1, extr. 12. VICTOIRE, or Woody Island, in Geograft hy, a small island in the Chinese sea. N. lat. 19 33’. E. long. 106° 18'. VICTOPHALI, or VictobAL1, in Ancient Geogra- fihy, a people of Dacia, according to Eutropius and Am- mianus Marcellinus. This country was subjugated by Trajan. VICTOR I., pope, in Biografhy, succeeded Eleuthe- rius in 192. During his pontificate several circumstan- ces occurred which rendered it difficult to maintain his infallibility. He first appeased and afterwards anathe- matized the heretical doctrine taught at Rome by The- odotus of Byzantium concerning the person of Christ. He also recognized a prophetic spirit in Montanus; and gave to two of his female followers, Prisca and Maxi- milla, letters of peace to the churches of Asia and Phry- gia, which he afterwards revoked. As his infallibility was impeached, his pontifical authority was also vigo- rously opposed in the controversy between the Eastern and Western churches concerning the celebration of Easter. The former had been accustomed to observe the rule established for the Jewish paschal, whereas the latter disapproved the observance of Easter on any day except Sunday, and they had, accordingly, adopted a different method of computation. The dispute was of no great importance, and had occasioned no discord and separation between these churchus. But Victor arro- gantly interposed, and enjoined the Asiatic prelates to observe the custom that prevailed among the Western Christians. These prelates resisted his mandate, and Victor menaced Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, who took the lead on this occasion, with exclusion from his communion. The prelate convened a council of all the bishops of Asia Minor, and they were unanimous in their resolution not to abandon the ancient practice. The pope was exasperated, and declared the Asiatic prelates unworthy of the title of brethren, and excluded them from all fellowship with the church of Rome. But his violence was disapproved, and he was regarded as a dis- turber of the peace and union that subsisted among Christians. Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, remonstrated against his conduct in a letter written to him with a spi- rit of wisdom and moderation; and the Asiatics retained name of Victor III. their custom till the Western practice was authoritative- ly established by the council of Nice. These proceedings sufficiently show that the Supremacy of the see of Rome was not acknowledged at this period. Victor, aſter a pon- tificate of ten years, closed his life towards the end of the year 201, or the beginning of 202. None of his writings are extant, though, according to St. Jerom, he was the first ecclesiastical author who used the Latin language. His zeal for the church has caused him to be enrolled among the saints of the Roman calendar. Dupin. Bower. Victor II., pope, was the successor of pope Leo IX, and elevated to the papal chair by the influence of Hilde- brand, afterwards pope Gregory VII., and by the special appointment of Henry III., emperor of Germany. The person chosen was Gebehard, bishop of Eichstat, a rela- tion of the emperor, who against his own inclination was consecrated in April 1055, and assumed the name of Victor. Soon after his promotion he held a general council at Florence, for the correction of various abu- ses, and the condemnation of Berengarius’s doctrine concerning the Eucharist. Hildebrand maintained his influence during this pontificate, and availed himself of an opportunity that offered for extending the civil autho- rity of the papal see. This was the recognition of Hen- ry III. as the only true emperor, against the claims of Ferdinand, king of Castile and Leon. The pope’s re- quisition, though at first vigorously opposed in Spain, ultimately prevailed. In 1056 a council was held at Toulouse, which passed several canons against simony, and the incontinence of the clergy. Whilst this council was sitting, Victor was summoned by a special message from the emperor Henry to attend him in his last mo- ments. The pope, in compliance with his dying intrea- ty, recognized his son, Henry IV., for his successor in the empire. After his return to Italy he held a council at Rome, and then retired to Tuscany, where he died in July 1057. A single letter of this pope remains: and superstition has recorded some miracles that were wrought during his pontificate. Dupin. Bower. Victor III., pope, one of three persons named by Gregory VII. in 1085, when he was dying, and recom- mended to the cardinals as his successor. The person chosen was Desiderius, abbot of Monte Cassino, descen- ded from the family of the dukes of Benevento, and born about 1027. He had embraced a monastic life in 1050, and was chosen abbot of Monte Cassino in 1058, and in the following year created cardinal. It was with great reluctance that he consented, in 1086, to accept the pon- tificate, and as soon as the attendant ceremonies were completed, he withdrew to his monastery. In the fol- lowing year a council was held at Capua, which constrain- ed him to accept the popedom in March 1087, and he was solemnly consecrated in the church of St. Peter by the His election was contested by the antipope Guibert and his adherents; but he was zealous- ly supported by the countess Matilda, who by force of arms established him at Rome, though he was not long after obliged to withdraw to Monte Cassino. Here he engaged the Italian princes to form a league against the African Saracens. Soon afterwards he summoned a council at Benevento, at which Guibert was anathemati- zed, and the decrees of Gregory against lay investitures and simony were renewed. During the session of this council he was taken ill, and after recommending Otho, bishop of Ostia, for his successor, he retired to Monte Cassino, V I C V I C Cassino, and died in September 1087. Whilst he was abbot he wrote four books of dialogues on the miracles of St. Benedict, and the other monks of Monte Cassino, three of which are published in Mabillon’s “ Acta Sanc- torum.” Dupin. Bower. Victor-AMADEus II., duke of Savoy, and first king of Sardinia, was born in 1666, and succeeded his father, Charles-Emanuel II., in 1675. In 1684 he married An- na-Maria of Orleans, daughter to the duke of Orleans, brother of Lewis XIV., by Henrietta-Anne of England, which marriage would have conveyed to the house of Savoy the next hereditary right to the British throne, after the house of Stuart, if it had not been set aside by its profession of the Roman Catholic religion. The first military transaction of this prince, which is not very honourable to his memory, was the expulsion, by much slaughter, of his Protestant subjects of the Vaudois. In 1687, however, he joined the grand alliance against France, in which treaty the restoration of the Vaudois was a secret article. Voltaire characterizes him as a wise, politic, courageous prince, understanding the art of war, and practising military discipline; but chargeable with faults, both as a sovereign and as a general. In the first war against France he was a severe sufferer; but in 1696 a treaty was concluded, by which all the places he had lost were restored, and a sum of money was granted to him by way of indemnification; and a contract of mar- riage was settled between his eldest daughter and the duke of Burgundy, heir apparent to the crown of France. The duke of Savoy then joined his troops to those of his new ally, and he soon after became generalissimo of Lewis XIV. Soon after these events, another connec- tion was formed between the house of Bourbon and the duke of Savoy, by the marriage of Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Lewis XIV. called to the throne of Spain, to the duke’s second daughter: and thus he had the rare fortune of seeing the two principal kingdoms of Europe occupied by his immediate descendants. Nevertheless, at the commencement of the succession-war, in 1702, the duke abandoned the interests of these courts, and entered into secret negociations with the allied powers. The French court, having found that he had signed a treaty with the emperor, adopted hostile measures, and took from him a number of towns, and in 1706 laid siege to his capital, Turin, which he bravely resisted, until he was effectually succoured by prince Eugene, who at- tacked the French in their trenches, and raised the siege. The duke, having recovered the towns which he had lost, assisted the Imperialists in driving the French from Lombardy. The duke afterwards had some disagree- ment with the emperor, and remained inactive till the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. In this general pacification, such was the high estimation in which he was held by all parties, that he was restored to the possession of the duchy of Savoy, the county of Nice, and all their depen- dencies. The king of France yielded to him two strong fortresses, and several valleys among the mountains; and the ridge of the Alps was made the boundary between France on one side, and Piedmont and Nice on the other. The emperor confirmed to him that part of Montserrat which had belonged to Mantua, with several provinces and territories in Italy; and his Catholic majesty resign- ed to him the kingdom of Sicily, which gave his house the royal title; and it was moreover agreed, that in de- fault of heirs to the king of Spain, that crown should pass to the house of Savoy, in preference to that of Bour- bon. Victor-Amadeus and his spouse were crowned at Palermo, in the close of that year, and the Spaniards avacuated Sicily: but some differences occurring be- tween him and the court of Spain, it was required that he should send his eldest son to Spain, as a kind of hos- tage. Upon his non-compliance with this requisition, Alberoni, the prime minister of Spain, made prepara- tions for conquering Sicily from Victor, and Sardinia from the emperor. France and England interposed in the dispute; and it was finally determined, that Victory should resign Sicily, and as an indemnity receive Sardi- nia, with the royal title annexed to it, which measure was accomplished in 1718, and the dukes of Savoy have thenceforth ranked among the monarchs of Europe as kings of Sardinia. Victor-Amadeus from this time devoted himself to the arts of peace ; and after a reign of fifteen years, as duke and as king, abdicated his titles and government in 1730, in favour of his son, Charles-Emanuel, content- ing himself with an annual pension. But afterwards re- penting of his conduct, and instigated by an ambitious mistress, to whom he was privately married, he attempt- ed to resume his royalty. The new king resisted his in- climations, and placed him under a degree of restraint, in which state he died, at the castle of Rivoli, near Turin, in 1732, in his 67th year. Mod. Un. Hist. Gen. Biog. VICTOR, AURELIUs. See AURELIUS. Victor, in Geografthy, a town of Peru, in the juris- diction of Arequipa; 15. Iniles S. of Arequipa. VICTORIA, Vic ENTE, in Biografi.hy, was a Spanish artist, a native of Valencia, and born in 1658. He went to Rome when young, and there became a scholar of Carlo Maratti, and distinguished himself sufficiently in historical painting to be taken into employment by the grand duke of Tuscany. His portrait is in the Floren- tine gallery. He painted several pictures for churches in his native country, and died at Rome in 1712. Victor IA, Mascar, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Africa, in the interior of Mauritania Caesariensis, S.E. of Arsinaria: mentioned by Ptolemy. Victor.IA, a town of ancient Britain, belonging to the Damnii, which Camden supposes may be the ancient British town mentioned by Bede, called Caer-Guidi, and situated in Inch-Keith, a small island in the Firth of Forth. Baxter earnestly contends for Ardoah, in Strat- hearn, while Horsley prefers Abernethy. Its situation cannot be ascertained. • Victor IA, in Geography, a town on the south-west coast of the island of Amboyna, situated in a large bay. N. lat. 3° 42'. E. long. 128° 23'.—Also, a small island in the Atlantic, near the coast of Brasil. S. lat. 239 40'. —Also, a town of South America, in the province of Caraccas; six leagues E. from Tulmero, and on the road that leads to the city of Caraccas. It was founded by the missionaries, and composed solely of Indians, until in- dustry fixed her seatin, the valleys of Aragoa, and drew thither a number of whites, of whom part settled at Vic- toria. The lands in its vicinity were cultivated, and their produce placed decent houses in the room of Indian huts. A very handsome church, vying in beauty and size with the principal cathedrals in America, has lately been erected in this place, and the number of inhabitants of all colours is reckoned to amount to 7800. VICTORIAE. W I C V I C VICTORIAE Mons, in Ancient Geografthy, a rhoun- tain of Hispania Citerior, near the river Hebrus. Victor IAE Julio Brigensium Portus, a port and town of Hispania Citerior, belonging to the Varduli. VICTORIAN PER1OD, in Chronology. See PERIoD. VICTORIATUS, among the Romans, a coin with Victory represented on one side, equal in value to half the denarius. VICTORINUS, CAIUs, or FAB1Us MARIUs, in Bio- graphy, an African philosopher, was a convert to Chris- tianity, and flourished in the forth century. He gained such a degree of reputation by teaching rhetoric at Rome, that a statue was erected in honour of him in one of the public places. He was led to the perusal of the Scriptures by the study of Plato's works, and thus con- vinced of their truth, after some hesitation, he publicly declared himself a Christian, and was baptised in the pre- sence of all the people. He was the author of several works, some of which are published in the Bibliotheca Patrum; but as they are of no great value, it is needless to enumerate them. The time of his death, though not precisely ascertained, is supposed to have been pre- vious to the year 386. Dupin. VICTORIOLA, in Botany, a name used by some au- thors for the hippoglossum, called in English the Alez- andria-laurel, horse-tongue, or double-tongue. VICTORIUS, in Biography. See VETToRI. VICTORY, Victor IA, the overthrow, or defeat, of an enemy, in war, combat, duel, or the like. See WAR, CoMBAT, DUEL, CHAMPION, &c. Af Among the Romans, crowns, triumphs, &c. were de- creed to their generals, for the victories they gained. Victory, Actian, denotes the victory which Augustus, or rather his general, gained over Mark Antony after the capture of Actium; in commemoration of which he built the city of Nicopolis, and re-established with pecu- liar magnificence the Actian games. , VICTORY, Games of, were public games celebrated on account of a victory; they were called by the Greeks • ri yi zai o 2a vſes, and in Latin inscriptions they are de- nominated ludi victoria. Of these, the Roman history recites those in honour of Augustus, after the battle of Actium; those of Septimius Şeverus, after the defeat of Pescennius Niger; those in honour of Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius, on their return from the expedition against the Parthians, recorded on the marble of Cyzi- Cus, &c. Victory, in Mythology, called Nixºn by the Greeks, was personified and made a deity both by the Greeks and Romans. According to Varro, she was the daugh- ter of Coelum and Terra; but Hesiod makes her the daughter of Styx and Pallas. Temples, statues, and altars were consecrated to this deity. Sylla, according to Cicero, instituted games in honour of this goddess. At Athens there was a temple dedicated to Victory, in which was placed her statue without wings. The first temple built in honour of her by the Romans was dur- ing the Samnite war, under the consulate of L. Post- humius and M. Attilius Regulus. With them she was represented as a winged deity, sometimes almost in the attitude of flying, and with her robe carried back with the wind; holding a laurel crown in her hand, which was anciently the peculiar reward of successful generals and great conquerors. The Egyptians repre- Sented her under the figure of an eagle, a bird always victorious in its combats with other birds. The poets inform us that her wings were white, and her robe of the same colour. They sometimes describe her hover- ing between two armies engaged in battle, as doubtful which side she shall choose, and sometimes standing fixed by one she is resolved to favour, as she is often seen on the medals of the Roman emperors. This god- dess is often represented in a chariot, drawn rapidly along by two horses. Pliny speaks of a picture of Vic- tory in Rome, in which she was ascending to heaven, in a chariot with four horses, as she appears on the Anto- nine pillar, carrying thither some hero, and with a palm- branch in her hand. This, and the crown of laurel, were her general attributes; and a third was a trophy, and sometimes two, one on each side of her. Some- times she is seen mounted on a globe, as she appears upon the medals of the emperors, because they reckoned themselves masters of the world. When a naval battle was designed, she was drawn mounted on the prow of a ship; and when she holds a bull by the muzzle, it points out the sacrifices that were offered after any ad- vantages that were gained. It appears from the an- cients that no bloody victim was offered to her, but that her sacrifices were the fruits of the earth. She was cal- led by various names; by the Egyptians, Nepthe, by the Sabines, Vacuna; by the Greeks, Apteros, without wings; by others, Vitula. Among her epithets were Eteralcea, which Homer uses to denote that she inclined to both sides; that of Praepes and Volacris, to denote her swift- ness; and that of Coeligena by Varro, because Victory comes from heaven. A Victory at Rome, whose wings were burnt by lightning, gave rise to the following epi- gram: “Rome, great queen of the world, thy glory shali never fade, since Victory, now stripped of her wings, can never fly away.” º VICTORY, in Geography, a town of America, in the district of Vermont, and county of Essex; 75 miles N. of Norwich. - Victory, Cafe, the extreme N.W. point of the Straits of Magellan, at the opening to the South Pacific ocean. S. lat. 52° 15'. W. long. 76° 40'. * VICTUALLER, one that sells victuals; and we now call all common alehouse-keepers victuallers. See ALE- HOUSE, Victuallers shall sell their victuals at reasonable prices, or forfeit double value; and victuallers, fishmongers, poulterers, &c. coming with their victuals to London, shall be under the regulation of the lord-mayor and al- dermen; and sell their victuals at prices appointed by justices, &c. (23 & 31 Edw. III. c. 6. 7 Rich. II. 13 Rich. II.) If any victuallers, butchers, brewers, poul- terers, cooks, &c. conspire and agree together not to sell their victuals, but at certain prices, they shall forfeit for the first offence 10!., for the second 201, and for the third offence 40l. (2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 15.) See Fore- STALLING. VICTUALLERs, Agent. See AGENT. VICTUALLING OFFICE, an office formerly kept on Tower-Hill, now in Somerset-House and Deptford, for furnishing his majesty’s navy with victuals. It is managed by seven commissioners, who have their inferior officers, as secretaries, clerk, &c.; besides agents in divers parts of Gr, at Britain, Ireland, &c. VICTUS RATIo, among Physicians, a particular Iſlaſh!! Gº 2. W I D V I E) manner of living, for the preservation of health, and prevention of diseases. - VICUNNA, in Zoology, a name given to the fiacos. VICUS AquaRIUs, in Ancient Geografhy, a very considerable town of Hispania, in Lusitania, towards the north, in the country of the Vettones. VicUs Augusti, Kair- Wan, a town of Africa, on a large plain, S. of Adrumetum, marked in the Itin. of Antonine between Aquilianae and Cloacaria.—Also, a town of Africa Propria, upon the route from Carthage to Sufetula, between Adrumetum and Aquae Regiae. Anton. Itin. VicUs Badius, a place of Italy, on the route from Rome to Adria, between Palacrinum and Centesimum. Anton. Itin. Vicus Cuminarius, a place of Hispania Citerior, be- longing to the Carpentani, at a small distance upon the left of the Tagus. It is marked in the Itin. Anton. on the route from Emerita to Caesar-Augusta, between Al- ces, and Titulciae. * VicUs Judaeorum, a place of Egypt, on the other side of the Nile, between Thou and Scenae Veteranorum, according to the Itin. of Antonine. VICUs Wovus, Vico, a small place of Italy, in Cam- pania, at Some distance to the S.E. from Calatia and Capua.-Also, a place of Italy, in Umbria, on the route from Rome to Adria, between Eretum and Reate. An- ton. Itin. VID, in Geography, a river of Bulgaria, which runs into the Danube, 10 miles W. of Nicopoli. VIDA, MARco-GIRolamo, in Biography, a modern Latin poet of reputation, was born at Cremona of parents nobly descended, but in humble condition. The date of his nativity is differently assigned; some fixing it in the year 1470, and others in 1490. His education was libe- ral at Padua and Bologna, in the latter of which cities two of his poems were published in 1504, under the name of Marc-Antonio, which he changed for Marco-Girola- mo, when he took orders as a canon regular of Lateran. For assistance in the study of theology and philosophy, to which in early life he was devoted, he went to Rome in the latter years of Julius II. His poems were much applauded, and gave him rank among the principal ge- niuses of the age. He was indebted to the early patro- nage of Ghiberti, bishop of Verona, for an introduction to Leo X., who bestowed upon him both wealth and hon- ours. Besides other benefices, he presented him to the priory of St. Silvestro, in Frascati, where he enjoyed a favourable opportunity for pursuing his studies, and es- pecially the completion of his “Christiad,” in which Leo had engaged him. Of his more considerable poems, His work entitled “De Arte Poetica” is supposed to have been first written; and the first, known edition of it is da- ted in 1527. This was soon followed by his “Bombyx,” or art of rearing silk-worms, and his “Scacchiae Ludus,” or poem on the game of chess. . Clement VII, became his second patron, and promoted him first to the office of apostolical prothonotary, and in 1532 to the bishopric of Alba. After the death of this pope, he retired to his dio- cese, and established the character of a zealous and af. fectionate pastor; and when, in 1542, Alba was invested by the French, he contributed by his exhortations and example so to animate the citizens, as to preserve it from the enemy. His two books “De Republica” contain dialogues, which are the substance of a conversation that passed between him, and some cardinals and learned men, at the council of Trent. These dialogues are ex- cellent, with respect to the correctness and elegance of their style, and evince that the author was no less exten- sively conversant with politics and philosophy than with polite literature. In 1551 Vida retired to Cremona, on account of the wars which desolated his diocese; how- eyer, he was not unmindful of his pastoral charge, but effectually interceded with Don Ferdinand Gonzaga, go- vernor of Milan, and thus prevented his marching, as he threatened to do, to Alba, and putting all the inhabitants to the sword. In 1563 he was still at Cremona, but soon after removed to Alba, and died there in 1566. As a Latin poet, Vida acquired a very high reputation; to which he was justly entitled, partly on account of the subjects which he selected, and partly for the singular classic purity and dignity of his style, formed on the mo- del of the most admired productions of antiquity. Vir- gil was the object of his admiration and imitation, whom he respected, and after whom he copied, as Cicero was the model of the prose Latin writers of that age. “Vi- da’s works,” says a judicious biographer, tº do not so much give the impression of a writer of original and fer- vid genius, as of one possessing taste, elegance, and inge- nuity.” Besides the poems already mentioned, Vida was the author of Eclogues, of sacred Hymns, and of other small pieces, which are marked with his purity of diction and classical refinement. The fame of this po- et in England has been greatly promoted by the well- known lines in Pope’s Essay on Criticism, which place him on a parallel with Raphael, and entitle Cremona to boast of him, as much as Mantua of Virgil; but this was the hyperbolical eulogy of a juvenile writer, which his maturer judgment would scarcely have confirmed. The candid Tiraboschi is contented with saying of him, that his qualities, if not sufficient to rank him in the number of first-rate poets, at least give him a title to be placed much above the vulgar tribe of old versifiers. Roscoe’s Life of Leo X. Gen. Biog. VIDAME, VICE-DOMINUs, was anciently used for the bishop's deputy in temporals; as comes, or vice comes, was the king’s. The word, according to Nicod, comes from vicarius; or according to Pasquier, from vice-dominus; dom signi- fying dominus, or lord. See Dom. The original institution of vidames was for the de- fence of the temporalities of bishoprics, while the bish- ops themselves were taken up in prayer and other spiri- tual functions. They also led the bishop’s forces when they were obliged to go to war, either to defend their temporalities, or for the arrier-ban. They also managed, and pleaded, their cause in courts of justice; distributed justice among their tenants; and prevented any body’s pillaging, or damaging, the houses of deceased bishops, &c. In effect, they represented the bishop, considered as a temporal lord. In some ancient charters, the vidames are called adva- cates, or advowees. VIDAME continued to be a title of signory, or lordship; attributed to several gentlemen in France: as the vidame of Chartres, of Amiens, &c. The ancient vidames, Pasquier says, were the bishops” temporal judges; and they had the same privileges as the viscounts. * By V I D V I E By degrees, the vidames converted their office into a see; and the bishops their vidames, or judges, into vassals; as kings did their counts, dukes, &c. Accord- ingly, the vidame of Chartres, &c. held lands of the bishops of those places. See VALVAsor. VIDDIN, in Geografthy, a town of European Tur- key, in Bulgaria, on the Danube, the see of a Greek archbishop; 35.6 miles N.W. of Constantinople. N. lat. 44° 25'. E. long. 22° 26'. VIDE, in Fr. Music, is equivalent to often, in En- glish : as corde à vide, an open string, on instruments with a neck, such as a violin or violoncello; or the sound produced by the whole length of a string from the nut to the bridge, without the pressure of a finger. The sound of open strings is not only more grave or lower in tone than when pressed by the finger, but more sonorous and full ; which arises from the softness of the finger which impedes its vibrations: on which account good players on the violin avoid using often strings as much as possible, in order to preserve an equality of tone. But to do this, the performer must know all the shifts, and be well acquainted with the finger-board. See SHIFT and FINGER-BoARD. VIDEO, MonTE, in Geography. (See Mon- TEv1DEo.) This, says Mr. Mawe, is a tolerably well-built town, situated on a gentle elevation, at the extremity of a small peninsula, and is walled entirely round. Its population amounts to between 15,000 and 20,000 souls. The harbour is the best in the Rio de la Plata, and has a very soft bottom of deep mud, but eannot be called a good one for vessels above 300 or 400 tons. The houses are generally of one story, paved with brick, and furnished with few conveniencies. In the square is a cathedral, and opposite to it an edi- fice, divided into a town-house, or cabildo, and a pri- son. The streets are unpaved, and the well that sup- plies the town with water is at the distance of two miles. Provisions are abundant and cheap, particularly beef. The inhabitants, especially the Creolians, are humane and well-disposed, when not actuated by poli- tical or religious prejudices. Their habits, like those of their brethren in Old Spain, proceed from the op- posite extremes of indolence and temperance. The ladies are generally affable and polite, and in their per- sons neat and clean. Abroad they usually appear in black, and always covered with a large veil, or man- tle ; and at mass they always appear in black silk, bor- dered with deep fringes. The chief trade of Monte- Video consists in hides, tallow, and dried beef; the two former being exported to Europe, and the latter to the West Indies, especially to the Havannah. Coarse copper from Chili, in square cakes, is sometimes ship- ped here, and an herb called “metta,” from Paraguay, the infusion of which is used as tea in England. The climate is humid; in the winter months (June, July, and August) the weather is occasionally boisterous, and the air piercing. In summer, the serenity of the atmosphere is often interrupted by tremendous thun- der-storms and lightning, and also deluges of rain, which sometimes destroy the harvest. The heat is troublesome, and the mosquitoes are peculiarly injuri- ous. The town stands on a basis of granite : and the high mount on the opposite side of the bay, on which is a light-house, and which gives name to the town, is principally composed of clay-slate in laminae, perpen- dicular to the horizon. The vicinity of Mionte-Video is agreeably diversified with low gently sloping hills, Vol. XXXVIII. and long valleys watered by beautiful rivulets, but traces of cultivation are rarely observed. VIDEROE, one of the Faroer islands. N. lat. 61° 59'. VIDICINORUM OPPIDUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Picenum, destroyed by the Romans. VIDIGAL, in Geografhy, a town of Portugal, in the province of Algarve; 18 miles N. of Sagres. VIDIGUEIRA a small market-town of Portugal, in Alentejo; 12 miles N.E. of Beja, and 5 leagues from Serpa, in a very charming country. On one side is a fertile plain, on the other, close to the town, rise mountains, intersected with valleys, that are adorned with quintas and orange-gardens, with a large Gothic church on the fore-ground. The place is small, hav- ing little more than 2000 inhabitants. Its oranges are small, but well-flavoured, and the best in the country, as is also the wine, from the neighbouring Villa de Trades, much celebrated at Lisbon. VIDIMARUM, in Botany, the name of the tree which bears the sebestens, a medicinal plum, of Asia and Ægypt. VIDIMUS, in Law the same with innotescimus ; being letters patent of a charter of feoffment, or some other instrument, not of record. VIDINI, in Ancient Geografthy, a people of Euro- pean Sarmatia. Ammian. Marcell. VIDOTARA, a bay on the northern side of Great Britain, near the mouth of the river which runs by Aire. VIDOURLE, in Geogaafhy, a river of France, which runs into the lake of Than, near Aignes Mortes. VIDRA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 12 miles N. of Vique. VIDROPUSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver; 12 miles N. of Torzok. VIDRUS, in Ancient Geografthy, a river of Ger- many; its mouth, according to Ptolemy, being between Marmanis Portus and the mouth of the river Amasius. VIDUA, a river on the northern coast of Hibernia. Ptol. VIDUCASSES, the name of a people who occupied a part of that country which is now the diocess of Bay- eux. The capital of these people was near the river Orne, a little above Caen, probably Vieux. VIDUCHOVA, in Geography. See FIDDIGHow. VIDUITATIS PROFEssio, the making a Solemn profession of living a chaste widow; a custom hereto- fore observed in England, and attended with divers ce- remonies. VIE. See CESTUE qui Vie. VIE, in Geography, a river of France, in the depart- ment of the Vendée, which runs into the sea near St. Gilles.—Also, a river of France, in the department of the Calvados, which runs into the Dive, 3 miles N.W. of Crevecoeur. VIECHTACH, a town of Bavaria; 13 miles S.E. of Cham. VIEDAM, or VEDAM, the name of a sacred book of law and religion, written, according to M. de Sainte- Croix, by the Samaneans, in the Samscretan, or Shan- scrit language, and held in great veneration by the Brahmins of Hindoostan, from a notion that Brahma, their legislator, received it from the Deity himself. See VEDA. V IEDENBRUCK, or VIDENBRUGGE, in Geogra- fihy. See WIEDENBRUCK. 4 O VIEJO, V I E. . V I E. VIEJO, one of the Small Bahama islands. VIELBRUN, or FELBRUN, a town of Germany, in the county of Wertheim ; 17 miles W. of Wertheim. VIELLA, a town of France, in the department of the Gers; 10 miles S.W. of Nogaro.—Also, a town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia; 38 miles W.N.W. of Urgel. VIELLE, a musical instrument, often confounded with the viole, or viol. It is not, indeed, a bowed in- strument, like the viol, but its tone is produced by the friction of a wheel, which performs the part of a bow. The strings are pressed on the wheel by the fingers, and sometimes by keys. It is at present a mere street instrument every where but at Paris, where it is much in use with other instruments at the Boulevards and Guinguettes; and even ladies sometimes condescend to learn to play upon it. Kircher gives it no better ti- tle than that of lyra mendicorum, the beggar’s lyre. It is so loud in the open air, that it seems impossible to bear it in a room. The itinerant performers on this in- strument are generally Savoyards. The name of the instrument seems a corruption of viole, if it is not the eldest of the two. mol. says; Viole, Wiolon, from the Spanish biola and biolone. The Spaniards also say biwela, whence we (the French) have Wielle. It has a neck or finger- board fretted, and two strings, always sounding as drones, tuned fifths or eighths. VIELLE, La, in Geografhy, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Pyrenées; 21 miles N. of Pau. VIELLE Ridée, the Wrinkled old Woman’s Shell, in Conehology, a name given by the French authors to a species of chama of the mutilated kind, very much re- sembling the famous concha Veneris, but longer, and without that peculiarly-shaped oval aperture to which that shell owes its name. It has several spines about the lips, as the concha Veneris has, but they are shorter, and more obtuse, than in that shell. The whole surface of this species is deeply and irregularly wrinkled. It is of a whitish colour, variegated with brown. VIELLEUR, in JWatural History, the name of a species of fly common in Surinam, and some other places. . It is moderately large, though less so than the lantern-fly, so common in that place, and has a long head, and Some other particulars, in which it resembles that creature, Mrs. Merian has given a figure of it, and reports it as the opinion of the natives, that it changes at length into a lantern-fly. VIELMUR, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Tarn, on the Agout; 9 miles W. of Castres. VIELSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vo- logda, on the Vaga; 156 miles N.N.E. of Vologda. N. lat. 61° 40'. E. long. 41° 44'. VIENENBURG, a town of Westphalia, in the bishopric of Hildesheim ; 7 miles S. of Schladen. VIENNA, or VIENNENSIUM CiviTAs, in . Ancient Geograft hy, one of the most opulent towns of Gaul, and the capital of the Allobroges. This town enjoyed the rights of a Roman city, and the prerogative of furnish- ing subjects for the senate of Rome, granted to it, ac- cording to Tacitus, under the consulate of Rutilius, in the year of Rome 664. This place is mentioned by Strabo as the most considerable amcng the Allobroges. Mela ranks it among the most opulent in the Narbon- mensis, and it is cited by Pliny under the denomination The Dict. Ety- . of a colony. By the first division of ancient Narbonnen- sis, Vienna became the metropolis of that district, which was distinguished by the name of the Viennois, and this province was formed at the beginning of the fourth century, since it is mentioned in the acts of the council of Arles, held A.D. 314. See VIENNE. VIENNA, in Geografhy, a city and capital of Austria, the see of an archbishop, on the W. side of the Danube, on a fertile plain, where it receives a small river, call- ed Vien, which passes through the city and suburbs; near the place where stood the ancient Vindobona. The situation is pleasant, for to the east and north the country around is entirely level, but to the west and south is seen a range of mountains, which are thickly planted with trees and vines; and the Danube, which is here very wide, divides itself in that part of the town into several arms, forming many islands, which are stocked with wood. The circumference of that which is properly the fortified city of Vienna is not large, and only contains about 60,000 Souls; but the suburbs are therefore the more ample ; and, according to the esti- mate of a late traveller, the city and the suburbs toge- ther contain 230,000 (others say 254,000) inhabitants, without including the garrison. In 1795, the whole population of Vienna was computed at 231, 105 inhabi- tants; of whom 1231 were ecclesiastics, 3253 nobility, 4256 public functionaries, and persons living upon their private fortune, and 7333 citizens belonging to the cor- poration. In the city itself there are numerous and beautiful palaces : but the streets are not spacious, and are, in part, crooked. The houses are generally of brick, covered with stucco. There is but one streetin Vienna that can be called magnificent, and this is a con- tinued line of splendid houses and palaces. It is called the “ Nobles’-street.” The suburbs are constructed on a better plan, and would be very elegant, if the houses were larger and richer in architectural orna- ments. Most of the streets are regular, level and wide, but they are chiefly inhabited by manufacturers and workmen of various trades. Near the centre of the town is a bridge thrown across a deep low street, which admits of the passage of carriages, whilst the usual tho- roughfare is below, resembling our canals over naviga- ble rivers. Those people of fashion who have no coun- try-seats, or who are prevented by their public employ- ments from leaving Vienna, generally reside in the suburbs during summer. The second floor of all burghers’ houses is allotted for the residence of the of ficers of the imperial court; and the owners can only purchase an exemption by paying a sum of money for the erection of barracks. It is divided into four quar- ters, which contain fifteen squares or public places; that of the court is large and beautiful; in it, between two fountains, is a superb monument, built by the em- peror Leopold; in the high market-place is a marble monument, representing the marriage of Joseph and the Virgin, erected in the year 1732. Vienna contains fifty churches or chapels, and twenty-one convents. The chief edifices are the metropolitan church of St. Ste- phen, the imperial palace, library and arsenal, the house of assembly for the States of Lower Austria, the council-house, the university, and some monas- teries. The metropolitan church is a dark Gothic building, richly adorned on the outside with sculpture, and within with thirty-eight altars, mostly of beautiful marble; a great number of relics, jewels, &c, and an ancient vault, in which the archdukes are interred. Here is a mausoleum of Frederic III, which cost º ~ ClüCats, V H E N N A. ducats, and a monument in honour of prince Eugene of Savoy. Near it is a palace of the archbishop. In a chapel belonging to the Capuchins, the princes of the royal family are buried, without pomp, with hardly their names over their tombs. The university of Vi- enna was instituted in the year 1365, from a college founded about a centry before, and is divided into four faculties and four nations, Austrian, Saxon, Hungarian, and Rhenish. It has been much improved since the year 1752. . The books in the library are not very numerous; it is open two or three hours morning and afternoon. The imperial library contains about 5000 or 6000 volumes, printed in the 15th century, rare manuscripts, and a very extensive and valuable collec- tion of prints, and is well furnished with useful modern books. It is open three or four hours every morning to the public. The imperial cabinet is very rich in medals, and still more so in natural history. The Academy of Arts is divided into seven classes, each of which has its own professor. A taste for music is like- wise very general : and the theatre at Vienna has been liberally encouraged. It must be acknowledged, how- ever, that liberty does not flourish here. It is said that the list of prohibited books is scarcely exceeded by that of the index Expurgatorius at Rome. Nevertheless it has a university, as we have already mentioned, and some considerable schools, principally with a view to commerce. Education needs or demands greater en- couragement. . The people are in general honest, and simple in their manners. Their ruling propensity is that for luxurious living, both as to food and drink. The women are handsome, and mild in their manners. They love dress, and are addicted to luxury. Music is the principal object of their attention. The Augar- ten and the Prater are the principal promenades. The police of Vienna is so well conducted, that the streets are remarkably quiet and orderly, so that as early as ten o’clock at night silence prevails. The suburbs are far larger than the city itself. They are adorned with a great number of spacious gardens, and many of the buildings occupy a large space of ground. They lie round it, but are removed to the distance of 500 or 600 common paces from the works of the fort. The line which encloses them and extends on both sides to Leo- poldstadt, was, in the year 1794, thrown up against the Hungarian rebels, and afterwards lined with bricks, the gates and entries to it being always kept by regular guards. These suburbs stand for the most part under the jurisdiction of the town council, to whom an appeal lies from the sentence of the judge and his assessors, with which each suburb is provided. Of them, Leo- poldstat is the largest and chiefest. It lies next the town, on an island in the Danube, being formerly called the Jews' town; but the emperor Leopold, in 1670, having driven that people from thence, it took its name from him. It contains one parish church, two cloisters, the old imperial favourita, a citadel, which, in 1683, was miserably, laid waste by the Turks, and but a small part of it repaired; together with the adjoining exten- sive au-garden, and many considerable fine houses and gardens. On an island in the Danube, well planted with wood, is the Prater, or imperial park, and to the S. is the chapel of Herenhartz, much frequented in Lent for the sake of amusement as well as of devotion. In one of the suburbs is the palace of Belvidere, which formerly belonged to prince Eugene ; and at the dis- tance of a few miles stands Schombrun, another imperial palace. The garrison of Vienna consists of one regi- ment of foot. Provisions are brought to Vienna from the different parts of Austria, and other countries be- longing to the emperor, in the greatest plenty and va- riety. The police pays particular attention to the sup- ply of provisions, and often inspects the markets, and the weights and measures of the dealers. A modern traveller says, he has seen a score of wild hogs and a dozen stags in the game-market at the same time, and hares, literally, by cart-loads, with abundance of pheas- ants and patridges. Every kind of bird seems to be an article of food, and none rejected; hawks, jays, magpies, are brought to market, and even the bulfinch and robin are not spared. The livers of geese are esteemed a great delicacy; and in the fish-market are found, with stur- geon, carp, pike, tench, and trout, tortoises, frogs, and Snails. The manufactures of Vienna are numerous; that of cotton on the increase, that of silk much regarded, and embroidery encouraged. The people of Vienna, upon the whole industrious, excel in manufactures of steel, carriages of all sorts, silk, ribands, harness, saddles, &c. The inland commerce, carried on by the Danube, is not inconsiderable. The people delight in the combats of wild beasts and of bulls. Vienna owes its first aggran- dizement to Henry I. duke of Austria, who, about 1142, made it the place of his residence ; it was then a town, and in 1158 was surrounded with walls. In 1198 it obtained its municipal privileges, and was better forti- fied. The mortality of this city is thought to be great- er than that of any other place in Europe; and it is commonly said that one in twenty dies annually: a late traveller, Küttner, supposes the mortality much greater. Although Vienna be much exposed to the N. and E. winds, yet the southern hills serve as a fence against the rain, so that the traveller rather complains of dust than of moisture. The summer heats, on account of its siru- ation in the midst of hills and mountains, which collect much snow and ice in winter, last only about two months, and in winter the cold is often very severe. The pleasantness of the environs is said to be much enhanced by the happy aspect of the Austrian peasantry of this city. The number of those who fall victims to pulmonic diseases is very large, and many have been carried away by the small-pox, the ravages of which, it is hoped, will be restrained by the introduction of the practice of inoculation for the cow-pox. The establish- ments for the relief of the sick are very numerous; such are the Great Hospital, which in 1796 received 11,860 patients; and within its walls is contained a pa- thological museum ; the hospital for lying-in-women, which in the above-mentioned year received 1904 wo. men ; the lunatic hospital, which in the same year ac- commodated 261 insane persons; a military hospital, and an hospital for Jews, excellently managed. The suburbs of the town, according to a singular and useful institution founded by Leopold, are divided into eight districts, each of which has its physician, surgeon, and midwife, all paid by government, whose office it is to visit the poor at their own houses. In the year after its establishment this institution was extended to the whole city. Ano- ther institution has the charge of diseased children un- der ten years of age. In 1796 it was ordained, with a view to the public health, that no new-built house should be inhabited before the physician of the district had examined whether the walls were sufficiently dry; 175 miles S. of Prague. N. lat. 48° 18'. E. long. 169 23’. 4 O 2 VIENNA. V I E W I E VIENNA, a port of entry and post-town of the eastern shore of Maryland, in Dorchester county, on the W. side of Nanticoke river, about 15 miles from its mouth. It contains about thirty houses, and carries on a brisk trade with the neighbouring sea-ports, in lumber, corn, wheat, &c.; 15 miles N.W. of Salisbury, and 120 from Washington-Also, the capital of Green coun- ty, Kentucky, on the N. side of Green river; about 158 miles W.S.W. of Lexington.—Also, a town of Kenne- beck county, in the district of Maine, incorporated in 1802, including the late plantations of Goshen and Wyman: the number of inhabitants is 417.-Also, a post-town in Abbeville county, South Carolina; 65.1 miles from Washington.—Also, a town in Ohio county, Kentucky. VIENNE, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of Isere, situated on the left side of the Rhône, over which was formerly a stone- bridge, built in the year 1265, now destroyed. A Ro- man colony was established here, and called Vienna Allobrogum. In the fifth century it was taken by the Burgundians, and the kings made it their place of re- sidence. In the ninth century it was the capital of the kingdom of Provence. It was afterwards erected into an archbishopric, and became the capital of a province called Vienois, in which state it remained till the revo- lution, when the archbishopric was suppressed. In l 31 I, a council was held here by order oſ pope Cle- ment V. in which, aillong other matters, the suppres- sion of the knights Templars was determined; 10 posts N. of Valence. N. lat. 45° 32'. E. long. 4° 58'. VIENNE, a town of France, in the department of the Loire and Cher, on the south side of the Loire, op- posite Blois. VIENNE, a river of France, which rises about three miles E. of Tarnac, on the borders of the departments of the Coreze and the Creuse, passes by or near to Tarnac, Aimoutier, St. Leonard, Limoges, Aix, St. Junien, Chabanois, Confolent, St. Germain sur Vienne, Availle, Isle-Jourdain, Lussac, Chavigny, Châtellerault, Isle Bouchard, Chinon, &c. and joins the Loire, in the department of the Indre and Loire, about five miles above Saumur. VIENNE, one of the nine departments of the western region of France, formerly a part of Poitou, in 46° 30'. N. lat., bounded on the N. and N.E. by the depart- ment of the Indre and Loire, on the E. by the depart- ment of the Indre, on the S. by the departments of the Charente and Upper Vienne, and on the W. by the department of the Twe Sevres. The department of the Maine and Loire joins it a little to the N.W. The territorial extent of this department is 7340 kiliometres, or 364 Square leagues, and it contains 250,807 inhabi- tants. It is divided into 5 circles or districts, 31 can- tons, and 344 communes. The circles are Loudun, comprehending 32,256 inhabitants; Châtellerault, 46,518; Montmorillon, 48,570; Civray, 38,971; and Poitiers, 84,492. Its capital is Poitiers. According to Hassenfratz, its extent in French leagues is 21 in length, and 13 in breadth ; its circles are 6, its can- tons 49, and its population 257,953. Its contributions in the 11th year of the French era amounted to 1,979,952 fr. ; and its expenses, administrative, judicia- ry, and for public instruction, to 280,570 fr. 35 cents. This department is diversified with hills, plains, heaths, and cultivated lands, yielding grain, wine, fruits, flax, and good pastures. It has considerable forests. VIENNE, Uffier, one of the nine departments of the upper region of France, formerly Limosin, in 46° N. lat., bounded on the N. by the departments of the Vienne and Indre, on the E. by the department of the Creuse, on the S.E. by the same department, on the S.W. by the department of the Dordogne, and on the W. by the department of the Charente. The territo- rial extent of this department is 60024 kiliometres, or 288 square leagues, and its population consists of 259,795 inhabitants. It is divided into 4 circles, 26 cantons, and 224 communes. Its circles are Bellac, including 85,388 inhabitants; Limoges, 92,637; St. Yriuix, 38,251 ; and Rochechouart, 43,519. Its capital #: According to Hassenfratz, it is in length 26 French leagues, and in breadth 12; its circles are 5, and cantons 40, and the number of its inhabitants 266,910. The contributions of this department, in the 11th year of the French era, amounted to 1,641,147 fr.; and its expenses, administrative, judiciary, and for public instruction, were 241,803 fr. 33 cents. The soil of this department is, in general, of an indifferent quality; yielding rye, little wheat, and tolerable pas- tures. The hills are covered with chestnut-trees and woods. Here are mines of iron, lead, copper, coal, and quarries of marble. VIENNE le Château, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Marne; 6 Iniles N. of St. Menehould. VIENS, a town of France, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhône; 3 miles E.N.E. of Apt. VIEPREZ, a river of Poland, which rises 16 miles W. of Lublin, and runs into the Vistula near Stezicza, in the palatinate of Sandomirz. * VIEPRIE, a town of the Popedom, in the duchy of Spoleto; 5 miles N.E. of Todi. VIERINGEN, or WIERINGEN, an island in the Zuyder See, of an oval form; about six miles in length, and, where widest, rather more than two in breadth; 6 miles S.E. from the Texel. VIERRADEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker Mark, on the Welse, near its union with the Oder; 24 miles S.E. of Prenzlow. VIERUEDRUM, or VERVEDRUM, in Amcient Geo- grafhy, a promontory of the isle of Albion, according to Ptolemy. VIERZON, in Geography, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Cher, near the conflux of the Eure and Cher; 11 posts S. of Orleans. N. lat. 47° 18'. E. long, 2° 9'. VIESCAS, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Ara- gan; 10 miles from Jaca. VIESCHORN, a mountain of Switzerland, in the canton of Bern, and bailiwick of Grindelwald. VIEST, or UJEST, or Oyest, a town of Silesia, in the principality of Oppeln; 14 miles W.N.W. of Gleiwitz. VIESTI, a town of Naples, in Capitanata, on the coast of the Adriatic, the see of a bishop, suffragan of Manfredonia, ; 29 miles N.N.E. of Manfredonia. N. lat. 41° 56'. E. long. 33° 52'. VIETA, FRANCIS, in Biography, a very eminent mathematician of the 16th century, was born at Fonte- nai, in Poitou, in the year 1540. Although he occupi- ed the post of master of requests at Paris, and his time and attention were much engaged by the duties of his office, he was indefatigable in his application to mathematical studies; so that he is said to have re- mained in his apartment for three days, without either eating or sleeping. In his writings he manifests great originality of genius, as well as invention. For a brief account of his improvements in algebra, we refer to that V I E VI E that article. On other branches of the mathematics, besides those that may be denominated analytical, he bestowed much attention and labour; and whilst he col- lected and detailed what others had done before him, he enlarged the boundaries of science, and made some im- portant and useful additions to the stock of knowledge which had been amassed by his predecessors. In this respect he was not a mere labourer, but original and ingenious in his communications. His treatise on “An- gular Sections” is a performance which enabled him to resolve a curious problern, proposed by Adrian Roma- nus to mathematicians, and which amounted to an equa- tion of the 45th degree. Romanus was so impressed by his sagacity, that he travelled from Wirtemberg in Franconia, where he resided, as far as France, in order to visit Vieta, and cultivate friendship with him. His “Apollonius Gallus,” or restoration of Apollonius's tract on Tangencies, not to mention other pieces that may be found in his works, displays powers of invention, eminently adapted to the more sublime geometrical speculations. His tracts on trigonometry, plane and spherical, with the tables annexed to them, were im- portant and valuable at the time when they were published, and without doubt led the way to farther mo- dern improvements. We have no reason for believing that Vieta was irritable and querulous; but his dis- putes with Scaliger and Clavius, more especially with the latter, did him no honour. Scaliger pretended to quadrate the circle, an operation for which he was al- together incompetent, and Vieta evinced his incapacity. With Clavius he had a contest about the emendation of the Gregorian calendar, charging him with ignorance and error; whilst he himself committed mistakes, which Clavius detected. The loss of Vieta’s “Harmo- nicon Celeste,” entrusted with father Mersenne, and surreptitiously taken from him, has been much deplo- red. Others of his works have also been lost, which has been probably owing to his causing few to be print- ed, and retaining them in his own custody, those ex- cepted which he distributed among his friends and per- sons of science. Vieta was profoundly skilled in the art of decyphering, which he employed with advantage to his country. Vieta, notwithstanding the intenseness and assiduity of his application, passed his grand cli- macteric, and died at Paris in December, 1603. After his death, some of his MSS. were published by Alex- ander Anderson, an ingenious Scots mathematician, a native of Aberdeen; and in 1646, Schooten gave an edition of all his works which he was able to collect. Montucla. Hutton. VIETRI, in Geografthy, a town of Naples, in Princi- pato Citra; 2 miles N. N. E. of Cangiano.—Also, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra. In 1694 it was destroyed by an earthquake; 2 miles W. of Salerno. VIEUSSENS, RAYMond, F. R. S., in Biography, was born at a village in Rovergue, and having com- menced his education at Rhodez, he pursued the study of physic at Montpellier, where he graduated. In 1671 he was chosen physician to the hospital of St. Eloy. The result of his anatomical researches in this situation was published under the title of “Neurology,” and gained him great reputation. His name became known at court, and Mad. de Montpensier, in 1690, chose him as her physician. After her death he returned to Mont- pellier, and directing his attention to chemistry, he found an acid in the captit mortuum of human blood; and on this imagined discovery founded a theory, which he communicated to the different schools of medicine. In advanced life his writings were multiplied, without augmenting his reputation. He died in 1726. His most valuable work is his “Neurologia Universalis,” Lyons, 1685, folio, which is commended by Haller, and which exhibits a more acurate dissection of the brain than that of any preceding writers. After his death ap- peared “Histoire des Maladies internes,” 4to., contain- ing many practical observations. Haller. Eloy. VIEUSSEUXIA, in Botany, was so called by Dr. Daniel de la Roche, in his inaugural dissertation, published at Leyden in 1766, in honour of his country- man and friend M. Vieusseux, an excellent botanist; of whom, however, we know not that the world has heard anything further, or that he has written anything rela- tive to this science. The genus in question was thought, by its truly intelligent and ingenious author, to be inter- mediate between Iris and Ferraria. It has not been adopted by Thunberg, Ker, or any of our popular bo- tanists, who have declined separating it from Iris, there appearing no distinctive character, except the stamens being united into a tube. The learned Decandolle, on the contrary, has adopted Vieusseuria, in Ann. du Mus. V. 2, 141. t. 42. He is followed by Redouté, who fi- gures the same species, V. glaucofiis, in his Liliacees, v. 1. t. 42, and mentions seven species in all ; as well as by Desfontaines, in his recently-published Tableau de l’Ecole de Botanique du Jardin du Roi, ed. 2. 37. Most, if not all, of the plants supposed to constitute the above genus, are, we believe, comprehended as varie- ties by Thunberg under his Iris tricueñis. See his dis- Sertation on Iris, p. 15; also Willd. Sp. Pl. v. i. 231. VIEUX MAIsons, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Aisne; 6 miles W. of Mont- mirail. VIEUx Marche, a town of France, in the department of the North Coast; 8 miles S. of Lannion. VIEVY, a town of France, in the department of the Côte d’Or ; 6 miles S. of Arnay le Duc. VIEW, VISUs, in Law, the act of veiors, or viewers. This is called by Bracton “Res quasi sacra, quia so- lam personam regis respicit, et introducta pro pace, et communi utilitate.” * When a real action is brought, and the tenant knows not well what the land is, that the demandant asks; he may pray the view : which is that the jury may see the land which is claimed. This course of proceeding we received from the Nor- mans, as appears by the Grand Customary. It is used in various cases; as in the assize of rent-services, rent- charge, rent-sec; in a writ of nuisance ; in a writ quo jure; in the writ de rationabilibus divisis, &c. See JURY. VIEw of Frank Pledge, Visus Franci Plegii, is the office which the sheriffin his county-court, or the bailiff in his hundred, performs; in looking to the king’s peace, and seeing that every man be in some pledge. See , Court-leet, and FRANK-Pledge. VIEW, in matters of Oñtics, Pershective, &c. See VISION. VIEw, Point of. See PoinT. VIEw, among Hunters the track, or print of the feet, of a fallow deer on the ground. VIEw a Place, To, in the Military Art, is to ride about it, before the laying of a siege, in order to observe the strength or weakness of its situation and fortifica- tion. VIEWERS, or VEIoRs, in Law. See VE1ouRs. VIEYRA, V I E V I G VIEYRA, ANToNY, in Biography, a Portuguese writer, was born at Lisbon in 1608, and in early life ac- companied his father to the Brasils. His genius at the age of fourteen began to display itself to a degree that excited the astonishment of his tutors. In 1623 he en- tered into the society of Jesus, and having carefully read the scriptures, the works of the fathers, and the the Summa Aquinatis, he composed some tracts, and gave lectures in the college of Bahia. At this time he was tutor to the son of the viceroy of Brasil, the mar- quis of Montalvan; and in 641 accompanied him to Eu- rope. At Lisbon he distinguished himself in the pulpit, and was appointed by John IV. preacher to the court. The king, discovering, also his talents for public af- fairs, deputed him, in 1646, on important business to England, Holland, and France, and also to the court of Rome. For the services rendered in these mis- sions he was offered a bishopric, which he declined accepting, and requested only to be employed as a missionary among the savages in the forests of Ma- ragnan. The king demurred against acceeding to this proposal, but urged him to accept a bishopric, which he still refused ; but with some other Jesuits he em- barked in a ship, in order to proceed to Maragnan. Soon after his arrival there in 1653, he was sent to Por- tugal, in order to obtain an order from the king, that the Portuguese settled in the Brasils should treat the Indians with less cruelty. He succeeded in the object of his mission, but he was not allowed to return to America, though he went thither some time after; and in less than six years, in a district more than 600 miles in extent, he formed an establishment similar to that in Paraguay. There the Indians were instructed, and availing themselves of their knowledge, began to live like men, and to practise the virtues which Chris- tianity taught them. The Portuguese residing in Bra- sil were alarmed, and could not bear that the Indians, whom they treated as slaves, should enjoy the bless- ings of liberty : they, therefore, seized Vieyra and his attendants, and transported them to Portugal, under a charge of their joining the Dutch in forming a plan for expelling all the Portuguese from Brasil. Vieyra and his associates were able to prove their in- nocence, and succeeded in obtaining the reinstatement of all their brethren in the colleges and other establish- ments of Maragnan. Vieyra remained in Portugal, and, at the desire of the queen and ministers of state, drew up a remonstrance, which was presented to king Alphonso, respecting the irregularities and abuses that prevailed in the kingdom. The king’s favourites were incensed, and, in 1663, those who were attached to the queen, and who wished to promote the welfare of the nation, were sent into banishment. Vieyra was first con- veyed to Oporto, and soon after to Coimbra; and for the more certain and speedy decision of his fate, he was committed into the hands of the inquisition. Many charges were alleged against him ; however, in 1667, when the influence of the favourites terminated, he was freed from the inquisition, and sent to Lisbon, . He was merely forbidden to preach ; but this prohibition was revoked, when the queen, Maria Isabella of Savoy, and the infant Don Pedro, then regent of the kingdom, ex- pressed a wish to hear him. In 1669 he was called to Rome, and preached before queen Christina of Swe- den, who was so much pleased that she invited him to the conversaziones held in her palace, and requested him to become her confessor. But finding the air pre- judicial to his health, he returned to Lisbon, after having obtained from pope Clement X. a letter of ex- culpation, freeing him from the jurisdiction of the in- quisition, and rendering him immediately amenable to the college of cardinals. Vieyra, upon the recovery of his health, set sail for Brasil; and being incapable, on account of his advanced age, of superintending the mis- sion of Maragnan, of which he had been long superior general, he spent his time in revising his writings, and preparing for the termination of his life, which happen- ed at Bahia in 1697, when he had atained nearly the 90th year of his age. His interment was conducted with great pomp, his coffin being borne to the grave by the viceroy and his son, and other persons of distinction. The Portuguese consider Vieyra as the best writer their country ever produced. His works were publish- ed at Lisbon between 1679 and 1718, in 14 quarto vo- lumes. Gen. Biog. VIF, Fr. in Music, lively. See VIVACE. This word, says Rousseau, implies a movement, gay, cheerful, and animated; and requires a bold execution, full of fire. VIF, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Isere ; 9 miles S. of Grenoble. VIFALU, a town of Hungary; 16 miles S. S. E. of Ketskemet. VIG, a lake of Russia, in the government of Olo- netz. N. lat 63° 30'. E. long. 34° 14'.-Also, a river of Russia, which passes through lake Vig, and runs into the White sea, 20 miles S. of Kemi. VIGAN, LE, a town of France, in the department of the Lot; 17 miles N. of Cahors.-Also, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the depart- ment of the Gard; 36 miles W. N. W. of Nismes. N. lat. 43° 59'. E. long. 3° 40'. VIGANONI, GIUSEPPE, in Biography, a tenor sing- er in the Italian opera, first arrived in England in 1782 as first man in the comic opera, in which part Lovati- ni had rendered us very difficult to be pleased. Treb- bi, his immediate successor, was a very useful perform- er, as he occasionally had a part assigned him in the Se- rious opera; but he excited no raptures in either seri- ous or comic parts. And Jermoli and Tasca, his suc- cessors, were still less interesting. The same might perhaps be said of Viganoni, with a small diminution of praise. His singing did not appear to us in a style of expression that was genuine Italian; it seemed to savour of German or French expression, or of both. On his second arrival in London, he had less voice than when he came here first; but more knowlege of music, a greater variety of embelishments, and more use of the stage. His voice was never powerful, and now he had more falset than real notes in his scale; and such a rage for gracing and changing passages, that he scarcely ever let the audience hear a single pas- sage as it was written by the composer. He certainly knew his business, and was a good musician ; but his style of singing was what painters would call maniere : for with all his riffioramenti, or embellishments, of which he was so lavish, his perfomance seemed mono- tonous. VIGASIO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Veronese ; I O miles S. of Verona. VIGENNE, a river of France, which runs into the Saône, at Talmey. VIGEOIS, a town of France, in the department of the Correze, on the Vezere; 4 miles S. of Uzerches. VIGER, an island in the North Sea, on the coast of Norway; 10 miles round. N. lat 62° 35'. E. long. 6° 3O’. VIGESIMA, among the Roman, a tax of the twen- tieth V I G V I G tieth part of the yearly incomes of all inheritances. It was first established by Augustus. VIGESIMA was likewise a custom paid for slaves sold, as also for one made free. VIGESIMARPUS, among the Romans, an officer who had the management of collecting the vigesima. VIGEVANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the department of the Gogna, capital of a small district, in the principality of Piedmont lying between the Nova- rese and the Lumelline, on the Tesin, the see of a bishop, suffragan of Milan; 13 miles S. E. of Novara. N. lat. 45° 19'. E. long. 8°53'. - VIGGIANO, a town of the island of Corsica, in the district of Tailano. VIGHIZZOLA, a town of Italy, in the Paduan, near a lake which abounds in fish, especially eels; 16 miles S. of Padua. VIGIA, a town of Brasil, in the government of Para; 50 miles N. N. E. of Para.-Also, a rock near the south coast of Cuba. N. lat. 21° 32'. W. long. 84° 32'- Also, a rock near the south coast of Cuba. N. lat. 20° 53'. W. long. 80° 55'. VIGIL, or Eve, in Church Chronology, the day be- fore any feast, &c. Though the civil day begins at midnight, yet the ecclesiastical or scriptural day begins at six o'clock in the evening, and holds till six in the evening the ensu- ing day. º Hence, the collect for every Sunday and holiday, by order of the church, is to be read, at the preceding evening service, that is, at six o'clock the day before ; from which time the religious day was supposed to begin. And this first part of the holiday, from six o'clock the day before, was, by the primitive Christians, spent in hymns, and other devotions; and, being often con- tinued till late in the night, was called vigil. These vigils came by degrees to be so enlarged, that, at last, all the day preceding the holiday was called by the name. --. The origin of vigils is deduced by Forbes from a cus- tom in the ancient church, for the people, both men and women, to meet together in the evening before Easter- day, and watch and pray, as expecting the coming of our Lord, who was to rise early in the morning. This prac- tice, Tertullian observes ad urorem, afterwards got to other feasts, and saints' days. But abuses creeping in, they were forbidden by a council, in 1322, and, in lieu of them, fastings were instituted on the day before, though still called by the ancient name of vigils. See WAKEs. VIGIL, Coma. See CoMA. VIGILANTIUS, in Biography, an ecclesiastic of the fifth century, was born in Gaul, and removing to Spain, became a parish priest in the diocess of Barce- tona. He is said to have written treatises on relious subjects in a polished style ; but he incurred the censure of Dupin, because he exposed several superstitions of the time in which he lived. After his return from a voyage to Palestine and Egypt, he propagated opinions that were hostile to the corrupt state of Christianity at that period. He denied that the tombs and remains of the martyrs are entitled to any kind of adoration, and censured pilgrimages to holy places. He derided the miracles pretended to be wrought at the shrines of martyrs, and condemned the nocturnal assemblies held at such places. He affirmed that the practice of burn- ing tapers by day-light at the tombs of Holy persons was a superstition, borrowed from the Pagans; that prayers addressed to departed Saints were of no avail; and he spoke with contempt of fastings and mortifications, the celibacy of the clergy, and the austerities of monastic life. He also asserted, that the voluntary poverty of those who distribute all their substance to the poor, and the practice of sending donations to Jerusalem for pious purposes, are in no respect acceptable to the Deity. These opinions were favourably received by several of the bishops in Gaul and Spain; but Jerom, the great advocate for monkish discipline, censured them with severity, and rancorously abused Vigilantius for adopt- ing and propagating them. His opposition, and that of persons of similar sentimens prevailed, and prevented every kind of reform. The resentment and hostility of Jerom, to whom Vigilantius had been recommended by Paulinus, seem to have commenced with his decla- ring himself an enemy to superstition. Bayle. Dupin. Mosheim. VIGILIA, in Ancient Chronology. See WATCH. VIGILIA, that state of an animal which is opposite to sleep, and is popularly called waking or watching. See SLEEP and WATCHING. VIGILIAE, in Antiquity, denote the watches and guards among the Roman soldiers, who performed duty by night, in contradistinction to the eaccuðiae, who kept guard by day, either in the camp, or at the gates and intrenchments: of these last there seem to have been assigned one company of foot and one troop of horse to each of the four gates every day; and it was a most un- pardonable crime to desert their post, and to abandon their corps of guards. In the camp, there was allowed a whole manipulus to attend before the praetorium. and four soldiers to the tent of every tribune. The night- guards assigned to the general and tribunes were of the same nature as those in the day. But the proper vigils were four in every manipulus, keeping guard three hours, and then relieved by four others; so that there were four sets in the night, according to the four watches, which took their name from this custom. The night-guard was set by a tally or tessera, with a parti- cular inscription given from one centurion to another through the army, till it came again to the tribune who first delivered it. Upon the receipt of this, the guard was immediately set. But because this regula- tion was not sufficient, they had the circuitio vigilium, or a visiting of the watch, commonly performed about four times in the night by some of the horse. Upon extraordinary occasions, the tribunes and lieutenant- generals, and sometimes the general himself, made these circuits in person, and took a strict view of the watch in every part of the camp. Kennet's Ant. Rom. p. 206. VIGILLE Florum, in Botany, a term used by Linnaeus to express a peculiar faculty, belonging to the flowers of several plants, of opening and closing their petals at certain hours of the day. Previous to the explanation of this phenomenon, it is necessary to observe, that the flowers of most plants, after they are once opened, con- tinue so night and day, until they drop off, or die away. Several others, which shut in the night-time, open in the morning sooner or later, according to their respec- tive situation in the Sun or shade, or as they are influen- ced by the manifest changes of the atmosphere. But the class of flowers, to which this article refers, open and shut regularly at certain hours, exclusive of any m. est V I G V I G fest changes in the atmosphere. This property is so evident in one of our common English plants, the trago- fog on luteum, that our country people have called it John-go-to-bed-at-moon. Linnaeus's observations in the Philosophia Botania, p. 273, extend to near fifty species, which are subject to this law : such are the male pim- pernel, the blue-flowered pimpernel with narrow leaves, the little blue convolvulus or bindweed, the day-lily, the proliferous pink, the common purslain, the white-water- lily, the garden lettuce, the dandelion, the rough dan- delion, several species of hawkweeds, wild succory, wild marigold, &c. See an account of this phenomenon by Dr. Pulteney, in Phil. Trans, vol. 1. p. 506, &c. See also SLEEP of Plants. VIGILIUM PREFECTUs. See PREFECT. VIGILIUS, in Biography, a pope, was raised to the pontificate by the empress Theodora, when his prede- cessor Silverius did not answer her purpose, on certain stipulated conditions, to which a person like him, desti- tute of principle, could have no objection. He was, therefore, sent from Constantinople to Italy with a sum of gold, and an order to Belisarius, then master of Rome, to depose Silverius, and to elect Vigilius. Accordingly the measure was accomplished in November 537 : Sil- verius was banished, and Vigilius, a Roman by birth of a noble family, was ordained to the see of Rome. Sil- verius appealed to the emperor Justinian, and obtained an order for a rehearing; but upon his return to Rome, he was banished to a distantisland, in consequence of the intrigues of Vigilius, and there died in 538. After the death of Silverius, the church of Rome acknowledged Vigilius as lawful pope. Although he punctually ful- filled his engagements to the empress, he wrote a letter to the emperor, in which he solemnly professed the orthodox faith; and in another letter to the patriarch of Constantinople, he commended him for his zeal in favour of the council of Chalcedon, which by his en- gagement to Theodora he condemned, and anathema- tized as heretics those persons whom he had lately ad- mitted to his communion. The emperor Justinian, fond of exercising authority in matters of faith, was induced, in 542, to issue an edict, condemning the writings of certain prelates who were inclined to the Nestorian tenets, famous under the appellation of “The Three Chapters;” and his edict was received by almost all the Eastern bishops. Vigilius, at the head of those of the Western churches, refused to concur in what they conceived to be an assumption of authority in matters of faith, which belonged only to a general council. Upon this resistance, Vigilius was summoned by the emperor to repair to Constantinople. He left Rome amidst the curses of the people, who charged him with enormous crimes, and arrived at Constantinople in the beginning of the year 547. At first he declared against the imperial edict, and excluded from his communion the patriarch and all the bishops who had subscribed it. The emperor's measures, however, caused him to waver; and at a council held at Constantinople, he issu- ed a decree, entitled “ Judicatum,” in which the “Three Chapters” were formally condemned. But when he found that this decree excited a great opposi- tion on the part of the Western bishops, he got it re- voked, under a pretence of referring the matter to a general council. Without stating the violence and co- ercion of the emperor on the one hand, or the resis- tance and tergiversation of the pope on the other, it will be sufficient to observe, that after Vigilius had a fourth time changed his declaration relating to the “Three Chapters,” which he finally condemned by a solemn constitution, he was permitted to return to Rome, which had been in the mean time sacked by Totila, and re- covered by Narses. But during his voyage he was seized with a fit of the stone, and obliged to land in Sicily, where he died in 555. A summary of the let- ters of this pope, still extant, is given by Dupin. Bower. Dupin. Mosheim. VIGINTIVIRATE, a dignity among the ancient Romans, established by Caesar. This dignity comprehended four others; for of the vigintiviri, or twenty men which composed the company, there were there three who sat and judged all criminal affairs; three others had the inspection of the coins and coinage; four took care of the streets of Rome; and the rest were judges of civil affairs. VIGLES, in Geografthy, a town and castle of Hun- gary; 5 miles S.S.E. of Altsol. VIGNACOURT, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Somme; 9 miles N.W. of Amiens. VIGNAIS, or VINHAEs, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tra los Montes; 15 miles W. of Bragança. VIGNE, ANDREw DE LA, in Biografi.hy, a French writer of the 15th century, bore arms under Charles VIII., and was secretary to his queen, Anne of Britanny. In conjunction with Jaligni, he composed a “ History of Charles VIII.,” folio, printed at the Louvre, under the care and with the notes of Denis Godefroy. He also wrote “Vergier d’Honneur,” Paris, 1495, contain- ing an exact account of the expedition of Charles VIII. against Naples, at which he was present. Nouv. Dict. Hist. VIGNE, ANNE DE LA, a French poetess, was born in 1634 at Vernon-sur-Seine. Her talent for poetry ap- peared so soon, that Pelisson said of her, she seemed to have been suckled by the Muses. Menage compli- ments her with having surpassed the ancients, and ex- cited the jealousy of the moderns, by the beauty and Sonorousness of her verse. She is said to have united the study of philosophy with that of polite literature, and her character is represented as no less estimable than her talents. Huet speaks highly of her cheerful- ness and amenity, notwithstanding the feebleness of her constitution, and the pains she suffered. She closed life under the anguish of a calculous complaint in 1684, at the age of 50. Her principal pieces are an ode, en- titled “Monseigneur le Dauphin au Roi,” for which she received from a person unknown a lyre in gold enamelled, with a copy of verses in her praise; “Ode à Mademoiselle de Scudery;” “Reponse à Made- moiselle Descartes;” and several other “Pièces de Vers,” collected in a small octavo. Moreri. Huet. Gen. Biog. VIGNE, PIERRE DELLE, a celebrated minister of the . emperor Frederic II., was born of mean parentage in Capua, at the end of the twelfth century; and having pursued his studies to good effect as a mendicant scholar at Bologna, he was introduced to Frederic II., and ingratiated himself with this prince to such a de- gree, that he gave him a lodging in his court, and the opportunity of further improvement. He became a proficient in civil and canon law, and acquired an ele- gant style of writing, so that he was advanced by the emperor to the posts of prothonotary of his court, judge, and chancelior; and he became the confident of all his designs. His ability and learning raised him to the highest reputation, and his influence in the court of Frederic V I G V I G * Frederic was boundless. The emperor afforded him opportunity of amassing immense treasures, and em- ployed him in a variety of the most important embas- sies, which our limits will not allow us to recount. But before the close of his life, he lost the emperor's at- tachment and confidence, for which various reasons, none of which are Satisfactory, have been assigned. To the jealousy and envy of court attendants, the fall of favourites may often be justly ascribed. Whatever was the cause in this instance, Vigne suffered severely un- der his master’s displeasure; he was deprived of sight, and shut up in prison; and sinking into despair, he put an end to his life The time of his death is not known. The chronicle of Placentia dates his being blinded in 1248. Six books of letters remain, which Tiraboschi regards as one of the most valuable monuments of the 13th century. The last edition of them is that of Basil, in 1740. He also collected and arranged the laws of the kingdom of Sicily; and to him are attributed a work “Concerning the Imperial Authority,” and a book “On Consolation,” in imitation of that of Boethius. He also composed some Italian poems. Gen. Biog. VIGNETTE, in the art of Printing, is a French word, now often used among English artists and writers, to denote the flourish or ornament placed at the begin- ning of a book, preface, or dedication. These vignettes or head-pieces are very various in their form and size. See the description of PRINTING-Press. VIGNIER, NICHOLAs, in Biografthy, a historian, and chronologist, was born at Bar-sur-Seine in 1530, and brought up a Protestant. Having lost his property in the civil wars, he withdrew to Germany, and practis- ed physic with reputation and advantage. Upon his return to France, he conformed to the established reli- gion, and was appointed physician to the king, as well as historiographer-royal. One of the most curious of his works is his “Traité de l’Origine et Demeure des anciens François,” 1582, 4to., which was translated into Latin by Andrew du Chesne. His other works may be consulted with advantage by those who wish to ac- quaint themselves with French history. This writer died in 1595. Moreri. VignIER, JEROM, grandson of the preceding, was born at Blois in 1606. He was the son of a Protestant minister, educated in that profession, and designed for the law; but in 1628 he abjured Calvinism, and entered into the congregation of the Oratory. He became su- perior of several houses in his society, and acquired high reputation for piety as well as for extensive eru- dition. He was more particulary conversant with the oriental and other languages, with medals and antiqui- ties, and with the genealogy of the sovereign houses of Europe. He died at St. Magliore, in Paris, in 1661. His writings of various kinds were numerous. Moreri. VIGNOLA, a name commonly given to JAMEs BA- RozzI, from the place of his birth, a small town in the duchy of Modena, an eminent architect, was born in 1507; and as he discovered an early inclination for the arts, he was sent for education to Bologna. From paint- ing, to which he was first attached, he directed his at- tention to architecture. By various designs, upon the principies of Vitruvius, some of which he communi- cated to the historian Guicciardini, he acquired early reputation. With a view to further improvement he went to Rome, and was there admitted into the academy of design, newly fºunded, and employed by it in mea- suring the most celebrated remains of antiquity. The abbate Primaticcio, who was sent to Rome in 1537, by Vol. XXXVIII, * Francis I. of France, to procure designs of the ancient buildings and casts of statues, availed himself of the assistance of Vignola; and on his return, took him to France. After two year’s residence in France, he re- turned to Bologna, and was employed in forming a plan for the façade of the church of St. Petronius, which, through the envy of his competitors, was not executed till some years afterwards. In and near this city he built some palaces, and constructed the canal of Na- viglio, running thence to Ferrara. Unduly recom- pensed for this work, he went to Placentia, and plan- ned a palace for the duke of Parma. After his return to Rome in 1550, he built several churches there ; and by the interest of Vasari, pope Julius III. appointed him his architect. For him he built a villa, and near it the small church of St. Andrew, in form of an ancient temple ; and by his command he brought the Acqua Vergine to Rome. After the death of Julius, he was employed by cardinal Alexander Farnese in the con- struction of his magnificent palace or castle of Capra- rola ; and he had also the charge of building the church belonging to the professed house of Jesuits at Rome, which is an edifice of extraordinary beauty and gran- deur. It was raised only to the cornice before the death of Vignola, and finished by his disciple James della Porta. After the decease of Michael Angelo, Vignola was appointed to succeed him as architect of St. Peter’s in conjunction with Pirro Ligorio, a Nea- politan. This engagement and his advanced age obliged him to decline accepting an invitation from Philip II. to the court of Spain. He was consulted, however, with regard to the different plans given for the Escurial; and one which he furnished was highly approved, though not adopted. His other professional labours were interrupted by a commission from Gre- gory XIII. to settle the limits between the territories of the church and those of the duke of Tuscany; which commission he executed to the pope’s satisfaction. Upon his return from this service, he was seized with a fever, of which he died in 1573, aged 66. His remains were solemnly interred in the church of Sta Maria della Rotunda, the ancient Pantheon. Vignola acquired re- putation as an author no less than as a practical artist. His “ Rules for the five Orders of Architecture” were formed on the purest taste of antiquity, and have been always reckoned classical and original. This work has been often reprinted, and translated into almost all the European languages. The French translation, with the commentaries of Daviler, is most esteemed. Vignola also wrote a treatise on “Practical Perspective,” which has passed through many editions. Tiraboschi. D’Ar- genville. Gen. Biog. VIGNOLES, ALPHoNso pI, a learned Protestant. minister, was born in 1649 at Aubais, in Langut doc, and received his education chiefly under domestic tu- tors; and for the study of theology he went to Saumur. He officiated as minister, first at Aubais, and then at Caifar. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685, he removed to Brandenburg, and served several churches for 14 years. In 1704 he was elected a mem- ber of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin; and in 1703, by the recommendation of Leibnitz, the king ordered him to quit his church, and reside at Berlin, that he might be thus more useful to the Academy. He preached, however, for some years a church, in the vicinity of Berlin. Upon the ſº tion of e members of the Academy into , :::ies was placed first in that of historians, and afterwards in * 4 P , O V I G V IL of mathematicians. In 1727 he was chosen director of the Royal Academy, which post he occupied with dis- tinguished reputation. He died in 1744, at the ad- vanced age of 95. He contributed a variety of essays and dissertations on history, chronology, and antiquities, to the “Bibliotheque Germanique,” the “Memoirs of the Berlin Academy,” and the “Histoire Critique de la Republique des Lettres.” His principal separate work, the result of labour and much erudition, was “Chronologie de l’Histoire Sainte, et des Histoires étrangères quila concernant, depuis la Sortie d’Egypte jusqu'a la Captivité de Babylon,” Berlin, 1738, 2 vols. 4to. Moreri. VIGNOLY, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Ba- silicata; 5 miles S.S.E. of Potenza. VIGNORY, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Marne; 10 miles S. of Joinville. VIGNOT, a town of France, in the department of the Meuse, on the Meuse; 17 miles E. of Bar le Duc. N. lat. 48° 46'. E. long. 5° 41'. VIGNUOLA, or VIGNoLA, a town of Italy, in the department of the Panaro; 15 miles S.E. of Modena. VIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Oise; 8 miles W. of Pontoise. ViGO, GIovaNNI DA, in Biography, an eminent sur- geon, born in Genoa, and in 1503 invited to Rome by pope Julius II, to be his first surgeon. He also re- ceived a considerable pension from the pope’s nephew, cardinal della Rovere. His work, entitled “Practica in Arte Chirurgica copiosa,” first published at Rome in 1514, folio, became very popular, and was often re- printed. It is a very full compendium of the art of surgery, (as then known and practised,) and contains also a system of anatomy and of materia medica, and was long regarded as a standard work. Another of his works, entitled “Chirurgia Compendiosa,” 15 i Z, is a kind of summary of the former, and some new obser- vations. Haller. Eloy. VIGO, in Geografthy, a sea-port town of Spain, in the province of Galicia, situated on a bay of the Atlantic, defended by a fort on an eminence, but not capable of great resistance. It has also an old castle, and stands in a very fruitful country. In 1589, Vigo was plun- dered by Sir Francis Drake. In 1702, the English and Dutch fleets forced their passage in, and made them- selves masters of the Spanish plate-fleet, when just returned from America. In 1719, the English again took possession of the place, but relinquished it after raising contributions; 12 miles N.N.W. of Tuy. N. lat. 42° 14'. W. long. 8° 43'. VIGOER, a town of Norway, in the province of Bergen; 25 miles E. of Bergen. VIGOLO, a town of the duchy of Piacenza; 15 miles S of Piacenza. VIGOLZANO, a town of the duchy of Piacenza ; 3 miles S. of Piacenza. VIGONE, a town of France, in the department of the Po ; 14 miles S.S.W. of Turin. VIGORETZKOI, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Olonetz; 20 miles E. of Povenetz. VIGOROSO, or VIGoRos AMENTE, in the Italian Music, is used to direct a performer to sing or play with vigour, strength and firmness. VIGTEN, in Geography, an island in the North sea, near the coast of Norway. N. lat. 64° 55'. E. long. l 1 - 1 O’. VIGULONE, a town of the duchy of Parma; 15 miles S.S.W. of Parma. VIHELY, a town of Hungary; 10 miles N.E. of Patak. VIHIERS, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Mayne and Loire; 20 miles S. of Angers. N. lat. 47 ° 9'. W. long. 27. VIJAR, a town of Spain, in the province of Gre- nada; 13 miles N.E. of Almeria. VIJAYA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a grand-daughter of Brahma, her father being Daksha. The name Vijaya, like Sarvajaya, means victorious or all-conquering, and is given to Parvati in some of her martial characters. In some books it is related, that in the process of churning the ocean, as described in our article KURMAVATARA, a flower or plant was pro- duced, called Vijaya, or ever victorious, which Siva kept for his own use. UJIBO, in Geografthy, a town of South America, in the jurisdiction of Guayaquil. VIKA, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia; 6 miles S.E. of Fahlun. VIKRAMA, or VIKRAMADITYA, in Biography, a ce- lebrated astronomer and legislator of the Hindoos. The era named after him, corrupted into Bickermajit or Beekermajeet, is in very extensive use in the East, both among Hindoos and Mahometans; though the latter, of course, generally among themselves adopt that of the Hegira. In the ninth volume cf the Asiatic Researches is a learned essay by Mr. Wilford on the era named after this celebrated astronomer, who was a monarch also. His capital was Ougein, under which article we have given some account of that very interesting city, and some notice of its royal patron, and his era. VILAINE, in Geografthy, a river of France, which rises near Ernée, in the department of the Mayenne, passes by Vitré, Châteaubourg, Rennes, Redon, Rieux, la Roche Bernard, &c. and runs into the Atlantic, 9 miles below the last town. VILAINES, a town of France, in the department of the Côte d’Or ; 8 miles S. of Châtillon sur Seine. VILAR de Belle, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Aude ; 12 miles S. of Carcassonne. VILASAR, a town of Spain, on the south coast of Catalonia; 2 miles W. of Matara. VILASK, a town of Hungary; 8 miles N. of Libeten. VILBEL, a town of Germany, in the county of Ha- nau-Munzenburg, on the Nidda; 4 miles N. of Franck- fort on the Maine. VILBESTRE, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 43 miles S. of Salamanca. VILCABAMBA, a town of Peru, in the diocess of Cusco; 60 miles N.N.W. of Cusco.—Also, a town of Peru; 70 miles S.S.E. of Cusco.—Also, a town of South America, in the province of Quito ; 15 miles S. of Loxa. - VII.CAS CUAMAN, or BILCAs, a town of Peru, and principal place of a jurisdiction of the same name, in the bishopric of Guamanga. The air is temperate, and the soil produces corn and fruit, and feeds abun- dance of cattle. The Indians are industrious, and em- ployed in manufactures of different kinds of stuff. VILEMERITZ, a town of Croatia; 6 miles S. of Sluin. VILEPATTY, a town of the island of Ceylon; 12 miles W.N.W. of Trinkamaiy. VILEVO, a town of Sclavonia; 34 miles N.W. of Eszek. VILFA, in Botany, an arbitrary iſ ame of Adanson’s, in his Fam. des Plantes, v. 2. 495, adopted by Mr. Kunth, in Humboldt's Nov. Gen. et Sp. Pl. v. 1. º: We V IL V IL We cannot account for this adoption, there being no- thing to recommend the name. Happily the genus which it designates is Mr. Brown’s SPOROBoLUs. See that article. VILILLA, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in the province of Aragon, on the left side of the Ebro ; 27 miles S.E. of Saragossa. VILK! OT, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland; 23 miles N.W. of Calmar. VILL, VILLA. See VILLAGE. VILLA, a town of Etruria; 13 miles S.S.E. of Pon- tremoli...—Also, a town of South America, in the pro- vince of Paraguay; 90 miles E. of Assumption.—Also, a small island in the Atlantic, near the coast of Brasil. S. lat 20° 9'. VILLA, La, a town of New Grenada, on the Mada- lena; 16 miles N. of Neyba. —Also, a town of Mexico, in the province of Veragua, situated on the river Vera- gua, with a harbour fit to receive vessels of forty tons. VILLA Bella, a town of Brasil, in the government of Matto Grosso. VILLA Boa, a town of Brasil, and capital of the go- vernment of Goyas; 450 miles N.W. of Rio Janeiro. S. lat. 17°. W. long. 51°24'. VILLA Boim a town of Portugal, in Alentejo; 4 miles S.W. of Elvas. VILLA Bona, a town of Spain, in Guipuscoa, on the Orio; 6 miles from Tolosa. VILLA do Carmo, a town of Brasil, in the govern- ment of Minas Geraes; 20 miles E.N.E. of Villa Rica. S. lat. 20° 20'. W. long. 44° 30'. VILIA Cham, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 1 miles E. of Coimbra. VILLA Chan, a town of Portugal, in the province of Entre Duero e Minho; 5 miles N.W. of Barcelos VILLA Clara, a town of the island of Cuba; 20 miles N.W. of Spiritu Santo. VILLA de Conde, a sea-port town of Portugal, in the province of Entre Duero e Minho, situated on the N. side of the river Aue; 9 miles E.S.E. of Barcelos. N. lat. 41° 23', E. long. 8° 21'. VILLA Diego, a town of Spain, in Old Castile, on the Pesuerga; 8 miles N.N.W. of Burgos. VILLA Fallet, a town of France, in the department of the Stura; 5 miles N.N.W. of Coni. VILLA Faustini, in Ancient Geography, a town of Great Britain, in the fifth Iter of the route of Antonine, between Colonia or Colchester, and Icianos or Chester- ford. This station is placed by Camden, Gale, and Baxter, at St. Edmund’s Bury, in Suffolk; but Mr. Horsley prefers these copies of the Itinerary which have xxv for the numerals, and fixes it at Dunmow. Wherever it was situated, it probably derived its name from some great Roman called Faustimus having a country seat there. VILLA Fernanda, ºn Geography, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; 14 miles E. of Estremoz. VILLA Flor, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tra los Montes; 12 miles S.E. of Mirandela.—Also, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo; 7 miles N.N.W. of O Crato. VILLA de Frades, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo; 4 miles N. of Beja. VILLA Franca, a town of Italy, in the department of the Benaco; 13 miles N. of Mantua.-Also, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova; 13 miles N.E. of Cordova.—Also, a town of Spain, in Old Castile, on the Tormes; 25 miles S. of Avila.-Also, a town of Spain, in Old Castile; 9 miles S. of Frias.—Also, a town of Spain, in Old Castile; 10 miles E. of Burgos. –Also, a sea-port, and capital of St. Michael, one of the Azores islands. It is the most ancient town in the whole island; and so called from its being at first a free port. Before its harbour lies an island, about a mile in circumference, and towards the sea the town is defended by a fort and some other works. It consists of 1813 hearths, has two parish churches and two convents.- Also, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 12 miles N.W. of Ponferrada.-Also, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 35 miles W. of Astorga-Al- so, a town of Italy, in the Trevisan; 14 miles W. of Trevigio.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Dora; 3 miles S.E. of Aosta.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Po; 16 miles S.S.W. of Turin.—Also, a sea-port town of France, in the de- partment of the Maritime Alps, late the county of Nice, with two castles. The harbour is sheltered by some lofty hills, founded in 1295 by Charles II. king of Na- ples, who was earl of Provence: the citadel was built by duke Emanuel Philibert; 3 miles E. of Nice. VILLA Franca de Panades, a town of Spain, in Cata- lonia, and principal place of a viguery; 20 miles S.W. of Barcelona. VILLA Franca de Xira, a town of Portugal, in Estre- madura, on the N. side of the Tagus; 15 miles N.E. of Lisbon. VILLA Frechos, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 7 miles W.N.W. of Rioseco. VILLA Gaba, a town of Brasil, in the government of St. Paul ; 95 miles N.N.E. of St. Paul. S. lat. 22° 15'. W. long. 46° 6'. VILLA Garcia, a town of Spain, in Estremadura ; 4 miles N. of Llerena. VILLA Harta, a town of Spain, in New Castile, on the left side of the Guadiana; 36 miles W. of Civdad Real. VILLA Hermosa, or Dilla de Mosa, a town of Mexi- co, in the province of Tabasco, on a river navigable by boats to Tabasco; chiefly inhabited by Indians; 56 miles S.W. of Tabasco. N. lat. 17° 40'. W. long. 94° 16'. VILLA Hermosa, a town of Spain, in New Castile ; 15 miles W.S.W. of Alcaraz.-Also, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia; 24 miles N. of Segorbe. VILLA de Horta, the chief town of Fayal, one of the Azores islands. It is situated in the bottom of the bay of Fayal, or De Horta, close to the edge of the sea, and is defended by two castles, one at each end of the town, and a wall of stone-work, extending along the sea-shore, from the one to the other. But these works are in a state of decay, and seem more for show than strength. They brighten the prospect of the city, which makes a fine appearance from the road; and if we except the Jesuits’ college, the monasteries, and churches, there is not another building that has any thing to recom- mend it, within or without. There is not a glass win- dow in the place, except those of the churches, and in a country-house which lately belonged to the English consul; all the others being latticed, which to an En- glishman has the aspect of prisons. This little city is crowded with religious buildings; it has three convents of men, and two of women, and eight churches. The Jesuits’ college is a fine structure, and is seated on an eminence in the pleasantest part of the city. Since the expulsion of that order it is sinking into decay, and will probably soon be completely ruined. The Fayal wine, as it is called, is raised on the island Pico, and 4 P 2 shipped V I L V I L shipped abroad from De Horta, chiefly to America; from which circumstance it derives its name. Its bay or road of Fayal is situated at the E. end of the isle be- fore the Villa de Horta, and facing the W. end of Pico. It is two miles broad, three quarters of a mile deep, and has a semicircular form. N. lat. 38° 31' 55". W. long. 28° 38' 56”. VILLA d’Iglesias, or Villa di Glesia, a town of the island of Sardinia, and see of a bishop, in 1513 united to Cagliari ; 36 miles S.W. of Cagliari. N. lat. 39° 28'. E long. 8° 42'. * VILLA, Imſirenta, a town of Italy, in the department of the Mincio, on the Tione; 9 miles E. of Mantua. VILLA Joiosa, or Joysa, a town of Spain, in Valencia, on the coast of the Mediterranean ; 18 miles N.N.E. of Alicant. VILLA de Laguna, or Lagoa, a town of Brasil, in the jurisdiction of Rio de Janeiro. VILLA Magna, or Villa Privata, in Ancient Geogra- fihy, a place of Africa Propria, upon the route from Carthage to Alexandria, between Pontezita and Fifida Vicus. Anton. Itin. VILLA Magma, in Geografthy, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Citra ; 51 miles S.E. of Civita di Chieti. VILLA Major, a town of Spain, in Galicia, on the coast of the Atlantic ; 27 miles S.W. of St. Jago.—Al- So, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 12 miles S. of Sara- gossa. VILLA Martin, a town of Spain, in Seville ; 12 miles N.E. of Arcos.-Also, a town of Spain, in Leon; 22 miles E. of Leon. VILLA Mayor, a town of Spain, in Leon; 30 miles S. of Leon. VILLA de la Monclova, or Le Coagula, a town of New Mexico, in the province of New Leon. VILLA Mosa. See VILLA Hermosa. VILLA de Motta, a town of Istria; 3 miles S. of Capo d’Istria. VILLA Mova, a town of France, in the department of the Sesia; 3 miles S. of Vercelii.-Also, a town of France, in the department of the Dora ; 4 miles W. of Aosta. VILLA Mova d’Alvio, a town of Portugal, in Alente- jo ; 18 miles N. of Beja. VILLA Mova d’Angos, a town of Portugal, in Estre- madura ; 5 miles S. of Montemor o Velho. VILLA JVova d'Asti, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Tanaro, so called because it was built by the inhabitants of Asti, from the ruins of some neigh- bouring villages; and when they understood the ad- vantages of its situation, they surrounded it with waiis, bastions, ramparts, deep fosses filled with water, half- moons, and otiier works. It has besides two ancient towers, and two churches; 1 miles E. of Turin. VILLA Mova de Barcarota, a town of Spain, in Estre- madura; 27 miles S. of Badajos. VI: LA JVova da Cervera, a town of Portugal, on the S. side of the Minho, near its mouth, in the province of Entre Duero e Minho; 27 miles N.N.W. of Braga. N. lat. 41° 55'. W. long. 8° 27'. VILLA Wova de Ficalbo, a town of Portugal, in Alen- tejo, on the confines of Spain; 24 miles S.E. of Beja. VILLA Mova de Fossoa, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 12 miles S.E. of St. Joao da Pes- gueira. VILLA JVova de Meya, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 13 miles N.N.E, of Balaguer. VILLA Wova de Milfontes, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; l l miles S. of Sines. VILLA Wova de Moncarros, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 16 miles W. of Montemor o Velho. VILLA JVova de Portimao, a sea-port town on the S. coast of Portugal, and province of Algarve. It is a fortified town, built in the year 1463, and contains about 500 mostly small and poor houses, surrounded by a high wall, beyond which is a small suburb, and is sar- risoned by two companies. The river of Villanova flows close to the walls, is here considerably broad (next to the Guadiana, which is the largestin Aigarvia,) and discharges itself half a league from thence between high downs into the sea. The bar is dangerous, and the sand-banks shifting, so that the harbour cannot be very important; 9 miles E.N.E. of Lagos. N. lat. 37° 5'. W. long. 8° 28′. VILLA Wova de Porto, a town of Portugal, in the province of Entre Duero e Minho, on the left side of the Duero, opposite Oporto, built in the year 1255, and containing about 3000 inhabitants. VILLA Wova del Princiſe, a town of Brasil, in the jurisdiction of Bahia. N. lat. 17° 10'. W. long. 42° 34'. VILLA Wova del Rio, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville, near the Guadalquivir; 18 miles N.N.E. of Seville. VILLA Wueva, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the coast of the Mediterranean. It has no harbour, but a good road; 24 miles W. of Barcelona.-Also, a town of Spain, in Asturia; 43 miles W. of Oviedo. VILLA Mueva de Gallego, a town of Spain, in Ara- gon, on the Gallego; 6 miles from Saragossa. VILLA.Vueva de Jaro, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova ; 27 miles N.N.E. of Cordova. VILLA JVueva de los Infantes, a town of Spain, in Ga- licia ; 12 miles S. of Orense. VILLA.Wueva de la Serena, a town of Spain, in Estre- madura ; 63 miles N. of Seville. VILLA JVuova, a town of Istria; 9 miles E.S.E. of Umago.—Also, a town of the island of Sardinia; lo miles S. of Algeri...—Also, a town of Italy, in the depart- ment of the Upper Po ; 18 miles E. of Cremona- Also, a town of the Popedom, in the marquisate of An- cona, on the coast of the Adriatic ; 10 miles E. of Ma- Cerata. VILLA Obleda, a town of Spain, in New Castile; 28 miles N. of Aicaraz. VILLA Ombrosa, a town of Etruria; 14 miles E. of Florence. - V IL1A del Ovo, a town of Brasil, in the jurisdiction of Matto Grosso. VILLA do Ponte Traffia, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 18 miles N.E. of Viseu. VILLA del Princifle, a town of the island of Cuba; 145 miles N.W. of St. Jago. N. lat. 21° 17'. W. long. 77° 45'. VILLA do Princifle, a town of Brasil, in the govern- ment of Minas Geraes; 360 miles N. of Rio Janeiro. This town is situated on the declivity of a lofty hill, the base of which is washed by a rivulet called Corvinha de quatro Vergtems. It was established as a comar- co, or district, in the year 1730, when the gold-washings were most productive; though it dates its origin about fifteen years earlier, when the place was discovered by the Paulists, at the commencement of their migration from Villa Rica and the adjacent settlements. At pre- Sent V I L V IL sent the town contains about 5000 inhabitants, most of whom are shop-keepers, and the rest artisans, farmers, miners, and labourers. As this town is situated very near the confines of the Diamond district, and on the high road leading to it, the passage of all persons thither is subject to the strictest regulations. The country round is very fine and open, being free from those im- penetrable woods, which occur so frequently in other parts of the province. Its soil is in general very pro- ductive, and the climate mild and salubrious. N. lat. 179 6ſ. W. long. 42° 44'. VILLA Real, a town of Portugal, in the province of Algarve, built by Pombal, four leagues from Tavira. It is situated at the mouth of the Guadiana, which is here a broad and fine stream. It is built with perfect regularity, the streets in which are the handsomest houses being situated on the bank of the river, and the smaller houses at a greater distance. The pavement is good, and in the middle of the town is a handsome square, in which the town-house stands. But it is in a lamentable degree destitute of inhabitants, and without a company of soldiers, the place would be quite empty. Poverty every where appears, the adjacent country being very Sandy, and the soil in many places consist- ing entirely of quicksand : the downs are planted with fig-trees. The entrance of the harbour is broad but not very deep. The town derives all its supplies, even of bread, from Ayamonte, the destruction of which was aimed at by the founder of this town.—Also, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tra los Montes, containing two churches, two hospitals, three convents, and about 2400 inhabitants; 9 miles N. of Lamego.—Also, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia; 20 miles E. of Segorbe.—Also, a town of Spain, in Guipuscoa; 6 miles S.S.W. of Placentia. VILLA Real de Conceiçao, a town of Brasil, in the go- vernment of Minaes Geraes; 40 miles N.W. of Villa Rica. VILLA del Rey, a town of Spain, in Fstremadura, on the borders of Portugal, taken by the allies in the year 1706 ; 12 miles N. of Badajoz-Also, a town of Spain, in Gaiicia; 22 miles S.E. of Orense. VILLA de la Reyna, a town of Spain, in Estremadu- ra; ; 2 miies E. of Llerena. VILL Rºca, a town of Brasil, and capital of the juris- diction of Minaes Geraes; 50 miles N. of Rio Janei- ro. S. lat. 20° 25'. W. long. 44° 36'. The town stands on a steep and lofty eminence, connected with others forming an immense chain, of which it is one of the highest. Most of the streets, irregular and badly paved, range in steeps from the base to the summit, and are crossed by others which lead up the acclivity; but its environs exhibit few traces of cultivation. This town has been denominated the rich village; it is the capital of the province and the seat of its government, and has for mºn, years been reputed the richest in Brasil, as it was the depository of all the gold found in the extensive su: rounding district. Tº is town is admirably supplied with water, which is conducted in a very convenient manner into almost every house; and in the streets are many fountains that are well constructed. One cistern contains water having a strong taste of sulphate of iron, which the natives consider as serviceable in the cure of cutaneous diseases, and in which they often bati.e. The town is divided into two parishes, and contains a population of about 20,000 inhabitants, of whom there are more whites than blacks. The climate is delight- ful, and supposed to be equal to that of Naples; and though the latitude is only 20° 3', yet on account of its elevated situation, the temperature of the air is gene- rally moderate. The thermometer never exceeds 82° in the shade, and is rarely below 48° ; but its usual range is from 64° to 80° in summer and from 48° to 70° in winter. The greatest heats prevail in January. Here are frequent showers of rain, and thunder-storms are common, but nou violent. The sun is sometimes clouded by dews and mist so dense, as not to subside until the forenoon is far advanced. The gardens in the vi- cinity of the town are laid out with great taste, and present a curious spectacle, by their arrangement on the declivity of the mountain. They furnish an ample supply of vegetables of every kind, as artichokes, as- paragus, spinach, cabbage, kidney-beans, and potatoes. The peach, which is the only exotic fruit hitherto introduced, flourishes in an astonishing degree. The town is of considerable extent, but not so well peopled as when the mines were rich. The shop-keepers are a numerous class, and they are pientifully supplied with all sorts of English merchandize, except earthen- Ware, hams, porter, and butter, which articles are dear. The market is iil supplied, notwithstanding the fertility of the surrounding district. Poultry might be had at a moderate price, from 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. fier couple ; beef was tolerable ; pork very fine; but mutton utterly unknown. When Mr. Mawe visited this town in the year 1809, some of the inhabitants told him that it ought now to be termed “ Villa Pobra” instead of “Villa Ri- ca.” Of above 2000 habitations which the town contain- ed, a considerable proportion were untenanted, and the rents of the rest were continually lowering. The mountain on which the town stands appeared to be eight or nine miles in length, narrow and almost in- sulated, being surrounded by deep ravines. It is com- posed of argillaceous schistus in almost every gradation, migrating from the compact blue state into micăceous schistus. The first discovery of this once rich mountain was owing to the enterprising spirit of the Paulists, who, of all the colonies in Brasil, retained the largest portion of that ardent and indefatigable zeal for discovery which characterized the Lusitanians of former days. They pe- netrated from their capital, St. Paul’s, through in pervi- ous woods, and disputed every inch of their progress with the barbarous Indians. Following the course of rivers, they occasionally found gold; till arriving at this mountain, its riches arrested their progress, and erecting temporary houses, they began their operations. They were soon joined by other adventurers from St. Paul’s and other places. Their wealth proved the occasion of contests between the first settlers and new adventurers. When tranquility was re-established, a regular town be- gan to be formed in 1711, and a code of laws enacted for the regulation of the mines. A fifth in weight of the gold-dust that was found was taken for the king, and the remainder purified, smelted into ingots at the expense of government, then assayed, marked according to their value, and delivered to tie owners, with a certificate to render them earnest; and for the convenience of trade, gold-dust was allowed to circulate for small pºlyments. Smuggling, however, gained ground, and new reguia. tions and provisions were adopted for restraining it. Villa Rica soon enjoyed a considerable trade with Rio de Janeiro : the returns were negroes, iron, woollens, salt, provisions of various kinds, and wine, witicſ, their bore very high prefits. About the year 17 3, the rºyal fiful amºunted to half a million sterling annually. An- tonio Dias, the leader of the Paulists, who discovered this SQU Cº.' V I L V IL source of wealth, and became very rich, built a fine church, and at his death endowed it with considerable funds: it still bears his name : five or six others were begun and soon finished. The town also underwent ma- ny improvements; its streets were more regularly built, and the side of the mountain levelled for the scite of new houses and gardens; reservoirs and ſountains of water were constructed in different parts; and the mint and smelting-houses were enlarged. The number of inhabi- tants at this time amounted to 12,000, or upwards. Be- tween the year 1730 and 1750, the mines were in the height of their prosperity; the king's fifth, as it is said, amounting to at least a million sterling. At the present day, Villa Rica scarcely retains a shadow of its former splendour. Its inhabitants are unemployed, and the culture of the adjacent country neglected. Almost every trade is now occupied either by mulattoes or negroes, both of which classes seem superior in intellect to their masters, because they make a better use of it. However, the vicinity furnishes the means of acquiring wealth by its mines of gold, iron, and porcelain clay, &c. if the inhabitants had un- derstanding or application to convert them into real value. At the distance of eight miles from Villa Rica is Mariana, separated from it by a tremendous and almost impassable road, along a ridge of mountains. The Rio del Carmen runs through this town. This was made a bishops's see about the year 1715, and called Cidade de Mariana, in honour of the then reigning queen of Portugal. This is a small, neat, well-built town, containing from 6000 to 7000 inhabitants. It has a college for the education of young men designed for the church This place has little trade, and depends chiefly on the mines and seams in its vicinity. Mawe’s Travels. VILLA Rica, a town of South America, in the pro- vince of Paraguay; 100 miles N. E. of Assumption. —Also, a town of Chili; 60 miles N.E. of Valdivia. S. lat. 38° 50'. W. long. 73° 10'. VILLA Rodigro, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 40 miles E. of Leon. VILLA Rubia, a town of Spain, in New Castile ; 6 miles E. of Ocana. VILLA Rubia de los Ojos, a town of Spain, in New Castile ; 12 miles N. of Calatrava. VILLA de los Santos. See SANTos. VILLA de safira, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 15 miles W. of Gemona. VILLA Savary, La, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Aude ; 14 miles W. of Carcassonne. VILLA de Sul, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 5 miles W. of Viseu. VILLA deſ Valle, a town of South America, in the province of Chiquitos. VILLA de Valle Fertile, a town of South America, in the province of Cuyo ; 80 miles S.E. of Juan de la Frontera. VILLA Vecchia, a town of the Ligurian Republic ; 12 miles N. of Genoa. VILLA Wºja, a town of South America, in the govern- ment of Bahia, at first called St Salvador. VILLA Wella de Rodao, a town of Portugal, in Estre- madura; 17 miles S.S.W. of Castei Branco. VILLA Picento, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 30 miles S. of Leon. VILLA Vigosa, or Villa Vizoga, or Villa Viciosa, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo, containing two parish churches, eight convents, and about 3700 inhabitants. In the neighbourhood is dug some beautiful green marble. Near it is a royal palace, with a park; 97 miles N.E. of Evora. N. lat. 38° 39'. W. long. 7°12'. VILIA Viciosa, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova #25 miles N. N.W. of Cordova.-Also, a town of South America, in the province of Quito ; 10 miles S.E. oi Quito.—Also, a sea-port town of Spain, in the province of Asturias, situated at the bottom of a bay of the Atlantic ; 30 miles N.E. of Oviedo. VILLA Vija, a town of Spain, in Old Castile; 34 miles E. of Burgos. VILLA. Rºgis, or Regia, a title anciently given to those villages where the kings of England had a royal seat, and held the manor in their own demesne : having there commonly a free chapel exempt from the bishop's jurisdiction. VILLABAR, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tras os Montes; 15 miles S.E. of Mi- randela. VILLACANAS, a town of Spain, in New Castile; 32 miles E.3.E. of Toledo. VILLAC ASTIN, a town of Spain, in Old Castile; 18 miles W.S. W. of Segovia. VILLAK.ERF, a town of France, in the department of the Aude; 8 miles N.W. of Troyes. VILLACH, a town of the duchy of Carinthia, on the right side of the Deave. Near the town are some medicinal baths; 18 miles W. of Clagenfurt. N. lat. 46° 43'. E. long. 13° 39'. VILLACO, a town of the island of Corsica, in the district of Corte. VILLACURI, a town of Peru, in the audience of Lima; ; 2 miles E.S.E. of Pisco. VILLADA, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 27 miles N.W. of Palencia. VILLAF PREPOSITUS. See PREPOSITUs. VILLAFAFILA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 20 miles N.N.E. of Zamora. VILLAFELICHE, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Aragon; 3 miles N. of Daroca. VILLAFREDDA, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 9 miles N.N.W. of Sezza. VILLAFRIA, a town of Spain, in Guipuscoa; 12 miles E.S.E. of Trevigno. VILLAGE, VILLA, or Will, an assemblage of houses, inhabited chiefly by peasants and farmers, having usu- ally a church, but no market. The word is French, formed of vil, or vilis, low, mean, contemptible : or rather, from the Latin villa, a country-house, or farm. The want of a market distinguishes a village from a town, as the church does from a green, Street, &c. Among our Saxon ancestors, vill, or village, was used in the sense of the Roman villa ; viz. for a country farm, or seat, furnished with convenient outhouses, &c. for repositing the fruits thereof. Afterwards it came to be taken for a manor; and then for part of a parish, or the parish itself. Hence, in several ancient law-books, will and flarish are the same thing : accordingly, Fortescue de Laudi- bus Leg. Ang. writes, “That the boundaries of villages are not by houses, streets, or walls; but by a large cir- cuit of ground, within which may be divers hamlets, waters, woods, &c.” - Fleta makes this difference between a mansion, a village and a manor; that a mansion may consist of one, or more houses; though there is only to be one dwelling-place, without any other very near it: º, if Oth CI" V IL V I L other houses be contiguous, it is then a village. A manor may consist of one or more villages. For the better government of villages, the lord of the soil has usually a power to hold a court-baron every three weeks. The statute of Exeter, 14 Edw. I., makes frequent mention of entire-vills, demi-vills, and hamlets. Entire-vills, sir H. Spelman conjectures to have con- sisted of ten freemen, or frank-pledges, demi-vills of five, and hamlets of less than five. See Town. VILLAGE Bay, in Geography, a bay on the west coast of Africa. S. lat. 14° 25'. VfLLAGRA, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 17 miles N. of Rio Seco. VILLAIN, or VILLEIN, Villanus, in our Ancient Customs, the same with bondman : called also, in Domesdaybook, servus, slave. A villain was one who held lands in villemage, or on condition of rendering base services to his iord. Under the Saxon government, there was, as sir Wil- liam Temple speaks, a sort of people in condition of downright servitude, employed in the most servile works, and belonging, they, their children and effects, to the lord of the soil, like the rest of the cattle or stock upon it. These seem to have been those who held what was called the folk-land, from which they were removeable at the lord’s pleasure. On the ar- rival of the Normans here, it seems not improbable, that they who were strangers to any other than the feodal state, might give some sparks of enfranchise- ment to such wretched persons as fell to their share, by admitting them, as well as others, to the oath of fealty, which conferred a right of protection, and raised the tenant to a kind of state superior to downright sla- very, but inferior to every other condition. This they called villenage, and the tenants villains, either from the word vilis, or else, as sir Edward Coke tells us à villa, because they lived chiefly in villages, and were employed in rustic works of the most sordid kind: hence they were also denominated ſhagenses and rustici. These villains, belonging principally to lords of manors, were either villains regardant, by the civilians called gleba addicti or as crifititii, that is, annexed to the ma- nor or land; or else they were in gross, or at large, that is, annexed to the person of the lord, and transfer- rabie fiom one owner to another. They could not leave their lord without his permission; but if they ran away, or were purloined from him, might be claimed and recovered by action, like beasts or other chattels. They held indeed small portions of land by way of sus- taining themselves and families; but it was at the mere will of the lord, who might dispossess them whenever he pleased; and it was upon villain services, that is, to carry out dung, to hedge and ditch the lord’s demes- nes, and any other the meatlest offices; and their ser- vices were not only base, but uncertain both as to time and qualitity. A villain could acquire no property either in lands or goods; but if he purchased either, the lord might enter upon them, oust the villain, and seize them to his own use, unless he contrived to dispose of them again before the lord had seiz- ed them ; for the lord had then lost his opportunity. In many places also, a fine was payable to the lord, if the villain presumed -o (Aarry His daughter to any one with ut leave from the lord ; and by the common law, the ic 'd also might bring an action against the husband for damages in thus purloining his property. For the children of villains were also in the same state of bondage with their parents; whence they are called in Latin nativi, whence the female appellation of a villain, who was called a neife. In case of a marriage between a freeman and a neife, or a villain and a free-woman the issue followed the condition of the father, being free if he was free, and villain if he was villain ; but no bas- tard could be born a villain. The law, however, pro- tected the persons of villains, as the king’s subjects, against atrocious injuries of the lord; for he might not kill, or maim his villain; though he might beat him with impunity, since the villain had no action or remedy at law against his lord, but in case of the murder of his ancestor or the maiming of his own person. Neifes in- deed had also an appeal of rape, in case the lord vio- lated them by force. Villains might be enfranchised by manumission. Hence, and by other means, they gained, in process of time considerable ground on their lords; and in par- ticular strengthened the tenure of their estates to that de- gree, that they came to have in them an interest in many places full as good, in others better than their lords. For the good-nature and benevolence of many lords of manors having, time out of mind, permitted their villains, and their children, to enjoy their posses- sions without interruption, in a regular course of de- scent, the common law gave them title to prescribe against their lords; and, on performance of the same services, to hold their lands, in spite of any”determina- tion of the lord’s will. For though, in general, they are said to hold their estates at the will of the lord; yet it is such a will as is agreeable to the customs of the manor; which customs are preserved and eviden- ced by the rolls of the several courts-baron in which they are entered, or kept on foot by the constant imme- morial usage of the several manors in which the lands lie. And, as such tenants had nothing to shew for their estates but these customs, and admissions in pursuance of them, entered on those rolls, or the copies of such entries witnessed by the steward, they now began to be called tenants by cofiy of a court-roll, and their tenure itself a cofty-hold. Copy-holders are, therefore, in truth no other but villains, who, by a long series of immemo- rial encroachments on the lord, have at last established a customary right to those estates, which were before held absolutely at the lord’s will. These encroach- ments at length became so universal, that when tenure in villenage was virtually abolished (though copy-holds were reserved) by the statute of Charles II. there was hardly a flure villain left in the nation. To this pur- pose sir Thomas Smith testifies that in all his time (and he was secretary to Edward VI.) he never knew any villain in gross throughout the realm ; and the few villains re- gardant that Were then remaining, were such only as had belonged to bishops, monasteries, and other ecclesi- astical corporations, in the preceding times of popery. By several means, the generality of villains in the kingdom have long ago Sprouted up into copy-holders; their persons being enfranchised by manumission, or long acquiescence: but their estates, in strictness, re- maining subject to tie same servile conditions and for- feitures as before ; though, in general, the villain ser- vices are usually computed for a small pecuniary quit- rent. Black St. Corn, book ii. See VILLENA Gr. VILLAIN Jºate, or ‘’ondition, is contradistinguished to free tºtal. Seo BASE Te lure, and VILLUNAGE. VILLAINAGE. See VILLENAGE. VILLAINE, V I L W I L VILLAINE, in Geography, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of May- enne ; 12 miles E. N. E. of Mayenne. N. lat. 48° 21'. W. long. Oº 1 l'. VILLAINOUS Jupgxi ENT, is that which casts the reproach and stain of villainy and shame on him against whom it is given. As that against a conspirator, &c. See ConsPIRAcy. w Lambard calls it villainous flunishment ; and says, it may well be called villainous, in regard the judgment, in such case, shall be like the ancient judgment in at- taint, viz. that the criminals hall not be of any credit afterwards: nor shall it be lawful for them, in person, to approach the king’s court : that their lands and goods shall be seized into the king's hands, their trees rooted up, their bodies imprisoned, &c. This villainous judgment is low become obsolete; it not having been pronounced for some ages: but in- stead of it, the delinquents are usually sentenced to im- prisonment, fine, and pillory. VILLALAR, in Geograft/ly, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 12 miles N. N. W. of Rio Seco. VILLALBA, a town of Spain, in Estremadura; 32 miles S. E. of Badajoz.-Also, a town of Spain, in Ga- licia ; 18 miles S. W. of Mondonedo. VILLALON, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 25 miles W. N. W. of Palencia. VII.LALPANDA, JoHN-BAPTIST, in Biografthy, a native of Cordova, entered the society of Jesus in 1571, and distinguished himself by a learned and diffuse com- mentary on the book of Ezekiel, in three vols. fol. Rome, 1596. It contains an elaborate description of the city and temple of Jerusalem. He also published, in 1598, “Explanatio Epistolarum Sancti Pauli,” under the name of Remi of Rheims, to whom he found it ascribed in a manuscript dated in 1067. This Jesuit died in 1608. Dupin. VILLALPANDO, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 33 miles S. of Leon. VILLALTA, a town of Italy, in the country of Fri- uli; 5 miles W. of Udina. VILLALVA, a town of Spain, in Galicia ; 15 miles S. of Mondonedo. VILLAMBEA, a town of Spain, in New Castile ; 25 miles S. S. E. of Madrid. VILLAMEA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 4 miles S. of Lamego. VILLAMEDO, a town of Spain, in Estremadura; 12 miles W. S. W. of Talavera la Vieja. VILLAMENA de la Jarra, a town of Spain, in the rovince of Cordova; 27 miles N. N. E. of Cordova. VILLAMIEL, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 43 miles S. of Cfudad of Rodrigo. VILLANDRAUT, or VILLANDRADE, a town of France, in the department of the Gironde; 8 miles W. N. W. of Bazas. VILLANDRY, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire ; 9 miles W. S. W. of Tours. VILLANELLA, in Italian Music, rustic airs that were sung about the streets of Naples in the 16th cen- tury, in three and four parts, as serenades. ... They are sometimes called villotte and villanesche alla JVañoli- fal/20. VILLANI, Giov ANNI, in Biography, a native of Flo- rence, was old enough in 1300 to visit Rome at the ju- bilee, and is supposed to have afterwards travelled into France and Flanders. In 13 6 and 1317 he was one of the magistiates called priors at Florence, and also in the latter year official of the mint, to whom was due an exact register, still extant, of all the money coined at Florence in and before his time. He served in the Florentine army in 1323, and in 328 contrived means for relieving his poor countrymen at a period of dis- tressing scarcity. On occasion of the failure of the company of Bonaccorsi, in which he had a share, in i845, and to which he was not accessory, he was com- mitted to the public prison, and his life was termina- ted by the plague, which severely visited Florence in 1348. Villani bears the character of one of the most polished writers of his age, and the most conversantin the history of his country. His History records, in twelve books, the events occurring in Florence from its foundation till the year of his death, and comprehends also the principal changes that happened in the other Italian provinces. The early part of this History abounds with errors and fables; but in describing the occurrences of Tuscany in his own time, he is deemed a safe guide, allowing for his partiality to the Guelph interest, and for his unacknowledged extracts from the History of Ricordano Malaspini. This History, which has been always much esteemed, both for its matter and the elegance of its style, was first printed by the Giunti of Florence in 1537, and the latest of se- veral editions of it was that of Milan, in the collection of Italian historians. It was continued after his death by his brother, MATTEo VILLANI, who brought it down to 1363, in which year, whilst he was writing the 1 (th book, he was carried off by the plague. His History is not held in equal estimation with that of his brother, its style being too diffuse ; but he was contemporary with the events which he relates. Tiraboschi. Gen. Biog. VILLANI, FILIPPo, Son of Matteo, was educated for the law, and was for many years chancellor to the mu- nicipality of Perugia. But he chiefly devoted him- self to literary pursuits, and in 1404 delivered lectures on the Commedia of Dante. He added forty two chap- ters to his fathel’s History of Florence, thus completing the 11th book. He also composed the “Lives of il- lustrious Florentines.” originally written in Latin, but transiated into Italian, and published in 1747 by Maz- zuchelli, with copious annotations. The first book of this work treated of the origin and antiquities of Flo- rence. Tiraboschi. Gen. Biog. VILLANTERIA, in Geografthy, a town of Italy, in the department of the Upper Po; 9 miles S. W. of Lodi. VII.LAR, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc, ; 9 miles W. of Conflans. VILLAR Mayor, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 5 miles N. of Alfayates. VILLAR de Canas, a town of Spain, in New Castile; 25 miles S. of Huete. VILLAR de Toro, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 10 miles N. of Alfayates. VILLARA, a town of Spain, in the province of Bis- cay ; 13 miles S. of Bilbao. VILLARCAYO, a town of Spain, in Old Castile; 12 miles N. of Frias. VILLARD de Lans, Le, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Isere ; 8 miles S. S. W. of Grenoble. VILLARD St. Pancrace, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Higner Alps; 3 miles S. of Briançon. VILLAREJORUBIA. v I L V I L VILLAREJORUBIA, a town of Spain, in New castile; 35 miles S. E. of Cuença. VILLARESIA, in Botany, a genus named after Matthew Villares, a Spanish botanist, in the Flora Pe- ruviana, p. 28, according to De Theis. We have no account of its characters. VILLARET, CLAUDE DE, in Biografthy, was born at Paris in 1715, and liberally educated, but prevented, by the pernicious influence of youthful passions, from duly availing himself of his acquisitions. After writing a novel and a piece for the theatre, he quitted Paris in 1748, and went upon the stage at Rouen, and other places. But renouncing this mode of life at Liege in 1756, he returned to Paris, and becoming first clerk in the chamber of accounts, he was reclaimed from his dissipated course, and made himself acquainted with those sources of French history to which his office gave him access. On the death of the Abbé Velly in 1759, he was selected for continuing his History; and at the same time was made secretary to the peerage. His early imprudence and his subsequent application to business terminated his life in 1766. His continuation of the “Histoire de France” commences in the 8th volume, with the reign of Philip VI. and concludes in the 17th volume : it abounds with interesting remarks and curious anecdotes, but the reader is diverted from the main object by prolixity of detail in prefaces and digressions. The style however is elegant and anima- ted, but too Rhetorical for the simplicity of history. Villaret was also the author of “Considerations sur 1’Art du Theatre,” 1758; and “L’Esprit de Voltaire,” 1759. Nouv. Dict, Hist, VILLARIA, in Botany, was intended by Schreber to commemorate the excellent author of the “ Histoire des Plantes de Dauphiné,” M. Villars, formerly physi- cian to the military hospital at Grenoble who died pro- fessor of botany at Strasburgh, two or three years ago, where his bier was elegantly decorated with wreaths of his own Rosa rubrifolia ; see Rosa, n. 44. He publish- ed there, in 1807, a “Catalogue Méthodique du Jar- din de l’Ecole de Médécine de Strasbourg,” in French, according to Jussieu’s system, with a historical, critical and practical preface. Villars was an excellent and in- defatigable observer of nature, well worthy of com- memoration, which makes us regret our total want of information respecting his genus, except the generic characters given by Schreber. As this author did not live to write a work on the species of plants, and has left no account of the native country, number of species, nor any other circumstance in the history of his Villa- ria, the genus can never be properly adopted. We shall only here remark, that the name ought certainly to be VILLARSIA ; see that article.—Class and order, Dioecia Petandria. Nat. Ord. perhaps Rhamni or Sa- findi of Jussieu. Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, in five deep, spreading, roundish, obtuse, concave, coriaceous, nearly equal, segments, thinner at the margin, perma- nent; two of them interior. Cor. Petals five, oblong, obtuse, flat, spreading, coriaceous, thinner at the mar- gin, twice the length of the calyx, permanent. Stam. Filaments five, awl-shaped, erect, half as long as the calyx : anthers roundish, lwo-lobed. Pist. Germen orbicular, depressed (we presume imperfect); style very short ; stigma capitate. Vol. XXXVIII. Female, Cal. and Cor. as in the male. Nectary of five ovate, obtuse, erect, permanent leaves, alternate with the petals, and not so long. Pist. Germen tur- binate, somewhat ovate ; style very short, Scarcely any ; stigma capitate, slightly three-cleft. Peric. Berry nearly globular, pointed with the permanent style, three-celled. Seeds solitary. Obs. This description is materially defective, inas- much as there is no mention of the germen being infe- rior or superior, nor indeed any useful information with regard to the respective insertion of the parts; except the leaves of the nectary being alternate with the petals, which, if true, militates against our conjectures as to the natural order of this genus. Nevertheless, we shall at- tempt an essential character, in hopes that those who have access to the learned Schreber's herbarium, may discover, and communicate to the World, a complete history of the plant in question. Ess. Ch. Male, Calyx in five deep segments. Co- rolla of five petals. Nectary none. Germen orbicular, imperfect. - Female, Cal. and Pet, like the male. five leaves, alternate with the petals. Style one. ry of three cells. Seeds solitary. VILLARINO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon, on the E. side of the Duero, and confines of Portugal; 38 miles W. of Salamanca. VILLARLUENGO, a town of Spain, in Aragon ; 21 miles S. W. of Alcaniz. VILLAROYA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Aragon; 15 miles N.W. of Calatalud. VILLARRAMIEL, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Leon; 16 miles W. of Palencia. VILLARS, Louis-HECTOR, duke of, and marshal of France, in Biografhy, was born at Moulins, in Bour- bonnois, in 1653, and commenced a military life in his youth. He served in Holland in 1672, signalized his courage at the siege of Maestricht in 1674, and was wounded at the battle of Senef in 1674. We cannot follow him through all his gradations of advancement and displays of military talents; but we find, at the famous battle of Blenheim, that he was destined by Lewis XIV. to check the progress of Marlborough. With an inferior army he kept the victors at bay, so that the campaign of 1705 passed off without any fur- ther loss to France. . After various other services, in which he distinguished himself, he was appointed to command in Flanders against the allies in 1709; and marching to the relief of Mons, he was attacked by Marlborough and Eugene at Malplaquet. The en- gagement was long and bloody, and though the French were driven from the field, the greatest loss of men was sustained by the victors. To a wound which com- pelled Villars to withdraw from the field, he attributed the loss of the battle. In reference to this gasconade (as some would be disposed to call it), Voltaire ob- serves, “I know that the marshal himself was persuad- ed of it, but I also know, that few others were so.” As a further reward for his services, he was made a peer of France, and lieutenant-general of the bishoprics of Metz and Verdun. Although France was relieved by the separation of England from the alliance in 1712, Eugene produced consternation at Paris by besieging Landrecy with a superior force. On this occasion, Villars attacked a part of the allied army at Denain, 4 Q which Nectary of Ber- V IL V IL which he entirely broke up, and this success led to the recovery of all the places lost by the French in that quarter, at the restoration of their superiority. The peace of Utrecht followed; and the emperor having refused to be comprehended in it, marshal Villars and Eugene heid conferences at Radstadt in 1714, for a treaty between their respective sovereigns, which they conducted with the frankness of military men, and soon brought to a conclusion. Villars, who had experienced the a tacks of envy and jealousy at his own court, said to Eugene on this occasion: Sir, we are not enemies; our emies are at Vienna, and mine at Versailles.” After the death of Lewis XIV., Villars for some time maintained his credit at court; being made president of the council of war in 1715, and one of the council of regency in 1718. But when Lewis's system was in agi- tation, he thought it his duty to state to the regent the evils which, in his apprehension, would result from it; and he thus contributed to the discharge of that finan- cier, and to the appointment of his successor. When the regency devolved upon the duke of Bourbon, Villars was always consulted, who was then at the height of his fortune:—a marshal of France, a duke and peer, gover- nor of Provence, a grandee of Spain, a knight of the goiden fleece, and a member of the council. What more was wanting to gratify ambition ? When France was excluded from the treaty that was brought about by the intrigues of the principal courts of Europe be- tween the emperor, Spain and England, a war broke out in 1733, and Villars, with the title of general of the camps and armies (dormant since Turenne), was sent, at the age of eighty, to command in the Milanese. But though he met with some success, age and infirmities would not allow him to make more than one campaign. On his return to France, he was seized with a disorder that terminated his life at Turin. When his confessor observed to him, that God had favoured him with more time to prepare for death than marshal Berwick, who had just been killed by a cannon-ball at the siege of Philipsburgh, “What! (said he) has he ended his life in that manner I always said that he was more fortu- nate than I.” He soon after expired, in June 1734, in the eighty-first year of his age. The character of Villars is thus delineated by one of his biographers. “ Marshal Villars was a true mi- litary genius, full of courage and confidence, who rais- ed himself by persisting in always doing more than his duty. He was reproached with having less modesty than valour, and with speaking of himself as he had deserved that others should speak of him. Nor was he sparing of censures on otizels, and he employed rather defiance than coinci,iatiºn towa, ds his enemies. Though possessing integrity and iively parts, he was the efore never able to render himsel; popular, or to acquire friends. In action he was always present where the danger was greatest ; and he held it as a maxim, ‘that a general ought to expose himself as much as he exposes others ” Villars was admitted in o the French Academy in 1714. “Memoirs of the Marshal de Vil- lars” were printed in Holiand, in three vols. 1734-36, the first of which alone was written by himself. A more interesting publication appeared in 1784, enti- tled “La Vie du Maréchal de Villars, écrite par lui- même, et donnée au Public par M. Anquetil,” four vols. 12mo. T..is work contains the letters, recollec- tions, and journal of the marshal, properly arranged by the editor. Moreri. Gen. Biog. VILLARS DE MontRAUcon DE, a relation of the ceie- brated father Montfaucon, was educated for the church, and came from Toulouse to Paris in order to obtain distinction as a preacher. He was received into the best company, and made himself known by several works, especially by his “Comte de Gabalis, ou En- tretiens sur les Sciences secretes,” first printed at Paris in 1670. This work is a kind of joco-serious view of the Rosycrucian philosophy, rendered amusing as a romance. From this source Pope derived his ma- chinery of the “Rape of the Lock.” Villars, in con- sequence of this work, which was thought to contain heretical notions, was forbidden the pulpit. He added to it a second part, and it has been several times re- printed; the last time in 1742, two vols. 12mo. He was also the author of several other works. He was killed by a pistol-shot, by one of his relations, on the road from Paris to Lyons, in 1675, when he was about thirty-five years of age. Bayle. Moreri. VILLARs, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Ain; 8 miles S.E. of St. Trivier. VII.LARSIA, in Botany, a genus more correctly named, as to its orthography, than VIILLARIA, (see that article,) but with respect to its distinctive character, we fear, less certain. It consists of such species of the Linnaean Memyanthes, as have the corolla only partially covered with hairs, and the margin of whose segments is thin, inflexed in the bud. The leaves moreover are simple, not ternate. Gmelin had long ago established this same genus, in the Petersburgh Transactions for 1769, by the name of Limnanthemum ; and Wiggers in his Primitiae Florae Holsatiae, p. 20, published in 1780, by that of Waldschmidia. Yet in spite of these prior claims, Ventenate, in his Choix le Plantes, t. 9, has fol- lowed a more recent authority, if it may so be called, in naming these plants Villarsia, and he is followed by Mr. Brown, in his Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 456. The authority to which we allude is that of another Gmelin, late professor at Gottingen, who in his compiled edition of Linnaeus’s Systema, took upon him to bestow gra- tuitous appellations on numerous genera, which the modest unpretending Walter, in his Flora Caroliniana, had left for the future examination and decision of more experienced botanists. His Anonymos, n. 109, is the Willarsia of this professor Gmelin, in Linn. Syst. Nat. v. 2.447 ; neither of these authors seeming to have the least idea of the plant being already described or nam- ed.—Notwithstanding what these writers have done, Mr. Dryander, in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 312, has fol- lowed the example of Linnaeus, Jussieu, Schreber, Wiildenow, and the writer of this in his F1. Brit. and English Botany, in keeping all the species, which con- stitute Villarsia, in the genus MENYANTHEs; see that article. There we trust they may safely remain, and perhaps the above authorities may at least neutralize each other, with respect to botanical discrimination as well as nomenclature. We must not omit that Mr. Pursh, in his Flora Amer. Sept 139, has adopted the present Villarsia, but without throwing any new light upon its characters. VILLARUM NOMINA. See NoMINA. VILLASANDINO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Castile; 20 miles N.W. of Burgos. VILLASECA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the coast of the Mediterranean; 6 miles W. of Tarragona. VILLASIDRA, a town of the island of Sardinia; 10 miles N.E. of Villa d’Iglesias. VILLATTE, V IL V IL. VILLATTE, a town of France, in the department of the Creuse; 10 miles N.W. of Gueret. VILLAVANEZ, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 12 miles S. of Palencia. VILLAYER FERTANs, a town of France, in the de- artment of the Doubs; 5 miles S.S.W. of Ormans. VILLAZIM, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 23 miles S.S.E. of Viseu. VILLE, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine; 8 miles N.W. of Schletstatt.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 9 miles S.W. of Rheims.-Also, a town of France, in the department of the Marne; 9 miles N.N.W. of St. Menehould. VILLE aux Cleres, La, a town of France, in the de- pºem of the Loire and Cher; 24 miles N.W. of OlS. VILLE Comtal, a town of France, in the department of the Gers; 11 miles S.W. of Mirande.—Also, a town of France, in the department of Aveiron; 18 miles W. of St. Genies de Rivedolt. VILLE Franche, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Aveiron; 24 miles W. of Rhodez. N. lat. 44° 31'. E. long. 2° 7’—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Lot and Garonne; 6 miles E. of Castel Jaloux—Also, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Upper Garonne, on the Garonne; 18 miles S.E. of Toulouse. N. lat. 43° 24'. E. long. 1° 49'.—Also, a town of France, and seat of a tribunal, in the department of the Rhône and Loire, on the right bank of the Rhône. It is surrounded with walls and ditches; 3% posts N. of Lyons. N. lat. 46° 7'. E. long. 4° 48'.—Also, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Allier; 15 miles S.W. of Moulins.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 15 miles S.W. of Mucidan. VILLE Franche d’Albigeois, a town of France, in the department of the Tarn; 8 miles E.S.E. of Alby. VILLE Franche d’ Astarac, a town of France, in the department of the Gers; 14 miles S. of Auch. VILLE Franche de Conflams, a town of France, in the department of the Eastern Pyrenées; defended by a fort, erected in the reign of Louis XIV. ; 27 miles W. S.W. of Perpignan. VILLE Franche de Panat, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron; 6 miles W. of Milhau. VILLE Franche de Perigord, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 36 miles S.S. E. of Pe- rigueux. VILLE sur Illon, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Vosges; 9 miles W. of Epinal. VILLE en Tardenois, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Marne; 10 miles S. W. of Rheims. VILLE Sur Tourée, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Marne; 8 miles N. N. W. of St. Mene- hould. VILLE Vaucance, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Ardèche ; 14 miles N. N. W. of Tour- 3) Ol). VILLE Vieu, La, a town of France, in the department of the Vienne ; 8 miles S. of Poitiers. VILLEBERNIER, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Mayne and Loire; 3 miles E. of Saumur. VILLEBOIS, a town of France, in the department of the Ain ; 6 miles S. of St. Rambert. VILLEBOURG, or VILLE BourEAU, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire; 18 miles N. N. W. of Tours. VILLEBRUMIER, a town of France, in the depart- menu of the Upper Garonne ; 15 miles S. E. of Castel Sarasin. * VILLECROSE, a town of France, in the department of the Var; 9 miles N. N. W. of Draguignan. VII.LEDIEU, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire; 9 miles N. W. of Choilets— Also, a town of France, in the department of the Vi- cnne; 12 miles S. S. E. of Poitiers.-Also, a town of France, in the department of the Loire and Cher; 18 miles W. of Vendôme.-Also, a town of France, in the department of the Channel; 8 miles N. N. E. of Av- ranches. -- VILLEFAGNAN, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Charente ; 6 miles S. S. W. of Ruffec. VILLEFLEUR, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Lower Seine; 2 miles N. of Cany. VILLEFORE, Joseph-FRANgois-Bourgoin DE, in Biography, was born of a noble family at Paris in 1652, and liberally educated. In 1706 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Inscriptions; but withdrew from it in 1708, because he did not choose to perform its burdensome exercises. He passed the remainder of his life in the cloister of the metropolitan church, and died in 1737, at the age of 85. His historical and bio- graphical works, the latter being chiefly religious, were numerous. He also made several translations from St. Augustine, St. Bernard, and Cicero, which are faithful, and occasionally elegant. He was like- wise the author of some smaller pieces in classical lite- rature. Moreri. VILLEFORT, in Geography, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Lozere; 20 miles E. of Mende. N. lat. 44° 27'. E. long. 3° 59'. VILLEHARDOUIN, GEoFFRo1 DE, in Biography, was marshal of Champagne, an office held by his father and his descendants. He took a principal part in the fourth crusade of 1 198, which produced the capture of Constantinople by the French and Venetians in 1204; and of this expedition he wrote or dictated a narrative, which is curious and interesting. The best edition is that of Du-Cange, fol. 1657. with many notes. Moreri. VILLEIN, FLEECEs, in our Statutes, are bad fleeces of wool, shorn from scabby sheep. 31 Edw. III. cap. 8. VILLEJUIF, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of Paris; 3 miles S. of Paris. VILLEL, a town of Spain, in New Castile ; 17 miles N. N. W. of Molina.-Also a town of Spain in New Castile 15 miles S. of Moiina. VILLELOIN, or VILLELoup, a town of France, in the department of the Indre and Loire; 9 miles E.N.E. of Loches. VILLEMAUR, a town of France, in the department of the Aube; 14 miles W.S.W. of Trºyes. VILLEMONTUIS, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Rhône and Loire; 8 miles S.W. of Roanne. - VILLEMUR, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne; : 7 miles N. of Toulouse. VILLENA, a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia. In , the neighbourhood is a morass from w; ich they manufacture sait; 41 miles N.N.E. of Mur- cia. N. lat. 38° 35'. W. long. 192'. 4 Q 2 VILLENAGE V I L V IL VILLENAGE, or VILLAINAGE, Willanai, the quality or condition of a villain ; which see. - * Villenage is more particularly used for a servile kind of tenure of lands or tenements; by which the ten- ant was bound to do all such services as the lord com- manded, or were fit for a villain to perform : which Bracton expresses by “sciri non poterit vespere, quale servitium fieri debet mane.” ‘Villenage is divided into that by blood, and that by tenure. Tenure, in villenage, could make no freeman a villain, unless it were continued time out of mind; nor could free land make a villain free. Villenage is also divided, by Bracton, into hure vil- lenage, where the services to be performed were base in their nature, and indeterminate and arbitrary as to the time and quantity, as above expressed; from which ancient tenures have sprung our present copyhold tenures: and socage or firivileged villenage, where the service was base in its nature, but reduced to a cer- tainty: which was to carry the lord’s dung into his fields, to plow his ground on certain days, to sow and reap his corn, &c. and even to empty his jakes: as the inhabitants of Bicton were bound to do to the lord of Cluncastle, in Shropshire; which was afterwards turn- ed into a rent, now called Bicton silver ; and the vil- lainous service excused. This last species of villenage, says Bracton, is such as has been held of the kings of England from the Conquest downwards; that the tenants herein villana Jaciunt servitia, sed certa & determinata ; that they can- not alien or transfer their tenements by grant or feoff- ment, any more than pure villains can ; but must sur- render them to the lord or his steward, to be again granted out and held in villenage. From these cir- cumstances, says judge Blackstone, we may collect, that what he thus describes is no other than an exalted Species of copyhold subsisting at this day, viz. the tenure in ancient demesne : to which, as partaking of the baseness of villenage in the nature of its services, and the freedom of socage in their certainty, he has given the compound name of villanum socagium. This ancient demesne, or demain, consists of lands or manors which, though now perhaps granted out to private sub- jects, were actually in the hands of the crown in the time of Edward the Confessor, or William the Con- queror; and so appear to have been by the great sur- vey called Domesday-book. Some of the tenants of these lands continued for a long time pure and absolute villains, dependent on the will of the lord; and those who succeeded them in their tenures now differ from common copyholders in a few points. Others were in a great measure enfranchised by royal favour; being on- ly bound in respect of their lands to perform some of the better sort of villain services, and those determinate and certain ; as, to plough the king’s land, to supply his court with provisions, and the like ; all of which are now changed into pecuniary rents; and in con- sideration of these they had many privileges and im- munities granted to them ; as to try the right of their property in a peculiar court of their own, called a court of ancient demesne, by a peculiar process, denominated a writ of right close ; not to pay toll or taxes; not to contribute to the expenses of knights of the shire; not to be put on juries, and the like. These tenants, though their tenure be absolutely copyhold, have an in- terest equivalent to a freehold; for their services were fixed, and they could not be compelled (like pure vil- lains) to relinquish these tenements at the lord's will, or to hold them against their own; and ideo, says Brac. ton, dicuntur liberi. Britton also, from this their free- dom, calls them absolutely sokemans, and their tenure, *okemanries. The same name is also given them in Fleta. Lands holden by this tenure are a species of copyhold, and as such, preserved and exempted from the opera. tion of the statute of Charles II.; yet they differ from common copyholds, principally in the privileges before- mentioned: as also they differ from freeholdsby one spe- cial mark and tincture of villenage, noted by Bracton, and remaining to this day, viz. that they cannot be con. veyed from man to man by the general common law conveyances offeoffment, and the rest; but must pass by surrender to the lord or his steward, in the manner of common copyholds; yet with this difference, that, in the surrenders of these lands in ancient demesne, it is not used to say “to hold at the will of the lord,” in their copies; but only “to hold according to the custom of the manor.” Blackstone’s Com. book, ii. &c. VILLENEUVE, in Geografthy, a town of Switzer- land in the canton of Berne, situated at the eastern ex- tremity of the lake of Geneva, about three miles from the mouth of the Rhône ; celebrated for its trout fishe- ry; 15 miles E. S. E. of Lausanne. N. lat. 46° 25'. E. long. 6°46’—Also, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Allier; 8 miles N. W. of Moulins.— Also, a town of France, in the department of the Tarn; 8 miles N. W. of Alby-Also a town of France, in the department of the Herault, on the Grand Canal; 3 miles S. E. of Beziers.-Also, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron; 6 miles N. of Ville- franche.—Also, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Oise ; 9 miles S. E. of Paris. VILLENEuve d'Agen, a town of France, and principal place of a district, in the department of the Lot and Garonne; 12 miles N. of Agen. N. lat. 44° 24'. E. long. 48'. VILLENEUvE l’Archeveque, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne; 21 miles W. S. W. of Troyes. - VILLENEUVE lez Avignon, a town of France, in the department of the Gard, on the west side of the Rhône, opposite Avignon; 21 miles N. E. of Nismes. VILLENEUVE de Berg, a town of France, and seat of a tribunal, in the department of the Ardèche; 12 miles S. of Privas. N. lat. 44° 32'. E. long. 4° 35'. VILLENEUVE la Garenne, a town of France, in the department of Paris; 3 miles N. of Paris. VILLENEUVE la Guyard, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Yonne ; 15 miles N. N. W. of Sens. VILLENEUve de Marsan, a town of France, in the department of the Landes, 9 miles E. of Mont-de- Marsan. VILLENEUVE le Roy, or Willeneuve-sur-Yonne, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne, on the Yonne; 2 posts N. W. of Joigny. VILLENEUVE St. George, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne, on the Yonne, opposite Vil- leneuve-le-Roy. VILLENOCE, a town of France, in the department of the Aube; 10 miles N. E. of Provins. VILLENORE, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carna- tic; 10 miles W. of Pondicherry. VILLENOUVETTE, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Herault, on the Orb, anciently con- siderable, and surrounded with walls. It at one time contained V IL V IL contained three parishes, now only one ; 3 miles N. W. of Beziers. VILLENTROIS, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Indre ; 18 miles N. E. of Châtillion-sur- Indre. VILLEPEYS, or VILLEPAIs, a town of France, in the department of the Var, on the coast of the bay of Frejus; 3 miles S. S. W. of Frejus. VILLEPINTE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Aude ; 6 miles S. E. of Castelnaudary. VILLEPREUX, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Seine and Oise; 5 miles W. of Ver- sailles. VILLEQUIER, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the lower Seine, on the right bank of the Seine; 3 miles S. W. of Caudebec. VILLEQUIERS, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Cher; 18 miles E. of Bourges. VILLEREAL, a town of France, in the department of the Lot and Garonne; 7 miles N. of Monflanquin. VILLEREST, a town of France, in the department of the Rhône and Loire, on the Loire; 5 miles S. of Roanne. VILLERS, a town of Brabant; 9 miles E. of Ni- velle. VILLERS Bocage, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Somme ; 7 miles N. of Amiens. VILLERS le Bocage, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Calvados; 12 miles S. W. of Caen. VILLERs sous Chalamont, a town of France, in the department of the Doubs ; 12 miles W. of Pontarlier. VILLERs Cotterets, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Aisne ; 12 miles S. W. of Soissons. VILLERs Farlay, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Jura ; 6 miles N. of Arbois. VILLERs la Montagne, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Moselle; 3 miles S. E. of Longwy. VILLERs sous Permy, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Meurte; 3 miles N.W. of Pont-à-Mousson. VILLERSEYSEL, or VILLERSACEY, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Saône; 9 miles S. of Lure. VILLESHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 5 miles S. E. of Kitzingen. VILLETERTRE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Oise; 6 miles S. E. of Chaumont. VILLETTE d’Anton, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Isere, on the Rhône; 12 miles E. of Lyons. VILLETTE d’Islins, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Isere; 10 miles N. N. E. of Vienne. VILLEVIEILLE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Higher Alps; 12 miles S. E. of Briançon. VILLI, Coarse Hair, in Anatomy, is sometimes used in the same sense as fibres, or fibrillae. See FIBRE. VILLI, in Botany. See VILLosus. VILLIE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Rhône and Loire; 12 miles N. of Villefranche. VILLIERS, GEORGE, in Biografthy, the first duke of Buckingham, was descended from an ancient family in Leicestershire, and born at Brookby in that county, A.D. 1592. His attention was directed by his mother who, undertook the charge of his education, to ornamental ra- ther than solid accomplishments, which were further improved by a residence of three years in France, whi- ther he was sent at the age of eighteen. His graceful person and gay disposition recommended him at court, to which he was introduced by sir John Graham, a gen- tleman of the king’s privy-chamber. In 1613, James I. conferred upon him the office of his cup-bearer. Upon the fall of the earl of Somerset, Villiers took his place in the affection and confidence of the king, who knighted him in 1615, and made him gentleman of the bed-chamber, with a pension of 1000l. a-year. He soon after became master of the horse, and in 1616 was ho- noured with the garter, created a baron and viscount, and in the following year advanced to the earldom of Buckingham, and admitted into the privy-council. After his return from Scotland, whither he accompa- nied the king in 1617, he was created a marquis, and promoted to the dignities of lord high-admiral of England, chief justice in eyre south of the Trent, master of the king’s-bench office, steward of West- minster, and constable of Windsor Castle. He also employed his powerful interest with the king for the advancement of his family and connections. His cha- racter was that of an ardent friend and implacable enemy, insolent and arrogant to those who opposed him, and regardless of real merit in those whom he patronised. To his pusillanimous sovereign and to prince Charles he manifested his arrogant disposition; but in order to engage the prince’s attachment, he proposed a visit of respect to his intended bride, the infanta of Spain. The king, at first averse from this journey, at length granted to his importunity a reluc- tant consent. His manners, however, disgusted the Spanish court, and he returned avowing his enmity to the prime minister Olivarez. Such was his powerful influence at home, that he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque Ports. By misrepresenting the nego- ciations with Spain relating to the proposed marriage, he inflamed the nation against the Spaniards, and be- came popular; and dreading the return of lord Bris- tol from his embassy, and a true statement of this bu- siness, he joined the opposers of the court and pro- moted popular measures. Upon the accession of Charles his influence was augmented, and he was sent to France, in order to conduct into England the royal bride, Henrietta-Maria. During his visit to France, he had the assurance to declare his affection for Anne of Austria, queen of Lewis XIII., and to prosecute his addresses; and with this view, he de- termined to pay her a private visit. The consequence would probably have been his assassination; but fore- warned of his danger, he declined the execution of his purpose; swearing, at the same time, that he would see and speak with that lady in spite of the strength and power of France. To this circumstance lord Clarendon imputes his enmity against the french court, and his attempt to alienate the affection of Charles from his queen. At length, his inordinate use of the power with which he had been entrusted rendered him an object of national j alousy and ab- horrence; and in May 1626, the earl of Bristol, who at his instigation had been committed to the Tower, and afterwards banished from the court, exhibited against him a charge of high-treason. He was also accused by the commons of high crimes and misde- meanors; but his master averted the stroke that was aimed against him by the dissolution of parlia- ment. In 1mc war now subsisting with Spain, he went to the Hague to concert a treaty with the States-ge- neral for the recovery of the Palatinate : but his con- duct towards France soon produced a war with that Country, V IL V IL country. At his solicitation, France was invaded in 1627 by an expedition under his command ; and he landed on the isle of Rhé, whence he was obliged to withdraw with great loss. In order to recover his reputation after this disgrace, he advised the calling of a new parliament; which, so far from answering his purpose, charged him with being the author of all the evils and dangers brought upon the king and kingdom, and drew up a remonstrance, containing a statement of the grievances of which he had been the cause. These proceedings were staid by a proroga- tion, and in the mean while he made an effort for re- covering the good-will of the country, by fitting out an expedition for the relief of the Rochellers, then under close siege, in whose fate the zealous Protes- tants felt great interest. Whilst he was at Ports- mouth, preparing for this expedition, Felton, who had served under him as a lieutenant in the army, moved by discontent and a fanatical spirit, gave him a stab, which proved almost instantly mortal, and of which he expired August 23, 1628, having just completed his 36th year. His tragical death, unpopular as he was, occasioned general commiseration. His public cha- racter has been sufficiently delineated in the prece- ding sketch of his conduct. Possessing some qualities that excite vulgar applause, a high spirit, personal courage, ready elocution and generosity, he had no other title to the appellation of a great man, which some have bestowed upon him, besides his advance- ment, by the erroneous judgment and partial favour of his sovereign, to place and power. He married lady Catharine Manners, daughter and sole heiress of Francis, earl of Rutland, by whom he left two sons and a daughter. In domestic life, he was an affec- tionate, though not a faithful husband, and kind to his family. With him, it is said, all powerful fa- vouritism at the English court terminated. Biog. Brit. Clarendon. Hume, &c. &c. VILLIERs, GEORGE, second duke of Buckingham, was the son of the preceding, and born A.D. 1627, at Wallingford-House, Westminster. He and his bro- ther Francis received the rudiments of education under the same tutors with the king’s own children, and were both entered at Trinity college, Cambridge, and after- wards sent upon their foreign travels. Upon their re- turn the civil war had commenced; and after having been presented to the king at Oxford, they engaged in military service under prince Rupert and lord Gerard. Upon this their estates were seized, but restored on account of their nonage. They afterwards renewed their travels in France and Italy. In 1648, when the king was prisoner in the Isle of Wight, they returned to England, and joined the earl of Holland, who was in arms in Surrey; but in an engagement with the par- liamentary troops at Nonsuch, lord Francis, who fought valiantly, was slain. The duke escaped to St. Neot’s, and surrounded by the enemy, made way with sword in hand through the guard, and joined prince Charles in the Downs. By adhering to the royal cause he for- feited his estates, which were then amongst the most considerable belonging to any English subject. Whilst he was abroad, his chief support was derived from a Sale at Antwerp of his father’s noble collection of pic- tures, which a faithful servant had secured. He attend- ed the exiled Charles in Scotland, and accompanied him at the fatal battle of Worcester, when his escape was no less extraordinary than that of his master. He afterwards served as a volunteer in the French army, and occasionally visited the king's little court in Flan- ders. When the duke was informed that lord Fairfax had retired from the army and resided on part of his estate, which parliament had allotted to him, that he had acted generously with regard to other forfeitures, and that he had an only daughter, he determined to ven- ture into England and try his fortune. He soon gained the affection of the daughter, and they were married in 1657, at his lordship's seat of Nun-Appleton, near York; and Cowley is said to have written an epithalami- um On the occasion. He was seized, however, in 1658, and committed to the Tower, very much to the displea- sure of his father-in-law. After the death of Cromwell, he was allowed to confine himself at Windsor Castle, and upon the abdication of Richard he obtained his liberty. The Restoration put him in possession of all his estates, and he lived in splendour and magnificence, indulging in a profusion of expense, which was very injurious to his fortune, and which was not counterba- lanced by the posts of a lord of the bed-chamber, lórd- lieutenant of Yorkshire, and master of the horse, which the king assigned him. Reduced to desperate circum- stances, or inclined to faction and intrigue, he was char- ged, as early as the year 1662, with treasonable de- signs; so that in 666 it became necessary for him to abscond ; and a proclamation was issued for apprehend- ing him. However he voluntarily surrendered him- self, and contrived so to ingratiate himself with Charles, as to be restored to his place in the bed-chamber and in the council. Always an adversary to iord chancellor Clarendon, he used his influence to accelerate his fall. In 1668 he joined sir Orlando Bridgeman and sir Matthew Hale in the laudable scheme of relaxing the severities against the Non-conformists; but their plan for this purpose was defeated by the house of commons. Destitute of steady principle, the duke was selected, in 1670, to form one of the infamous party denominated the Cabal, (which see,) and he was deputed as ambassa- dor to the court of France, in order to dissolve the triple alliance, concerted by Temple and De Witt; and be- ing a favourite with the French king, he concurred in all the measures of that court. He was suspected, on account of his profligate character, with being accesso- ry to the attempt made upon the life of the duke of Ormond, by Blood; and his cowardice was so contemp- tible, that he tamely bore from the duke’s spirited son, lord Ossory, the imputation of this villany, accompanied with a menace, in the royal presence. He was elected however, in 1671, by court-interest, to the chancellor- ship of Cambridge ; and in the same year was exhibit- ed his comedy, called the “Rehearsal,” which is said to have been a joint production. The satire levelled against Dryden, then made poet-laureat, was thought to be just, but illiberal; and it was retorted by the poet in the character of the duke, under the name of Zimri, in “Absalom and Achitophel.” In 1672, the duke was sent to France to concert measures for the war which was intended to ruin the Dutch common-wealth. In 1674, the conduct of the Cabal being attacked in the house of commons, a mo- tion was made for his impeachment, and he was ques- tioned at the bar of the house. The result of this bu- siness was, that the commons voted an address for his removal. But as he was directed and restrained in his conduct by no kind of principle, he joined the opposi- tion to the court with the earl of Shaftesbury. In 1680, having sold Wallingford-House, he removed to the city, and there concr:rred in the politics of the opposition. Hume has delineated his character very justly, when h; V H L V I L he says of him, “the least interest could make him abandon his honour; the Smallest pleasure could seduce him from his interest ; the most frivolous caprice was sufficient to counterbalance his pleasure. By his want of secrecy and constancy, he destroyed his character in public life; by his contempt of order and economy, he dissipated his private fortune ; by riot and debauchery he ruined his health; and he remained at last as inca- pable of doing hurt, as he had ever been little desirous of doing good to mankind.” Such, notwithstanding this appropriate character, was his inconsistency, that in 1685 he published a popular work containing some just and liberal sentiments, and entitled “A short Dis- course upon the Reasºnableness of Men's having a Religion, or Worship of God.” Upon his retirement, in declining health, to his manor, of Helmsley, in Yorkshire, and whilst he was amusing himself with rural sports and company, he wrote a short essay, en- titled “A Demonstration of the deity.” At length, in a fox-chase, he caught cold, which brought on a fever, that confined him in a tenant’s house at Kirkby-moor- side, where he was visited by some friends, and at their suggestion he received the sacrament according to the rite of the church of England. On the third day of his illness he died, in April 1688, in the 61st year of his age, and was interred in the family-vault at Wesminster Abbey. He was an unfaithful husband, and had no issue by his wife. His amours were numerous; and of these, the principal was that with the countess of Shrewsbury, who held his horse while he killed her husband in a duel. His writings, consisting of essays, poems, &c. have been collected in 2 vois. 8vo. and have passed through four editions. He is said to have de- voted himself to chemical, or rather alchemical pur- suits, in which he was the dupe of interested and de- signing persons; and it is added, that he introduced the art of making crystal-glass from venice. Biog. Brit. Hume. VILLIERs, DE L’IsLE ADAM, PHILIP DE, was a de- scendant of an ancient French family, born in 1464, and elected grand-master of the order of St. John of Jeru- salem in 1521. In the year after his election, the island of Rhodes, where he resided, was invaded by 200,000 Turks, against whom he defended it with such vigour, that Sultan Solyman came in person to superintend the attack; and after aslege of six months, in which the Turks are said to have iost : 00,000 men, he found it necessa- ry to surrender it. Solyman treated him with great respect, declaring to one of his officers, that it was not without regret he obliged this Christian to leave his house at his age. Abandoning Rhodes in 1523 with fifty vessels, his remaining knights, and about 4000 of the inhabitants, he arrived at Rome during the papacy of Clement VII. ; who assigned to him for a present residence the town of Viterbo. In 1527 the emperor Charles V. offered the island of Malta, which in a ge- neral chapter it was determined to accept. He then went to Syracuse, and in 1530 received the donation by letters-patent of Malta, Gozo, and Tripoli in Barbary. In this year he fortified Malta; and from that period, the knights of St. John assumed the title of knights of Malta. After a life distinguished by piety, courage, and prudence, he died in 1534, at the age of 70. Upon his tomb was inscribed this appropriate eulogy, “Here reposes Virtue victorious over Fortune.” Moreri. VILLIERs, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Côte d'Or; 6 miles N.N.W. of Châtil- lonsur-Seine–Also, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Loire and Cher; 4 miles W. of Vendôme. —Also, a town of France, in the department of the Mayne; 6 miles N. of Château Gontier. VILLIERs en Vecevre, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Eure; 15 miles E.S.E. of Evreux. VILLIERs St. Benoit, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Yonne; 15 miles W. of Auxerre. VILLIMPENTA, a town of Italy, in the department of the Mincio; 10 miles E. of Mantau. VILLINGEN, a town of the duchy of Baden, in the Brisgau. This place, by means of the mountains and narrow accesses leading to it, is extremely well secured, and also somewhat fortified by art. It has always serv- ed the Austrians as a magazine for these parts as well for provisions as military stores. In it is an abbey of Benedictines; and its neighbourhood contains a good bath; 52 miles S.S.W. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 4'. E. long. 8° 26'. VILLOA, a town of the duchy of Piacenza; 10 miles S. of Piacenza. VILLOISON, John-BAPTIST GASPARD D’ANSE DE, in Biography, was the descendant of a family originally Spanish, and born in 1750 at Corbeille-sur Seine, and after receiving the rudiments of literature at several colleges, attended the Greek lectures of M. le Beau at Paris, and enjoyed the higher instruction in this de- partment of M. Capperonier, Greek professor in the royal college of France. Such were his talents and application, that with these advantages he became ac- quainted, at the age of fifteen, with almost all the wri- ters of antiquity in every class. In his researches among MSS. in the library of St. Germain-des-Pres, he found a Greek lexicon of Homer by Apollonius, which he published in 1773, with prolegomena and notes, that displayed a very surprising extent of erudition, consi- dering his early age, and that introduced him, out of the usual form, into the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres. His next considerable undertaking was an edition of the Pastoral of Longus, which was pub- lished in 1778. In 1781 he obtained a mission, at the king’s expense, to examine the library of St. Mark in Venice, where he found several inedited works of rhe- toricians, philosophers, and grammarians, a collection of which he published in 2 vols. 4to. under the title of “Anecdota Graeca.” He also found a very valuable MS. of Homer’s Iliad, with scholia by ancient gram- marians, which he committed to the press in 1788, ac- companied with learned prolegomena. About this time he received an invitation from the duke and duchess of Saxe-Weimar, to visit their court, the most literary in Germany; and here he collected various readings and emendations of the text of several Greek authors, which he printed at Zurich, under the title of “Epis- tolae Vimarienses.” Another of his publications is that of a translation of part of the Old Testament, by a Jew of the ninth century, which he had found in the library of St. Mark; and of this he gave an edition, with notes, at Strasburg in 1781. Soon after his return to Paris, and his marriage of an interesting young woman, he formed the purpose of searching for MSS. in the East, and in 1785 he visited Constantinople, and afterwards Smyrna, and several islands in the Archipelago, and Greece; and the result of his researches and observa- tions was read before the Academy of Belles Lettres, on his return to Paris in 1787. At the commencement of the Revolution he retired to Orleans, for the pur- suance of his literary plans; and the fruits of his con- sultations of ancient and modern authors were 15 large •º. volumes V I L V IM volumes in 4to. He also contemplated a larger work, which was a new edition of father Montfaucon's “Pa- lacographia Graeca.” When the revolutionary tempest subsided, he returned to Paris, with literary treasure, in amassing which he had expended three-fourths of his moderate fortune; and he was therefore under a necessity of commencing a course of lectures in the Greek language, which proved unsuccessful. He therefore gladly accepted the professorship of modern Greek, which the government established, and dis- charged its duties till it was suppressed by Napoleon. From respect to his merit, a professorship of ancient and modern Greek was created for him alone in the college of France; but he was carried off by a linger- ing malady in April 1805, at the age of 55 years. In verbal knowledge Villoison was deemed a profound scholar; but to the higher qualities of intellect he is Said to have had no just pretensions. VILLONA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 13 miles E. of Salamanca. VILLOSLADA, a town of Spain in Old Castile; 20 miles S.E. of Najera. VILLOSUS, in Botany and Vegetable Physiology, expresses that kind of hairiness which is longish, soft, and shaggy, like wool, yet does not amount to the thick entangled coat of many plants, which is properly term- cd woolly, as in VERBAscum ; see that article; see also PUBESCENCE and LEAF. VILLOUS, VILLosA, is particularly applied to one of the coats or membranes of the stomach, called crusta villosa. It takes its name from innumerable villi, or fine fibril- late, with which its inner surface is covered. VILLURBANNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Isere; 4 miles E. of Lyons. VILMANSTRAND, or WILMANSTRAND, a town of Russia, in the government of Viborg, on the south coast of the lake Saima; 40 miles N.N.W. of Viborg. N. lat. 61 ° 20'. E. long. 27° 26'. - VILMAR, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine; 24 miles N. of Mentz. VILMINOREU, a town of Italy, in the department of the Adda and Oglio; 28 miles N.E. of Bergamo. VILMNITZ, a town of the island of Rugen; 7 miles S.E. of Bergen. VILOVATO STANOVITSCHE, a fortress of Rus- sia, in the government of Archangel, near the Frozen ocean; 180 miles E.S.E. of Kola. N. lat. 68° 50'. E. long. 40° 14'. VILS, a river of Bavaria, which passes by Amberg, &c. and runs into the Nab, at Kalmunz.--Also, a river of Wurtemberg, which rises near Wiesenstug, passes by Geistingen, Coppingen, &c. and runs into the Neckar, 2 miles N. of Wendlingen. VILs, or Gros, a river of Germany, which runs into the Danube at Vilshofen. VILs Biburg, a town of Bavaria; 8 miles S.E. of Land- shut. VILSECK, a town of Bavaria, on the Vils; 20 miles S.S.E. of Bayreuth. N. lat. 49° 36'. E. long. 112 48'. VILSEN, a town of Germany, in the county of Hoya; 5 miles W. of Hoya. VILSHOFEN, a town of Bavaria, at the conflux of the Vils with the Danube; 11 miles W. of Passau. N. lat. 48° 29'. E. long. 13° 11'. VILTRUM, a word used sometimes alone to express a filtre, instead of the word filtrum. But viltrum is more commonly joined with the word fiſhilosofthorum. and then expresses the common alembic for distillation, VILUI, in Geography, a river of Russia, which runs into the Lena, at Ust Viluiskoi. N. lat. 649. E. long. 1260 l 4’. VILUISKOI, NIZNEI, a town of Russia, in the go- vernment of Irkutsk, on the Vilui. N. lat. 639 45'. E. long. 122° 44'. VILUISKor, Ust, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, at the conflux of the Vilui and Lena; 128 miles N.W. of Yakutsk. N. lat. 63° 50'. E. long. 126° 14'. VILUISKor, Perchnei, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Irkutsk; 200 miles N. of Oleminsk. N. Lat. 63° 44'. E. long. 120° 24′. VILVORDE, or VILLEFoRTE, a town of France, in the department of the Dyle, situated on the river Senne; 6 miles S. of Malines. VIM, a river of Russia, which rises in the govern- ment of Archangel, and runs into the Vitchegda, near Lialskoi, in the province of Ustiug. VIMERCATO, a town of Italy, in the department of the Olona; 13 miles N.N.E. of Milan. VIMIEIRO, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo; 10 miles W. of Estremoz. VIMINACHUM, or VIMINATIUM, in Ancient Geo- grafthy, a town of Hispania Citerior, belonging to the Vaccabi; marked in the Itin. Anton. between Palentia and Lacobriga. VIMINALIS, in Mythology, an epithet of Jupiter. VIMINARIA, in Botany, was so named by the wri- ter of this article, from vimen, a slender rod, or twig, in allusion to the habit of the plant.—Sm. in Sims and Kon. Annals of Botany, v. 1. 507. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 13.-Class and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Paſhilionaceae, Linn. Leguminosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, simple, of one leaf, bell-shaped, angular, with five short equal teeth, per- manent. Cor. papilionaceous. Standard inversely heart-shaped, ascending, with a short claw. Wings ob- long, obtuse, converging, shorter than the standard, each with a tooth at the base, on the lower side, and a short slender claw. Keel nearly equal to the wings, of two combined petals, with distinct claws, concave, with a blunt tooth at each side of the upper edge, at the base. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-shaped, distinct, rather as- cending, the lower ones gradually longest, the upper one shortest; anthers roundish, two-lobed. Pist. Ger- men superior, oval, smooth; style capillary, ascending, as long as the stamens; stigma simple. Peric. Le- gume oval, half invested by the calyx, acute, slightly compressed, smooth, coriaceous, of one cell, not burst- ing. Seed solitary, oval-kidneyshaped, without any ap- pendage. - Ess. Ch. Calyx angular, simple, five-toothed. Corol- la papilionaceous. Style capillary. Stigma simple, acute. Legume leathery, of one valve, not bursting, entirely filled with a single seed. 1. V. denudata. Leafless Rush-Broom. Sm. in Ann. of Bot. as above. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 51. t. 27. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 261. Ait. n. 1. (Daviesia denuda- ta; Venten. Choix de Plantes, t. 6. Sophora juncea; Schrad. Sert. Hannov. 9. t. 3. Pultenaca juncea; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 506. Donn Cant. ed. 5. 101.)— The only known species, a native of New Holland and Van Diemen’s island, said to have been introduced at Kew by sir Joseph Banks, in 1789. It is a rather har- dy greenhouse shrub, flowering in July. The stem is branched, V IN V IN branched, round and smooth. Leaves only to be seen on the lower part of seedings, or young plants, alter- nate, on long smooth stalks, ovate, entire, three-ribbed, smooth, either acute or emarginate; at first sometimes ternate. The footstalks on the greater part of the plant are leafless, cylindrical, smooth, with two or three mi- nute scales at the point; the lower ones six inches, or more, in length; the upper gradually shorter. Clus- ters terminal, Solitary, simple, of many pretty yellow flowers, the disk of whose standards is red. Each par- tial stalk has a small bractea at the base. - VIMINATIUM LEGIo, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Higher Moesia, on the banks of the Danube, marked in the Itin. Anton. On the route from Mount d'Or to Constantinople, between Municipium and Ideu- minacum. VIMIOSO, in Geografthy, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tra los Montes; 15 miles W.N.W. of Miranda de Duero. N. lat. 41 ° 29'. E. long. 6° 14'. VIMMALA, in JVatural History, a name given by the people of the East Indies to a kind of pyrites, of a brassy appearance, and of a cubic figure. They also give it in the same place to the pyritae in general, when small, and of a simple internal structure. VIMOUTIER, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Orne, on the Vic; 15 miles N.E. of Argentan. .*.*, * VIMY, a town of France, in the department of the Straits of Calais; 5 miles N. of Arras. ‘VINA, or VENA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the father of Prithu, who is fabled to have been an incarnation of the god Vishnu. Vina is the correct mode of writing the name of a musical instrument of the East, common- ly called Been ; under which word we have given a description, and referred to one of our plates for a re- presentation of it. - VINAGO, in Ornithology, a name given by some authors to the wood-pigeon, from the colour of its breast, shoulders, and wings, resembling that of red wine. Its more usual name among authors is oenos. VINALHAVEN, in Geografthy, a township of America, in the district of Maine and county of Han- cock, containing 1052 inhabitants; 60 miles E.N.E. of Brunswick. VINALIA, in Antiquity, a name common to two feasts among the ancient Romans; the one in honour of Jupiter, and the other of Venus. - The first was held on the 19th of August; and the second on the 1st of May. The Vinalia of the 19th of August were called Winalia rustica : and were institu- ted on occasion of the war of the Latins against Mezen- tius; in the course of which war, that people vowed a libation to Jupiter of all the wine in the succeeding vin- tage. - §. the same day likewise fell the dedication of a temple of Venus ; whence some authors have fallen in- to a mistake, that these Vinalia were sacred to Venus. But Varro LLL.V. and Festus, in verba Rustica, dis- tinguish between the two ceremonies; and expressly assert the Vinalia to be a feast of Jupiter. VINARA, in Geography, a town of South Ameri- ca, in the province of Tucuman; 56 miles N.N.W. of St. Yago del Estero. VINAROZ, a town of Spain, in the province of Va- lencia, on the coast of the Mediterranean; 5 miles N. of Peniscola. VINATA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the parent of the eagle of the Indi in Jove, called Garuda, or Super- Vol. XXXVIII. na. He is also parent of the Aurora of Eastern fable, who is called Aruna, the driver of the car of Phoebus, or Surya. Under SURYA we have spoken of Vinata as the flaternal ancestor of Superna and Aruna, but it is rather an equivocal parentage, as Kasyapa is sometimes said to be their father, and Diti their mother. (See KASYAPA.) The name of Vinata, or Vinava, seldom occurs in Hindoo books; though that of Vinateya, as a name of Superna, marking his parentage, is not very Ulſh COIDIY) OI). - - VINATEYA, a name of the Hindoo mythological eagle, more commonly called Suſierna ; which see, and VINATA. - - VINAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Isere ; 4 miles S. of St. Marcelin. . VINAZA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Africa Propria, upon the route from Tacapae to Grand Leptis, between Aurus and Thalatum. Anton. Itin. VINC.A, in Botany, originally Pervinca, whence its English and French names, Periwinkle and Pervenche, is not satisfactorily explained by any etymologist. The best derivation of the word may perhaps be from vin- cio, to bind or wrap up, because its long trailing or twining branches wind themselves round, and entangle, every other plant in their way.—Linn. Gen. I 15. Schreb. 163. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 232. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 269. Prodr. F. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 164. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 66. Juss 144. La- marck Illustr. t. 172. Gaertn. t. 117. (Pervinca; Tourn. t. 45.)—Class and order, Pentandria Monogy- nia. Nat. Ord. Contortae, Linn. A/10cinea, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five deep, erect, acute segments, permanent. Cor. of one petal, salver-shaped. Tube longer than the calyx; cy- lindrical in the lower part; dilated and grooved with five lines in the upper; five-angled at the mouth. Limb horizontal, in five deep equal segments, attached to the top of the tube, dilated outwards, obliquely lopped at the cztremity, and slightly twisted. Stam. Filaments five, inserted into the tube, very short, inflexed and then bent backward; anthers membranous, obtuse, erect, incurved, bearing pollen at each margin. Pist. Ger- mens two, roundish, at whose sides are two roundish bo- dies; style common to both germens, simple, cylindri- cal, the length of the stamens; stigma of two parts, the lower orbicular, flat, the upper capitate, concave. Pe- ric. Follicles two, long, cylindrical, pointed, erect, each of one valve, bursting lengthwise. Seeds numerous; oblong, cylindrical, furrowed, without down or wing. Ess. Ch. Corolla of one petal, contorted, salver- shaped, inferior. Follicles two, erect. Seeds naked. 1. V. minor. Lesser Periwinkle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 304. Willd. n. 1. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 917. Curt. Lond, fasc 3 t. 16. (V. pervinca minor; Ger. Em. 894. Clematis; Camer. Epit. 694, 695. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 305.)—Stems procumbent. Leaves ellip- tic-lanceolate, smooth at the edges. Flowers stalked. Calyx-tecth lanceolate.-Found in bushy places, groves, and about hedges, in Germany, England, France, Switzerland, and various parts of Greece. There can be little doubt of this being the xxnwalls of Dioscorides, as all authors have thought. He speaks of it as a na- tive of Egypt. Dr. Sibthorp met with it in Arcadia, as well as in the countries of Elis and Argolis. In Eng- land this pretty plant is seldom found wild, though in gardens and shrubberies nothing is more commonly planted, particularly the double-flowered purple, and the white-flowered variegated kinds. They are all pe- 4 R rennial V IN V IN rennial, flowering in May. The root creeps extensive- ly. The stems, erect while in flower, become trailing, creeping very far, and are round, smooth, leafy. Leaves evergreen, opposite, stalked, entire, smooth, Shining, about an inch long. Flowers axillary, solitary, alter- nate, stalked, erect, scentless, deep blue, white in the centre. We have never seen the fruit of this species. 2. V. major. Greater Periwinkle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 3O4. Willd. n. 2. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 514. Curt. Lond. fasc. 4. t. 19. (Pervinca vulgaris; Gari- del Aix; t. 8 1. Clematis daphnoides major; Ger. Em. 894.—Stems nearly erect. Leaves ovate, fringed. Flowers stalked. Calyx-teeth bristle-shaped, elonga- ted.—Native of thickets and groves, in rather moist si- tuations, in England, France, Spain, Switzerland, and Carniola, flowering in May, being less rare with us than the former, and no less commonly cultivated for orna- ment in extensive shrubberies, that will admit of its rambling mode of growth. There this species com- poses light, convex, evergreen tufts under trees and hedges. The leaves are thrice the size of W. minor, of a lighter green, and more ovate, or somewhat heart- shaped. Flowers larger, and rather more blue, with less of a violet tint. Seed-vessels an inch and a half long, recurved, pointed, with seldom more than two roughish seeds, one above the other. 3. V. lutea. Yellow Periwinkle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 3O4. Am. Acad. v. 4. 309, not 307. Willd. n. 3. (“Apocynum scandens, salicis folio, flore amplo plano; Catesb. Carol. v. 2.53. t. 53.”)—“Stem twining. Leaves oblong.”—Native of Carolina. This has the habit of an Echites. We are quite unacquainted with the plant, nor did Linnaeus ever see a specimen. 4. V. rosea. Madagascar Periwinkle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 305. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. Curt. Mag. t. 248. (Vinca; Mill. Ic. 124. t. 186.)—Stem shrubby, erect. Flowers sessile, in pairs. Leaves elliptic-oblong.— Native of the East Indies. Cultivated here by Mr. Thomas Knowlton, before the years 1756. It is now become a very popular stove-plant, flowering most part of the year, and recommending itself to general admira- tion, by the beautiful colour of its ample blossoms, whose corolla is either of a bright rose-colour, or pure white, the centre always of a peculiarly rich crimson, with a yellow eye. The stem is bushy, quite erect, about a yard high. Leaves entire, rather downy, two inches long, bluntish. This species is propagated easily, either by seed or by cuttings, but will not en- dure much cold or wet, though it requires a free air in summer. 5. V. farviflora. Small-flowered Periwinkle. Retz. Obs, fasc. 2. 14. Ait. n. 4. Willd. n. 5. (V. pusilla; Murray in Comm. Goett. for 1772. 66. t. 2. f. 1. Linn. Suppl. 166.)—Stem erect, herbaceous. Leaves lanceo- late, acute.—Native of the East Indies. An Annual stove-plant, flowering in August, whose seeds were im- ported by sir Joseph Banks in 1778. The stem is about a span high, slightly branched. Leaves as long as the last, being about two inches, but much narrower, and acute. Flowers solitary or in pairs, small, with not much pretension to beauty; their corolla white, with a yellow eye, not ill compared by Willdenow to Lithoshermum officinale, VINCA, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the shrubby, evergreen, upright and trailing kinds, among which the species cultivated are, the small periwinkle (V. minor); the great periwinkle (V. major); and the Madagascar periwinkle (V. rosea.) The first has a perennial creeping root, and it varies in the colour of the flowers; with pale blue, with pur- ple, and white, and with double flowers of these different colours; and the foliage is sometimes variegated either with white or yellow stripes. . - The second sort is larger in all its parts than the pre- ceding, having flowers of a purple-blueish colour. It varies with white flowers. The third has an upright branching stem, three or four feet high, having a long succession of pale flesh- coloured flowers. - It varies with flowers with purple eyes. Method of Culture.—These plants are all capable of being increased by layers, cuttings, and suckers. In the first method, when the layers of the trailing branches are put down into the ground, they readily take root at almost any season This is very much the case with the first sort, as almost every joint furnishes plants in the course of the summer ready to be put out in the autumn. The cuttings may be made from the stalks and branches, and be planted in shady borders in the au- tumn or early spring, when they will become well rooted by the following autumn. All the sorts succeed in this way. In the third sort, the cuttings should be made from the young shoots and be planted in pots, plunging them in a hot-bed, or the bark-bed, where they will become perfectly well rooted in the same year, and may be potted off separately, being placed in the stove, and shifted as may be necessary into large pots. This sort may likewise be raised from seed, which should be sown in pots in the early spring filled with light rich earth, covering, them well in, and plunging the pots in the hot-bed, or the bark-bed of the stove; and when the plants have a few inches growth, they should be pricked out into separate pots, re-plunging them in a hot-bed, giving proper shade and water, managing them afterwards as the Cuttings. The suckers may be taken off with root-fibres in the autumn or spring, and planted where they are to grow. The two first sorts afford variety in the borders, clumps, &c. and they may be planted in thickets and wildernesses under trees with perfect success; while the last has a fine effect in stove collections as an ele- gant evergreen and flowering shrub. VINCAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the East Pyrenées; 4 miles E.N.E. of Prades. VINCELLES, a town of France, in the department of the Jura ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Lons le Saunier. VINCENNES, a town of France, in the department of Paris, in which was a royal palace, originally begun by Philip de Valois, but repaired and finished by Louis XIV. : the ancient towers served as a state prison. At this place the duke d'Enghien suffered death; I post E. of Paris. VINCENNES, a town of America, the capital of the territory of Indiana and county of Knox, on the bank of the Wabash, 150 miles from its mouth; in a delightful situation, surrounded by a prairie four miles long and one broad, mostly cultivated, and the remainder being a fine meadow which produces good grass. The soil, which is not inferior to any in the United States, yields corn, V IN V IN corn, rice, wheat, tobacco, hemp, hops, grapes, &c. The Wabash is navigable, almost through the whole year, as far as this place. Commerce centres here, as the merchants bring their goods from Canada down the Wabash, from Orleans up the Mississippi, and from the eastern states, down the Ohio and up the Wabash. The fort, erected in 1787, stands on the E. side of Wabash river. It is garrisoned by a major and two companies. The inhabitants, principally of French ex- traction, amount to 670. It is a post-town; 743 miles from Washington.—Also, a township in the same ter- ritory and county, containing 223 inhabitants. VINCENT, WILLIAM, D. D. in Biography, dean of Westminster and vicar of Islip, Oxon, was a descendant of a race of ancestors who officiated as clergymen of the established church, and belonged to that class of ecclesiastics usually denominated the “High Church Party.” They were seated at Shepey, in the county of Leicester. The dean was the last surviving son of Mr. Giles Vincent, who acquired a fortune as a packer under Spanish and Portugal merchants; but afterwards, by losses and disappointments in his commercial con- nections, retired from trade without being enriched by it. He was born in London, November 2, 1739, and being designed for the church, was entered at West- minster school in September, 1748, and in 1753, was admitted on the foundation. In 1757 he was elected to Trinity college, Cambridge, and supported there by his elder brother, who continued the business of a acker. He took his first degree of B.A. in 1761, and in the following year was appointed teacher at West- minster school. In 1764 he was graduated M.A.; in 1771 he became second master; in 1776, D.D. and one. of his majesty’s chaplains; in 1788, head-master of the school; and in 1798, president of Sion college. Hav- ing married in early life, his family rapidly increased, and some of his children were arrived at maturity be- fore he obtained any considerable perferments in the church, notwithstanding the favourable situation which he occupied. In 1777 he was nominated by Dr. Mark- ham, upon his elevation to the see of York, subalmoner to the king, an office which he held until his demise ; and in 1778 he was advanced to the rectory of Allhal- lows, which in 1803 he resigned in favour of his eldest son. In 1801 he obtained a prebendal stall in the col- legiate church of St. Peter, Westminster, which pre- ferment enabled him to resign the laborious office of head-master of the school; and in 1802 he became dean. In 1807 he took possession of the rectory of Islip. On the parsonage-house, rebuilt by Dr. South, he expended between two and three thousand pounds, 1000l. of which arose from dilapidations, and the re- mainder furnished by himself, so as to render it a con- venient and comfortable residence. It is mentioned as a remarkable circumstance in the life of this learn- ed divine, that he passed twice, with great applause, through Westminster school; first, from the lowest form to the highest as a scholar, and secondly as an usher: nor is it less singular, that he almost constantly resided within the precincts of the Abbey, from his eighth to his seventy-sixth year, or during the interval of sixty-eight years, allowing for his temporary absence at Cambridge during his education, and on occasion of taking a degree. Notwithstanding his assiduous appli- cation to the duties of a sedentary profession, his life was prolonged to an advanced age; and after a fort- night’s illness, he died at his favourite residence of the deanery, December 21st, 1815, in the 77th year of his age; leaving behind him two sons, both of whom are married and have children. - - Whilst he was unremitting in his attention to his office as tutor, and to his various clerical duties, he de- voted a portion of his time to compositions which have issued from the press. Of these, the first we shall mention was “A Letter to Dr. Richard Watson (after- wards Bishop of Llandaff), King's Professor in the University of Cambridge,” 8vo. 1780, in reply to some observations introduced by this learned prelate into a sermon preached before the university of Cambridge, which was afterwards printed under the title of “The Principles of the Revolution vindicated,” and into ano- ther discourse “On the Anniversary of His Majesty’s Accession.” In 1787 he published his tract on “Paro- chial Music;” in 1789, a sermon delivered before the sons of the clergy; and in 1792, a sermon preached at St. Margaret’s Westminister, for the Grey-coat school of that parish. In the latter discourse he noticed opinions, which were then prevalent, respecting the doc- trines of natural liberty and equality; and more than 20,000 copies of it were printed and dispersed in and near the metropolis, and a great number was circula- ted through different parts of the kingdom. The next publication of Dr. Vincent was “The Origination of the Greek Verb, an Hypothesis,” 8vo.; the title of which was altered in the second edition to “The Greek Verb analysed.” This work was criticised with some humour, and not without a degree of asperity, in a piece entitled “Hermes unmasked.” Our author’s next pub- lication was an elaborate dissertation on military affairs, entitled “De Legione Manliana Quaestio, ex Livio de- sumpta, et Rei Militaris Romanæ studiosis proposita,” 1795. Six years afterwards appeared his principal performance, evincing his acquaintance with both an- cient and modern geography and navigation, under the title of “The Voyage of Nearches to the Euphrates; collected from the original Journal preserved by Arrian, and illustrated by Authorities ancient and modern, con- taining an Account of the first Navigation attempted by the Europeans in the Indian Ocean,” 4to. 1799; and this was soon after followed by “The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea; containing an Account of the Naviga: tion of the Ancients from the Red Sea to the Coast of Zanquebar, with Dissertations, Part I.” 4to. 1800. Our learned author was next engaged in a controversy with Dr. Rennell, prebendary of Winchester and master of the Temple, occasioned by some reflections on the ne– glect of religion in our public institutions, which were introduced in a sermon preached in 1799, before the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge, at the an- nual meeting of all the charity-schools of the metro- polis, in the cathedral of St. Paul's. To this sermon was annexed a note, in which the preacher declares his opinion, “that there is scarcely any internal danger which we fear, but what is to be ascribed to a Pagan education, under Christian establishments, in a Christian country.” Dr. Vincent, then master of the only great public school in the metropolis, seemed at first to think that this attack was personal ; but in order to avoid public contention, he commenced a private correspon- dence with Dr. Rennell, in the course of which ample and satisfactory explanations were made. But at the next anniversary, in 1800, Dr. O’Beirne, bishop of Meath, delivered a sermon, which was printed at the request of the Society, accompanied by a note, contain- 4 R 2 ing the V IN C E N T. ing the same obnoxious assertions, together with addi- tionai remarks of his own. Dr. Vincent applied to the Society for permission to enclose in the parcels, contain- ing its annual communications, a justification of the public instructors of England; but the Society declining to take a part in the controversy by complying with this request, the author committed to the press his “ De- fence of Public Education,” addressed to the bishop of Meath, in which he makes an apology for the present system, and expresses himself in a high and indignant tone, in respect to the distinguished individuals whose supposed indiscretion had incurred his censure. As no reply was made, the contest terminated; and in order to prevent the recurrence of a similar event, the Society resolved, that the notes as well as the text of the annual sermon should for the future be submitted to its revision and approbation. - In 1802, our author published his thanksgiving Ser- mon, preached at St. Margaret's Westminster, before the honourable house of commons; in 1805, the second part of “The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea;" in 1809, : The Voyage of Nearchus, and the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea,” translated from the Greek; and in Mr. Valpy's classical Journal, No. 18. “Observations on the Geography of Susiana.” The dean also reviewed several articles in the British Critic, particularly that relating to the controversy about the Troad, and occa- sionally contributed articles to the Gentleman’s Maga- zine. By such literary lucubrations Dr. V. amused himself in the intervals of his more laborious employ- ments, passing a long and honourable life by devoting his mornings to reading and his evenings to the society of his friends; and towards the close of life, dividing his time between his deanery and his living of Islip. “In the bosom of his family,” says one of his biographers, « Dr. Vincent was seen to the greatest advantage.” In the tranquil and peaceful circle above briefly delineated, “ he endeared himself to all around him, by the benig- nity of his disposition, the affability of his demeanor, and the charms of his conversation. Here were laid open that singleness of heart and simplicity of mind, which none could appreciate justly, but those who saw and were conversant with him in the free and familiar hours of domestic privacy. With qualifications which would have conferred dignity on the highest station in the church, and with an ambition, perhaps, not wholly averse from rank and elevation, Dr. V. nevertheless loved quiet and retirement.” We shall close this article with some extracts from a biographer who has duly appreciated his talents and character. “As a clergy- man,” says this writer, “Dr. Vincent was regular and exemplary in the discharge of his duties; strictly ortho- dox in point of faith; and a firm supporter of all the doctrines, tenets, and practices of the church of Eng- land. His person, as well as enunciation, were well fitted for pulpit oratory : his voice, in particular, was sonorous; his animation produced a lively interest in the hearts of his auditors, while a certain dignity of manner commanded their implicit attention.”—“As a writer, he possessed all the necessary requisites to gain the approbation of intelligent critics; he was indefati- gably it dustrious; addicted to research ; and learned in no common degree. W ſile his literary labours evin- cc.d i- intimate acquaintance with the ancients his ser- mºns we, e admirably adºpted to the abilities and un- del studings ºf an ordinary audience. In both capaci- tics his language Was chaste : his composition elegant: in short, he continually reflected the images of a mind, richly imbued with learning, both human and divine.” “As a controversial writer, he sometimes bordered on asperity, and this, too, in respect of minor points; while with certain persons, from whom he differed in essentials, he exhibited no common share of moderation and liberality. Accordingly he did full justice to the talents of a Tooke, a Porson, and a Gibbon.” “As a school-master, he must be allowed to have had a number of distinguished pupils,” among whom we may reckon the late and present dukes of Bedford, Sir Francis Burdett, and his successor, as head-master, Dr. Carey; and in this capacity he is said to have been the acute, able, indefatigable, and strenuous assertor of the ancient discipline. Annual Biography and Obituary, for 1817, vol. i. Gent. Mag. VINCENT, THOMAS, a celebrated performer on the hautbois, was a scholar of the admirable San Martini; and, after his master had ceased to perform in public, and had furnished him with concertos, was an unrivalled favourite on his instrument, till the arrival of Fischer. In 1765 he became joint impresario of the Opera with Gordon. - Vincent, after the decease of San Martini, had been in great favour with his royal highness Frederic, prince of Wales, father to his present majesty; had acquired a considerable sum of money in his profession, which he augmented by marriage. However, the ambition of being at the head of so froward a family as an opera vocal and instrumental band, turned his head and his purse inside out; in short, he soon became a bankrupt, and his colleagues, though they escaped utter ruin, were not enriched by the connection. He ended his days in the evening of life, of which the morning had been so brilliant, in poverty and obscurity, and paid dear for his ambition and imprudence. VINCENT, RICHARD, who performed the first haut- bois at Vauxhall Gardens from the beginning of musi- cal performances there, and at Covent-Garden theatre more than thirty years. He was father of the young musician who married the celebrated Miss Birchell, possessed with one of the finest treble voices that was ever heard in public. After performing at Vauxhall with great and constant applause, on the death of her husband she went to the East Indies, where she was still more applauded than in England, and where she was married a second time to John Mills, esq., a gen- tleman of fortune and consideration, with whom she re- turned to her native country, and lived happily in a splendid manner. She was buried in St. Pancras church- yard, where there is an honourable and affectionate epitaph inscribed on a tablet dedicated to her memory, by her surviving husband. VINCENT of Beauvais, a Dominican monk of the 13th century, was appointed by St. Lewis, king of France, inspector of the education of his children. About the year 1244, he compiled a kind of encyclopaedia, entitled “Speculum Majus,” which consisted of four parts, viz. “Speculum Naturale, Doctrinale, Morale, et Histori- ale.” Notwithstanding all its errors, it passed through many editions; the first at Strasburg in 1476, and the last at Douay in 1624. He was also the writer of a “Letter to St. Lewis on the Death of his eldest Son,” and of a “Treatise on the Education of Princes;” and died in 1624. Brucker by Enfield. VINCENT FERRIER, or FERRER, a Dominican, was born at Valencia, in Spain, in 1357; and having entered into V I N C E N T. into the order of preachers in 1374, obtained the degree of doctor in theology at Lerida in 1384. He was the chosen companion of cardinal de Luna, the pope’s le- gate to France; and on his return was summoned to Avignon, in 1394, by the same cardinal, when he rose to the papal chair under the name of Benedict XIII. Yielding to an imagined impulse for preaching the word of God, he became a missionary in 1397, and travelled through several countries, not excepting Britain and Ireland. He also exerted himself in terminating the discord of the Romish church with regard to the papa- cy, and finding Benedict unrelenting, he abandoned him, and assisted at the council of Constance. In 1407 he accepted the invitation of John, duke of Brittany, and fixed the seat of his mission at Vannes, where he died in 1410. After his death, miracles were said to have been wrought at his tomb, and he was canonized by pope Calixtus III. He was the author of many de- votional tracts: and his “Treatise on the spiritual Life, or interior Man,” was frequently reprinted. Dupin. Moreri. VINCENT of Lerins, was a native of Gaul in the fifth century, who abandoning the military profession, and adopting a religious life, retired to the monastery of Lerins in Provence, where he became a pricst. He was held in high estimation for his piety and learning; and after his death, in the reign of Theodosius and Valentinian, was canonized by the Roman church, to which he was thought to be entitled for his “ Commo- nitorium adversus Haereticos,” which was neatly writ- ten, and much applauded by the Roman Catholics. Of this work Dr. Maclaine, deviating from the article of Mosheim, says, that he can see nothing in it but a blind veneration for ancient opinions. It has been printed in the “Bibliotheca Patrum,” and has been published separately, particularly at Cambridge, in 1687. Dupin. Mosheim. VINCENT DE, PAUL, founder of the congregation of the “Priests of the Missions,” (see Mission,) was born at Poui, or Poy, in the diocess of Acqs, in the year 1576, and advanced, on account of his extraordi- nary talents, and by a course of education at Acqs and Toulouse, from the humble condition of a shepherd to the office of priest in 1600. Having occasion soon af- terwards to visit Marseilles, for the purpose of receiv- ing a small property which devolved upon him by in- heritance, he was, upon his return by sea to Narbonne, taken captive by a Barbary corsair, and sold for a slave at Tunis. Here he served several masters, the last of whom, who was a Savoyard renegado, he was success- ful in reclaiming. They both determined on making their escape, and arrived safely in a small boat at Aigues Mortes, in 1607. Upon his return to his na- tive country, he was deputed by Peter Montorio, vice- legate of Avignon, on business of importance to the court of Rome ; and here he was intrusted by the min- ister of Henry IV. with a commission to that monarch in 608. In return for this service, Lewis XIII. con- ferred upon him the abbey of St. Leonard de Chaueme. Having been introduced as tutor to the family of M. de Goudy, general of the galleys, he conceived the design of founding the co, ig egation above-mentioned; and in the mean while, wishing to serve the miserable objects that were under the carc of his patron, he ap- plied to court 1or the appointment of alºoner-general of the galleys, and obuained it in the veal 16 9. His assiduity in the discharge of the qui s of his office, as Well as the piety and benevolence of his disposition, engaged the general esteem and respect of the inhabi- tants of Marseilles. Devoted to acts of compassion and beneficence, he was entrusted, in the year 1620, with the direction and government of the order of the “Daughters of Charity.” His next object was the accomplishment of his purpose with regard to a new community, in which he obtained the concurrence of Some priests, who made choice of him as their princi- pal. This institution was prosperous, and the number of the society having increased, he accepted the great house of St. Lazarus, in the suburb of St. Denis, which became the principal house of his order; and in 1632, its utility was acknowledged by pope Urban VIII., who formed it into a regular congregation, and ap- pointed its founder as the first superior general. The The rule prescribed to the Society enjoined, indepen- dently of attention to their own religious exercises, the appropriation of eight months in the year to the in- struction of the common people in the neighbouring parishes, to the relief of the sick and indigent, to in- spection of seminaries in which young persons were educated for holy orders, and to other acts of private and public service. The Superior conducted himself with so much zeal and activity, that he obtained en- couragement in the prosecution of his plan, not only in all parts of France, but also in Italy, Scotland, Bar- bary, Madagascar, &c. Not satisfied with the single object to which his benevolent attention was first di- rected, he took a very active part in the conduct and support of many other institutions of a benevolent and useful kind. So highly was he esteemed on account of his piety and prudence, and his zeal for doing good, that he was engaged in regular attendance on Lewis XIII. during his iast sickness; and under the regency of Anne of Austria, mother of Lewis XIV., he was the chief adviser in all the ecclesiastical affairs of the kingdom. For a period of ten years, during which he possessed this influence, he maintained the most ex- emplary character in the discharge of his public duties, as well as in his private conduct. He died in 1660, at the age of nearly 85 years. He was beatified by pope Benedict XIII. in 1729, and cononized by Clement XII. in 1737; and it must be allowed, that he occu- pies a distinguished rank among the saints in the Ro- mish calendar. Moreri. Mosheim. VINCENT, GREGORY St. See GREGoRY ST. VINCENT. VINCENT, in Geografthy, a township of America, in the state of Pennsylvania, and county of Chester, con- taining 1630 inhabitants; 25 miles W. of Philadelphia. VINCENT, St., one of the Cape Verd islands, being one of the four situated towards the north-west, about 30 miles in circumference; the land of which is gene- rally elevated, but towards the north-west low and sandy ; so that it is unproductive, and the island pro- bably still uninhabited. It has good fresh water, which springs up on digging a little way into the soil of the valley, but the hills are totally destitute of it; and, therefore, the island is improper for cattie. It has a fine large road called Porto Grande, with a rock like a tower in the centre. The bay, which is about a league and a half broad at the mouth, is surrounded with high mountains, and stretching into the middle of the island, is thus sheltered from the west and north- west winds; and, therefore, it is deemed the safest harbour in all the Cape Verd islands; but difficult of access, on account of the impetuous winds that blow off the mountains along the coast, so as to endanger Snips before they can arrive at this place of security. Besides V IN V IN Besides this bay, there are several others on the South side, in which ships may anchor; and these are gene- rally chosen by the Portuguese for landing their hides. The fish are numerous and excellent. The south part of the island is situated in N. lat. 16° 50'. W. long. 25°. See Cafe VERD. VINCENT St., one of the Charibbee islands in the West Indies, about 40 miles in length, and 10 in breadth. Dr. Campbell says, that the Spaniards called it by this name, because they discovered it upon the 22d of January, which, in their calendar, is St. Vin- cent’s day; but it does not appear that they ever, pro- perly speaking, had possession of it; as the Indians were very numerous here, on account of its being the rendezvous of their expeditions to the continent. At length, however, ambition and avarice effected an es- tablishment for a class of intruders, who were long dis- tinguished by the name of the black Charaibes, whom the native Charaibes regarded at first with contempt and pity. Of the origin of these intruders Campbell gives the following account. In 1672, king Charles II. divi- ded the governments in the West Indies, and, by a new commission, appointed lord Willoughby governor of Barbadoes, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Dominica; and Sir William Stapleton governor of the other Leeward islands, which separation has ever since subsisted. On the demise of lord Willoughby, he was succeeded by sir Jonathan Atkins, who continued governor until the year 1680, when the government was transferred to sir Richard Dutton; who, being sent for to England in 1685, appointed colonel Edwin Stade lieutenant-go- vernor; and he, with a view of asserting and maintain- ing the British rights, by constituting deputy-governors for the other islands, exerted himself in preventing the French from wooding and watering in this island with- out permission. At this time it was intimated to him, that the king had signed an act of neutrality, and that commissioners were appointed by the two courts to settle all differences relating to these islands. Some years after, a ship from Guinea, with a large cargo of slaves, was cither wrecked or run ashore upon the island of St. Vincent, into the woods and mountains of which great numbers of the negroes escaped, whom the Indians suffered to remain. Partly by the acces- sion of runaway slaves from Barbadoes, and partly by the children they had by the Indian women, these Afri- cans became very numerous; so that about the begin- ning of the 18th century, they constrained the Indians to retire into the north-west part of the island. These people, as may be reasonably supposed, were much dis- satisfied with this treatment; and complained of it occa- sionally both to the English and to the French, that came to wood and water amongst them. The latter at length suffered themselves to be prevailed upon to attack these invaders. After much deliberation, in the year 1719, they came with considerable force from Marti- nico, and landing without much opposition, began to burn the negro huts, and destroy their plantations, sup- posing that the Indians would have attacked them in the mountains; which, if they had done, the blacks had probably been extirpated, or forced to submit, and be- come slaves. But either from fear or policy, the In- dians did nothing, and the negroes sallying in the night, and retreating to inaccessible places by day, destroyed so many of the French, that they were forced to retire. When by this experiment they were convinced that force would not do, they had recourse to fair means; ..nd by dint of persuasion and presents, patched up a peace with the negroes as well as the Indians, from which they received great advantage. Things were in this situation, when captain Uring came with a consi- derable armament, to take possession of St. Lucia and this island, in virtue of a grant of king George I. to the duke of Montague. When the French had dislodg- ed this gentleman, by a superior force, from St. Lucia, he sent captain Braithwaite, in the year 1723, to try what could be done at the island of St. Vincent, in which he was not at all more successful. After this, the country became a theatre of Savage hostilities be- tween the negroes and the Charaibes, in which it is be- lieved that the former were generally victorious : it is certain they proved so in the end, their numbers, in 1763, being computed at 2000; whereas of the red or native Charaibes, there were not left more than 100 fa- milies, who retained only a mountainous district, and most of these are by this time said to be exterminated. It is, however, worthy of remark, that the African in- truders have adopted most of the Charibbean manners and customs: among the rest, the practice of flattening the foreheads of their infants; and it was perhaps from this that they acquired the appellation of black Charai- bes. St. Vincent being ceded to the English by the peace of Paris, in the year 1763, as well as Dominica and Tobago, St. Lucia being assigned to France (the Charaibes not being mentioned in the whole transac- tion,) the first measure of the English government was to dispose of the lands, without any regard to the claims of the Charaibes of either race ; which, in truth, were considered as of no consequence or validity. This gave rise to a war with the Charaibes, in the course of which it became the avowed intention of government to exterminate those miserable people altogether; or by conveying them to a barren island on the coast of Africa, consign them over to a lingering destruction. By repeated protests and representations from the mi- litary officers employed in this disgraceful business, and the dread of parliamentary inquiry, administration at length thought proper to desist; and the Charaibes, after surrendering part of their lands, were permitted to enjoy the remainder unmolested. On the 19th of June 1779, St. Vincent shared the common fate of most of the British West Indian possessions, in that un- fortunate war with America, which swallowed up all the resources of the nation, being captured by a small body of troops from Martinico, consisting only of 450 men, commanded by a lieutenant in the French navy. The terms of capitulation, however, were favourable, and the island was restored to the dominion of Great Britain by the general pacification of 1783. It contain- ed at that time 61 sugar estates, 500 acres in coffee, 200 acres in cacao, 400 in cotton, 50 in indigo, and 500 in tobacco, besides land appropriated to the raising of provisions, such as plantains, yams, maize, &c. All the rest of the country, excepting the few spots that had been cleared from time to time by the Charaibes, retained its native woods. St. Vincent contains about 84,000 acres, which are every where well watered; but the country is very generally mountainous and rugged : the intermediate valleys, however, are fertile in a high degree, the soil consisting chiefly of a fine mould, com- posed of sand and clay, well adapted for sugar. The extent of country at present possessed by the British subjects is 23,605 acres; and about as much more is supposed to be held by the Charaibes. All the remain- der is thought incapable of cultivation or improvement. The island, or rather the British territory within it, is divided V IN V IN divided into five parishes, of which only one had a church, and this was blown down in the hurricane of 1780. There is one town called Kingston, the capital of the island, and the seat of its government; and three villages that bear the name of towns, but they are incon- siderable hamlets, consisting each of a few houses only. The botanic garden of St. Vincent consists of 30 acres, of which no less than 16 are in high cultiva- tion. In the frame of its government, and the admin- istration of executive justice, St. Vincent seems not to differ from Grenada. The council consists of twelve members, the assembly of seventeen. The salary of the governor is 2000l. sterling, half of which is raised within the island, the other half being paid out of the exchequer of Great Britain. The military force, ac- cording to Mr. Edwards, consisted in his time of a re- giment of infantry, and a company of artillery, sent from England, and a black corps raised in the country. The militia includes two regiments of foot, serving without pay. The number of inhabitants, says Mr. Edwards, amounts to 1450 whites, and 1 1,853 negroes. The se- veral smaller islands dependent on the St. Vincent go- vernment are Bequia, containing 3700 acres, a small island, valuable for the commodiousness of its bay ; called Admiralty bay; Union, containing 2160 acres; Canouane, containing 777 acres; and Mustiqua, con- taining about 1200 acres. The negroes employed in the cultivation of these islands, being about 1400, are supposed to be included in the 1 1,853 before mention- ed. There are likewise the little islets of Petit Mar- tinique, Petit St. Vincent, Maillereau, and Belleseau, each of which produces a little cotton, N. lat. 13° 10'. W. long. 61°. Edwards's West India Islands, vol. i. VINCENT, St., a town of France, in the department of the Lot; 6 miles W. of Cahors. VINCENT, St., a sea-port town of Brazil, in the go- vernment of St. Paul, situated on the sea-coast ; 150 miles W. of Rio Janeiro. See SANTos, St. Vicente, and VICENTE. VINCEN r, St., a river of Madagascar, which runs into the Indian sea, on the east coast, S. lat. 21° 48'. E. long. 44°. VINCENT, St., a town of Peru, in the diocese of La Plata; 40 miles N.E. of Lipes. VINCENT d’Ardentes St., a town of France, in the department of the Indre; 7 miles S. E. of Châteauroux. VINCENT, Caſhe St., the south-west point of Portugal, where commences a chain of lime-stone mountains. which terminates at Tavira, N. lat. 37° 2'. W. long. 9° 5'. Towards this cape the hills become flatter, and this promontory itself is a desert plain, consisting of a grey lime-stone, so naked and rough near the front, that it is very difficult to travel over it. In other parts it is nearly covered with sand. Towards the sea the rock is every where fractured, about 50 to 80 feet high, being of equal height with Cabo de Rocca, which it somewhat resembles. At the utmost extremity in this desert country is a monastery of Capuchins. Ships can approach very near the rock, so that in fine weather the monks can speak to the persons on board. The famous naval engagement between the Spaniards and jord St. Vincent was distinctly seen from this monas- tery. On another point of the rock, separated by a creek from the extreme end, is the small fort of Sagres, within which nothing is seen but the commandant’s dwelling, the soldiers’ barracks, and the works which are not allowed to be surveyed. Without the fort are only two houses. At the time when the earthquake of 1755 destroyed Lisbon, the sea swelled here, and pouring from the creek over the land, laid the country waste. At Sagres a great quantity of fish and muscles is taken, and small fishing-Smacks lie at anchor under the rock in the creek. Five small leagues from Cape St. Vincent in the city of Lagos, which is properly the chief town of Algarve, though it be no longer the re- sidence of the governor of that province.—Also, a cape on the west coast of Madagascar. S. lat. 25° 38'. E. long. 43° 50'.-Also, a cape on the east coast of Terra del Fuego. S. lat. 54° 25'. VINCENT de Connozal, St., a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 14 miles W. of Perigueux. VINCENT de Beira, St., a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 15 miles W.N.W. of Castel Branco. VrNGENT de la Barquera, St., a sea-port of Spain, in the province of Asturia; 9 miles W.S.W. of Santillana. VINCENT de Rivedot St., a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 6 miles S. of Riberac. VINCENT’s Bay St., a bay on the north coast of Terra del Fuego, a little to the east of Cape St. Vincent. Be- fore the anchorage ground, says captain Cook, lie se- veral rocky ledges that are covered with sea-weed ; but not less than eight and nine fathoms over all of them. It appears strange that where weeds, which grow at the bottom, appear above the surface there should be this depth of water; but the weeds which grow upon rocky ground in these countries, and which always distinguish it from sand and ooze, are of an en- ormous size. The leaves are foyir feet long, and some of the stalks, though not thicker than a man’s thumb, above 120. Mr. (sir Joseph) Banks and Dr. Solander examined some of them, over which we sounded and had 14 fathoms, which is 84 feet; and as they made a very acute angle with the bottom, they were thought to be at least one half longer. The foot-stalks were Swelled into an air-vessel, and these eminent natural- ists called this plant fucus giganteus. They went on shore, and in about four hours returned with above a hundred different plants and flowers, all of them wholly unknown to the botanists of Europe, They found the country about the bay to be in general flat, the bottom of it in particular was a plain, covered with grass, which might easily have been made into a large quan- tity of hay ; they found also abundance of good wood and water, and fowl in great plenty. Among other things, of which nature has been liberal in this place, is Winter’s bark, Winteranea aromatica ; which may easily be known by its broad leaf, shaped like the lau- rel, of a light green colour without, and inclining to blue within ; the bark is easily stripped with a bone or a stick. VINGENT de la Pazes, St., or Onda, a town of Po- payan, in Terra Firma, about 25 miles E. of St. Se- bastian's, with a port, where canoes from Carthagena and St. Martha unload their merchandize. VINCENT, Port St., lies on the coast of Chili, in the South Pacific ocean, 6 miles N.N.E. of the mouth of the river Bobio, with a safe harbour, secure against all winds but that from the west, which blows right into it. Talcaguana port is six miles to the north of it. VINCENT’s Rocks, St., rocks on each side of the river Avon, about three miles below Bristol; at the bottom of which is the spring from which rise what are called the Bristol waters, *WIN CENT V IN V IN VINCENT Island, a small island in the North Pacific ocean, at the entrance into Portlock’s harbour. N. lat. 57° 48'. W. long. 136° 30'. VINCETOXICUM, in Botany, from vinco, to con- quer, and toxicum, poison, a name which first occurs in Dodonaeus, Pempt. 407, and which he says had been recently given to the officinal Ascleſias, (A. Vincetºx- icum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 314. Cynanchum Vincetoxicum of Brown, in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 77.)—The plant thus denominated was supposed destitute of the dan- gerous and acrid properties of the rest of its tribe, be- cause its juice is not milky. The root, whose flavour and scent resemble Valerian, has been used as a coun- ter-poison, in the place of Contrayerva, whose name has the same meaning, and each may have its use as a tonic, or stimulant, however erroneous the idea may seem of a specific, against any poison whatever, except by a chemical alteration of its qualities. Among plants, at least, no such marvellous power has hitherto been ascertained. The above root is scarcely ever used in this country. VINCEToxicum, in the Materia Medica. As a me- dicine, this root has been chiefly used in dropsical dis- orders, but its good effects are not sufficiently establish- ed; which is also the case with respect to Stahl’s pul- vis antihydropicus, in which the vincetoxicum is an in- gredient. It has been also recommended in malignant fevers, and even in the plague, by some German au- thors; and hence called “Contrayerva Germanorum.” It is said likewise to be useful in small-pox, scrophula, and uterine obstructions. The dose, in powder, is from a scruple to a drachm, or an infusion of three or four drachms. Woodville. VINCI, LIONARDo DA, in Biografhy, the illegitimate son of Piero da Vinci, a notary of the signoria of Flo- rence, distinguished himself during his life as a man of science and of literature, a philosopher, poet, painter, and musician of the most profound study, and the most exalted taste. He was born at the castle of Vinci, in the lower vale of the Arno, in 1452. From his earliest years he testified a more than ordinary share of inge- nuity, and particularly exhibited an ardent desire for drawing. This at length became so decided a pre- ference above all other pursuits, that it determined his father to indulge and cultivate it; and for this purpose he placed him under the tuition of Andrea Verocchio, a skillful designer, and eminent as a sculptor, an archi- tect, and a painter. The progress of Lionardo equal- led the sanguine expectation his intellectual abilities had excited; and whilst a youth, he surpassed his mas- ter in the practice of the ar, he had learnt of him. Ve- rocchio had been employed by the monks of S. Salvi at Valombroso, to paint the Baptism of Christ, as an altar-piece for their church, and having made his de- signs, he entrusted the preparation of the parts to his disciples. Among them, the young Da Vinci was or- de: ed to paint the figure of an angel, which he did with so much taste and skiil, and so far surpassing the work of his master, that Verrocchio, mortified at being ex- celled by a youth, abandoned the art, and from that time confined himself to sculpture. The career of this extraordinary man, thus begun in hºnour was pursued with enthusiasm in all things relative to art and science. Nature had endowed him with the beauties of body and of mind, and he cultivated the use- ful exercise of both. His person was finely proportion- ed and his features beautiful and expressive; he was dex- terousin feats of arms, the management of the horse, and all the favourite amusements of the time. He was admi- rably skilled in mechanics, was an able anatomist, and an architect; was learned in natural philosophy, optics, and geometry : in short, he had steadily applied him. self to acquire a thorough knowledge of the operations of nature; and was besides an excellent poet and mu- SIClaſ). - Thus endowed, and constituted to apply these endow- ments with energy to every useful and ornamental pur- pose, ſame crowned his portion of human felicity by spreading the renown of his uncommon talents through. out Italy. His various application of them had how- ever one evil attending it, a certain portion of insta- bility; the impetuosity of his nature, leading him too rapidly to new projects, often prevented the completion of those already commenced. In his youth, Vasari says, he invented mills and engines to go by water for various purposes, and contemplated schemes for making the Arno navigable from Pisa to Fiorence; he made plans for roads, for raising water, &c. : yetamidst these occupations he cultivated drawing most assiduously from all kinds of objects of animated nature, in a style of the most laboured and exquisite finishing, as if he never could attain too close an imitation of the ob- ject he had selected. He always strove to make them appear as strongly relieved as possible; their defect is, that not having hit upon the true nature of relieving ob- jects, such as has been exemplified in the Dutch School since his time, he laboured his works to black- ness; and whilst his principal objects appeared illumi- ned by the light of the day, his shadows partook of the blackness of night. He delighted in observing those whose character was strongly marked, who had any thing extravagant in the style of their beards, their hair, or dress, and would follow them till he had fixed their form fully in his mind, and then go home and draw them. By studies of this nature he became possessed of strong ideas of expression and of character, and employed himself ac- tively in the use of them in designs; though the finish- ed works of his hand, which conjecture places at this period of his life, are not of a kind to exhibit much of their application. His life, Lanzi, observes, “may be divided into four periods, the first of which was, as we have seen, spent in prosecuting his studies in art, and occasionally ap- plying them to practice in Florence : to this belong not only the head of Medusa, and the few works mentioned by Vasari, but probably all those paintings of his which have less energy of shade, less complicated drapery, and heads of forms rather delicate than exquisite, seem. ingly derived from the school of Verocchio. Such are the Maddalenas of the Pitti palace at Florence, and the Aldobrandini at Rome; some Madonnas or holy families in various galleries, as the Justiniani and Borg- hese ; some heads of the Saviour and of the Baptist; though the multitude of his imitators must render all decision on their originality ambiguous. Of a different class, however, and without a doubt of his hand, is the Bambino, who lies in a little ornamented bed, richly dressed and adorned with necklaces, which is in the apartment of the Gonfalonière at Bologna.” After this first period of his life, when he was forty- two, viz. in 1494, he was invited to Milan, by the duke Ludovico Sforza, to whom Lionardo rendered himself V I N C I himself more particularly acceptable by playing upon the lyre, and upon one of a peculiar form, which he himself had made. To this instrument he sung also admirably, and recited verses extemporaneously, sur- passing all who attempted that species of amusement. But the more effective cause assigned for his going to the duke, was a design entertained by that prince of erecting a monument of bronze to the memory of his father. Among the manuscripts still existing of Lio- nardo, is a memorial presented by him to the duke about 1490. In it he offers his services in various mili- tary mechanical contrivances, for the purpose of aiding in sieges, passing rivers, &c. and also for the conduct- ing water-courses, sculpture in bronze or marble, and painting; and in conclusion remarks, “that at the same time that these things are going on, the equestrian statue to the memory of the duke’s father need not be neglected.” So that it appears by this, that the model- ling and erection of this statue were the primary ob- jects for which he was carried to Milan; and it was exe- cuted by him in bronze, and erected in the city, where it remained till it was demolished on the incursion of the French, after the defeat of Ludovico. The duke appointed him director of the academy of painting and sculpture, which he had recently revived with additional splendour; and under his instructions many pupils arose, who increased the love and renown of the arts, as he in great measure banished the remains of the Gothic style, and introduced his own new and more elevated one in its stead. Here, by desire of the duke, he painted a Nativity, which was sent by him as a present to the emperor of Germany ; but if we except this, the portraits of the duke and duchess, and his grandest work in the art, the Last Supper, painted on the walls of the refectory of the Dominican convent of the Madonna delle Grazie, he does not appear to have occupied much of the time he spent at Milan (which was about five years) in paint- ing. Indeed he scarcely could devote more time to it, as the duke engaged him as an engineer to conduct the waters of the Adda to the walls of Milan : an immense operation, in which, after much study and labour, he had nearly succeeded, when it was interrupted by the French. He also made many models of ingenious mechanical contrivances, and among them a lion, in compliment to the king of France, on his arrival at Milan, which, after advancing by itself many paces to meet the monarch, Suddenly stopped when it came near him, reared upon its hinder legs, and threw open its breast, which was filled with lilies. Whilst these various inventions shewed the versatility of his powers, the picture above alluded to, the Last Supper, gave immortality to the fame of the moment. Of this picture, one only character is given by all who have written or spoken of it, that of superior excel- lence in all the most admirable and exalted qualities of the art. Unfortunately, his knowledge in chemistry was not equal to his love of novelty, or he would not have painted it with a vehicle and a ground totally dis- cordant, which necessarily led to a speedy destruction of the surface. He painted it with oil colours upon the plastered wall, and in consequence the colour cracked and peeled off; so that in fifty years after it was painted, when Armenini visited it, he says “it was already half spoiled;” and Scanneili, who saw it in 1642, says, that “the subject was scarcely discernible.” Lanzi, in speaking of it recently, observes, that “what Vol. XXXVIII. * with the attempts to restore it by oils and varnishes, and with the repainting which has accompanied these attempts, there now remain only three heads of the apostles by the hand of Da Vinci, and those rather drawn than coloured.” The assent, therefore, which may be now given to the high testimony of contem- porary authorities as to the merit of this great work, rests with the copies which were made when the pic- ture was perfect, (and they are many,) and the general character of Lionardo's talent. There has lately been introduced into England, and is now exhibiting, (1817,) a copy as large in length as the original, said to be the one painted by M. Uggione, a pupil of Da Vinci, for the convent of the Carthusians at Pavia: which in 1793, upon the breaking up of that order, was sold with the other effects of the convent, and is now brought here. In it there remains sufficient of the grandeur of style adopted by its great author to satisfy every beholder of the justice fame has done to his talents. The selection of matter, the general treat- ment of the subject, the unequalled truth and variety of expression, the close attention paid to character and to nature, the depth, richness and brilliancy of its co- lour, with the high degree of finish to which it was car- ried, all are manifested in this copy, though in some parts imperfectly. In it also are seen the want of ma- ny points in chiaro-scuro and in colour, which, if they could have been combined with the matter it contains, (and they have since then been combined by Titian and others,) would place the original of this picture in every respect at the head of all the pictures which ever were painted. During his residence at Milan, Du Fresne says he composed his very useful work “Il Trattato della Pit- tura,” for the use of the pupils in the academy under his care ; and his studies for the equestrian statue doubtless gave rise to the curious and learned memo- randa of the structure of that animal, as his former stu- dies did to those concerning the human figure, which are found in the manuscript in the library of Bucking- ham-House. It appears to have been his customary practice to write his thoughts constantly, and accom- pany the passages by appropriate illustrations in draw- ing; and it would have been well for the art, if every eminent professor had adopted the same habit: we should then have been in possession of a mass of infor- mation which would much alleviate the necessities in- volved in practice, and enable men to express their thoughts and inventions without encountering the diffi- culties which not unfrequently stifle the most beautiful and sublime conceptions in their birth. The activity and exertions of Lionardo, supported by such uncommon talents, had already formed many skil- ful artists, who afterwards became renowned, and who would probably have rendered Milan the rival of Flo- rence as a School of art, but for the disastrous issue of a contest between the duke and the king of France, in which, in 1500, the former was defeated, captured, and carried into the country of his enemy, where about ten years afterwards he died. By this event the progress of the arts at Milan was broken up, with its academy for a time, and its illustrious president returned to Florence, where the arts were encouraged by the house of Medici. In this third pe- riod of his life, his first work was a design for an altar- piece for the chapel of the college of the Annunciate, the subject of which was a group, of our Saviour with 4 S the V IN C I. the Virgin and St. Anne, which was universally ap- proved and admired; yet it does not appear that the picture was ever painted, at least to remain in Italy. It is said, that by the desire of Francis I. he made a picture from it, and certainly one is shewn in the royal collection at Paris, painted from the design, though in a heavy and low tone of colour. He employed himself also about this time on a por- trait of Mona Lisa, known by the name of La Gioconda, a Florentine lady, wife of Francisco del Gioconda, for whom it was painted. This picture he is said to have employed himself upon during four years, but we must conceive it to mean only that it remained unfinished that length of time. It is in possession of the king of France, and attests, by its exquisite finish, the laborious attention of its author. It has a very beautiful expres- sion, particularly about the mouth; but is black and heavy in the shadows: in fact it is overlaboured, and had probably been far better had it left his study SOOI) e1". In 1503, the council of Florence having determined to decorate their chamber with works of art, Lionardo was appointed to execute one side of it; and M. An- gelo, then only twenty-nine years of age, but whose gigantic powers were already matured, was selected, as his competitor, to undertake the other. A most un- fortunate coalition, as the emulation it excited, aided and strengthened to bitterness by the mistaken affection of admiring partisans of either master, produced in the end the most confirmed jealousy, and even hatred, be- tween these two great men, and divided Florence into parties, who embittered their disputes, without being able to reconcile their differences. Lionardo chose for his subject the battle of Nicolo Picinino against Attila. He had prepared his cartoon, and proceeded in a cer- tain degree with his picture in oil colours, when to his great mortification he found, that owing to some im- perfection in the preparation of the ground, his colours began to peel from the wall, and he abandoned the work. The cartoon, however, of which we have one group preserved to us in the Battle of the Standard, engraved by Edelinck, had exalted his name highly among artists and connoisseurs, who flocked to Florence to see it and its rival, which had been prepared by M. Angelo; and among others Raffaelle, in 1504, was drawn there, allur- ed by the desire of improving the taste he had imbibed in the school of Perugino; and there, with the benefit he derived from these great works, and the instruction of Bartolomeo della Porta, he shook off in a great de- gree the dry and Gothic manner of his master, and laid the foundation of his future fame. Lionardo appears to have divided his residence at Florence and at Milan till 1513, during which time he probably painted his own portrait, which is in the gal- lery at Florence, a head whose energy leaves all the rest in the room far behind, and that perhaps which in many cabinets is called the portrait of Raffaelle. The half figure also of a young nun in the palace of Nicolini; Christ among the doctors, formerly in the Doria palace; the supposed portrait of queen Giovanna, adorned with beautiful architecture; that picture in the Barberini of Vanity and Modesty, the beauty and finish of which no one has ever been able to convey in a copy;-these ap- pear, with many others, to belong to this period, when, free from other serious occupations, he was at liberty to attend to painting with increasing power. No work, however, of any consequence like his Last Supper, was entrusted to him after the failure in the Hall at Florence, so that his great and deserved renown in the art is principally upheld by that work, and the rennant of the cartoon above-mentioned, to which his minor works, though beautifully wrought, are but trifles. The election of cardinal Giovanni di Medici to the tiara under the title of Leo X. induced Lionardo to visit Rome, which he had never seen ; and from his previous knowledge of the pontiff, he hoped for honour and em- ployment. He went there with his patron Giuliano di Medici, and was graciously received by Leo, who soon after signified his intention of employing his pencil. Upon this Lionardo began to distil his oils and pre are his varnishes, which the pope seeing, and being unac- quainted with the necessities of the painters’s style, he exclaimed with surprise, that nothing could be expect- ed of an artist who thought of finishing his works before he had begun them. This uniucky bon mot discon- certed the painter, and prevented him from proceeding: and probably he found the ground too firmly occupied by Raffaelle and M. Angelo, (who as the pope said produced works while Lionardo gave words,) to leave room for the expectation of honourable employment for himself. He therefore accepted an invitation from Francis I., king of Fiance, to visit his court, and left Rome in 1514 for that purpose, having spent his time there principally in the production of various fantastic and diverting mechanical contrivances, but in nothing of importance. This change of circumstances marks the fourth period into which Lanzi divides the life of this most extraordi- nary man, and with its commencement tertainated his career in art, as he appears to have been so exhausted by anxiety and sickness on his arrival in France, that he was never more able to use the pencil. For the five years that he continued to exist, it was but to struggle under an incurable complaint, during the continuance of winich the king frequently visited him; and it has been said, that in one of these visits Lionardo, exerting himself be- yond his strength to shew his sense of his majesty's con- descension, was seized with a fainting fit, and that the king stooping forwards to support him, he expired in his arms. This event occurred on the 2d of May, 1519, at a place called Cloux, near Amboise, and in the 67th year of his age. There are so many imitators of the style of Da Vinci, that it is extremely difficult to know what to regard as his among the numerous minor productions which are presented to us as the product of his easel. Among those imitators, Bernardino Luini holds the first rank, and his pictures are constantly imposed upon us as those of Lionardo. Lorenzo di Credi is another who copied Lionardo with great exactness. Antonio Sogliani also imitated and copied him as well as others; so that no wonder there are so many works brought to Sale under the high pretension of his name, by which our connoisseurs are duped and our picture- dealers are enriched. The real character of Lionardo da Vinci as a pain- ter is of the highest quality, as we have before obser- ved. He is the parent of the chiaro-scuro, upon which the fame of Correggio principally depends; and he first attempted to combine high finish with selection of parts and grandeur of style, particularly aiming to give intelligence to character and expression to fea- tures; in fact, to pourtray the mind: and in this no one has V IN C I. one has ever surpassed him, not even Raffaelle, who followed in this respect the road opened by Da Vinci. What is commonly called the beau-ideal, was not ex- actly the form he appears to have sought; but he had so much the feeling which generated it, that he al- ways took from his model the essential and character- istic, leaving out the mean and useless. Hence we find in his picture of the Last Supper so great a va- riety of character and of expression, which those who have attached themselves to the antique as their guide have never given; the imitation having, as we con- ceive, always superseded the original spirit of selec- tion which dictated the taste of the anceints. Two different manners are observable in his paint- ing ; one with dark shades, strongly contrasting with the lights, the other more placid, and conducted with more of middle teint. Grace of design, expression of the mind, and subtile management of the pencil, triumph in and adorn each ; all is gay in his pictures, but especially the heads of his women and children. In these he constantly repeated one idea, giving a smile to them which i is impossible to behold without experiencing a sympathetic impulse. Yet, if one may judge from the labour of his pictures, he rarely reach- ed the point at which he aimed, having an impression in his own mind more full and complete than he could render by his pencil; and, like Protogenes of old with his Jalysus, knew not, as Apelles said of him, when to leave off, nor could be contented with good, when he aspired after the best. As an author, Lionardo da Vinci has rendered es- sential service to art, particularly in his Treatise on Painting, which is the only one of his numerous com- pilations that has been given to the public, and which has been recently (in 1802) translated into English by a member of our Royal Academy, J. F. Rigaud, esq. Venturi speaks of this work as having been compiled from various of his manuscripts, which were doubtless the product of his every-day reflections, set down as they occurred, and without attention to order or ar- rangement. It treats of proportion, anatomy, motion and equipoise of figures, perspective, composition, ex- pression light and shade, colouring, &c. in 365 pre- cepts, some of which are confused and not easily to be unravelled, others are common place, but most are learned, ingenious, and useful. The rest of his mis- cellaneous works, treating of the anatomy of the horse and of the human subject, of perspective, optics, hy- draulics, botany, &c. were left by him in his will to his friend and pupil Francisco Melzi, and consisted of four- teen volumes, large and small, which by various means found their way into the national library at Paris, and one is in possession of our own sovereign. Venturi, who saw these at Paris, says “ that they contain specu- lations on those branches of natural philosophy nearest allied to geometry, are extremely miscellaneous. and entered without regard to method or arrangement.” Whether the change of events in the political world since his time has reconveyed these remains to the Ambrosian library at Milan, we know not, but most probably they are again returned there. The one in the library at Buckingham-House was the property of Pompeo Leoni, who obtained it, with two others since returned, from H. Melzi, and it is probable it was ac- quired by the earl of Arundel for Charles I. It was found, soon after his present majesty’s accession, in the same cabinet where queen Caroline found the portraits of the court of Henry VIII. by H. Holbein. VINCI, LEONARDO, an admirable opera composer of the Neapolitan school, is said to have run away from the conservatorio of Gli poveri in Gies” Cristo in that city, where he was the scholar of Gaetano Greco, on account of a quarrel with Porpora, a student of the same seminary. He began to distinguish himself in the year 1724, when he set the opera of Farnase for the Aliberti theatre at Rome. So great was the suc- cess of this drama, that he was called upon to furnish at least one opera every year till 1730, when he com- posed two, “Artaserse,” and “Allessandro nell' In- die,” both written by Metastasio. These, as we were informed at Rome, he set for half price, to gratify his enmity to Porpora, who was then his rival, in that city. The vocal compositions of Vinci form an era in dra- matic music, as he was the first among his countrymen who, since the invention of recitative by Jacopo Peri, in 1600, seems to have occasioned any considerable revolution in the musical drama. The airs in the first operas were few and simple; but as singing improved, and orchestras became more crowded, the voice-parts were more laboured, and the accompaniments more complicated. In process of time, however, poetry seems to have suffered as much as ever from the pedantry of musicians, who forgetting that the true characteristic of dramatic music is clearness; and that sound being the vehicle of poetry and colouring of passion, the in- stant the business of the drama is forgotten, and the words are unintelligible, music is so totally separated from poetry, that it becomes merely instrumental ; and the voice-part may as well be performed by a flute or violin, in the orchestra, as by one of the characters of the piece, on the stage. Vinci seems to have been the first opera composer who saw this absurdity, and, without degrading his art, rendered it the friend, though not the slave to poetry, by simplifying and polishing melody, and calling the attention of the audience chiefly to the voice-part, by disentangling it from fugue, com- plication, and laboured contrivance. In 1726, he set Metastasio’s “Didone Abandonata.” for Rome, which established his reputation; for in this exquisite drama, not only the airs were greatly ap- plauded, but the recitative, particularly in the last act, which being chiefly accompanied, had such an effect, that, according to count Algarotti, “ Virgil himself would have been pleased to hear a composition so ani- mated and so terrible, in which the heart and soul were at once assailed by all the powers of music.” Saggio sopra l’Opera in Musica. We shall mention the rest of this pleasing and intel- ligent composer’s operas, the airs of which long served as models to other masters, and are not yet become either ungraceful or inelegant. In 1727, he composed “Gismondo, Re di Polonia;” in 1728, “ Catone in Utica;” in 1729, “ Semiramide Riconosciuta;” and in 1730, “ Alessandro neli’ Indie,” and “Artaserse,” all for the theatres in Rome The celebrated air at the end of the first act of Artaserse, “ Vo solcando un mar crudele,” originally composed for Carestini, is well known, and is perhaps the only production of Vinci by which his merits have been fa- vourably estimated in England. In the printed book of the words, Vinci is called “ Pro-vice maestro della Real Capella di Napoli.” * We have been able to find no more of his works after this period; so that he must either have begun late, or been cut off early in life, as his great and dura- ble renown seems to have been acquired in the short space of six years of his existence. 4 S 2 Vinci V IN V IN Vinci began that free and truly dramatic style of composition, which Hasse and Pergolesi afterwards, perhaps, improved; but it is a style which no good composer, except Gluck, has abandoned. It has been, indeed, embellished and rendered more elegant by the disciples of Durante: Piccini, Sacchini, Traetta, and Anfossi; but they have all been guided by the outline of Vinci. This justly admired composer died at Rome in 1731, during the first run of his Artaserse. Metastasio, in a letter to the Romanina, makes a melancholy reflection on the subject: “Poor Vinciſ Now that merit will be known, which during his life was blasted by his cnemies. “What a miserable being is man He thinks fame the only good that can render him happy; but alas ! he must die ere he is allowed to enjoy it; and if he does not die, envy will make him wretched for attempt- ing to acquire it.” One of our own poets has made a similar reflection on the vanity of human wishes for any other than post- humous fame. “ For such the frailty is of human kind, Men toil for fame, which no man lives to find; Long rip'ning under ground the china lies: Fame bears no fruit, till the vain planter dies.” Earl of Mulgrave. VINCIA, VENCE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia Narbonnensis, N. of Antipolis, and the capital of the Narusci. The town seems to have been consecra- ted to the god Mars, and Cybele was worshipped there. VINCULO Matrimonii, Divorce à. See DIvorcE. VINCULUM, in Algebra, a character in form of a line, or stroke drawn over a factor, divisor, dividend, when compounded of several letters, or quantities; to connect them, and shew that they are to be multiplied, or divided, &c. together, by the other term. Thus, d x a + b – c, shews that d is to be multipli- ed into a + b – c. VINCUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower Germany. Anton. Itin. VINDALIUM, WE/DENE', a village of Gallia Nar- bonnensis, upon the left of the Rhone, N.W. of Cy- presseta. VINDANA, a port of Gallia Lyonnensis. Ptol. VINDELICIA, a country of Europe, N. of the Alps and S. of the Danube, near Rhaetia. It has been conjectured that this name is formed of two words, which are the names of two rivers that water the coun- try; one called Windo (the Wertach, which passes to Augsburg,) and the other Lichus (the Lech.) Strabo and Ptolemy differ in their assignment of the bounds of this country. According to Strabo, the Vindelicians lived near the Salasses, and inhabited a part of the mountains which regarded the east and turned towards the S. He adds that they were the limitrophes of the Helvetians and Boians. According to this author, the Rhaetians did not touch the lake of Constance, except in a part of their borders, that is, between the Rhine and Bregentz; but this town, which Ptolemy assigns to the Rhaetians, really belonged to the Vindelicians. The Helvetians and Vindelicians occupied a great part of the banks of the lake. Upon the whole we may conclude, from the observations of Strabo, Pliny, Taci- tus, and Sextus Rufus, who have all taken a part in settling the boundaries of Vindelicia, that in its ancient state it had the Danube to the N., and that the river Ænus separated it from Norica on the E. side, and that on the W. it extended from the lake of Constance to the Danube. Its boundaries on the S. are less satis- factorily ascertained. Strabo says that the Vindeli- cians possessed mountainous plains at the extremity of the Alps; and he represents this country as contained between the Licus and the AEnus. M. D’Anville, in his Ancient Geography, says that the country of the Vindelici extended from the town of Brigantia (Bre- gentz,) on the lake of Constance, to the Danube; and that the lower part of the course of the AEnus or of the Inn separated it from Morbihan. A powerful colony was established in the angle formed by the two rivers Vindo and Licus, whence the nation seems to have derived the appellation of Vindelici; and Augusta, given to this colony, preserves its name in that of Augsbourg, between the two rivers Lech and Wer- tach, the first of which actually separates Suabia from Bavaria. Vindelicia, when it was subjugated by the Romans, was joined to Rhaetia, and the whole country, contained between the lake of Constance, the Danube, the Inn, and the country of the Carni, the Insubres and Vene- tians, was always called Rhaetia, or Provincia Rhaetia. Nevertheless, the Rhaetians and Vindelicians formed two separate people, although they inhabited the same province. Accordingly Horace calis the inhabitants of Vindelicia, Rhaeti Vindeli, to distinguish them from the inimabitants of Rhaetia properly so called. VINDELIS, or VINDILIs, an Island placed by the Itinerary of Antonine between the Gauls and Great Bri- tain; but this is done in so vague and indefinite a man- ner, that it is not possible to say what island is meant. Some authors think that it is the isle of Portland. VINDEMIATING, formed of vindemia, vintage, the gathering of grapes, or other ripe fruits; as apples, pears, cherries, &c. VINDEMIATRIX, or VINDEMIATOR, a fixed star of the third magnitude, in the northern wing of the constellation Virgo. VINDENUTA. VINDUNITA, Vindimita, or Windo- nitensis insula, in Ancient Geography, an island of France, in dependence on the town of Nantes. It was to this island Friard is supposed to have retired in 560, to pass the life of an indolent and useless hermit; and he thus acquired the name of St. Friard. VINDERIUS, a river of Hibernia, having, accord- ing to Ptolemy, its mouth on the eastern coast, between the promontory Isamnium and the mouth of the river Logia. Camden thought that it is the present bay of Knockfergus. VINDIA, or VINDA, a town of Asia, in Galatia, upon the route from Pessinunte to Ancyra, between Germa and Papira. Anton. Itin. VINDICATION, CLAIMING, in the Civil Law, an action arising from the property a person has in any thing: or a permission to take or seize a thing, as one’s own, out of the hands of a person, whom the law has doomed not to be the true proprietor. VINDICATORY Part of a Law. See Law. VINDICTA, among the Romans, the praetor's rod or switch, with which he touched a slave’s head when he was enfranchised. VINDINATES, in Ancient Geograft hy, a people of Italy, in Umbria. VINDINUM, a town of Gallia Lyonnensis, belong- ing to the Aulerci or Cenomani. Ptol.—Also a town of Italy, in Umbria. VINDIUS V IN V I N VINDIUS or VINNIUS Mons, one of the most con- siderable mountains in Hispania Citerior, according to Ptolemy and Florus. The name is applicable to the chain of mountains, which detaching itself from the Py- renées, traverses Biscay and the Austurias, and forms, at the entrance of Galacia, two branches, one extending itself to Cape Finisterre, and the other, turning to the S., traverses the country of the ancient Bracares. VINDIUS Mons, a mountain of India, on this side of the Ganges. Ptol. It extends from the S. W. to the N. E., S. of the country called Sandrabatis. VINDO, a river of Germany. See VINDELICIA. VIN DOBONA, Vienna in Austria, a town of Supe- rior Pannonia, six miles from Cetium, according to the tables of Peutinger. It is marked in the Itinerary of Antonine upon the route-from Sirmium to Treves, be- tween Motanum and Comagnes. VINDOGLADIA, VINDUGLADIA, or Windocladia, a town of Great Britain, in the 12th Iter of Antonine, on the route from Calleva to Uriconium, between Sorbio- dunum (Old Sarum) and Durnovaria (Dorchester); supposed to be near Cranburn. Dr. Stukely traced the Roman road all the way from Old Sarum, for 13 miles, to near Boroston, where he places Vindocladia. VINDOMAGUS, one of two towns mentioned by Ptolemy, as belonging to the Volcae Arecomici: the other being Nemausus. Although the precise situa- tion of Vindomagus is not certainly known, the pre- sumption lies in favour of Vigan, because it affords many monuments of antiquity, and has been mentioned under the name of Vicanus for 600 or 700 years. It is in the same parallel with Nimes, and only about half a degree differing in longitude, and corresponds in a variety of respects to the place marked out by Ptolemy. VINDOMIS, VINDoMUM, or Windonium, a town of Great Britain, in the 12th Iter of Antonine, on the route from Calleva to Uriconium, between Calleva (Silches- ter) and Venta Belgarum (Winchester.) If Mr. Hor- sley has rightly placed Calleva at Silchester, it is pro- bable that he has fixed justly on the scite of Vindonisat Farnham. - VINDOMORA, a town of Great Britain, in the 1st Iter of Antonine, on the route from the limit, vallum or wall to Praetorium (Broughton), between Corstopi- tum (Cowbridge) and Vinovia (Binchester). The situ- ation of this place fixed at Ebchester, is evidently mis- taken by Gale and Camden, the former fixing it at Do- lande, within less than five miles of Cowbridge, and the other at Wall's-End, which is altogether out of the way of this Iter, that proceeds from N. to S. along the fa- mous military road called Watling-street. See Hor- sley’s Brit. Rom. p. 396. VINDONISSA, the station of the 21st legion accord- ing to Tacitus, the position of which unites many Ro- man ways. The distance marked xxii in the Theodo- sian table, with respect to Augusta Rauracorum, is more suitable than that of xxvii in the Intinerary of An- tonine. Vindonissa is named Vindo in a Panegyric of Constantine by Eumenes; and Castrum Vindonissense in the notitia of the provinces of Gaul lies in Maxima Sequanorum. This town had been an episcopal see; but having been ruined towards the end of the sixth cen- tury, or the commencement of the seventh, this bishop- ric became that of Constance, and Mayence was re- cognised at the metropolis, although Vindonissa, in- cluded in the Sequanois, should have acknowledged Besançon under this dignity. The place which it oc- cupied upon the bank of the Russ, near its junction with the Aar, is denominated Windisch. - VINE, in Botany and Gardening. See VITIs. It is said that vines were first planted about the rivers Rhine, Maine, and Moselle, and also in Hungary, and the northern part of Gaul, about the year 276. But with respect to the provinces of Gaul and Spain, which border on the Mediterranean sea, as well as to Italy, many are of opinion that vines grew spontaneously there. Julius Caesar found vines growing in Gallia Narbonnensis, i. e. Languedoc and Provence; and Stra- bo remarks, that the said province produced all the kinds of fruit, which Italy afforded. The Phoenicians are said in early times to have planted vines in the isles of the Mediterranean sea, as well as in several parts of the continent both of Europe and Africa. It appears that there were real vineyards in England in 1140 and 1230. And. Com. vol. i. p. 16, and p. 81. VINE, Black. See Tour NEFoRTIA Volubilis. VINE, Climbing five-leaved, of Canada, a species of Hedera ; which see. VINE, Shanish Arbor, a species of Ihomasa ; which SCC. VINE, Wild, or White Wine. and Acida. VINE, Culture of, in the Field or often Ground, in Rural Economy, the growth and management of it in such situations for the use of the grapes in making wine. It would seem probable that the cultivation of this plant might be conducted with advantage in this inten- tion, in many situations in the southern parts of this country; especially as some of them are well known to be nearly within the vinous latitude, which is found to extend between the twenty-fifth and fifty-first degree in the northern hemisphere : and, as in Germany, it is found by experience, that all such vineyards as are situ- ated within the latter of these limits, are capable of be- ing cultivated with considerable profit; though where they stretch much beyond it, their success is extremely doubtful. Proper cultivation and management, are therefore, all which appear necessary in raising crops of this sort. In speaking of the means of establishing vineyards in this country, Mr. Speechly has remarked, in his useful work on the subject, that there arc four things which ought to be materially considered ; namely, the situation; the soil ; the kinds of vines which are the most fit and proper to be planted; and the mode of their management. In regard to the first, it is said that an elevated situ- ation, where there is a gentle declivity to the south or south-east, is esteemed preferable to low grounds, which are generally subject to damps and spring-frosts, even at times when the adjoining high grounds are en- tirely free from both. Vineyards or grounds of this kind, too, should be well protected and sheltered to the north, as well as to the north-west and north-east. In a hilly country there are generally many favourable spots, where nature has given important advantages, and which should be still further improved by art for this purpose. Plantations of forest-trees, judiciously formed, would, it is supposed, contribute much to give warmth and shel- ter; but these should not be placed too near the vine; yards, so as to confine the air, as that would prove very injurious to them. In wine countries it is well known, that vineyards are often not only confined to gentle declivities, but that thev See Crssus Sicyoides, V IN E. they are frequently formed on slopes, on the sides of hills and rocks, which are sometimes so steep as even to border upon precipices; and that vineyards thus situ- ated produce grapes uncommonly rich, yielding wines of the most excellent quality. Consequently, from the hills which border upon the English Channel having declivities which tend towards the South, they would appear, it is thought, to be highly proper for the growth of the vine. And that the excavations in them, from which chalky materials have been taken, where they have a southern exposure, would likewise seem well calculated to answer the same purpose. In what respects the nature of the ground, it has been observed that the vine delights in such gravelly and rocky soils as are frequently found on the sides of steep hills and rocks, and that it has sometimes been known to flourish among mere stones and gravel. It grows most favourably in a light, dry, Sandy, or gravelly soil, which is perfectly free from stagnant moisture: con- sequently it may be noticed, that the introduction of the vine into this country would have no bad effect in re- spect to agriculture, as all strong and deep lands, which are best adapted for tillage, are the most un- suitable for the cultivation of the vine. But besides gentle declivities and light soils, vines, it is said, grow in situations and soils where the land could hardly be rendered profitable in any other way. And thus, though vines would not grow robust on the steeps of poor, gravelly, and rocky soils, still they would be more productive than when planted on rich lands, and the fruit be greatly preferable. All such hills as have the above aspect or exposure, and are composed of either slate, gravel, scaly rock, or lime-stone, are of course highly proper for being planted upon. It is therefore evident, that there is a considerable portion of soil in the southern districts of this kingdom that is well adapted for the growth of vines. However, the success of a vineyard in this country would, it is thought, most essentially depend on the kinds of vines which are propagated and cultivated. It is believed that it has been a prevailing, though cer- tainly an erroneous notion, that the sweet early kinds of grapes are the best to plant for the purpose of ma- king wine in this country. And that most or all of the modern trials in this way have been made from vines brought from France. It is not doubted by the above writer, but that there are, among the abundant variety of grapes, peculiar sorts, which are by nature singular- ly suited to make wines in different climates and situa- tions. Thus the different sorts of grapes propagated and grown in the Madeira and Canary islands, might not, it is thought, be found, if tried, to make good wines in France. It is hence concluded, that as the southern part of this island is almost on the verge of the vinous latitude, it should seem reasonable to suppose, that there would be the greatest probability of success from those kinds of grapes which have been known to thrive and prosper best in the most northern latitudes. On this account, therefore, the kinds of vines cultivated in Germany are recommended, and particularly the sort producing the grapes of which the Rhenish wine is made, in preference to any kind cultivated in France. It is noticed above, that the early sweet kinds of grapes are improper for making of wine in this coun- try: the reason of which is this, it is supposed, that though such grapes yield a sweet juice, it is not calcu- lated to undergo fermentation in a proper manner. It is found by experience, that good bodied, or generous wines, can be made from grapes of an austere taste, and that too even before they are quite arrived at a state of maturity. But then wine from such crude grapes requires to be kept to a good age. The case is similar, it is said, in respect to apples. It is well known that the sweet kinds of them, which ripen in the summer months, are very unfit for making cyder. And that the noblest liquor of this sort, such at that of the styre and cockagee, is made from apples not much better than wildings. Mr. Loudon, however, re- marks, in speaking of the culture of the vine in other intentions, that the general imperfection of English grapes is their defect of Saccharine matter and want of sweetness. This is, perhaps, it is thought, in part owing to the humidity of the atmosphere, more than to its coldness, as very sweet grapes grow, and spirituous wines are made, in much colder and more northern latitudes than a great part of England. Another rea- son why the fruit of English vines possesses considera- ble acidity, is the general taste for large globular grapes, without regard so much to the delicacy of their flavour as the grandeur of their appearance. This species of vine does not produce delicious grapes in the hottest climates it is said, and consequently should not be so generally cultivated in this. But the appearance in this intention is of little importance. The grapes most abundant in the Saccharine matter, are, it is said, always round, as those of the currant grape. It must be con- fessed, however, that the more exposed the vine is to the intense meridian sun, so much the sweeter will be the grape, and the greater the quantity of saccha- rine or spiritous juice that it will contain. The sorts of vines most suitable for this purpose may probably be, the chassilas, or common white mus- cadine, the berries of which are not large, or very sweet. . The morillon, noir hatif, a good sort of grape in this intention, which has a small round black berry, of a sugary juice, is much esteemed, as being early, ripening in September. The Malmsey muscadine, which somewhat resembles the above, the juice of which is very sweet, and of a higher flavour, is a good bearer, and a fine grape. The black sweet-water has a small roundish berry, of a sweet taste; but which, be- ing apt to crack, is not in much repute. Birds are fond of it. It ripens in the same month as the above. The small black cluster, which has small oval berries, and the leaves covered with a hoary down, is a very pleasant fruit. The early white grape from Teneriffe ; the ber- ries of which are of a middling size, and the flesh re- markably sweet and juicy : the Auverna, or true Bur- gundy grape, sometimes called the black morillon, which is an indifferent fruit for the table, but esteem- ed one of the best for making wine from ; and the white Sweet-water, which has a large berry of a white colour, and very agreeable juice, is esteemed an excellent grape, and ripens in the above month :—it is supposed that from some of these, and perhaps a few others, the cul- tivator may probably find a proper grape for cultiva- ting in the intention of making wine in this country. In regard to the culture of the vine with this design, as even the most southern parts of this island are but nearly on the verge of the vinous latitude, as has been seen, every possible advantage should be consulted and had recourse to in the formation and management of vineyards. Those abroad, it is said, are formed by planting the vines in rows, and by training them in a perpendicular V IN E. perpendicular direction. The first of the above wri- ters would, however, in this country, greatly prefer the mode of training the vines in a lateral or horizontal form, similar to the method which is practised in Hol- land with vines in frames. There would, it is thought, be little difficulty in this method, as the vines might readily be trained along small poles, not thicker than those used for hops; these poles being fixed nearly paraliel to the ground. Vines thus trained, it is ap- prel, ended, would derive many advantages, not only by means of warmth and shelter, but that they would most easily be protected also from spring-frosts, by apply- ing the boughs of trees, particularly those of the ever- green kind. The grapes too, it is observed, would be greatly benefited by the reflection from the soil of the ground underneath them. It is suggested that when vines are intended to be planted on the steeps of hills, and on the sides of rocks, the ground should be prepared and formed in the man- ner of steps, which it is particularly necessary should be lower at the inner angles, as without this the vine- plants would lose the advantage of such rains as fall hastily and perpendicularly. It is easy to conceive that much advantage would be gained from a situation thus formed, as the back would be nearly equal to a wall. And the expense attending the formation of the ground could not be very considerable. The work should be begun at the top, and the soil taken out be thrown down the hill. It would likewise be further beneficial to have a little good soil or earth put in at the angles, before the vines are planted. In respect to the plants, they may be provided either by seeds, cuttings, or layers, but the two iast are mostly the best methods. When they are raised from seed, after they have had a year’s growth, they should be planted out, about the latter end of March, or beginning of the following month, against the poles or treillis to which they are to be trained, if from seeds ripened in this country; but when from such as are imported from the vine countries, too many should not be planted till their value be known. When they have been thus planted, they should be cut at the third eye, if strong, but at the second, if weakly ; at the same time rubbing off the lower end with the finger and thumb. When by cuttings, they should be chosen from shoots that are best ripened, and have the shortest joints; al- ways having one or two joints of the last year’s wood to them, cutting each perfectly smooth, and a little round- ing at the lower end, and as near to a joint of the old wood as possible. The upper end too should be cut smooth, and sloping towards the treillis or poles. They should afterwards be trained as circumstances may di- rect. It has been advised too by some, that choice should be made of cuttings after a warm and dry season, when the wood ripens well; each cutting having two inches of the old wood with one eye of the new. When the old vines are pruned, there is mostly great choice, they should therefore be then selected of a middling size, and the wood round. In raising vines for this purpose in the layer manner, a method very usually made use of is to lay the stools down in an open situation, in the same mode as for for- est-trees and shrubs; though the best way, in the opin- ion of some, is to take layers from such vines as have been trained. They should be cut so as to leave one or two strong eyes on each, and when the shoots begin to run, be trained to the treillis or poles. Those which have the strongest and most vigorous shoots should be selected and preserved for this purpose. They should after- wards be carefully trained and pruned, as circumstances may require, always considering that much of the good- ness of the grapes in these cases depends upon the living wood being strong and well ripened. In planting the grounds, the vines may be set in rows at suitable distances, according to the soil, situation, and mode of training which is to be practised, but mostly about three or four feet distant in the rows, and five, six, or more, from row to row. The intervals between the rows are to be kept quite clean and free from weeds, by frequent hoeing and digging them over. After the vines have been thus raised, and carefully pruned and trained for three years, they mostly produce crops of fruit, which, when for wine, should be well ripened be- fore it is used, especially in this country. The mode of the culture of vines in Madeira may probably suggest some hints for their growth in the open grounds in this country. It is stated, that the best season for planting them there, is from the middle of the month of November to the end of February ; that the slips or cuttings are made from a foot and a half to two feet and a half in length; they are set two feet in the ground, about three feet distant, in straight rows or trenches, about four or five feet asunder. After one trench is opened, and the earth taken out and laid on one side of it, so as to form a bank, the butt ends of the vines are put into the bottom of the trench, and the small ends extended sloping up the bank; the trench is then filled with earth dug from the sound land the depth of it, breaking the clods, taking out the stones, hawling all the earth towards the vines, and thus making a second trench, at the distance noticed above, from the first; proceeding to plant the whole vineyard or ground in the same manner. By this means the ground is lightened all over, as well as where it touches the vines, and is cleared of stones, the roots of trees, plants, shrubs, and grass, which are all carefully picked out. A vineyard or ground planted in this manner wili, it is said, last there fifty or sixty years. Afterwards the young vines are not pruned until they have been two or three years planted. The season for pruning is nearly as above ; in doing which, no part of the vine is cut but the new shoots, which are cut off every year at the end of every second or third joint. The largest of these cuttings are saved for pianting, and will keep for several weeks above ground; but if cut early, and not planted till late, it is better to cover the butt-end with earth. The supporting of the vines, and other such matters, is done to the height of three or four feet, by sticking stakes in the ground from end to end of the rows, then lashing long slender poles near the heads of them; and across the poles are laid, both ways, reeds or canes, at the distance of two or two and a half feet, which are tied to one another, and to the poies where they cross, with split-willow twigs: these, it full grown and hard, will last two or three years. In the second or third year after planting, the vines are raised and fastened to the stakes and poles by means of twigs, and the branches spread open, and loosely tied to the poles or canes, so that they may not be too thick in some places and too thin in others. In the third year after the vines have been planted out, they commonly produce a pretty good crop of grapes fit for making wine. In which cases, w i.en they are almost come to their full size, they are gradually exposed V IN V IN * exposed to the sun, by frequently thinning the leaves till every branch lies open to the sun some part of the day. But if this should be done while the fruit is green, or, all at once, when nearly ripe, it would wither the grapes, and the juice would never be rich. The grapes are here to hang until they are very ripe, and many, on almost every branch, begin to turn to raisins, otherwise the wine will be weak, harsh, and rough, and without much flavour; hence it is evident the grapes should not be promiscuously gathered all at once, but two or three gatherings made, taking only what are ripe each time. It is likewise found, that in soils which are hot, dry, and poor in quality, the culture of vines in this country in the open ground may be conveniently accomplished in another manner; as by their growth being greatly limited and restricted in such cases, their tendency to fruiting is considerably increased and expedited, they can, of course, be managed by being kept in a dwarf state, in somewhat the manner of the currant, and in this way produce much fruit for the purpose of wine. It is a method which seems to have answered well in some cases, and which is perfectly suited to many situations, where the vine might be cultivated for the making of wine in the southern parts of this country. See VITIs and WINE. It is evident from a variety of circumstances, that the cultivation of the vine in the open ground of this coun- try, in the view of procuring wine from the fruit, should be more attended to than has hitherto been the case. In some situations it would probably afford a better profit and advantage than the hop, and with much less expense of cultivation; while in others it is almost the only plant that could be introduced with any chance of SUICCCSS. VINE Gall-Insect, an insect of the gall-insect class, principally found on the vine, though capable of living on some other trees, and sometimes found on them. It is much of the same shape, figure, and manner of life, with the other animals of this class; but differs from them in this, that as they lay their eggs all under their body, and continue absolutely to cover them till they are hatched, these protrude them from their body, and they are found in prodigious abundance, lodged in a sort of cottony or silken bags, all over the stalks and branches of the vines: the dead animal is sometimes found covering them in part, but more frequently they are absolutely naked, and often are so numerous, as to appear like thin cobwebs hung one over another all over the vine. These eggs might be easily mistaken for those of small spiders; they always hatch well, and come to maturity on the vines they are found on ; but if remov- cd to others, they seldom come to any thing, which is very singular, since the gall-insects of almost all other trees may be removed and propagated either on the same or on different trees. These wine-insects are of the boat-fashioned kind; but beside these, there are some other species which lodge their eggs in a cottony nest of the same kind. The common thorn affords a shorter and more convex kind than this does; these are a very small species; others are something larger; but the oak affords a sort of equal size, if not exceeding those of the vine; some of these are brown, others blueish, and others reddish; and there are some minute differences in their shape. Reaumur, Hist. Ins. tom. iv. p. 61. VINE-Grubs, a name given by some authors to the pucerons, or little insects which are usually of a green colour, and are found, often in prodigious numbers, sticking to the leaves of trees and plants, and to their young stalks. M. Reaumur has been very curious in his investiga- tion of the nature of this insect; but the manner of pro- pagating its species was never clearly observed, till Mr. Bonet discovered it. - Reaumur observes, that in every family of pucerons, there are some that have wings, and some that have not ; and that, according to the usual course of nature, the winged ones should be males, and the others females; but, on the contrary, that both the winged and the un- winged vine-grubs are females, all being viviparous, and each kind producing a number of living young; So that the males of these pucerons were never disco- vered, even by that careful observer; nor could he ever find out what it was that impregnated the one and the other kind. He leaves us queries on this subject, whether there is no copulation among them and whether they are all hermaphrodites, each having in itself the organs of both sexes, as is the case of the river muscles : Mr. Bonet, in order to inform himself of the process of nature in these creatures, brought up one of them in perfect solitude from its birth; he had an opportunity of observing it in the place where it was kept, and watched it very strictly for many months together. At the end of twelve days this creature, without having had any copulation with a male, began to breed. She produced in the whole ninety-five young ones, all alive, and constantly under the eye of the observer. This ex- periment was repeated several times with the same suc- cess: and, at length, repeated upon the young ones pro- duced in this manner, and they were found to breed at the same period, and in the same manner with their parent, without having had any copulation with a male, as far as to the fourth generation. A hasty observer would immediately conclude from this, that there was no copulation among the pucerons; but farther enquiry proves that this is not the case ; for the same observer has found a species of them in which there is copulation ; so that both the winged and the unwinged kinds are truly females, and the male is a small fly, of a very different shape, as is the case in re- gard to many other insects. This male is the most falacious creature imaginably, copulating a vast many times successively, with the same, and with different females. As this is the case in regard to one species of this creature, it doubtless is so also in regard to the rest, though that has not yet been observed : and the singularity seems to be this, that after the male has copulated with the female, she not only becomes prolific, but her young ones are born ready impregnated, as far as the fourth generation; after which, probably, there is a necessity for the copulation with the male again. There is another very singular observation also in the production of the young pucerons; the females are properly viviparous, and usually bring forth live young; but they sometimes produce only a sort of foetuses, which are laid in a long series one beside the other, as the caterpillar eggs are laid by the butterfly; and they are left to hatch, as it were, afterwards, by the heat of the sun. Phil. Trans. No 469. VINE or Bine Hof, in Rural Economy, a term often applied to the shoot of the hop-plant. After picking the hops, it is mostly the best practice to tie up the vines, bines, or binds, into small bavins while periº rve V IN V IN dry, in order to preserve them in some way or other as fuel for different uses, and to clear the ground for fu- ture operations. The work usually costs about six- pence the hundred. VINE-Press, a sort of press and vat constructed for the purpose of squeezing and receiving the liquor from the grapes, where wine is to be made from them. . It may be formed of different sizes, as from six to nine feet square, or more, according to the cztent of the vineyard, being made of planks which are about eigh- teen or twenty inches in breadth, and two and a half or three inches in thickness, so fixed to a bottom of the same kind, or of greater thickness, that they may be capable of being pressed close to it, and to one another, at the corners, by the help of posts or studs, with wed- ges and levers; it being caulked, where necessary, in order to prevent the waste of the liquor. On one side a spout is to be placed, on which a wicker basket is to be hung during the operation, to strain the liquor through as it runs into a tub, which is often put half way in the ground, to accommodate it to the height of the vat. When the grapes are gathered, they are thrown into the vat of the press, and the spout being stopped, receive a gentle pressure; and then the spout is openca, and the juice drawn off as long as it will run without further pressing: when the spout is again stopped, the grapes are again subjected to a stronger pressure, somewhat in the manner of the cyder-press, and the liquor afterwards drawn off as before. In this mannur the work proceeds until the liquor is wholly drawn off. Tiese presses a e perfectly simple in their nature, being merely so contrived as to afford a proper degree of pressure, without doing too much injury to the grapes, which would probably hurt the flavour and quality of the wine. See WINE. V : NEAE, in the Roman Art of War, were defensive engi,es composed of wicker hurdles, laid for a roof on the tops of pests, which the soldiers who went under it for sileiter bore up with their hºnds. Some say that they had two roofs; the first and tºwer of planks, and the upper roof of hurdles, to break the force of any blows, without disordering the machine. See MAN- TELIETS, VINEGAR, AcFTUM, an agreeable, acid, penetra- ting iiquor, prepared from wine, cyder, beer, and other liouors, and varying in hue from light red to brown straw-ceiour, malt vinegar being more highly coloured than tº “t of wine : and of considerable use, both as a medicine and a sauce : or, vinegar is a vegetable acid liquor, produced by the second degree of fermentation, or that which succeeds the spirituous, and is called the acid or acetous fermeniation. Every liquor, which has completely undergone the spirituous fermentation, is spontaneously and necessarily disposed to the acid fer- mentation. Accordingly, every vinous liquor does con- tint ally tend to become vinegar, and is actually chang- ed into it, SGoner or later, according to circumstances; unless this change be prevented by some obstacle to fermentation in general. If vinegar be long kept, and particularly if it be exposed to the air, it will become mºddy and copy, acquiring an unpleasant smell, losing its acidity and putrefying. In order to preserve it for a longer time, it should be boiled for a few minutes, so that tºe gluten may coagulate and separate, on the pre- sence of whic: these changes depend, and also kept in well-co: ked bottles. Vol. XXXVIII. The word is French, vinaigre ; formed from vin, wine, and aigre, sour. The method of making vinegar has long been kept a secret among the people of that profession; who, it is said, oblige themselves to each other by oath not to re- veal it; but, notwithstanding this, the Philosophical Transactions, and some other late writings, furnish us with approved accounts of it. Whatever be the mate- rials used in the preparation of the liquor for producing vinegar, it is merely necessary to admit air into the vessel in which it is kept, and to preserve it in a tem- perature somewhat higher than that of the atmosphere in this climate, that is, from about 75° to 80°. When a liquor already fermented is used, it is also of almost indispensable importance that yeast, or some other fer- ment, be added, in order to hasten the fermentation, or else the change will be too gradual to obtain vinegar in perfection, and the first acetified portion will turn mouldy before the last has become sour. But if the material employed has not undergone fermentation, the whole process of the vinous and preceding acetous fer- mentation will go on without interruption, with the same ferment which first set it in action, as, e. g. in making vinegar from malt, or from sugar and water. It is ne- cessary also to stop the process of the manufacture in that stage of it, in which the acid has attained to its highest degree of strength and perfection, after which the liquor would then speedily be deteriorated, the acetous acid would gradually disappear, and an offensive mouldy watery liquor remain, with scarcely any acidity. It depends upon the skill and experience of the manu- facturer to determine when his vinegar is in a fit state to be drawn off and closely barrelled. - VINEGAR, Method of making Cyder. The cyder (the meanest of which will serve the purpose) is first to be drawn off fine into another vessel, and a quantity of the must, or pouze of apples, to be added; the whole is then to be set in the sun, if there be a conve- niency for the purpose ; and, at a week or nine days end, it may be drawn off. VINEGAR, Method of making Beer. Take a mid- dling sort of beer, indifferently weil hopped; into which, when it has worked well, and is grown fine, put some rape, or husk of grapes, usually brought home for that purpose; mash them together in a tub; then, letting the rape settle, draw off the liquid part, put it into a cask, and set it in the sun as hot as may be ; the bung- hole being only covered with a tile, or slate-stone; and in about thirty or forty days it will become a good vine- gar, and may pass in use as well as that made of wine, if it be refined, and kept from turning musty. Or, vinegar may be made thus: To every gallon of springwater, add three pounds of Malaga raisins; which put into an eal then jar, and place them where they may have the hottest sun from May till Michaelmas; then pressing all well, tun the liquor up in a very strong iron-hooped vessel, to prevent its bursting : it will appear very thick and muddy, when newly press- ed; but it will refine in the vessel, and be as clear as wine. Thus let it remain untouched for three months, before it be drawn off, and it will prove excellent vinegar. VINEGAR, To make wine. Any sort of vinous liquor, being mixed with its own faeces, flowers, or ferment, and its tartar first reduced to powder; or else with the acid and austere stalks of the vegetable from whence the wine was obtained, which hold a large proportion 4 T of V IN E G A R. of tartar: and the whole being kept frequently stirring in a vessel which has formerly held vinegar, or set in a warm place full of the steams of the same, will begin to ferment anew, and conceive heat, and will grow Sour by degrees, and soon after turn into vinegar. The remote subjects of acetous fermentation are the same with those of vinous; but the immediate subjects of it are all kinds of vegetable juices, after they have once undergone that fermentation which reduces them to wine; for it is absolutely impossible to make vinegar of must, the crude juice of grapes, or other ripe fruits, without the previous assistance of vinous fermentation. The proper ferments for this operation, by which vinegar is prepared, are, 1. The faeces of all acid wines. 2. The lees of vinegar. 3. Pulverized tartar; espe- cially that of Rhenish wine, or the cream or crystals of it. 4. Vinegar itself. 5. A wooden vessel well drench- ed with vinegar, or one that has long been employed to contain it. 6. Wine that has often been mixed with its own faeces. 7. The twigs of vines, and the stalks of grapes, currants, cherries, or other vegetables, of an acid austere taste. 8. Bakers’ leaven, after it is turned acid. 9. All manner of ferments, compounded of those already mentioned. Vinegar is no production of nature, but a mere crea- ture of art: for verjuice, the juices of citrons, lemons, and the like native acids, are improperly said to be ma- tural vinegars; because, when distilled, they afford no- thing but vapid water; whereas it is the property of vinegar to yield an acid spirit by distillation. The wine which is generally converted into vinegar, and which for its cheapness is commonly employed for this purpose, is such as has already become sour; although the better and the more spirituous the wine, and also the more of the vinous spirit that can be retain- ed in the vinegar, the better and stronger it will be. Becher says, in his “Physica Subterranea,” that hav- ing digested wine in order to convert it into vinegar, in a bottle hermetically sealed, he found, that although a longer than the ordinary time was required, the vinegar produced was much stronger than when free air is ad- mitted. Mr. Cartheuser also affirms, that the strength of vinegar may be much increased by adding some aqua vitae to the wine, before it is exposed to the acetous fer- mentation. Nothing more seems requisite in the pre- paration of good vinegar than to employ good wine, and to conduct the fermentation in the most advanta- geous method; the principal part of the operation be- ing performed by nature. VINEGAR in France, Method of making. The French use a method of making vinegar different from that above described. They take two very large oaken vessels, the larger the better, open at the top ; in each of which they place a wooden grate, within a foot of the bottom: upon these grates they first lay twigs, or cut- tings of vines, and afterwards the stalks of the clusters of grapes, without the grapes themselves, or their stones, called the rafie, till the whole pile reaches with- in a foot of the brim of the vessels; then they fill one of these vessels with wine to the very top, and half fill the other; and with liquor drawn out of the full vessel, they fill up that which was only half full before ; daily re- peating the same operation, and pouring the liquor back from one vessel to the other; so that each of them is full and half full by turns. - When this process has been continued for two or three days, a degree of heat will arise in the vessel which is then but half full, and will increase for several days successively, without any appearance of the like in the vessel which happens to be full during those days; the liquor of which will still remain cool: and as soon as the heat ceases in the vessel that is half full, the vine- gar is prepared; which, in the summer, happens on the fourteenth or fifteenth day from the beginning; but, in the winter, the fermentation proceeds much slower; so that they are often obliged to forward it by artificial warmth, or the use of stoves. When the weather is exceedingly hot, the liquor ought to be poured off from the full vessel into the other twice a day; otherwise the liquor would be over- heated, and the fermentation would prove too strong; whence the spirituous parts would fly away, and leave a vapid wine, instead of vinegar, behind. * The full vessel is always to be left open at top; but the mouth of the other must be closed with a cover of wood, in order the better to keep down and fix the spirit in the body of the liquor; for, otherwise, it might easily fly off in the heat of fermentation. The vessel that is only half full seems to grow hot, rather than the other, because it contains a much greater quantity of the vine- twigs and stalks than that, in proportion to the liquor; above which the pile rising to a considerable height, conceives heat the more, and so conveys it to the wine below. Boerhaave’s Elem. of Chemistry, part iii. p. 143, &c. Phil. Trans. vol. ii. p. 657. * There is another method, by which a very good vine- gar is commonly made at Paris from the lees of wine. A quantity of wine-lees is put into a large tun, and work- ed up with wine sufficient to render it very fluid. This is then put into cloth sacks, which are arranged in a large iron-bound wooden vat, the heavy cover of which is laid over them, and serves as a press, that is gradually screwed down till all the liquor is pressed out. The wine, thus loaded with the extractive and tartareous matter of the lees, is distributed in large casks set up- right, through the heading of which a hole is cut, which is constantly left open. In summer these casks are simply set in the sun; but in winter they are ar- ranged in a stoved room. The fermentation comes on in a day or two, and when it has got to its height, so much heat is excited, that sometimes the hand can hardly be borne in it. In this case, it must be checked by a cooler air, and by adding some fresh wine to the casks; and, indeed, it is in a due regulation of the heat that most of the practical skill of the maker consists. The process goes on in this way till the whole of the wine is thoroughly acidified, which requires about a fortnight in summer and a month in winter; after which the new vinegar is put into barrels, at the bottom of which are laid a good many chips of beech wood. Here it remains for about a fortnight, during which time it clarifies, and the clear part is then drawn off and kept in well-closed casks. These beech chips may be used over and over again for several years. The natural colour of good wine-vinegar is a very pale red, but a higher colour is given, if desired, by the addition of elder-berries. There are several slight variations in the mode of making wine-vinegar, but which need not be detailed. They all consist in exciting a fresh fermentation in wine, and keeping it up in a moderate degree till aceti- fication is complete. Many refuse parts of the vine are of use for this purpose, such as the husks, the sour succulent twigs, the marc or cake left in the wine- press, V IN E G A R. press, and the like ; and after they have once served, they are still more valuable, as the acid which they na- turally contain, or which is evolved by them, is more readily produced. Wine may also be converted to good vinegar without these additions, simply by adding wine, especially when on the fret, to vinegar already made, and exposing it to a proper heat. In this way many manufacturers proceed, keeping their casks always full, by taking out of them at intervals about a third or fourth part, re- plenishing them with wine, and again bringing the con- tents to the state of vinegar. In this country vinegar is chiefly made from malt. The following is the usual process in London. A mash of malt and hot water is made, which, after infusion for an hour and a half is conveyed into a cooler a few inches deep, and thence, when sufficiently cooled, into large and deep fermenting tuns, where it is mixed with yeast, and kept in fermentation for four or five days. The liquor (which is now a strong ale without hops) is then distributed into smaller barrels, set close together in a stoved chamber, and a moderate heat is kept up for about six weeks, during which the fermentation goes on equally and uniformly till the whole is soured. This is then emptied into common barrels, which are set in rows (often of many hundreds) in a field in the open air, the bung-hole being just covered with a tile to keep off the wet, but to allow a free admission of air. Here the liquor remains for four or five months, according to the heat of the weather, a gentle fermentation being kept up, till it becomes perfect vinegar. This is finish- ed in the following way. Large tuns are employed, with a false bottom, on which is put a quantity of the refuse of raisins or other fruit left by the makers of raisins and other home-made wines, called technically rape. These rape-tuns are worked by pairs; one of them is quite filled with the vinegar from the barrels, and the other only three-quarters full, so that the fer- mentation is excited more easily in the latter than the former, and every day a portion of the vinegar is laded from one to the other, till the whole is completely finished and fit for sale. Vinegar, as well as fruit-wines, is often made in small quantity for domestic uses, and the process is by no means difficult. The materials may be either brown sugar and water alone, or sugar with raisins, currants, and especially ripe gooseberries. . These should be mixed in the proportions which would give a strong wine, put into a small barrel, which it should fill about three-fourths, and the bung-hole very loosely stopped. Some yeast, or, what is better, a toast sopped in yeast, should be put in, and the barrel set in the sun in sum- mer, or a little way from a fire in winter, and the fer- mentation will soon begin. This should be kept up constant, but very moderate, till the taste and smell in- dicate that the vinegar is complete. It should be pour- ed off clear and bottled carefully, and it will keep much better if it is boiled for a minute, cooled and strained before bottling. In both the vinous and acetous fermentations, an in- testine motion, a swelling, a hissing noise, and an ebul- lition, may be perceived ; but the heat produced by the former is scarcely sensible, whereas that produced by the latter is very considerable. Moreover, the va- pour which exhales from vinegar, during fermentation, is not noxious, like that of fermenting wine : on the con- trary, as the acid of vinegar disengages itself, it seems to acquire more power to bind and retain the inflamº mable principle, which is the truly dangerous part of these vapours. Besides, vinegar does not deposit tar- tar as wine does, even though it has been made with wine that had not deposited its tartar; but the sediment of vinegar is a viscid, oily, and very putrescent matter; which is used to cover the grape-stalks that are em- ployed in the making of vinegar, in order to promote the fermentation. The acid of the grape-stalks, which are washed clean and preserved to promote the fermen- tation of more vinegar, acts powerfully as a leaven or ferment. The casks which have been used are also to be cleansed from the viscid matter just mentioned, and kept for the same use, as they are fitter for the pur- pose than new casks. When the acetous fermentation is finished, the nature and character of the liquor that has undergone it are totally changed. The taste and smell of wine are partly spirituous and partly acid : though in good wine the latter is scarcely perceptible ; the taste and smell of vinegar are also acid and spirit- uous; but the former quality prevails so much, as al- most totally to conceal the latter. The properties of wine and vinegar prove, that the acetous fermentation unfolds in a very singular manner the acid parts of wine, and intimately combines them with the inflammable spi- rit; so that by changing wine into vinegar, the ardent spirit is no longer perceptible, so that it cannot affect the head and intoxicate; and if it be distilled, the first liquor that rises with a heat less than that of boiling water is not an ardent spirit, as when wine is distilled, unless the vinegar be too new, and the acetous ferment- ation has not been completely finished; but when old vinegar is distilled, the liquor that first rises is a slight- ly acid phlegm, which contains the most volatile, the most odoriferous, and the most spirituous part of the vinegar. - When vinegar has run a little beyond the acetous state, and begun to enter on the putrefactive, the putre- faction may be stopped by quenching a red-hot iron in the liquor; and the acid, which has been lost, may in some measure be restored, by the addition of a little spirit of wine, rye-bread, mustard-seed, &c. The pu- trefaction of vinegar may also be prevented, by racking it off from the feculencies, and keeping it in a close- stopped vessel, in a cool place. However, such as has once suffered a considerable heat, cannot long be pre- served from corruption. In England, the excise laws relating to vinegar are as follow : g Every maker of vinegar for sale shall take out a li- cence, for which he shall pay Ol. ; and shall renew the same annually ten days at least before the end of the year; on pain of 50l. 43 Geo. III. c. 69. Sched. (A.) 24 Geo. III. c. 41. But persons in partnership need only take out one licence for one house. By 43 Geo. III. c. 68. for all vinegar or verjuice im- ported, a certain duty shall be paid fier ton (quantity 252 gallons). By 43 Geo. III. c. 69. Sched. (A.) for every barrel of vinegar, vinegar beer, or liquors preparing for vine- gar, which shall be brewed or made in Great Britain for sale, shall be paid by the maker a certain other duty. - Kid upon every hogshead of verjuice which shall be made in Great Britain for sale, shall be paid by the ma- ker a certain duty. * 4 T 2 And V IN E G A R. And by 49 Geo. IFI. c. 98. a duty is imposed in lieu of all former duties of customs. –- By 10 & 1 1 W. c. 21. thirty-four quarts shall be ac- counted a gallon of vinegar, according to the standard ale quart. Every vinegar-maker shall make entry with the offi- cer of excise of the house or place where he intends to carry on the business; and whether he intends to make vinegar from mait or corn, or molasses or sugar, or from any and what other materials. 26 Geo. III. c. 73. Such officer may at all times by day and night (but if in the night, in the presence of a constable), enter in- to any places used by such persons, and take an account of such liquors therein, and shall make a report thereof in writing to the commissioners, leaving a true copy thereof under his hand, with such maker, if demaríded, in writing, under the penalty of 10l. 7 & 8 W. c. 30. 12 Geo. c. 28. 12 Ch. c. 24. By 10 & 1 1 W. c. 21. no vinegar-maker shall receive into his custody any liquors for making vinegar, nor de- liver out any vinegar in casks, or by the gallon, without notice first given to the officer, unless from Sept. 29, to Mar. 25, yearly, between seven in the morning and five in the evening, and from Mar. 25, to Sept. 29, be- tween five in the morning and seven in the evening ; on pain of 50l. On receiving such liquors into his custody, he shall shew the same to the guager before he mixes them with any other liquors, rape, or other materials; on pain of 20l. - If any vinegar-maker shall, without giving notice at the next excise-office, or to one of the commissioners, use any store-house, warehouse, cellar, or other place, for making or keeping any vinegar beer, or liquor pre- paring for vinegar, he shall forfeit 50l. If any maker of vinegar for sale shall conceal any vinegar, or liquor preparing for vinegar, from the view of the guager, he shall for every barrel forfeit 40s. 7 & 8 W. c. 30. If such maker shall, on demand made by such guager in the day-time (or if by night, in the presence of a con- stable), refuse to permit him to enter his house, store- house, or other place used by him, and to take an ac- count of the said liquors, he shall forfeit 151. No person carrying on the trade of a vinegar-maker from molasses or sugar, or other materials, (except malt or corn,) shall carry on (either alone or in partnership) the trade of a distiller or rectifier of spirits in the same premises, or within two miles thereof; and all entries made by such person shall be void. 26 Geo. III. c. 73. All stale beer, returns of beer or ale, cyder, verjuice, or any other liquor proper to be made into vinegar, which shall be found in the possession of any common vinegar-maker, except such as are to be drunk in his family, and which shall be kept separate for that pur- pose, shall be deemed vinegar or liquors preparing for vinegar. 10 & 1 1 W. c. 21. Every such vinegar-maker shall make entry once a month at the next excise-office of all liquors made with- in that month, and also within a month after such entry, shall clear off the duties, on pain of double duty. 12 Ch. II. c. 24. All penalties and forfeitures are to be recovered, le- vied, and mitigated as by the excise laws. 43 Geo. III. £, 69. VINEGAR, Chemical Proferties of the hure Acid of the different kinds of See AcEToUs Acid. The quantity of fixt alkaline salt which vinegar is ca- pable of Saturating, is one of the surest criterions of its strength. The best of the German vinegars, according to Stahl, saturate little more than ºoth of their own weight; the French vinegars, examined by Geoffroy, above #th; and some of them no less than Tºth ; the common distilled vinegar of our shops about ºth. By congelation, and distillation from alkalies, and from some metallic bodies, particularly copper, the acid may be so far concentrated as to Saturate nearly equal its own weight. The best way of judging of the saturation, according to Dr. Lewis, is by trying the liquor from time to time with certain coloured vegetable juices, or on paper stained with them. For this purpose, a thick writing paper may be stained pale blue on one side with the blue preparation of archil, commonly called lac- mus; and pale red on the other side, by a mixture of the same infusion with so much diluted spirit of Salt as is just sufficient to redden it. If a small slip of this par per be dipped occasionally into the liquor to be tried, or a drop of the liquor be applied on both sides of the paper, the red side turns blue as long as any of the al- kali remains unsaturated ; the blue side turns red, when the acid begins to prevail; and no change at all is produced, when the saturation is complete. Where lacmus cannot be procured, the paper may be coloured with the juices of violets, iris, cyanus, &c, or with the blue juice pressed out from scrapings of the cortical part of common radish roots; with which it is sufficient to stain the paper on one side; this one colour discov- ering both acidity and alkalescence, the former chang- ing it red, and the latter green. The acetous acid differs essentially from all the others: from the native vegetable acid, in subtility and volatility; not being obtainable in the form of a con- crete salt, which most, perhaps all, of the native ones are, and rising in distillation with a moderate heat, which very few of the native ones have been found to do : from the mineral acids, in its habitude to different bodies, and the nature of the compounds which it forms with them, being much weaker than the mineral acids: thus, whatever alkaline, earthy, or metallic substance the acetous acid be combined with, the addition of any mineral acid will disjoin them, the mineral taking the place of the acetous; neutral salts, composed of the acetous acid and fixed alkalies, dissolve totally and plen- tifully in rectified spirit of wine, whilst those composed of the same alkalies and mineral acids are not at all So- luble in that menstruum : in this property, the acetous acid differs also from most, perhaps from all, of the acids of its own kingdom; and from all acids in gene- ral, in its peculiar odour. The acid of vinegar dissolves all substances upon which other acids can act, and forms with them neutral salts, all which may be called acetous salts. With cal- careous earth it forms salts, which in crystallizing shoot into silky ramifications and vegetations: these salts are named, from their earthy basis, salt of chalk, salt of crabs’ eyes, &c. (See AcFTITE of Lime, &c.) The solubility of calcareous earth in this acid, and its pre- cipitability by that of vitriol, afford a ready method of discovering the sophistication of vinegar, said to be sometimes practised, with vitriolic acid. If a saturated solution of any calcareous earth, as chalk, made in strong vinegar, be added to such as is suspected of con- taining vitriolic acid, no change will ensue, if the vine- gar was pure; but if it contained even a minute portion of that acid, the mixture will immediately become milky, V IN E G A R. milky, and, on standing for a little while, deposit a milky sediment: if the calcareous solution be gradually dropt in, so long as it produces any milkiness or cloudiness; all the vitriolic acid will be absorbed by the chalk ; and as this new compound is very sparingly dissoluble, near- ly the whole of it will precipitate, so as to leave the vinegar almost pure. Its adulteration with vitriolic or sulphuric acid may also be detected by a solution of ni- trate of barytes, which forms a white precipitate, when dropped into the suspected vinegar, insoluble in nitric acid, after having been exposed to a strong heat. With fixed vegetable alkali the acid of vinegar forms a very pungent and very deliquescent salt, called Regenerated TARTAR, or TERRA foliata tartari ; which see. (See also AcETITE of Potash.) With fixed mineral alkali it forms a neutral crystallizable salt. With volatile al- kali it forms an acetous ammoniacal salt, called shirit of Mindererus. See AcETITE of Ammonia. Vinegar dissolves, among metallic bodies, zinc and iron; and the rest with difficulty, if at all. (See Acrº- Tous Acid.) United with copper, it forms a verdigris and crystals of Venus. With lead it forms cerusse, and salt or sugar of lead; dissolving it more easily when reduced to a calx than in its metallic state; boiled even with the glass of lead, or in the common glazed earthen vessels, in the glazing of which this metal is a princi- pal ingredient, it extracts so much as to become strong- . ly tainted with the pernicious qualities of the lead. Gold, platina, silver, and quicksilver, are not affected by vinegar in their metallic state; the two first have not been observed in any state to be affected by it. Sil- ver precipitated from the nitrous acid, and thoroughly edulcorated with water, and mercury treated in the same manner, or changed by fire into a red powder, slowly and sparingly dissolve in it. Of the affinities of this acid to different metals, or its forsaking one to unite with another, few experiments have been made. Dr. Lewis observes, that it deposits lead and copper upon adding iron. (See Tables of AFFINITY.) . It dissolves the vegetable inspissated juices, and several of the gum- my resins, and extracts the virtues of sundry plants in tolerable perfection, superadding at the same time a virtue of a different kind. However, it excellently as- sists and coincides with some drugs, as garlic, squills, and ammoniacum; and in many cases, where this acid is principally to be depended upon, it may be advanta- geously impregnated with the flavour of certain vegeta- bles. Vinegar very much concentrated, as the recti- fied spirit of Venus, or radical vinegar, being distilled with equal parts of highly rectified spirit of wine, fur- nishes a liquor which has all the essential characters of cther, and is called acetous ether. It was discovered by the count de Lauraguais. (See Hist. Acad. Scienc. Par. 1759.) It mingles equally with blood and its se- rum, and with most of the fluids of animals; not thick- ening or coagulating them, like the acids of the mine- ral kingdom, but tending rather, as Boerhaave justly observes, to attenuate and resolve coagulations. It is likewise, when taken internally, less stimulating than the mineral acids, and less disposed to affect the kid- . neys. Professor Cullen observes, that it is less liable to undergo changes in the first passages than the na- tive vegetable acids, which have yet to go through the process of fermentation. The use of vinegar as a con- diment, and as an antiseptic for pickling and preserving dead animal and vegetable matter, is well known. VINEGAR, Medicinal Proferties of This mild, unc- tuous acid is a medicine of great use in the different kinds of inflammatory and putrid distempers, both in- ternal and external. Nothing is more extolled in many cases of putrefaction, and as an antidote against veno- mous bites, by Dioscorides and Hippocrates, than oxy- crate; and vinegar, when applied to sores in animal bodies, is known to stimulate and resist putrefaction. When weak, it possesses the virtues of water; when strong, its effects approach to those of Salts and acid spirit. Med. Ess. Edinb. vol. v. art. 24. It is one of the most certain antiphlogistics and Su- dorifics in high fevers, and one of the best preservatives against pestilential and other putredinous contagions. Accordingly Boerhaave informs us, that Franciscus de la Boe Sylvius visited his patients in the plague with safety, by drinking first an ounce or two of vinegar. And it is now a common practice to wash and sprinkle the rooms of hospitals, the decks of ships, &c. with vinegar, in order to purify the air. Dr. Hales (Ven- tilators, part. i. p. 46.) recommends dipping many cloths in vinegar, and hanging them up in all proper vacancies between the decks of ships, and in the cham- bers of sick persons, by which great quantities of vine- gar would intermix and float in the air; and he found by an experiment, mentioned in his Statical Essays, vol. i. p. 266, that an air which passes through such cloths, could be breathed to and fro as long again, as the like quantity of air which was not impregnated with vine- gar. Fainting, vomiting, lethargic and hysteric par roxysms, are likewise frequently relieved by vinegar, applied to the mouth and nose, or received into the stomach. Lethargic persons are often found to be ex- cited more effectually by vinegar blown into the nose, than by the far more pungent volatile spirits. Boer- haave observes, that this acid counteracts, in a peculiar manner, the effects of spirituous liquors. The daily use of vinegar with food is salutary in hot, bilious dis- positions, and where there is a tendency to inflamma- tion or putrefaction. It is prejudicial to children, to aged, hysterical, and hypochondriacal persons; in cold, pale, phlegmatic habits, where the vessels are lax, the circulation languid, and the power of digestion weak. It tends in all cases, if used freely, to prevent corpu- lence. Hoffman suspects that it produces this effect by impeding the formation of chyle, or destroying the union of the unctuous and serous fluids of which chyle is composed; an effect common to all acids, as appears from their coagulating milk and artificial emulsions. Dr. Lewis observes, that he has known great corpulence reduced by the liberal use of vinegar, but not with im- punity: diseases succeeding, which eluded the power of medicines, and proved at length fatal. Combinations of vinegar with different earthy bodies, differ in virtue according to the nature of the earth. A solution of the aluminous earth in this acid is sti Ongly styptic; of vegetable earth, or magnesia alba, bitterish and gently purgative: both these solutions are milder, and less ungrateful, than those of the same earths made in the mineral acids; and, though as yet unknown in practice, certainly deserves, as Dr. Lewis says, to be introduced. Solutions of different animal and the cal- careous mineral earths are bitterish and subaustere, in various degrees, and supposed to act as mid resolvents, subastringents, or diaphoretics. Combinations of wire- gar with fixed alkaline salts are useful aperients, diu- retics, and cathartics. Dr. Lewis has known two drachms of the alkali, dissolved in as much vinegar as was sufficient to saturate it, occasion ten or twelve co- pious watery stools, and a plentiful discharge of urine. with oi! V IN E G A R. without griping or fatiguing the patient. Mixtures of alkali and distilled vinegar, evaporated to a dry salt, are kept in the shops; either in a brownish oily state, as obtained by simple evaporation, or purified to per- fect whiteness, by gentle fusion or solution in water. These preparations are given in doses of ten or twenty grains as mild aperients, and to a drachm or two as purgatives and diuretics. See TARTAR, Regenerated, SAL Diureticus, TERRA Foliata, and ARCANUM Tartari. Combinations of vinegar with volatile alkaline salts, commonly made with distilled vinegar, added gradually to the salt, till the effervescence ceases, scarcely yield any solid salt; the saline matter evaporating with the watery fluid, or even before it: on distilling the mixture in a retort, a Salt sometimes concretes about the sides of the receiver, but liquifies again as the vessels grow cold. These mixtures, called sfiritus Mindereri, have little purgative virtue, but operate powerfully as ape- rients; by urine, if the patient walks about in the cool air; by perspiration or sweat, if kept warm in bed. They are principally made use of in this last inten- tion, in doses of half an ounce; and, as they act with- out irritation, they have place in inflammatory cases, where the warm sudorifics, if they fail of exciting a sweat, aggravate the distemper. Vinegar and honey, or oxymel, of the consistence of a syrup, swallowed warm, is very good in many cases of sore throats, ari- sing from colds. A very important medicinal virtue has been attributed to vinegar, namely, that of curing the canine madness. See HYDROPHOBIA, and MADNESS from the Bite of enraged Animals. M. Buchoz, in a work, entitled “A historical Trea- tise of Plants growing in Lorraine, &c.” affirms, that several successful trials have ascertained the efficacy of vinegar against the ill effects arising from the bite of mad dogs, when it is given in the quantity of a pound each day, divided into three doses; one to be taken in the morning, another at noon, and a third in the even- ing. Upon the whole we shall here observe, that vine- gar, taken into the stomach, acts as a refrigerant, pro- motes diaphoresis and the discharge of urine; and is a powerful antinarcotic : externally its action on the li- ving fibre is moderately stimulant and astringent. In inflammatory fevers it may be used to acidulate the or- dinary beverage. It is given as a remedy in putrid diseases and scurvy; and is the most easily procured, and the best means of counteracting the fatal effects of over- doses of opium, and other narcotic poisons; for which purpose it should be administered in table spoonfuls, frequently repeated, after the stomach has been empti- ed by a proper emetic. It is employed as a glyster in obstinate costiveness; and externally, in the form of fo- 1mentation, or of lotion, is applied in burns, bruises, sprains, and chronic ophthalmia; and diluted with wa- ter, it is the best lotion for clearing the eye of small par- ticles of lime, when they adhere to any part of the ball, or the lids. Its vapouris inhaled in putrid sore-throat; and diffused through sick rooms, with the view of neu- tralizing pestilential effluvia; but as a fumigation it has little efficacy. The dose of vinegar is f:Sj to fjij; and the quantity given in clysters fäj to fºij. See on the subject of this article, Boerhaave’s Elem. Chem. by Dallowe, part iii. p. 146, &c. Neumann’s Chem. by I.ewis, p. 458. &c. Dict. Chem. Lewis’s Mat. Med. Thomson’s Lond. Disp. See also AcETIc Acid, Ace- TITE, ACETOUS JAcid, and AcFTUM. VINEGAR, in Rural Economy, is an acid or cooling liquid that may be made use of with considerable bene- fit in different sorts of field labour, in mixture with wa- ter or other fluids, as quenching thirst very effectu- ally, without stimulating or increasing the heat of the body too greatly. It has been stated, on the authori- ty of a manuscript paper found in possession of sir William Pulteney on the use of vinegar, by the wri- ter of the Corrected Report of the Agriculture of the County of Middlesex, that during the first American war, the interruption given by our cruizers to the trade of that country, and some other circumstances, prevented the inhabitants of it from procuring proper supplies of molasses for their distilleries, and a distress was experienced, particularly in harvest-time, from the want of rum to mix with water, which was the drink of their labourers. It is commonly known, the writer thinks, that cold water is dangerous, when used by per- sons heated with labour, or by any severe exercise; and yet it is necessary to supply the waste and exhaustion of perspiration in some mode or other. When rum or wine is added in small quantity to water, it may be used, even if cold, with little danger : it would, how- ever, be safer, it is supposed, if a little warm water were mixed and employed in such cases. On this account, Dr. Rush, of the same country, after making proper experiments on the subject, recom- mended in a publication, that instead of rum, which could not then be had, the labourers in harvest should mix a very small proportion of vinegar with the wa- ter they made use of as drink. Some years afterwards, in another publication, the same writer mentioned that the practice had been adopted, and had succeeded even beyond his expectations; indeed so much so, that in many places vinegar was still continued to be used, though rum could easily be had. The preference of vinegar to rum is accounted for in this manner : se- were labour or exercise excites a degree of fever; and that fever is increased by spirits or fermented liquor of any sort; but vinegar, at the same time that it pre- vents mischief from drinking cold water during the heat and perspiration occasioned by exercise, allays the fever; and the labourers found themselves more refreshed and less exhausted at night, when vinegar was used instead of rum. The exact proportion of the vinegar is not known by the writer, but it is supposed that it was not more than about a tea-spoonful to half a pint of water. The discovery, it is said, was not altogether new, as the Roman’s used vinegar to mix with water for the drink of their soldiers. The writer of the above agricultural report adds to this, that M. Denon, a celebrated French draughtsman, who accompanied their army while it was in Upper Egypt, experienced the advantage of vinegar mixed somewhat in this way in that burning climate, which he relates in this manner : “I cooled the heat of my blood with vinegar, which I mixed with water and sugar, and drank of it largely.” Independently of this, however, the same writer states, that the quality of water, which produces the ill effects above described to persons drinking it cold, when under any considerable degree of perspiration, may probably be corrected by the simple addition of skim-milk. The labourers in some districts of this kingdom. V I N E. G. A. R. kingdom, it is said, during harvest, make use of no other beverage then milk and water, which is found to allay the fever, and quench the thirst, much more than beer. At the same time, the labourers are glad when they can get beer or ale, though they confess that they are much sooner thirsty after drinking either, than they are after drinking milk and water, or it would seem than vinegar and water. As it is necessary to have good and well-kept vinegar in this intention, as well as for some domestic and other purposes, it may be proper to consider the nature of it, and the means of preserving and preventing the decom- position and injury of it in any way. Where good vinegar is wanted, wines of good quality are necessary, as the best kinds of it are those that have been made from generous wines. The more spirituous the wine is, and the more of this vinous spirit that can be re- tained in the vinegar, of course the better and stronger it will be, and consequently the more fit for the above uses. In regard to the means of its preservation, they principally consist in defending it well against the action or influence of the external air, by keeping it in proper vessels, well closed, and placed in cool situa- tions. Its alterations and injuries may likewise be further retarded, where necessary, by depriving it of a portion of the water which it contains; for which pur- pose, nothing more is wanted than to just let it boil for an instant; but the vessels which are employed in this kind of business should obviously not be made of copper. The process too, which has been proposed by some with a similar intention, is quite simple ; it consists in filling with this acid glass vessels of a proper kind, which are to be then placed in boilers full of wa- ter; the water being in this case made to boil for a full quarter of an hour, after which the vinegar in the ves- sels is taken out, when it may be kept for several years without undergoing any alteration or decomposition. Distillation, too, has been advised as a means of pre- serving vinegar; but besides the circumstance of its being a tedious and difficult process, it is apt to de- prive the acid of the agreeable smell and taste which are peculiar to it in its natural state, and which is always desirable, but more especially when for use in the above intention. And the same is the case with vinegar that has been concentrated by freezing. The acid by this simple operation becomes much stronger, and capable of being kept for a much greater length of time ; but it acquires something of a burnt smell and taste, which render it unfit for being employed for many domestic purposes, as well as that above stated. There is another manner of accomplishing this busi- ness by a saline substance, which is that of sea-salt, or muriate of soda, which is advised by some to be added to vinegar, as being able to preserve it, and which suc- ceeds well enough in some cases, though it is not without its inconveniences; for the vinegars that con- tain this material grow turbid, and at length lose their primitive qualities. But though it may not succeed quite so perfectly as might be wished, it may still be employed in certain cases with advantage, especially if the quantity of salt that is necessary to be added to the vinegar be not in too large a proportion. What respects the signs by which vinegar may be known to be good, adulterated, or spoiled, deserve con- siderable attention, as nothing is more common than so meet with vinegars that are of bad quality. Two causes principally contribute to their being in that state : the filst of which is, that they have been manufactured or prepared with weak wines, or such as are already in a spoiled condition; the second, that they have been mixed with acrid substances. Such as pimento and others; or that mineral acids, such as the sulphu- ric or muriatic, have been added to them. Nothing is however, more easy than to detect such frauds and impositions, it being sufficient for the purpose to merely Saturate a given quantitity of potash with the vinegar which is suspected of adulteration, and to compare the quantity of vinegar that has been obliged to be employ- ed before a complete Saturation could be obtained, with that consumed in a similar trial made with vinegar, the good quality of which is well know ; and by evaporating or reducing the substance of the solution nearly to dry- ness afterwards, the nature of the material employed may be ascertained. And as to the acrid vegetable substances that may have been mixed with it, they may be readily recognized by their taste, which will be al- together different from that of the vinegar, and which will become the more perceptible, the more the acid has been concentrated or reduced by evaporation, or any other means. It may be noticed in general, that vinegar which has not been adulterated, or which has not been spoiled by an incipient decomposition, is readily and easily known by its penetrating acid taste, its transparency, and its agreeable smell, which becomes still more developed if some of the vinegar be rubbed between the hands, or in any other way. In some of these modes, vinegar that is fit for use in the above intention, and for other purposes, may be readily known. Vinegar is frequently also of much utility and ad- vantage as an application in different cases of bruises and slight swellings, arising from blows and other ac- cidents among different kinds of live-stock or domestic animals. VINEGAR of Antimony, is an acid spirit, best made by distillation from the ore of antimony. See ANTI- MONY. Its use is recommended in continued and malignant fevers. VINEGAR, Aromatic, of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared by taking of rosemary tops dried, and sage leaves dried, of each 4 oz. lavender flowers dried, 2 oz. ; cloves bruised, 2 dr. ; and distilled vinegar, 8 lbs. : macerating these in- gredients for seven days, and filtering the expressed li- quor through paper. The odour of this liquid, which is a solution of the volatile oils of the substance employ- ed in vinegar, is pleasant, pungent, and aromatic ; and it is a grateful perfume in sick rooms, but cannot be regarded as a prophylactic from fever, or other con- tagions. The aromatic spirit of vinegar, originally invented and successively improved by the late ingenious and respectable Mr. Henry of Manchester, is composed of highly concentrated vinegar, joined with the most plea- sant aromatic and efficacious antiseptics, and may be kept unimpaired for any length of time, and in any cli- mate. Its fragrant odour adapts it for affording re- lief in head-aches, faintings, &c. and renders it peculiar- ly grateful and refreshing in crowded rooms, places of public resort, and the apartments of the sick. It is * * also V IN V IN also said to counteract the infection of contagious diseases. VINEGAR, Distilled, is the spiritous acid of vinegar obtained by distiliation. The process of distilling vine- gar is very simple. A quantity of good ordinary vine- gar is put into a large cucurbit or still, which ought to be made of stone-ware, and not of metal, as the acid of vinegar is capable of acting upon most metals. This cucurbit is sunk in a deep furnace, so that five or six fingers’ breadth only near its neck appear. The neck is to be carefully luted with ciay all round the furnace, that the capitai may not be heated too much. A capi- tai and a glass receiver are then to be fitted, and the distiliation is to be begun with a very gentle heat. The acid spiritious liquor passes by drops into the receiver. This liquor is white, transparent, peretrating, somewhat empyreumatic, and disengaged from an acid, but not spirituous substance, and also from an extractive Sapo- naceous matter, both which are contained in ordinary vinegar. These latter substances remain in the still with the colouiing matter, and form together an ex- tremely acid extract of vinegar. This residuum con- tains also some tartar, and by incineration yields much fixed a kali, as all matters belonging to vines, grapes, and wine do. The thick, r vinegar is, the less fit it proves for disti- lation, as there is always the greater danger of any em- pyreuma, or burnt smell, which would spoil the whole process, and as it usually in this case comes over olea- gine us. And the purest white salt of tartar, saturated with this distilled vinegar, being afterwards ignited, turns black, and yields a smell extremely like that of crude tartar in the caicination. Shaw’s Chemical Es- Says. On the other hand, the more the vinegar is diluted immediately before distillation, the less danger there is of burning ; and if tile thick remaining mass, when the thinner part is distilled from it, be again diluted with water, it may, by a second distillation, be brought to afford an aceteous substance ; though this latter be by no means comparable to this former volatile part. This Vigani justly suspects to be a circumstance known but to very few. And even when the vinegar is distilled with the utmost labour and care, it still has this effect in a higher degree, and contains an immense quantity of phleghm, in proportion to its acid salt. In this case, the method of condensation by freezing is of the utmost service; first of all separating the more aqueous part, and in the next place that which is some- what acetous, though not comparable to what remains behind ; so that, by this means, a most concentrated and subtle spirituous distilled vinegar may be produ- ced, viz. by freezing the whole parcel of distilled phlegm and distilled vinegar together, a thing of great mothent to the curious in the chemia sublimior, and par- ticularly to those who understand Hollandus. And when the vinegar is froze without distillation, by this means you have a noble rob, or a rich concentrated vinegar, freed from its distillating aqueous and useless part. Vigani, Medull. Chem. The Lond. Ph. directs the acetic acid to be distilled fºom a gallon of vinegar in a glass retort, placed in a sandbath, into a glass receiver kept cool; the first pint to be thrown away, and the six succeeding pints which are distilled to be preserved. The distilled acetous acid of the Edinb. Ph. is prepared by distilling 8 lbs. of the acetous acid in glass vessels, with a gentle heat, re- jecting the 2 lbs. which first came over, as being toe watery; and the 4 lbs. that follow will be the distilled acetous acid : the residue is the stronger acid, but too much burnt. The distilled vinegar of the Dub. Ph. is obtained by taking of wine vinegar ten pints, and dis- tilling with a gentle heat six pints: the distiliation is to be performed in a glass vessel, and the first pint which comes over rejected. The specific gravity of this acid is to that of water as 1006 or 100.95 to 1000. (See AcETous Acid.) Darracq has ascertained (An- nales de Chimie, xli. 264.) that distilled vinegar differs from acetic acid, by containing some uncombined muci- lage and extractive matter, but that the acids are other- wise the same. To this extractive it is owing, that when distilled vinegar is boiled with potass, the solution has a deep reddish-brown colour, and during evapo- ration carbonaceous matter is deposited. Sulphuric acid is detected by a precipitate being produced on the addition of a solution of acetate of barytes; lead, by a so- lution of sulphuretted hydrogen, forming a dark-colour- ed precipitate; and copper, by its assuming a blue coiour when supersaturated with ammonia. The medical properties and uses of distilled vinegar are the same with those of common vinegar; but, being purer, and less liable to spontaneous decomposition, it is fitter for pharmaceutical purposes. Thomson’s Disp. VINEGAR, Concentrated. See ConcentBATION. VINEGAR of Lead, is a liquor formed by digesting ce- russe or litharge, with a sufficient quantity to dissolve it perfectly. This is called the acetum lithargyrites, and is prepared by digesting four ounces of litharge about three days in a sand heat, with a pint of strong vinegar, now and then shaking the vessel. The liquor, filtered, will receive a strong impregnation from the litharge, and will be found to have dissolved about one-tenth of it. When a saturated solution is required, the cerusse is preferred to the litharge. This vinegar is of the same nature with solutions of saccharum saturni, and when diluted with a large quantity of water, it abates ex- ternal inflammations, the itci.ing and other uneasinesses in cancerous ulcers; and before Mr. Goulard’s practice, it was used for bathing inflammations in schirrhous tu- mours, to prevent their becoming cancerous. In- flammations and inflammatory tumours, in general, are dispersed by it. Dr. William Saunders has obser- ved, that the acetum lythargyrites, or Goulard’s ex- tract, is not the same in its operation and powers as the Saccharum Saturni, as medical practitioners have generally supposed. In the preparation of the for- mer, the acid is fully saturated with lead; but in that of the latter, the acid is in a much greater pro- portion to the lead. The former, when diluted by the purest distilled water, gives out a copious precipita- tion, which he finds, by experiment, to be cerusse. The latter remains dissolved in distilled water, and is, therefore, applied topically in a state more immediately active, both on account of its greater proportion of acid, and its preserving its solubility under high degrees of dilution. He has also found by experiment, that, by adding a very small proportion of distilled vinegar to the aqua Saturnina of Goulard, the white precipitate is re- dissolved, and that the solution procured in this manner is more active, but less adapted to remove inflam- mation, and abate irritation, as a sedative, than the aqua saturnina itself. Dr. Saunders, however, is perfectly convinced that no degree of dilution of 33 cciarum sa- turni will answer the many valuable purposes *: TOm. V IN V IN from the use of the acetum lithargyrites. Water alone, in the case of the aqua Saturnina, proves a pre- cipitant of lead, by attracting the acid, and reducing the preparation to a state of cerusse, an intermediate state between lead and the saccharum saturni; so that cerusse diffused in water more nearly resembles the aqua saturnina of Goulard, than a solution of the saccharum Saturni does. The saccharum saturni may be considered as a union of cerusse with vinegar; whereas Goulard's acetum lithargyrites is a union of lead with vinegar. See Percival’s Phil. Med. and Exp. Ess. 1776. Append. p. 323, &c. See also LEAD. VINEGAR of Meadow Saffron, Acetum Colchici, is ordered by the London College to be prepared by taking of the meadow saffron root (bulb) sliced, 1 oz. ; of acetic acid, a pint; and of proof-spirit, a fluid ounce; macerating the root with the vinegar in a covered glass vessel for twenty-four hours, then expressing, and setting the liquor aside, that the feculencies may subside, and adding the spirit to the clear liquor. This is given as a diuretic in ascites and hydrothorax, but is less to be depended on than the squill. The dose is from fºss to fºj, united with honey, or any bland fluid. See Colchicum and Meadow SAFFRON. VINEGAR, Portable, a name given by the chemists to a sort of vinegar-powder, or vinegar in a dry form. It is a preparation of tartar with vinegar, and is made in this manner: Take white tartar, half a pound; let it be carefully washed, then dried and powdered; in- fuse this powder in the strongest wine-vinegar; then dry it, and infuse it again, repeating this operation ten times: after this the dry powder is to be kept for use. At any time, a sort of extemporaneous vinegar may be made by dissolving a small quantity of this powder in any proper liquor. VINEGAR, Prof.hylactic. £1,772. VINEGAR, Radical, is a name given to the acid of vinegar, highly concentrated, by distilling verdigris, or crystals of verdigris, &c. See AcET1c Acid. M. de Lassone has lately found, that in the process of distilling verdigris for this purpose, a fluid escapes of the nature of those called by the ancient chemists gas, and by the moderns fixed air ; and he also obser- ved, that if the distillation be suspended the moment be- fore the acid concentrated vapours appear under a white form, copperish flowers are obtained: before this period, the radical vinegar contains no copper ; it only begins to contain some, when the copperish flowers, carried along by the acid vapours, mix themselves with this vinegar: if it is then rectified by a new distilla- tion, these flowers are no more sublimed, and, there- fore, a radical vinegar, exempt from copper, may be extracted from verdigris. The copperish flowers are in a high degree caustic, and may be considered as a violent poison. Hist. Acad. Sc. Par. 1777. VINEGAR of Roses. See AcFTUM Rosatum. VINEGAR of Squill. See Squill. VINEGAR, Eels in. The common opinion, from the discovery of eels in vinegar, that its sharpness to the taste was occasioned by these animals, caused the accu- rate Leeuwenhoeck to attempt a careful examination of it by the microscope. Some of the strongest and sharpest vinegar, after having been exposed for some hours to the air, and Vol. XXXVIII. See AcETUM Profiñylacti- afterwards examined by the microscope, entertains the sight with a number of corpuscles, called, the salts of vinegar, which are acute at both extremities, and have many of them in the middle an oblong figure of a brownish colour, and others were altogether clear, pellucid, and bright as crystal. Others of these parti. cles appeared of an oval figure, and some of the half of such a figure, hollowed like a small boat, or the half of a nut-shell. The more perfect figures, pointed at both ends, and pellucid, are so very minute, that some thousands of them are comprehended in a small drop. These seem to be what affect the tongue with the acid sharpness when we taste vinegar; and it is very probable, that beside these, minute as they are, there are multitudes of others, equally pointed, and infinitely smaller than these. - If vinegar be placed in an open glass, and suffered to remain some weeks, the surface of it will be found, on examination with good glasses, to be full of the same figures, double-pointed, and very pellucid.; and in these, very often, there may be cavities plainly dis- covered; but examining the liquor a little deeper down, there are found numbers of minute eels; yet these, though minute, are prodigiously larger than the salt particles, and can never be stipposed to be the occasion of the sharpness of vinegar to the taste, by any who rightly consider, since it is not all vinegar that contains them; nay, the much greater part of vinegar is whol- ly without them, and in winter they all die ; yet vine- gar is not less sharp at that season than in the sum- II].CI’. * Mr. Mentzelius was so lucky as to see these undergo their last metamorphosis, and change into small flies; and though this is a single instance, in regard to the microscopical world of animalcules, yet it is highly probable that the whole race of those, whose appear- ance in medicated fluids we have been So long puzzled to account for, may, like these, be the worm-state of some winged aerial insect, and have owed their origin, where we see them, to the eggs of parent flies, too small for our sight. Reaumur, Hist. Ins. vol. iv. If vinegar be impregnated with crab's-eyes, or any other alkaline substance, which blunts, and in a great measure destroys its acidity, these double-pointed figures are no longer found in it, on a microscopical inspection; but in their places we find others with an oblong qua- drangular base, from which they shoot up into pyra- mids, and appear like polished diamonds. These are also so very minute, that six thousand of them are computed to be contained in a drop of the liquor, no larger than two corns of barley; and these will be usu- ally found all of the same size, or very nearly so, which is by no means the case with the other sorts of vinegar in its natural state. See Microscofic EELs. VINEGAR-Hill, in Geografthy, an eminence near the town of Enniscorthy, famous for being a station of the rebels in 1798. VINER's Island, a small island in the South-west part of James Bay, Hudson's Bay. VINERY, in Gardening, a sort of garden erection, consisting of a wall twelve or fourteen feet in height, extending from east to west, furnished with stoves, and proper flues, with roof and lights of glass, covering a border of some extent; as ten feet or more in width. When vines are to be forced at an early season, upright glasses, two and a half or three feet in height, are often 4 U employed V IN V IN employed in front, to support the roof, and to admit sun and light to the border, which is frequently occu- pied with low-growing vegetables: but when they are not wanted early, a low wall will answer equally well. In forcing vines, the following dimensions are supposed to form an improved vinery, or house of this kind, and one that has been found to answer well in actual prac- tice. In houses of this sort, if the wall be twelve feet high, the breadth ten feet, and the height of the upright wall in front three feet, the roof, will form an angle of about forty-three degress; which experience has shewn to be a suitable pitch for forcing vines with advantage. These sorts of buildings may likewise be constructed on a plan somewhat similar to that of a single-pitted pine-stove, having the back wall fourteen feet high; the roof slanting, and covering an extent of about six- teen feet; with a flue running from east to west near the front wall. This is well suited, not only for grapes, but early crops of melons, strawberries, and other simi- lar kinds of fruit. To save the expense of glass; where there are peach- houses, the glass frames may also be employed for the vinery, when constructed with this intention, and good grapes may be obtained from vines trained against walls about six feet high, by means of melon-frame glasses, where a small slanting roof is made proper to receive them. But a small degree of fire-heat is of great ad- vantage, and might be applied either by a flued wall, the flue running through the house, or by cast-iron pipes for the purpose. These sorts of houses, Mr. Nicol remarks vary ex- ceedingly in their construction; and although some lay great stress on this article, (and there are extremes, which ought not to be followed,) he is convinced the failure of success in the production of the grape, is much less a consequence of bad construction in the house, than in the preparation of the border, the choice of the kinds, and the general management. It has fallen to his lot to have the construction and manage- ment of three several and differently constructed grape- houses in the same garden, under his care for years, which have equally and uniformly produced excellent crops. This, in his opinion, is a proof of the necessity of a greater niceness in the formation of the border be- ing observed, than in the construction of the house; the fire-place and flues excepted, which should always be particularly attended to. He also thinks that the scite of a vinery is an object of such consequence to the welfare of the plant, and successful cultivation and production of well-flavoured fruit, that the greatest care should be taken in the choice of it: A gentle hill, having a south aspect, and considerable declivity that way, the soil a strong brown loam of two feet, over a bottom of dry sand, gravel or soft clay, is, he thinks, the most desirable, and would be the least expensive of all situations. In this case the border requires no paving or draining; and admits of a proper mixture of sandy loam, vegetable mould, marle, and dung, by the removal of two feet of the natural bot- tom, with the natural soil, to form a border, perfectly adapted to the growth of the vine, in the following pro- portion; viz. one half strong brown loam, a quarter light sandy loam, an eighth vegetable mould of decayed tree-leaves, and an eighth stable-dung; to which add about a fiftieth part of shell-marle. This is the com- position of the vine-borders at Wemyss Castle, none of which are less than four feet deep, and one (owing to the accidental situation of the house) is six. See Fok- CING, Hot-House, and STovE. See also VITIs. In order to form borders against these hot-walls in other cases, they should have the earth taken out two feet deep where the ground is dry, but in other cases one foot will be sufficient, as in wet soils the borders should be raised at least two feet above the level of the ground, to prevent the roots of the vines from being in- jured by the wet. The bottom of this trench should be filled with stones, lime-rubbish, &c. a foot and a half or two feet in thickness, which should be levelled and beaten down pretty hard, to prevent the roots from run- ning downward. The trenches should be made five feet wide at least, otherwise the roots will, in a few years, extend themselves beyond the rubbish, and, find- ing an easy passage downwards, run into the moist ground, and be thereby much injured, or destroyed; but before the rubbish is filled into the trench, it is a better method to raise a nine-inch wall at that distance from the hot-wall, which will keep the rubbish from in- termixing with the neighbouring earth, and also con- fine the roots to the border in which they are planted. This wall should be raised to the height of the intended border, and may be useful to lay the plate of timber of the frames upon, which will be necessary to cover the vines with when they are forced; and where the borders are raised to any considerable height above the level of the ground, these walls may preserve the earth of the borders from falling down into the walks; but in carrying them up, it will be proper to leave lit- tle openings, about eight or ten feet distant, to let the water pass off by. As soon as the walls are finished and thoroughly dry, the rubbish should be filled in, as directed above, when there should be fresh light earth laid upon it two feet thick, which will be a sufficient depth of mould for the vines to root in. The borders should be prepared in this manner at least a month or six weeks before the vines are planted, in order that they may have time to settle. See VITIS. Improved and more economical modes of heating and steaming the plants in vineries have lately been had recourse to by Mr. Loudon and others, as by the ordi- nary fires, and the use of cast-iron plates, &c. Vineries have sometimes steam-vaults under the ground, for supplying occasional warmth to the roots of the vine plants. Houses of these kinds are sometimes called grafteries, and grafte-houses. See Stove. VINET, ELIAs, in Biografthy, a learned man of the sixteenth century, was born at Vinets, a village of Sain- tonge, and having gained a small sum of money by tui- tion, he went to Paris for the study of mathematics and improvement in classical literature. He was invited to Bourdeaux in 1541, and appointed to a professorship by Govea, principal of the college in that city. He ac- companied his patron to Coimbra in 1547, but after his death returned to Bourdeaux, where he was appointed principal of the college in 1558. Having performed the duties of this office for twenty-five years, he was re- leased from service in his advanced age, but retained his salary, and died in 1587, at the age of 78. Vinet edited various ancient authors; and besides his transla- tions into French, he published some original works, such as “The Art of making Dials;” a treatise “On Moderation;” the “Antiquities of Saintes and Barbe- sieux,” 4to. 1571; and “Antiquities of Bourdeaux and Bourg,” 4to. 1574. Moreri. VINEUIL, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department V IN V IN department of the Loir and Cher, on the Cousson; 3 miles E. of Blois. VINEYARD, VINETUM, a plantation of vines. See VINE. Vineyards were formerly common in England, but for a considerable time the cultivation of them has been altogether neglected. There was a famous vineyard at Bath, planted with white Muscadine and black cluster grapes, which, at one time, yielded sixty hogsheads of wine at a vintage, though, in 1721, it only yielded three hogsheads. , Bradley also mentions a small vineyard of a private person at Rotherhithe, consisting only of a hundred vines, which yielded at a vintage ninety-five gallons of wine, that had the true Burgundy flavour, as being made of that sort of grape, and exceeded any made on this side of Paris. VINEYARD, in Geografthy, a town of America, in the district of Vermont, and county of Grand Isle; contain- ing 338 inhabitants. VINEYARD Martha’s. See MARTHA’s Vineyard. V. N.EYARD, Vew, a township in the district of Maine, and cºunty of Somerset; containing 484 inhabitants; 60 tºnes N.W. of Brunswick. V NExARD Sound, a narrow sea, on the north-west coast of Martila's Vineyard, separated from Buzzard’s bay by Elizabeth islands. V1NFELD, a place of Westphalia, in the county of Lippe, Irea: Horn. VI: {}}NNA, in Ancient Geografthy, a river of Gaui which discharges itself into the Loire. VINGER, in Geograºhy, a town of Norway, in the province of Aggerhuus; 2 miles S.S.E. of Berga. VINGO RIA, a town of Hindoostan, in the country of Concan, where the Dutch had a settlement, from which they were driven by the natives in 1696. About ten miles to the west-north-west are some rocks, in the Indian sea, called Vingorla Rocks. The town of Vin- gorla is situated near the mouth of a river; 22 miles N. N.W. of Goa. N. lat. 15° 58'. E. long. 73° 27'. VINHAES, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tralos Montes; 12 miles W. of Bragança. VINJA CUTARIA, a town of Hindoostan, in Cutch; 16 miles S. of Tahej. VINIE LAKE, a lake of Norway, in the government of Aggerhuus; 45 miles W. of Consberg. VINIOLAF, in Ancient Geography, a place in the isle of Sardinia, on the rout from Portus Tibulis to Caralis, between Fanum Carisi and Sulci. Anton. Itin. —Also, a place of Spain, belonging to the Carpetani, between Accatucci and Mentesa Bastia. VINITZA, in Geography, a town of Croatia; 12 miles W. of Varasdin. VINIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in the vicinity of the town of Casinum, according to Varro, supposed to be now known by the name of Fiume di San Germano. VINKATTY CHILLUM, in Geography, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic; 10 miles S. of Nellore. VINKENBOOMS, DAv1D, in Biography, a land- scape painter, born at Mechlin in 1578, was the son of an obscure painter in distemper. His landscapes, which are in the style of Roland Savery and of John Breughel, are sometimes adorned with stories from the Bible, but more frequently are convivial; being fairs or merry- makings. He ventured occasionally on history, with landscape backgrounds; such is the picture of Christ hearing his Cross, in the collection of the elector pala- time, and of Christ healing the Blind, at Frankfort. His ºposition. are ingenious, but his touch is petite and a.I'Cl. VINKISH, the name of a disease in sheep. See VANQUISH. - UINMARSUCK, in Geografhy, an island near the coast of East Greenland. N. lat. 60° 40'. W. long. 45° 45'. - VINNA, a town of Hungary; 2 miles N.W. of Ungvar. VINNAS, a town of Peru, in the diocess of Gua- manga; 50 miles W. of Guanca Velica. VINNEBERG, a town of Germany, in the bishopric of Munster; 10 miles N.E. of Munster. VINNET, in our Statutes, is used for a flower or border, which printers use to ornament printed leaves of books. See VIGNETTE. VINNIUS, (VINNEN,) ARNoLD, in Biography, an eminent jurist, was born in Holland in 1588, studied at Leyden, and taught the classics at the Hague till the year 1633, when he became law-professor in the univer- sity of Leyden. Whilst he occupied this office, he ac- quired distinction by various works of jurisprudence, in an elegant and ornamented style. The principal of his publications are, “Commentarius Academicus et Fo- rensis in quatuor Libros Institutionum Imperialium,” Amist. 1642, often reprinted, and particularly by Hein- eccius, with a preface and notes, Lugd. Bat. 1726, 4to.; “ Notae ad Institutiones,” accompanying the pre- ceding; “Introductio ad Praxin Batavam,” &c. &c. He died at Leyden in 1657, or, as some say, in 1668. Moreri. VINNY, in Agriculture, a term signifying mouldy and fusty, when applied to hay and other such sub- stances. We have thus vinny hay, &c. VINOVIA, VINoNIA, or Viconia, in Ancient Geo- grafthy, a town of Great Britain, in the 1st Iter of An- tonine on the route from Vallum to Praetorium, is fixed at Binchester on the Were, in the bishopric of Durham, between Vindomora (Ebchester) and Cataractori (Ca- taract), on the south side of the river Swale. Ptolemy assigns it to the Brigantes. VINOUS, VINosus, something that relates to wine; or that has the taste and Smell of it. All vegetables, by a due treatment, afford a vinous liquor; as corn, pulse, nuts, apples, grapes, &c. A second fermentation, duly managed, turns any vinous liquor into an acetous one. The proper character and effect of fermentation are, to produce either a vinous, or an acetous quality in the body fermented. Some of our countrymen, bound on a voyage to the East Indies, having filled several casks with Thames water, to carry along with them, observed an intestine motion in it when they came to the equator; and found it afterwards turned into a kind of vinous liquor, capa- ble of affording an inflammable spirit by distillation. See PUTREFACTION of Water. VINSOBRES, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the department of the Drôme ; 4 miles S.E. of Nions. VINTAGE, the crop of wine, or what is got from the vines each season. The word is also used for the time or season of gathering or pressing the grapes. In France, a decree of ordinance or the proper judge, and a solemn publication of it, are required, before the vintage can be begun. VINTAIN, or BINTAIN, in Geografthy, a town of 4. U 2 Africa. V IN V IN Africa, and capital of the kingdom of Fonia, on a river of the same name, which runs into the Gambia. This town is much frequented by Europeans for the purchase of wax, ivory, and skins. VINTIMIGLIA, a sea-port town of Genoa, defend- ed by a castle. It is the see of a bishop, under the archbishop, of Milan; 13 miles N.E. of Nice. N. lat. 43° 48'. E. long. 7° 33'. VINTIUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of the Nerusii, according to Ptolemy recognized by inscrip- tions in honour of Gordian and Trajan-Decius, in which are read Civit. VINT. In the Notitia of the provinces of Gaul, Civitas Vintuntium is one of those of the Ma- ratime Alps. In later times it was called Vincium, and this name is preserved in that of Vence. VINUESA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Castile ; 13 miles N.W. of Soria. VINUM, a liquor, or drink, popularly called Wine; which see. VINUM, in Medicine, Vinum Medicamentum, is par- ticularly applied to several medicated wines, i. e. medi- cinal preparations, of which wine is the basis. Wine, as a solvent, is liable to the objection of inequality of strength; and on account of its spontaneous decompo- sition by exposure to the air, it is more objectionable, this change being more likely to occur sooner when it is imbued with principles which tend to hasten the fer- mentative process. In order to obviate these disad- vantager, Parmentier (Annales de Chimie, lii. 46.) pro- poses, that instead of preparing medicated wines in the usual way, the alcoholic tinctures well prepared should be added to wine in given quantities; by which means, he says, the preparations are less nauseous, and always of a determinate strength. By the general term wine, the London College designates sherry wine. These medicated wines should be kept in very well-corked bottles, and in a cool situation. Some of these are de- nominated from the ingredients used in them; some from the intentions with which they are prescribed; and some from their qualities, &c. Such are the - VINUM Absinthites, or Wormwood Wine; made of the great or little absinthium by taking the apices, or tops, with the flowers, putting them in a sacculus, or bag, and suspending it in the middle of a vessel of wine ; which, fermenting, extracts the taste, smell, and virtues, of the wormwood. See ABSINTHITEs. VINUM Aloes, Wine of Aloes, is prepared, according to the Lond. Ph., by rubbing eight ounces of extract of spiked aloes to powder with white sand previously freed from any impurities, and also rubbing two ounces of canella bark into powder, and on these, mixed to- gether, pouring six pints of wine and two pints of proof-spirit; macerating for fourteen days, frequently shaking the vessel containing the mixture, and after- wards straining. The Dub. Ph. directs four ounces of socotorine aloes and one ounce of Canella alba to be separately reduced to powder, and mixed together, and then to pour over it three pints of Spanish white wine, mixed with a pound of proof-spirit; then to di- gest for fourteen days, with frequent agitation, and Hastly to strain the solution. VINUM Aloes Socotorina, Wine of Socotorine Aloes, of the Edin. Ph., commonly called Sacred Tincture, is prepared by taking one ounce of socotorine aloes in powder, lesser cardamomseeds bruised, and ginger- root bruised, of each a drachm, and two pounds of Spanish white wine; digesting for seven days, with fre- quent agitation, and then straining. This medicated wine is an excellent warm purgative and stomachic ; and has been employed long and beneficially in cold phlegmatic habits, paralysis, gout, dyspepsia, and chlo- rosis; the dose is from føj to faij as a stomachic, and from făj to faij as a purgative. 9 VINUM Aloeticum Alkalinum, a form of medicine in the late London Dispensatory, intended to stand in the place of Helmont's elixir proprietatis. It is pre- pared in this manner: Take of bay fixed alkaline salt, eight ounces; aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each an ounce ; purified sal ammoniac, six drachms; white wine, a quart; infuse them together without heat for a week, or longer, and then filter the wine through paper for use. VINUM Amarum, Bitter Wine, is an infusion of cer- tain bitter, stomachic herbs, as gentian-root, juniper- berries, tops of centaury, orange and lemon-peel, in wine. This wine may be made by infusing for a week, without heat, gentian-root, and yellow rind of lemon- peel, of each one ounce, and two drachms of long-pep- per, in two pints of mountain-wine, and straining out the wine for use. The Vinum Gentiana Comfiositum, vulgö Vinum .Amarum, or compound wine of gentian, commonly called bitter wine, is obtained by slicing or bruising half an ounce of gentian-root, one ounce of cinchona bark, two drachms of orange-peel dried one drachm of ca- nella alba, and pouring upon them four ounces of proof- spirit, and, after twenty-four hours, adding two pounds and a half of Spanish white wine; then macerating for seven days and straining. This wine, newly pre- pared, is stomachic and tonic, but by keeping becomes acescent. The dose is from făiv to ſavi, given two or three times a day. For other preparations, see GENTIAN-Root. In complaints arising from weakness of the stomach, or indigestion, a glass of this wine may be taken an hour before dinner and supper. VINUM Anthelminticum, Anthelmintic Wine, may be made by infusing, without heat, half an ounce of rhu- barb, and an ounce of worm-seed, bruised, in two pints of red Port wine, for a few days, and straining off the wine. As the stomachs of persons afflicted with worms are always debilitated, red wine alone will often prove serviceable: it must, however, have still better effects when joined with bitter and purgative ingredients, as in the above form. A glass of this wine may be taken twice or thrice a day. VINUM Antimoniale, Antimonial Wine, is made by digesting, without heat, half an ounce of glass of Anti- mony, reduced to a fine powder, in eight ounces of Lisbon wine, for three or four days, occasionally sha- king the bottle, and afterwards filtering the wine through paper. The dose of this wine varies accord- ing to the intention. As an alterative and diaphoretic, it may be taken from ten to fifty or sixty drops. In a larger does it generally proves cathartic, or excites vomiting. The Liquor Antimonii Tartarizati, or solution of tar- tarized antimony of the Lond. Ph., is obtained by dis- solving a scruple of tartarized antimony in four fluid- ounces, of boiling distilled water, and then adding six fluid-ounces of wine. The Vinum Tartritis Antimonii, formerly Vinum Antimoniale, is had by mixing twenty- four grains of tartrate of antimony in one pound of Spanish white wine, so that the tartrate may be diº VeGl. V IN V IN ved. These solutions are of equal strength; fºi. of either containing two grains of tartarized antimony. They are diaphoretic or emetic, according to the ex- tent of the dose, . In doses of my to faj, in any proper vehicle, repeated every three or four hours, diaphoresis is usually excited; but this solution is principally used as an emetic for infants, a tea-spoonful being given every five minutes till it produces full vomiting. See ANTIMONY. VINUM Aromaticum, is made by infusing aromatics, or spices, in new wine, or must. VINUM Benedictum, Blessed wine, is made of crocus metallorum and mars infused in wine. This was for- merly a celebrated emetic, but is now almost out of use, on account of its roughness. VINUM Chalybeatum, Chalybeate Wine, is thus pre- pared : Take filings of iron, four ounces; cinnamon and mace, of each half an ounce; of Rhenish wine, two quarts; infuse a month without heat, often shaking the vessel; then filter it off for use. Some superadd a reddish colour, by using a small quantity of cochineal. Fine iron wire, cut in pieces, is more eligible than the filings, as we may always depend on the wire being pure iron; and as it exposes a larger surface to the fluid, it is more easily acted upon. This wine is an excellent stomachic and aperient; it may be drank in the quantity of a common spoonful, or even of a moderate glass, once or twice a day, or mixed in apozems of the aperient vegetables. In obstructions of the menses, this preparation of iron may be taken in the dose of half a wine-glass twice or thrice a day. Dr. Buchan says, that the me- dicine would probably be as good if made with Lisbon wine, sharpened with half an ounce of cream of tartar, or a small quantity of the spirit of vitriol. The Winum Ferri, or Wine of Iron, is by the Lond. Ph. directed to be prepared by mixing two ounces of filings of iron with two pints of wine, and setting the mixture aside for a month, occasionally shaking it; and filtering it through paper. The Dub. Ph. orders four ounces of iron wire cut in pieces, and four pints of white Rhenish wine; and directs to sprinkle a little of the wine over the iron filings and exposing them to the air, until they be covered with rust, then to add the remainder of the wine ; to digest for seven days, with frequent agitation, and lastly to filter. This is a vinous solution of tartrate of iron and potass, and when prepa- red as the London College directs, each pint contains about twenty-two grains of oxyd of iron. It is the least unpleasant of the preparations of iron; chiefly employ- edin chlorosis, and the relaxed habits of young females. The dose is from fă] to favj, given twice or thrice a day. VINUM Cydonites, Quince Wine; made of slices of that fruit, steeped in must, or new wine. VINUM Emeticum, Emetic Wine, is wine in which the glass or regulus of antimony, or crocus metallorum, has been steeped. See EMETIc. This only takes a certain degree of efficacy from the matters; nor is it found any stronger at three months end, than at the end of three days. It purges both upwards and downwards. VINUM Enulatººm, Elecamfiane Wine, is an infusion of the root of that plant, with sugar and currants, in white Port. It cleanses the viscera, prevents disorders and obstructions of the lungs, and is good in asthma- tic cases, cachexies, &c. See ELEcAMPANE. •º VINUM Hiffiocraticum. See Hippocras. VINUM Iñecacuanhat is prepared, according to the Lond. Ph., by macerating for fourteen days two ounces of the root of ipecacuanha bruised in two pints of wine, and filtering; according to the Ed. Ph., by macerating for seven days one ounce of the root bruised in fifteen ounces of Spanish white wine, and filtering through paper; and according to the Dublin Ph., by digesting for seven days two ounces of the bruised root in two pints of Spanish white wine, and then filtering. As an emetic, this is equally efficacious, and milder in its operation than antimonial wine, and, therefore, better adapted for infants; for this purpose, a tea-spoonful, or f3ss, is given for a dose, and repeated every ten minutes till it operates. In smaller doses it answers the same purposes as the powder, and is given in coughs, diarrhoea, dysentery, and other complaints in which a determination to the skin is indicated. VINUM Marinum, Sea-wine, is made by casting sea- water on the grapes in the vat. VINUM Millefiedum. See MILLEPEDEs. VINUM JVicotianae Tabaci, Wine of Tobacco, of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared by macerating for seven days one ounce of tobacco-leaves in one pound of Spanish white wine, and filtering through paper. This is the only form in which tobacco can be conveniently admi- nistered as an internal remedy. It is given to produce diuretic and antispasmodic effects in dropsies, colica pictonum, and ileus. The dose is from mix to mixxx, in any proper vehicle. e VINUM Oftii, Wine of Ohium, is obtained, according to the Lond. Ph., by taking an ounce of extract of opium, cinnamon bark bruised and cloves bruised, of each a drachm, and a pint of wine; macerating for eight days, and fittering. Mr. Ware introduced the use of this tincture as a local application in the second stage of ophthalmia, when the inflammatory symptoms have subsided, and the vessels of the conjunctiva remain turgid with red blood. Two or three drops are drop- ped into the eye every morning, until the redness be removed. Q. VINUM Pectorale, Pectoral Wine, is prepared by li- quorice, saffron, coriander-seeds, caraway, anise, salt. of tartar, penny-royal, and hyssop leaves, digested with Canary wine, and strained. It is a good expectorant, helping to deterge and cleanse the lungs, &c. . . . VINUM Picatum, Pitched Wine, is made of pitch in- fused in must. VINUM Rhei Palmati. See RHUBARB. VINUM Rosatum, Rose Wine, is made by steeping roses for three months in wine. VINUM Scilliticum. See Squills. VINUM Stomachicum, Stomachic Wine, is prepared by infusing an ounce of Peruvian bark, grossly pow- dered, cardamom-seeds, and orange-peel, bruised, of each two drachms, in a bottle of white Port or Lisbon wine for five or six days, and straining off the wine. This wine is not only of service in laxity and debility of the stomach and intestines, but may also be taken as a preventive, by persons liable to the intermittent fever, or who reside in places where this disease prevails. It will be of use to those who recover slowly after fevers of any kind, as it assists digestion, and inelps to restore the tone and vigour of the system. A glass of it may be taken two or three times a day. VINUM Strobi'ites, dºtes pine-apple wine. VINUM e Tartaro Antimoniali, is made by dissolving tartal" V I O V I O tartar emetic in white wine, in the proportion of twenty- four grains to a pound. - VINUM Wiſherinum. See VIPER-Wine. VINUM Essatum, in Chemistry. See ESSENCE of JWine. VINUM Extemporaneum, a name given by Dr. Shaw and others to a sort of extemporaneous vinous liquor, made without fermentation, from the melasses spirit. lemons, water, and sugar, in the following manner, Some good sound lemons are to be cut in slices, rind and all, and put into a quantity of pure and fine melas- ses spirit; when they have stood in infusion three or four days, the liquor is to be strained clear off, and fil- tered; and having before prepared a very thin syrup of the finest sugar dissolved in spring-water, the two li- quors are to be mixed together. The proportions of this mixture can only be hit by repeated trials; but when once found, it will be easy to continue them; and a vinous liquor will thus be prepared not inferior to many foreign wines. VINZELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Asia, in Galatia, belonging to the Tectosages. Ptolemy.— Also, a town of Asia, in Pisidia. Ptolemy. VIO, in Biography. See CAJETAN. VIO, in Geografthy, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 11 imiles N.W. of Ainsi. VIOL, VIola, a musical instrument, of the same form with the violin, but larger, and having six strings; and struck, like that, with a bow. The viol played with a bow was very early in favour with the inhabitants of France, and is very different from the vielle (which see), whose tones are produced by the friction of a wheel, which performs the part of a bow. ~ * There are viols of divers kinds. The first and prin- cipal among us is the base-viol, called by the Italians viola di gamba, or the leg-viol ; because held between the legs. (See GAMBA.) It is the largest of all, and is mounted with six strings. Its neck is divided in half- notes, by seven frets fixed thereon. Its sound is very deep, soft, and agreeable. The tablature, or music for the base-viol, is laid down on six lines, or rules. What the Italians call alto viola, is the counter-tenor of this; and their tenore viola, the tenor. They some- times call it, simply, the viol : some authors will have it the lyra, others the cithara, others the chelys, and others the testudo, of the ancients. See VIoI.A. 2. The love viol, viola d’amore, which is a kind of triple viol, or violin; having six brass or steel strings, like those of the harpsichord. This yields a kind of silver sound, which has something in it very agreeable. See VIOL d’Amour. 3. A large viol, with forty-four strings, called by the Italians viola di bardone ; but little known among us. 4. Piola bastarda, or bastard viol of the Italians; not used among us. . . Brossard takes it to be a kind of base- viol, mounted with six or seven strings, and tuned as the COIn IſlCIn Oſle. 5. What the Italians call viola di braccio, arm viol; or, simply, braccio, arm; is an instrument answering to our counter-tenor, treble, and fifth violin. See VIoI.A. 6. Their viola firima, or first viol, is really the coun- ter-tenor violin; at least, they commonly use the clef c-sol-ut on the first line, to denote the piece intended for this instrument. 7. Piola secunda is much the same with our tenor violin; having the clef of c-sol-ut on the second line. 8. Wiola terza is nearly our fifth violin; the clef c-sol- ut on the third line. 9. Piola quarta, or fourth viol, is not known in Eng- land, or France; though we frequently find it mention- ed in the Italian compositions; the clef on the fourth line. Lastly, their violetta, or little viol, is, in reality, our triple viol; though strangers frequently confound the term with what we have said of the viola firima, secun- da, terza, &c. - VIOL d'Amour, an instrument played with a bow, like the violin, of which it has the form. The only one we ever examined was many years ago in the hands of Giardini. It had but four strings, tuned fifths like those of the violin; but underneath these there were four metalline strings of small brass or iron wire, which were called sympathetic strings. These were never touched by the bow, but were caused to vibrate by the sound of the strings over them, when played upon by the bow. In the Supplement to the first Encyclopaedia in folio, another viol d’amour is mentioned with twelve strings, six upon the great bridge, and six upon a smaller bridge below. The six inferior strings are of metal, and tuned octaves to the Superior. VIOL d'Amour is also an instrument with seven strings, in the shape of a violin, but larger; it is played with a bow, but the finger-board is fretted. Its tone is sweet, but more feeble than the violin. Viol, is a term used by mariners, when a hawser, or strand-rope, is bound fast with nippers to the cable, and brought to the jeer-capstan, for the better weighing of the anchor, where the main-capstan proves insufficient. VIOLA, and Alto Viola, the tenor violin. What the contralto is in vocal music, the alto viola is in in- strumental. The same clef is used for both : the tenor on the third line. The instrumental tenor, or viol da braccio, as it is often called by the Italians, from its rest- ing on the arm or shoulder, to distinguish it from the viol da gamba, which rests on the leg, is an octave above the violoncello, and five notes below the violin, Scale of the Tenor. d e —e—º- 3. b C. g 4 Open 2-, c Wººſ"T º Open a b C GE)— 4th String. 3d String. 4 Open c f 1st String. 2d String. These, V I O L A. These, with the semitones, are all the notes that were given to the tenor during the first fifty years of the last century, in the concertos of Corelli, Geminiani, and Handel; and the tenor was the instrument to which great violinists retreated, when the hand, and perhaps the eyes, failed. But during the last fifty years of the preceding century, when quartets, d farti equali, came into favour, the tenor was made an important instru- ment; and when played by a Hindmarsh, a Shields, a Stamitz, and by Giardini himself, was as much and as deservedly applauded as the violins and violoncello. Viola, in Botany, the common and well-known La- tin name of a charming flower, most probably origina- ted in its Greek synonym toy. At least, the vague and forced etymologies of this word, for which Latin authors have ransacked their own language, prove it not to have come from thence. Nor are the explanations of the Greek much more satisfactory, though the fable of this plant having sprung up on purpose to be the food of the metamorphosed Io, is too poetical to be forgotten. The names of the Violet in modern languages all pro- ceed from the Latin, or from the same source, whatever it may be. The poetry, the romance, the scenery, of every country, is embroidered with the violet, from Ca- ledonia to Arcadia, and the very same individual spe- cies is, or has been, the object of homage in both those distant countries. Yet it must be remembered, that toy, Viola, and even the English Violet, are names of more wide-extended and indefinite application, than those of perhaps any other flower, even the Rose not excepted; so as to be nearly synonimous with the word jlower itself; nor can anything be more dissimilar from the true kind, or from each other, than the Calathian Violet, a GENTIANA, or the Dame's Violet, HESPERIs ; the Dog's-tooth Violet, ERYTHRONIUM, or the Water Violet, HoTToni A. (See those articles.)—Linn. Gen. 457. Schreb. 397. Willd. Sp Pl. v. 1. 1159. Mart, Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 244. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 145. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 43. Pursh 17 l. Juss. 294. Tourn. t. 236. Lamarck Illustr. t. 725. Poiret in Lam. Dict. v. 8. 623. Gaertn. t. 1 12.-Class and order, Syngenesia Monogamia, Linn. Pentundria Monogynia, Smith, Willd., &c. Nat. Ord. Camſhana- ceae, Linn. Cisti, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, short, permanent, of five ovate-oblong, erect leaves, most acute at the sum- mit, inserted above their base, which is obtuse; they are equal, but variously disposed ; two of them sub- tending petal cº, one each of the petals 8 and y, and the fifth the two petals 3 and e together. Cor. irregular, of five unequal petals; of which petal 2 is at the top of the flower, the broadest and most obtuse of all, straight, looking downwards, emarginate, ending at the base in a horn-shaped, obtuse Nectary, projecting betwixt the calyx-leaves; 3 and y are lateral, both alike, opposite, obtuse, straight; 9 and e are the lowest of all, both alike, larger than the two former, reflexed upward. Stam. Filaments five, very small, two of them adjoining to petal 2, are furnished with two combined appendages, which enter the nectary; anthers converging, hardly connected, obtuse, with a terminal membrane to each. Pist. Germen superior, roundish; style thread-shaped, projecting beyond the anthers; Stigma oblique, pointed or concave. Peric. Capsule ovate, triangular, obtuse, of one cell and three valves. Seeds several in each cell, ovate, polished, inserted into the valves. Recefit. linear, running along the centre of each valve. Obs. The stigma, in the Common March Violet, W. odorata, and its allies, is a simple reflexed hook; in the tricolor, or Parisy, tribe, it is a hollow knob, pefora- ted at the summit, and more or less gaping occasional- ly. In the European species, the flower is always in- verted; in the Indian ones, mostly erect; hence the dif- ferent aspect of the two. Ess. Ch. Corolla of five petals, irregular, spurred behind. Anthers somewhat connected. Capsule su- perior, of three valves and one cell. Calyx of five leaves, extended at their base. Viola is a very numerous, almost entirely herbaceous, genus, for the most part of humble stature, though of great elegance. The stem is either trailing, or erect; sometimes wanting. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, stalked, simple, crenate, or serrated, occasionally deep- ly divided. Stiftulas various and remarkable. Flowers on simple stalks, blue, or rather purplish, whitish, or yellow ; in one instance, at least, green ; very often streaked in a radiant manner, like those of Veronica. The species abound in cold or cool countries, such as Europe and North America, though some are of tropi- cal origin ; but the habit of these latter is peculiar. One species has but two perfect stamens. The discoveries of North American botanists have, of late, greatly enriched this genus. New Holland likewise has contributed several new and curious spe- cies; but of these we shall probably learn much more than is at present known, from Mr. Brown, whenever he continues his valuable Prodromus. Two sections are most commodious for the distribu- tion of the species, others, which have been proposed, proving problematical or obscure. Sect. 1. Without stems. 1. V. falmata. Palmated Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1323. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Pursh n. 3. Curt. Mag. t. 535. (V. alba, folio securis amazoniae effigie, Floridana; Pluk. Amalth. 208. t. 447. f. 9.)—Downy. Leaves heart-shaped, lobed in a hastate or palmate manner, more or less notched. Calyx-leaves lanceo- late, smooth. Two lateral petals bearded at the base. —Native of North America, on dry hills and pasture ground, generally in a sandy soil. Perennial, flowering from April to June. Pursh. Hardy in our gardens, but rarely cultivated. The first leaves are kidney- shaped, serrated; the subsequent ones deeply and va- riously palmate, five-lobed, an inch and a half or two inches long, occasionally smooth. Footstalks erect, from two to four inches long. Flower-stalks rather taller, simple, and single-flowered, as in the whole ge- nus, with a pair of opposite awl-shaped bracteas below the middle. Flowers an inch broad, light blue, whitish at the base, inodorous. 2. V. fiedata. Cut-leaved Violet. 1323. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Pursh n. 1. Curt. Mag. t. 89. Andr. Repos. t. 153. (V. virginiana tri- color, foliis multifidis, cauliculo aphyllo; Pluk. Phyt. t. 114. f. 7.)—Leaves pedate, smooth, with seven or nine lanceolate, nearly entire, lobes.—Native of dry sandy hills and fields, from New England to Carolina. Pe- rennial, flowering in May and June. Rare in our gar- dens. According to Mr. Curtis, it should be planted in a pot of loam mixed with bog earth, plunged into a north border, and kept in a frame through the winter. The truly pedate leaves distinguish this species. The Linn. Sp. Pl. jlowers are larger than the preceding, pale blue, with prominent orange-coloured tips to their anthers. Pursh mentions a variety, whose fetals are very handsomely ornamented with a dark purple velvet at the bottom, similar V I O L A. similar to W. tricolor. This may be Plukenet's plant, so meanly figured, as usual with him. 3. V. digitata. Finger-leaved Violet. Pursh n. 2. —“Leaves palmate, tapering down into the footstalk, of five or seven undivided lobes.”—Native of Virginia. Lecomte. Perennial, flowering in May. Flowers pale blue. Pursh. May not this be nearly akin to the en- tire-lobed variety of the following: 4. V. finnata. Wing-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1323. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Allion. Ped. v. 2. 97. (V. acaulis, foliis pinnatifidis; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 101. t. 49. f. 4. V. n. 561 ; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 241. V. monta- na, laciniato folio; Clus. Hist. v. 1. 309.) A. V. acaulis, foliis digitatis; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 100. t. 49. f. 3. (V. montana, folio multifido; Bauh. Hist. v. 3. 544.) Leaves in many deep, toothed or jagged, segments, tapering at their base, somewhat downy.—Native of Siberia, as well as of the mountains of Switzerland and Savoy, flowering in the spring Cultivated by Miller in 1752, but we know not that it exists at present in the English collections. This species is rather smaller than V. ſedata. Leaves generally as deeply divided, into about five segments, which are either unequally three-cleft, or pinnatifid, as well as jagged, and very narrow ; or, in the variety 3, lanceolate and only some- what notched. Their ribs and edges are more or less downy. Flowers pale blue, with darker veins. Some- times the leaves are less deeply divided, in a pedate manner, with bluntish lobes; but this variety does not seem confined to any particular country. 5. V. Sagittata. Arrow-leaved Violet. Ait. n. 4. Willd. n. 4. Pursh n. 4.—Downy. Leaves oblong, acute, somewhat Serrated; heart-shaped, cut, a little elongated, at the base. Calyx linear, smooth. Three lower petals bearded at the base.—On dry hills, from New England to Virginia. Perennial, flowering from April to June. Dr. Fothergill imported it from Penn- sylvania in 1775. Linnaeus confounded this species with his hirta, a European plant, distinguished by its uniformly heart-shaped, regularly crenate leaves. The sagittata has remarkably elongated leaves, very ob- scurely serrated, except towards the base, where they are more or less deeply toothed. Flower-stalks, in our specimens, much shorter than the leaves; Mr. Pursh says longer. He describes the flowers, which we have not seen fresh, “blue; lower fetal white towards the bottom, with purple veins; the rest longer, narrower, and white towards the base.” 6. V. dentata. Toothed-leaved Violet. Pursh n. 5.—Smooth. Leaves oblong, acute, abrupt, dilated, with large ascending teeth, at the base. Flower-stalks shorter than the leaves. Calyx linear, smooth. Three lower petals bearded at the base.—Native of wet mea- dows and woods in Pennsylvania. Perennial, flowering in May and June. Flowers nearly the same as the last. Pursh. The leaves are of a hastate figure, two to three inches long, somewhat shorter than the preceding. 7. V. betomicifolia. Betony-leaved Violet.—Rather downy. Leaves linear-oblong, obtuse, crenate ; heart- shaped, and slightly dilated, at the base. Flower-stalks taller than the leaves. Calyx lanceolate, smooth. Petals all bearded at the base.—Native of New South Wales. Dr. White. The root is somewhat woody, and doubt- less perennial. Leaves the size of the last, but Smooth or slightly downy only, regularly crenate throughout; not toothed, nor much dilated, at the bottom. Stalks generally, but not always, densely downy for an inch and a half below the flowers. than in the two last. not much veined. 8. V. lanceolata. Spear-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1323. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 5. Pursh n. 6. Forst. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 310–Smooth. Leaves lanceo- late, obscurely crenate; tapering at the base; rather shorter than the flower-stalks. Petals beardless.-In overflowed meadows, from Canada to Pennsylvania, flowering in June and July. Perennial. The leaves are an inch and half long; their footstalks nearly twice as much. Flowers the size of V. falustris, white; three of their fietals marked with purple ribs. 9. V. fusiformis. Tap-rooted Siberian Violet. (V. acaulis, foliis lanceolatis, crenatis, hirsutis; Gmel. Sib. v. 4, 99. t. 49. f. 2.)—Leaves ovato-lanceolate, crenate, downy, longer than their footstalks, much shorter than the flower-stalks. Root tap-shaped.—Native of Siberia, in rather dry places, flowering in autumn. Gmelin. Mr. Forster, in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 310, has long ago pointed out this Siberian Viola as a distinct species from the North American lanceolata. We have never seen a specimen. The leaves in the figure cited are above an inch long; the flower-stalks near three inches, with two lanceolate bracteas, rather above the middle. Flowers larger than the last, blue or purplish. 10. V. microfthylla. Small-leaved Yellow Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 11.-Leaves ovato-lanceolate, crenate, somewhat downy, shorter than their footstalks. Root scaly. Flower-stalks taller than the leaves, smooth, with two awl-shaped bracteas near the top.–Gathered by Commerson on hills on the Patagonian coast, in the straits of Magellan. Poiret. Leaves several, radical, four or five lines long, and three broad. Stiftulas two, narrow, membranous, at the base of each footstalk. Flowers yellow ; lift twice the size of the other petals, emarginate, marked with purple lines, and ending be- hind in a short blunt shur; two lateral fetals bearded at the base. This seems nearly akin to V. magellanica of Forster; see n. 18. 11. V. f.ygmaea. Dwarf Linear-leaved Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 18.-Leaves sessile, linear, entire, somewhat fleshy, smooth, rather longer than the flower-stalk. Root tap-shaped.—Gathered in Peru, by Joseph de Jussieu. A very distinct species, according to the des- cription of Poiret, hardly an inch high, with thick fleshy roots, crowned by tufts of narrow, linear, obtuse leaves, having scaly, oval, pointed stiftulas at their base. Flowers small, drooping, pale blue, striated; the fetals obtuse, scarcely longer than the sharp, lanceolate, white- edged leaves of the calyx. 12. V. obliqua. Oblique-flowered Violet. Ait. n. 6. Willd. n. 6. Pursh n. 8.-Smooth. Leaves heart-shap- ed, acute, flattish, acutely crenate, taller than the flower- stalks. Flowers erect. Petals obliquely twisted; the lateral ones narrowest and longest, bearded below the middle.—In shady wet places, from Pennsylvania to Virginia, flowering from April to June. Perennial. Flowers white, with purple and yellow veins. Pursh. Leaves an inch and half long; their stalks twice or thrice as much. Flower-stalks thread-shaped, usually the length of the footstalks. Calyz smooth. Petals oblong-ovate, straw-coloured; blue at the base; the uppermost half an inch long, with blue streaks, beard- less; two lateral ones rather narrower and longer, bearded below their middle; two lowest as long as these, and rather broader, beardless. Solander in Ait. H. Kew. Calyx-leaves broader Petals apparently light purple, 13. V. W I O L A. 13. V. cucullata. Hollow-leaved Violet. Ait. n. 7. Willd. n. 7. Pursh n. 10. Curt. Mag. t. 1795.- Smooth. Leaves heart-shaped, acute, serrated; invo- lute at the base. Petals twisted, obtuse; the lateral ones bearded at their lower part.-Common in North America, in grassy wet places, flowering in May and June. A hardy perennial with us. Root tuberous. Leaves rather larger than our Sweet Violet, erect and smooth, remarkably rolled in at their base, so as to form a sort of cup. Flowers also larger than in that species," light purplish-blue, with dark veins; the centre white. The late Mr. Curtis, as Dr. Sims records, observed the spring flowers to bear no seed; though later ones, on very short stalks, without fetals, were all prolific. Such is, more or less, the case with many of this section, as well as with the caulescent W. mirabilis, hereafter des- cribed. - 14. V. sororia. White-rooted Violet. Willd. Hort. Berol. t. 72. Ait. n. 8. Pursh n. 1 1.-Leaves heart- shaped, crenate, obtuse; downy beneath. Petals ob- long; the lower one bearded at the base.—Found in overflowed meadows of Pennsylvania, and other parts of North America. Perennial, flowering from April to June. Flowers blue, white at the bottom; lower fetal veined. Pursh. This species was sent to Kew garden, in 1802, by the late Mr. Masson, during his last bota- nical expedition to North America. a 15. V. ſhrimulifolia. Cowslip-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1324. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 9.—Smooth. Leaves ovate-heartshaped, obscurely crenate, obtuse, running down into the bordered footstalks. Calyx naked.— Native of Pennsylvania and Virginia, flowering in the spring. We have specimens from the late Dr. Muh- lenberg, exactly agreeing with those of Linnaeus. The root seems to be perennial and creeping. Leaves an inch and half long, on footstalks half as long again, and sometimes slightly downy, furnished with a narrow, leafy, entire border, gradually dilated upwards, till it. unites with the leaf; hence the foliage of this plant is compared by Linnaeus to that of the Cowslip, not the Primrose. The flowers are rather small, pale flesh- coloured or blueish; the lower fetal strongly and copi- ously veined with dark purple; the lateral ones bearded at the base. Calyx-leaves linear-lanceolate, unequal in breadth, always, as it appears to us, quite smooth. 16. V. fimbriatula. Fringed Violet. (V. primuli- folia; Pursh n. 9.)—Leaves heart-shaped, crenate, fringed, acute, running down into the bordered foot- stalks; most downy beneath. Calyx mostly ciliated.— Sent from North America, by Dr. Francis Boott, as the W. firimulifolia of Pursh, with whose definition it agrees. That author speaks of it as growing on dry hills, from Canada to Virginia; perennial, flowering from April to June. The appearance of this plant is very different from the last. Root rather tuberous, not creeping. Leaves more heart-shaped and acute, frin- ged, and somewhat downy on both sides, their length, like that of their bordered footstalks, about an inch. Flowers numerous, blue, thrice the size of the prece- ding, with obovate fetals, two of which are loosely beard- ed at the base. Calyx leaves lanceolate, unequal in breadth, distantly but strongly fringed; occasionally naked. 17. V. hirta. Hairy Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1324. Willd. n. 9. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 894. Curt. Lond, fasc. 1. t. 64. Fl. Dant. 648. (V. martia major hirsuta inodora; Moris, sect. 5. t. 35. f. 4.)—Leaves heart-shaped, hairy as well as their footstalks. Calyx- Vol. XXXVIII. - leaves obtuse. Lateral petals marked with a hairy central line.—Native of groves and bushy places, prin- cipally on a chalky lime-stone soil, in various parts of Europe, from Denmark to mount Athos, flowering in April and May. The whole herb is of a hoary green, clothed with soft pubescence. Stem none, except very short leafy scyons, which do not throw out roots, but compose a dense leafy tuft, lasting many years if un- disturbed. Flower-stalks taller than the leaves, Smooth, with a pair of lanceolate smooth bracteas below their middle. Flowers light greyish-blue, streaked with black, scentless. Calyz smooth. Anthers distinct. W. camfiestris, Marsch. a Bieb. Taurico-Caucas. v. 1. 171. may possibly be a sweet-scented variety of this.' 18. V. magellanica. Magellanic Violet. “ Forst. Comment. Soc. Goett. v. 6. 41. t. 8.” Willd, n. 10. —“Stem none. Leaves kidney-shaped, wavy, villous.” —Native of boggy situations, in Terra del Fuego. Pe- rennial. Flower large, yellow, streaked with brown veins. Forster. Perhaps not distinct from W. micro- fihylla, n. 10. We have not seen either. - 19. V. flaſhiliomacea. Butterfly Violet. Pursh n. 12.-" Leaves triangular-heartshaped, acute, crenate, somewhat hooded, nearly smooth. Flower-stalks the length of the leaves. Petals obovate: three lower ones converging, bearded below the middle; two upper reflexed.”—Near Philadelphia, in wet places. Peren- nial, flowering in May and June. Flowers blue, ele- gantly striated, bearded with yellow down. Pursh. 20. V. clandestina. Subterraneous Violet. Pursh n. 13. (V. rotundifolia; Michaux Boreal,-Amer. v. 2. 150? Muhlenb. Cat. 26?)—“Nearly smooth. Leaves almost orbicular, bluntish ; heart-shaped with converg- ing lobes at the base ; with blunt glandular serratures at the margin. Flowers from lateral shoots. Petals linear, hardly longer than the calyx.”—On the high mountains of Pennsylvania, in shady beech woods, among rotten-wood and rich vegetable mould. Peren- nial, flowering from June to September. This singular species differs from all the rest, in producing its jlowers as it were under ground, they being always covered with rotton wood or leaves. They are very sphall, of a chocolate-brown. The seed-vessel buries itself still deeper in the ground, and is large in propor- tion to the plant. The inhabitants know it by the name of Heal-all, being used by them to cure all kinds of wounds or Sores. Pursh. 21. V. halustris. Marsh Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1324. . Willd. n. 11. Fl. Brit. n. S. Engl. Bot. t. 444. Abbot Bedf. 190. t. 3. Curt, Lond. fasc. 3. t. 58. Fl. Dan. t. 83. (V. palustris rotundifolia glabra; Moris. sect. 5. t. 35. f. 5.)—Leaves kidney-shaped, smooth. Root creeping. Two lateral petals bearded.—Native of mossy bogs, in the colder parts of Europe, flowering in April or May. More frequent in Scotland, and the north of England, than in the south, growing on the moist parts of Sandy or turfy heaths. The root is thread- shaped, rather fleshy, creeping considerably. Herb smooth. Leaves shining, obscurely crenate, generally abrupt, or emarginate, often purple beneath, on stalks exceeding their own length. Flower-stalks longer than the leaves, with a pair of lanceolate bracteas about the middle, not always below that part. Flowers scentless, smaller than the Sweet Violet, of a very pale blue or flesh-colour, streaked partly with red, partly with dark purple; the two lateral fetals marked at the lower part with a central downy line. This is avery pretty species, not easily to be cultivated. Ray’s V. rubra striata 4 X Eboracensis, V I O L A. Eboracensis, Sym. ed. 3. 365, is scarcely to be deemed a variety. 22. V. blanda. White-flowered American Violet. “Willd. Hort. Berol. t. 24.” Ait. n. 12. Pursh n. 7. —Leaves heart-shaped, bluntish, crenate, smooth. Root creeping. Petals beardless.-In wet places, or boggy meadows, from New York to Carolina. Perennial, flowering from April to June. Flowers yellowish- white; lowerfetal marked with blue stripes and veins. Pursh. Nearly akin to the last; but the leaves, though variable in acuteness, are not at all kidney-shaped. The roots are very slender. Petals marked with similar veins to the foregoing species, but they appear not to be hairy in any part. - - 23. V. hederacea. Ivy-leaved Violet. Labillard. Nov. Holl. v. l. 66. t. 91.—Leaves heart-shaped, wavy, nearly smooth, running down into the slightly bordered footstalks. Rootcreeping Flower-stalks solitary, much taller than the leaves. Two lateral petals bearded be- low the middle.—Found by Labillardiere, at the Cape of Van Diemen. We have the same, or a very similar species, from New South Wales, in which the flowers seem to be pale pink, with a purple eye; the fetals obovate, veiny, the lateral ones densely hairy in their lower half. The leaves however are larger, more kid- ney-shaped, and more toothed, than in the figure above cited; but it may be only a luxuriant variety. M. La- billardiere describes his with a trailing root, or runners, throwing up here and there solitary tufts of numerous heart-shaped, or rather kidney-shaped, long-stalked leaves, half an inch broad, with copious awl-shaped ra- dical stiftulas. Each tuft bears one flower-stalk, three inches high, with two awl-shaped bracteas towards the middle, and one small erect flower, the size of V. falus- tris, whose two lateral fetals are villeus near the base. The calyac-leaves project, but very little at the base, which is the case with our specimens above-mentioned, from New South Wales, and indeed with V. falustris and blanda. Yet they all have enough of that character to prove them true Viole. - 24. V. odorata. Sweet Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1324. Willd. n. 12. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 619. Curt. Lond. fasc. l. t. 63. Fl. Dan. t. 309. Bulliard t. 169. Renealm. Spec. 141. t. 140. (V. nigra, sive purpurea; Ger. Em. 850. V. purpurea; Matth. Valgr. v. 2.522. Camer. Epit. 910.)—Scyons creeping. Leaves heart- shaped, crenate, smoothish as well as the footstalks. Calyx obtuse. Two lateral petals with a hairy line- TNative of thickets, groves, and banks, throughout Eu- rope, from Sweden to Greece, flowering in March. It appears, by Dr. Muhlenberg's catalogue, to be cul- tivated, not wild, in North America. There can be no doubt of this being the toy repºvetov of Dioscorides, who speaks of the ivy-like leaves, and very sweet-scent- ed purple flowers, which he recommends for sore throats, and for children in the falling-sickness; hence syrup of violets is still kept in the shops. The long trailing leafy runners, by which the plant is widely in- creased, characterize this species. These seldom bear flowers till the second year. Leaves truly heart-shaped, dark green; slightly downy beneath. Stiftulas lanceo- late, toothed, pale. Flower-stalks taller than the leaves, with two lanceolate narrow bracteas, more than half way up. Flower nodding, twice the size of V. falustris, and about equal to that of hirta, whose scent resembles Orrice-root, or the flowers of Mignonette, or the Vine, and indeed is too generally known and esteemed to re- quire description. The colour-is that dark purplish- blue, peculiarly called a violet colour. There is a white variety, frequently found wild; and a very double one cultivated in gardens, which requires a pure air. Whether, the more early pale gray, and very sweet double Violet, be a variety or a distinct species, we have had no opportunity of inquiring. The stamens of V. odo- rata are quite distinct. Cañsule soft, pale green, mi- nutely dotted with red, like an unripe Cranberry. Leers, in his Fl. Herborn. 189, mentions having once found a curious flower of this species which had five regular fetals, all spurred, resembling the nectaries of an JAguilegia, stripped of its own petals. This was, as he says, an instance of PELORIA in Viola; see that article. The Petals afe often wanting in our wild, as well as garden, Violets. - 4. 25. V. f.yrenica. Pyrenean Violet. “Decand. Franc. v. 4. 803.” Poiret in Lam. n. 19.-Leaves slightly heart-shaped, crenate, smooth. Footstalks dilated at the summit. Calyx obtuse. Spur very short—Found by M. Ramond, on the Pyrenées, in stony ground. Perennial. This is said to differ from V. odorata in having more woody roots, without runners. Stiftulas greener, and narrower. Leaves scarcely heart-shaped. JVectary shorter, straighter and more obtuse. Flowers smaller, less fragrant, the lip more strongly radiated. Decandolle and Poiret. Sect. 2. With leafy stems. 26. V. canina. Dog’s Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1324. Willd. n. 13. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 620. Curt. Lond. fas. 2. t. 61. (V. canina sylvestris; Ger. Em. 851. V. canina caerulea inodora Sylvestris serotina; Lob. Ic. v. J. 609. V. inodora major; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 119.)—Stem at length ascending, channelled. Leaves oblong-heart-shaped. Calyx acute. Stipulas serrated.—Even more common throughout Europe than the Sweet Violet, being as abundant in Greece, and its neighbouring islands and mountains, as it is in England or Sweden, flowering from April throughout most part of the summer, when every thicket, grove, bank, and barren heath abounds with its pale purple scentless blossoms. The root is woody, though slen- der. The first flowers are radical ; but several branched, angular or furrowed, smooth, leafy stems soon spring forth, extremely variable in length, direction, and lux- uriance, which continue growing, and bearing nume- rous, axillary, stalked flowers, for several weeks. The leaves vary no less in size, and somewhat in figure, but are always crenate, smooth, heart-shaped ; more or less oblong. Footstalks slightly dilated upwards. Sti- hulas not very deeply toothed. Bracteas above the middle of the flower-stalks. Cañsule more oblong than in the V. odorata. See a species nearly related per- haps to this at n. 63 r Several varieties are mentioned by authors. That with a white flower is less frequent than in V. odorata. Can this be W. neglecta of the Fl. Taur.-Caucas. v. l. 172 : The y of Fl. Brit., found by M. Du Bois about Mitcham, is smaller in all its parts, and said by Dille- nius to have a yellowish, not a whitish spur, a very trifling difference indeed! We have in Norfolk a di- minutive, though truely shrubby plant, first noticed by the late Mr. Crowe, in which we cannot discern any specific difference from V. canina, except size, and perhaps a thicker texture of leaf. Yet it has remained unchanged in a garden, where the soil is manured, for above twelve years. This cannot be the 3 of Fl. Brit. (V. alpina; Huds. ed. 1. 379. V. martia alpina, folio tenello circintao; Raii Syn, 366.) The leaves are ex- Q actly V I O L A. actly heart-shaped, obtuse, smooth, coriaceous, minute- ly crenate. Flowers like canina, but not half so large. V. Sarmentosa, Fl. Taur.-Caucas. v. 1. 172, we have not seen, and therefore must leave it in deubt. *, $27. V. lactea. Cream-coloured Violet. Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 445. Ait. n. 15. (V. canina, var. 3; With. 262. V. Ruppii; Allion. Ped. v. 2.99. t. 26. f. 6. V. flore albo; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 120.)—Stem ascending. round. Leaves ovato-lanceolate. Stipulas deeply Serrated.—Native of moist rather mountainous heaths, in the south of England. Mr. T. F. Forster found it on the wolds at Tunbridge; Mr. Stackhouse at Pendarvis, Cornwall. M. Reynier gathered speci- mens, now before us, in the bogs of Switzerland, but rarely, and he has indicated Rivinus’s figure, which, though taller and larger, resembles our plant. Never- theless we much doubt the permanency of the species, and were only led by the great authority, in this genus, of our friend Mr. Forster, to adopt it. The whole plant is smaller than the ordinary canina, but the chief difference consists in the leaves being lanceolate or ovate, decurrent at the base, not heart-shaped. The Stiftulas are supposed to be more deeply cut, and brac- teas broader. The fetals are narrower than in canina, obtuse, whitish, streaked with purple lines exactly like canina. They even vary often to a light blue. 28. V. montana. Long-leaved Mountain Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1325. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 16. (V. flore caeruleo longifolia; Rivin. Pentap. Irr, t. 121. V. assurgens tricolor; Ger. Em. 854. V. arbores- cens; Camer. Epit. 911. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 523. bad. V. erecta, flore caeruleo et albo ; Moris sect. 5. t. 7. f. 7,)—Stems erect. Leaves ovate-oblong, some- what heart-shaped. Stipulas pinnatifid at one side.- Native of the mountains of Lapland, Germany, Swit- zerland, and the north of Italy; a hardy perennial in our gardens, flowering in May and June. The name of arborescens, given first by Matthiolus, has been justly thought absurd. The numerous stems are her- baceous and annual, twelve or eighteen inches high, erect, straight, smooth, leafy, but little branched. Leaves two inches and a half long, and one broad, bluntly serrated, smooth. Footstalks an inch long. Stiftulas for the most part longer than the footstalks, lanceolate, obtuse : half-ovate at the base, and more or less pinnatifid at the outer, more rounded, margin. Flower-stalks axillary, shorter than the leaves, each with two awl-shaped bracteas above the middle, and a large, grayish-blue, inodofous flower. Calyx-leaves acute, unequal in breadth; much elongated and tooth- led at the base. Cañsule oblong, triangular. Seeds oval. 29. V. concolor. Green-flow ered Violet, Forster Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 309. t. 28. Ait. n. 24. Pursh n. 21. Muhlenb. Cat. 26–Stem erect, downy. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, tapering at each end. Stipulas linear-lanceolate, entire.—Native of lime-stone rocks in Pennsylvania, flowering in June and July. Pursh. Mr. Forster received living plants from America be- fore the year 1788. The root is fibrous, perennial. Stems simple, erect, leafy, from one to two feet high, angular and furrowed, most hairy in the upper part. Leaves three inches long, more or less, and above one broad, entire or somewhat toothed, taper-pointed, ci- liated, running down into shortish bordered foots talks. Stiftulas four, two smalier than the rest. Flowers very Small, green, on axillary stalks, two together, one of them imperfect. The flowers are very rarely produ- ... on the inside white, elegantly veined. Pursh. ced in a garden. Their diminutive size, and green fetals, are very peculiar, as indeed the whole habit of this curious species; yet we see no possible reason for separating it from Viola. The cafsule, figured, but not described, by Mr. Forster, appears rather large in proportion to the flower, elliptical, acute, with large, oval, not numerous, seeds. * 30. V. canadensis. Canadian Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1326. Wild. n. 17. Ait. n. 18. Pursh n. 4.—Stem nearly erect, partially hairy, almost round. Leaves heart-shaped, pointed, serrated, smooth. Stipulas slightly notched. Capsule downy.—In shady woods, in rich moist situations, on the mountains, from Canada to Carolina; perennial, flowering from June to August, Flowers sweet-scented; on the outside purplish-blue; The habit of the plant is somewhat akin to V. canina. Stem a span high, simple, most leafy in the upper part ; often marked partially, more or less distinctly, with a downy lateral line. Leaves stalked, broad at the base, some- what deltoid, with about seven ribs; their length an inch and a half; breadth nearly as much. Stiftulas ovato-lanceolate, rarely notched. Flower-stalks about equal to the leaves, angular, with one or two minute ôracteas towards the bottom. Calyac-leaves linear- lanceolate, smooth; heart-shaped, very little elongated, at the base. Corolla often white on both sides. Capsule globular, densely villous, especially in an early state ; which we do not find noticed, but it appears to distin- guish the species very satisfactorily. At 31. V. striata. Streaked Violet. Ait. n. n. 18. Pursh n. 15.-Stem nearly erect, semi-cylindri- cal. Leaves heart-shaped, pointed, smooth, serrated. Stipulas with fringe-like serratures. Capsule smooth. –In shady woods, from Pennsylvania to Virginia; pe. rennial, flowering from May to July. Flowers white, with purple veins. Pursh. This resenbles the last, but the stiftulas, and if we mistake not, the smoothness of the cafesule, afford a clear specific distinction be- tween it and the last. The flower-stalks bear a pair of very narrow awl-shaped bracteas towards the top. The calyx is considerably elongated at the base. 32. V. debilis. Weak-staiked Violet. Michaux Boreal,-Amer. v. 2. 150. Pursh n. 16–Stem ascend- ing. Leaves... kidney-heartshaped, scarcely pointed, smooth, crenate. Stipulas with fringe-like serratures. Flower-stalks twice the length of the leaves.—In low grounds, from Pennsylvania to Carolina; perennial, flowering from May to July. About half the size of 19, wild. the two preceding, with light-blue flowers. Bracteas linear, on the upper part of the stalks. Calyz decided- ly elongated at the base. Caftszzle quite smooth. Most akin to V. striata, but apparently distinct. 33. V. rostrata. Larkspur Violet. Pursh n. 17– Stem ascending. Leaves roundish-heartshaped, serra- . ted, smooth. Stipulas deeply fringed. Flower-stalks twice the length of the leaves. Nectary longer than the petals.-On shady rocks, near Easton, Pennsylva- nia; perennial, flowering in May and June. Flowers fue. Pursh. About the stature of the last. The deaves have a small blunt point. Stiftulas often ra- ther pinnatifid than fringed, almost as long as the foot- talks. Bracteas awl-shaped, above halfway up the stalks. Flowers large, very much like Delphinium Consolida in size, colour, and general aspect. Nectary an inch long, obtuse, slightly recurved. g 34. V. fºubescens. Downy Yellow Violet. Yºt. Ił. 20. Willd. n. 19. Pursh n. 18. (V. pensylvanica; 4 X 2 Michaux V I O L A. Michaux-Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 149.)—Stem erect, sim- ple, downy, leafy at the top. Leaves triangular-heart- shaped; most downy beneath. Stipulas ovate, notched at the extremity.—In shady woods among rocks, par- ticularly lime-stone, from New York to Virginia; pe- rennial, flowering in May and June. Pursh. Sent to Kew garden in 1772, by Mr. W. Young. We are indebted to Mr. Francis Boott, a young botanist of great zeal and intelligence, for finer specimens of this, and many other North American plants, than have ever before been seen in Europe. The root has many long, stout, simple fibres. Herb rather succulent, more or less clothed with fine short silky pubescence. Stem simple; naked in the lower part; with three or four leaves at the top, which are two inches wide, serrated, bright green, many ribbed. Stiftulas shorter than the lowest footstalk, longer than the others. Flower- stalks downy, rather shorter than the leaves, destitute, as far as we can discern, of bracteas. Flowers nearly as large as V. canina, yellow, with brown veins. Calya, scarcely elongated at the base. 35. V. hastata. Halberd-leaved Yellow Violet. Michaux Boreal,-Amer. v. 2. 149. Pursh n. 19. Ait. Epit. 376.-Stem erect, simple leafy at the top, Smooth as well as the hastate, nearly sessile, leaves. Stipulas minute, finely toothed.—on high mountains, from Pennsylvania to Carolina; perennial, flowering in May and June. Flowers yellow. Pursh. Intro- duced at Kew, we presume by Mr. Masson, in 1803. This seems nearly related to the last, and indeed to the following, though all are sufficiently well discriminated. We have not seen specimens of this or the W. nuttallii. It is much to be wished that such as are not yet figur- ed, might find a place in some periodical work. 36. V. JVuttallii. Yellow Missouri Violet. Pursh n. 23.-‘‘Downy. Stem simple, erect. Leaves ovate- oblong, acute, ribbed, slightly toothed; tapering down into long footstalks. Stipulas lanceolate, undivided. Flower-stalks the length of the leaves.”—Found by Mr. Nuttall, on the banks of the Missouri; perennial, flowering in June. Flowers yellow. Pursh. 37. V. mirabilis. Broad-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1326. Willd. n. 20. Ait. n. 21. Jacq. Austr. t. 19. Fl. Dan. t. 1045. (V. montana latifolia, flores ex radice, semina in cacumine ferens; Dill. Elth. 408. t. 303.)—Stem erect, triangular, leafless in the middle. Leaves kidney-heartshaped, acute, crenate, smooth. tjpper flowers without petals. Calyx much dilated at the base. Stipulas lanceolate, entire.—Native of woods and bushy places in Sweden and Germany. A hardy perennial, flowering in July and August. The stems are a foot high, leafy at the bottom and top only, smooth. Ileaves two or three inches broad, acute; the radical, or lower, on very long stalks ; the upper on very short ones. Radical flowers the size of W. odorata, light red- dish-purple, with a veiny lip : axillary ones about the top of the stem, on shorter stålks, generally without fie- tals, but alone, for the most part, perfecting seed. The base of the calyac-leaves in all is much dilated, abrupt, one-third as long as the rest of the calyx. Caft- sule large, rigid, veiny, smooth. The specific name al- ludes to the fruit being produced by apparently imper- fect flowers, not, as De Theis imagined, to their great size or admirable beauty. Such a circumstance in the fructification of Violets occurs in several other species. 38, J. biflora. Two-flowered Yellow Violet. Linn. Sp. º26. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n:22. Fl. Dan, t, º # •º * 46. (V. flore luteo; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 121. V. montana prima; Clus. Hist. v. 1. 309. V. alpina ro- tundifolia minor; Pluk. Phyt. t. 233. f. 7.)—Stem erect, about two-flowered. Leaves kidney-shaped, ser- rated, nearly smooth. Stipulas ovate, entire.—Native of the mountains of Lapland, Austria, Switzerland, and Savoy, but not of Britain. Sometimes kept, with other alpine plants, in pots, under a frame, in our gardens, flowering in the spring. This is a pretty delicate species, three or four inches high, allied to several of the preceding, but perfectly distinct. The slender simple stem bears three or four stalked leaves, an inch or an inch and half in diameter; and usually two distant, axillary, slender-stalked, small, yellow flow- ers, whose lip is streaked with black. Bracteas mi- nute, about the middle of each stalk. Calyac-leaves scarcely dilated or elongated, but rather gibbous, at the base. Cañsule smooth, rigid. Seeds few, large. 39. V. uniflora. Siberian Yellow Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1327. Willd. n. 22. Ait. n. 23. (V. n. 67 ; Gmel. Sib. v. 5.40 l. t. 48.f. 5.)—Stem single-flowered, leafy at the top only. Leaves heart-shaped, toothed. —Native of Siberia. Said to have been cultivated in 1774, by the late Mr. James Gordon; but we presume it would be as easy to find one of the artificial golden flowers of the ancient Mexicans in our gardens at present, for its name does even appear in Mr. Donn's Cambridge catalogue. The ºroot of this rare and very curious species is thread- shaped, toothed, perennial, with long simple fibres. Płerb about the size and habit of the Winter Aco- nite, Helleborus hyemalis, but rather downy, especially the stem. Leaves two or three, crowded at the sum- mit of the stem, on very short stalks, ovate or heart- shaped, an inch long, scarcely downy, coarsely tooth- ed, with a blunt point; their base entire. Stiftulas small, lancelolate, with glandular teeth. Flowers yel- low, larger than any of the preceding; their fetals rounded, an inch long; two lateral ones bearded at the base. Calyac-leaves offlong, somewhat heart-shaped at their insertion, but hardly dilated or elongated. Gme- lin’s figure is very incorrect. gº 40. V. decumbens. Narrow-leaved Cape Violet. Linn. Suppl. 397. Willd. n. 23. Thunb. Prodr. 41- Stems procumbent, round. Leaves linear, crowded, acute, entire. Calyx smooth. Petals of nearly equal length.-Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Stems smooth, somewhat branched, rather shrubby, a span long. Leaves numerously crowded about the ends of the branches, alternate, an inch and half Hong, hardly a line broad; tapering at the base, where they are uni- ted to a pair of minute lanceolate stiftulas. Flower- stalks axillary, solitary, on each branch, and rising above its summit, twice the length of the leaves, slen- der, with two awl-shaped bracteas about the middle. Flower blue, far more like V. canina than tricolor, to which Linnaeus compares it ; but the calyx-leaves are very slighty extended at the base. Wectary pale green. 41. V. arborescens. Shrubby Dwarf Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1825. Willd. n. 30. Ait, n. 30. (V. hispa- nica fruticans; Barrel. Ic. t. 568.)—Stem ascending, shrubby, branched. Leaves lanceolate, downy, entire. Calyx minutely fringed. Petals of nearly equal length. —Native of the south of Spain, about Conil and Ta- riffa, flowering in February. Durand. A greenhouse plant, cultivated by the late Mr. Blackburne, in º yºf Cº. «º V H O L A. rich garden at Orford, Lancashire, in 1779, as appears by his Catalogue; but scarcely now, probably, existing in any collection. The root is long and woody, as are also the stems, whose extremities terminate in many dense, crowded, leafy branches. Leaves resembling those of a Cheiranthus, more or less hoary, an inch long, tapering down into slender footstalks, each ac- companied by two longish very narrow stiftulas. Flow- ers somewhat like the last, but the nectary is very short, and calyac-leaves more elongated at the base, each marked with three ribs. Possibly V. cheiranthifolia, Poiret in Lam. n. 43, may not be distinct from this. 42. V. cafensis. Hoary Cape Violet. Thunb. Prodr. 40. Willd. n. 29.-Stem shrubby, erect, downy. Leaves obovate, crenate, hoary. Calyx-leaves ovate, hairy. Lower petal abrupt, thrice as long as the rest.—Ga- thered at the Cape of Good Hope by Thunberg, from whom we have an unnamed native specimen, which can belong to no other species. It is more or less downy in every part, especially the flower-stalks, and calyx, which is not at all extended at the base. Leaves alternate, stalked, an inch long. Stiftulas extremely minute, lanceolate. This is one of those species of which the lower fetal, or lift, is so much extended, or rather the other four petals so diminished, as to have a very peculiar aspect; added to which, the base of the calyx is quite simple, not protracted beyond the inser- tion. Such species have given occasion to the late M. Ventenat to establish his genus Ionidium, in Jard. de la Maimais. t. 27, of which the distinctive characters are, the want of a spur to the corolla, and of appendages, or elongations, to the calyx-leaves. These characters should seem to indicate a distinct genus from Viola ; but there are so many gradations, some of which we have noted in their proper places, with respect to the calyz, and no less with regard to the nectary, that we cannot rely on either part ; especially as the habit does not always concur with these differences. Several of the supposed species of Ionidium have as evident a spur, though short, as any Viola. Their calyx, it must be allowed, is more constant, but several undoubted Violac have as little of a projection there. Ventenat was, moreover, but imperfectly conversant with the species of his supposed genus, as will appear in the course of our history of them. 43. V. buxifolia. Box-leaved Madagascar Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 56. (Ionidium buxifolium ; Venten. Malmais. under t, 27.)—Stems ascending, smooth, her- baceous. Leaves obovate, smooth, revolute, entire. Calyx-leaves ovate, naked. Lower petal abrupt, twice as long as the rest.—Gathered by Commersion in Ma- dagascar. Thouin. Allied very nearly to the last, but smooth, and less shrubby. The leaves are rather Smaller, and greatly resemble Box, or rather Polygala Chamaebuxus. The root is woody. Stems six inches long, spreading every way, leafy, scarcely branched, Stiftulas minute, awl-shaped. Flower-stalks twice the length of the leaves, with two small awl-shaped brac- teas towards the top. Calyx-leaves broad at the base, especially the two lowermost, which have membranous edges, and embrace the rounded spur of the nectary, which is extended a little beyond them. Here a mate- rial character of Ionidium fails us. Lateral fetals veined, half as long as the spatulate lip. Cañsule ovate, Smooth. Seeds four in each cell, pale, oval, abrupt, beautifully striated longitudinally. 44. V. enmeasherma. Nine-seeded Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1327. , Wilid. n. 33, excluding the synoym of Burmann. (Ionidium enneaspermum; Venten. Maimais. under t. 27. I. heterophyllum; ibid. according to the characters and synonym. Viola surrecta maderaspa- tensis, lini facie, rotundioribus imis foliis; Pluk. Phyt. t. 120. f. 8. “Nelamparenda; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 9. 117. t. 60.”)—Stem erect, much branched from the bottom. Leaves lanceolate, or linear, somewhat revo- lute, smoothish, slightly toothed. Calyx-leaves lanceo- late, naked. Lower petal twice as long as the rest.— Native of Ceylon, Tranquebar, and Madagascar. The root is long, simple, woody, perennial. Stems seve- rai, branched chiefly in the lower part, erect, six inches high, angular, smooth. Leaves rather glaucous, various in length and breadth, stalked ; the lower ones shortest and roundest ; none more than an inch, or an inch and half long. Stiftulas minute, awl-shaped, spreading, like little prickles. Flower-stalks, shorter than the leaves. Flowers purplish, very like the last ; but the calyac- Leaves are much narrower and more acute; lift obo- Vate, not so abrupt. Seeds only three in each cell, stri- ated in the same manner, but rather larger. Such is the plant of the Linnaean herbarium, which must be n. 317 of Linn. Fl. Zeyl. 149, though its leaves are cer- tainly not quite entire, nor in any sense linear; neither are the stifivlas wanting. Ventenat rightly finds fault with Willdenow for citing a plant of Burmann’s Fl. Zeyl. t. 85, which he also cites, more correctly, for Polygala theezans ; but the error is Linnaeus’s, and Willdenow copies him without examination. V.l inifolia. Poir. in Lam. n. 61, from Madagascar, has perfectly linear, very narrow, leaves, but is certainly a mere va. riety. 45. V. Suffruticosa. Madder-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1327. FI. Zeyl. n. 318. 150. Willd. n. 34. (Rubeola zeylanica, foliis lationibus, ratmul dicta; Burm. Zeyl. 208.)—“Stem procumbent. Leaves lance- olate, crowded, somewhat serrated. Calyx even at the base.”—Native of Ceylon. Herb procumbent, much branched, hard, like Cistus Helianthemum. Leaves acute, scarce evidently serrated, tapering down into Jootstalks. Stiftulas awl-shaped, hardish, permanent; hence the plant becomes rough, and in a manner prickly. Flowers as in the last. Linn. in Fl. Zeyl. We have seen no specimen of this. However the stiftulas may be, the procumbent stem seems the most striking difference between these two species. 46. V. verticillata. Whorl-leaved Violet. “Ortega Decad. 4.50.” Ait. n. 25. (Ionidium polygalaefolium; Venten. Malmais. t. 27.)—Stems procumben. Leaves opposite, lanceolate, , entire, with lanceolate stipulas, one-third of their length. Flower-stalks drooping, as long as the leaves. Corolla without a spur, nearly equal.—Native of South America. A greenhouse pe- rennial herbaceous plant, brought from Spain, in 1797, by the late marchioness of Bute. The inconspicuous reddish flowers are produced during summer. This is related to several of the last-described, inasmuch as the calyac is not extended as the base ; but the corolla is also nearly, or quite, destitute of a spur, without any great disproportion between the several fetals. The opposite leaves are almost unparalleled in this genus. They are erroneously called whorled, though the large stiftulas, resembling leaves, give that appearance. The Seeds are smooth, black, two in each cell. 7. V 4.7. V., V I O L A. 47. V. stricta. Stiff Opposite-leaved Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 66. (Ionidium strictum; Venten. Malmais. under t. 27.)—“Leaves opposite, ianceolate, entire. Stipulas very short. Flower-stalks erect, shorter than the leaves.”—Found in Hispaniola by M. Poiteau. Ventenat. Stems above a foot high. Leaves an inch long. Flowers whitish, with narrow obtuse fetals. Poiret. It is said to be related to Poiret's V. linariae- folia, a species concerning which we have not sufficient information. 48. V. labiosa. Large-lipped Violet.—Stem erect. Leaves opposite, linear, revolute, smooth. Stipulas minute. Flowers racemose. Lower petal obovate, very large, with a short spur.—Sent by Dr. White from New South Wales, among the first specimens collected in that country. This very remarkable species is evidently akin to V. emneasherma and verticillata, with their allies, but ºnevertheless so distinct in many important characters, that we are at a loss which to select for dis- crimination. The stems are from nine to twelve inches high, angular, erect, rigid, smooth like the rest of the herbage. Leaves an inch and half or two inches long, very narrow, acute, entire ; tapering at the base, sessile; some of the lower ones scattered, but the greater part op- posite. Stiftulas hardly discernible. Flowering branches like the rest of the stem in thickness, but destitute of leaves, bearing several rather distant flowers, on short, drooping, fartial stalks, so as to constitute a true cluster. Calyac very small ; its leaves lanceolate, acute; the two lower ones gibbous at the base, clasping the spur. Four of the fetals ovate, pointed, very little longer than the calyx, pale, with dark veins; the two lateral ones much dilated and rounded at the lower side: the fifth petal, or lift, is disproportionately large, an inch long, broadly obovate, abrupt or emarginate, veiny, apparently rose- coloured; its claw channelled, the length of the other petals, ending behind in a rounded spur, extending be- yond the base of the calyx. Cañsule ovate, smooth. Seeds two in each cell, large, orbicular, black and smooth, as in W. verticillata ; not furrowed, as in enmeas- fierma and buxifolia. 49. V. thesiifolia. Toad-flax-leaved Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 69.-Leaves alternate, linear, entire, smooth, very long. Stipulas awl-shaped. Flowers axillary, nearly sessile.—Gathered by Adanson, in Senegal. Roots slen- der. Stem erect, herbaceous, scarcely branched, cylin- drical, or a little compressed, smooth. Leaves two or three inches, or more, in length, a line or two broad. Stihulas very acute. Flowers very small. Calyx-leaves narrow, acute. Petals whitish, hardly longer than the calyx. Caftsule roundish-oval, obtuse. Poiret. 50. V. longifolia. Long-leaved Cayenne Violet. J’oiret in Lam. n. 68.-Stem shrubby. Leaves lanceo- late, serrated, very smooth. Flowers solitary or aggre- gate, on capillary stalks, hardly so long as the awl-shap- ed nectary.—Native of Cayenne. Preserved in the her- barium of professor Desfontaines. Remarkable for the great size of its leaves, which are four or five inches iong, finely seriated, and the smallness of its flowers, which grow on capillary axillary stalks, six lines at Imost in length, either solitary, or several together. The calyx is smooth, minute. Petals whitish, with a straight awl-shaped spur, at least as long as the stalk. We presume, from Poiret's authority, that this last species has no posterior elongation of the calyx, though the 8fiur is so considerable. It may therefore, consider- ing the leaves, serve, to connect the foregoing species with the following. 51. V. glutinosa. Clammy Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 63. (Ionidium glutinosum ; Venten. Malmais. under t. 27.)—Stem branched. Leaves ovate, serrated, smooth; tapering at the base; the lower ones opposite. Stipulas lanceolate, acute. Flower-stalks the length of the leaves. Lip twice the length of the calyx, with- out a spur.—Gathered by Commerson, on rocks at Monte-Video. The stem is perhaps shrubby, appa- rently two feet at least in height, our specimen having several opposite, angular, leafy branches, each a foot long, somewhat downy. Both the stem and leaves are said to be covered with a glutinous moisture. The upper leaves are chiefly alternate, an inch long, stalked, veiny. Flowers numerous, axillary, solitary, not bigger than a large pin's head, drooping, whitish, without bracteas. Calyx-leaves ovate, acute, combined at the base, a little gibbous, but not elongated, in that part. Four of the ſhetals rather ionger than the calyx : lift twice as long, abrupt, with no protruding spur. Caftsule globose. The form and proportion of the fetals appear similar to V. verticillata, n. 46. 52. V. ſharviflora. Small-flowered South American Violet. Linn. Suppl. 396. Willd. n. 32. Poiret in Lam. n. 60. Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 21.-Stem branched, dif- fuse, downy. Leave ovate, serrated, smooth; obtuse at the base. Stipulas awl-shaped. Flower-stalks the length of the leaves. Lip twice the length of the calyx, without a spur.—Native of Mexico. The root is woody. Stems several, shrubby, branched, leafy, a foot or more in length. Leaves about half as long as the last, but of a broader, more ovate, form, not at all ta- pering at the base; their serratures few and large. The lower ones are sometimes opposite. The flowers are so much like the preceding, that we can scarcely find any difference. Their stalks, about half an inch long, remain after the cafsules are fallen off. The lift has perhaps a slight rounded protuberance at its base, but not extending beyond the calyx. 53. V. offiositifolia. Lanceolate Opposite-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1327. Willd. n. 36. (Calceo- laria, n. 1; Loefl. It. 183.)—Stem shrubby, cross- branched, smooth. Leaves opposite, lanceolate, nearly sessile, acutely serrated. Flowers racemose.—Gather- ed by Loefling, in South America. Many circumstances, indicated by that author, shew an affinity between this and ten or eleven of the foregoing species, especially perhaps the two last. They all, in Some particular or other, form exceptions to the characters or habit of a Wiola. The stems of that before us are described as erect, from a span to eighteen inches high, woody below, round, smooth, with opposite branches. Leaves on very short stalks; their serratures long, not deep; the extremity entire. Flowers white, in solitary spreading clusters (see n. 48.), their stalks partly per- manent. Calya gibbous below. Lift. scarcely so broad as its claw, bent upwards, and revolute, at the end. Caftsule triangular. Seeds somewhat angular. This plant has something of the habit of Veronica Ana- gallis, or W. Scutellata. Lafling. 54. V. Calceolaria. Shaggy Slipper Violet. Linn. Sp. Pi. 1327. Willd. n. 35. (V. Itoubou ; Aubl. Guian. 808. t. 318. Calceolaria, n. 2; Loef. It. 184.)—Stems hairy, herbaceous. Leaves scattel ed, nearly sessile, ovate, serrated, very hairy as well as the lanceolate stipulas V I O L A. stipulas and bracteas. Calyx shaggy with branched hairs. Lip kidney-shaped.—Native of South America. Gathered by Aublet in Cayenne and Guiana, in sandy ground, flowering at various seasons. This is distin- guished by the copious, silky, shaggy hairs, covering every part of the herbage. The stems are a foot high, simple or branched, leafy. Leaves an inch long. Flow- ers solitary, stalked, white or blue. Four fetals small, convoluted. Lift very large, bristly underneath. Caft- sule hairy. Seeds oval, smooth. 55. V. Thecacuanha. Ipccacuanha Violet. Linn. Mant. 484. Suppl. 397 (V. grandiflora, veronica? folio villoso, Ipecacuanha alba dicta; Barrere Fr. equinox. 1 13. Pombalia Ipecacuanha; Vandelli Fasc. 7. t. 1.)—Stem shrubby, erect. Leaves scattered, ovate, crenate; hairy underneath and at the margin. Calyx hairy. Lip very abrupt, twice as broad as long, —Native of Brasil Cultivated by Vandelli at Lisbon, where it flowered in October, in the greenhouse. The zoot is white, woody, with many cylindrical branches, and is reported to possess the qualities of the true IPE- cAcuANHA (see that article;) though in a weaker de- gree. The stem is two feet high. Leaves stalked, an inch or inch and half long. Flowers fragrant, pale red, with a very short but broad lip, near an inch wide, invo- lute at each side. Seeds roundish, five or six in each cell. 56. V. diamdra. Diandrous Climbing Violet. Linn. Syst. Veg. ed. 13. 669. Willd. n. 39.-Stem herba- ceous, trailing. Leaves oblong, remote. Stalks, sin- gle-flowered. Nectary very long and twisted. Three of the stamens abortive.—Native of Guiana. Stein thread-shaped, climbing up hedges. Leaves alternate. Foºver-stalks axillary, solitary, with a joint; swelling upwards. Bracteas two, minute. Calya not at all prominent behind. Corolla white. Lift uppermost, very large, with a long twisted spur. Lateral fetals ascending; two lower ones smaller, deflexed. Two ininder stamens only perfect. Allamand. 57. V. Hybanthus, Gibbous Climbing Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1328. Willd. n. 37, excluding Aublet’s syno- nym. (V. n. 209; Loefl. It. 282 : Hybanthus have- nensis; Jacq. Amer. 77. t. 175. f. 24, 25.)—Stem shrubby, climbing, prickly. Leaves oblong, slightly serrated, smooth, aggregate. Flowers several on a stalk. Lip somewhat longer than the other petals, without a spur.—Native of uncultivated hills about the Havannah. An inelegant branching shrub, seven feet high, erect. Leaves several from one bud, an inch and half long, emarginate; each tapering at the base into a short footstalk. Flower-stalks one or two from the same bud with the leaves, short, divided in the upper part, each bearing a few minute whitish flowers, about the size of V. glutinosa and farviflora, and nearly agreeing with those species in structure, except that the lift appears shorter in proportion. Capsule the size of a pea. Seeds few, globose. We take our description from Jacquin, having seen no specimen of his plant, or of Loefling's; so that we have no means of determining whether the Viola of the latter author, cited as above by Linnaeus, be the plant in question, or whether Jacquin’s conjectural reference to Loefling's Calceolaria frutes- cens, It. 84, be more correct. We are only certain that Aublet’s W. Hybanthus is extremely different from the above; see the following species. 58. V. laurifolia. Laurel-leaved Climbing Violet. Linn. fil. MSS. (V. Hybanthus; Aubl. Guian. 81 1, i. 319; excluding Loefling's synonym.)—Stem shrub- by, climbing. Leaves ovate, pointed, very obscurely crenate, smooth, alternate. Flowers corymbose. Nec- tary cylindrical, obtuse, thrice as long as the petals.- Found by Aublet, on the banks of waters in Guiana, flowering in April. The main trunk is three inches in diameter, and three or four feet high, sending forth long, round, twining branches, which climb the neigh- bouring trees. Leaves from four to six inches long, veiny, very smooth, cntire, or slightly crenate towards the end, which Aublet’s figure expresses too strongly. Footstalks, stout half an inch long, smooth. Flower- stalks axillary, long, corymbose, rarely simple and so- litary, each bearing, about the middle, two minute op- posite bracteas. Flowers pale yellow, sweet-scented, not unlike some species of Impatiens, the nectary being full an inch long. Two lateral fetals much larger than the others. The structure of the parts of fructification answer well to Viola, so far at least as we can examine them. The calyx-leaves are, in some degree, gib- bous, or extended at their base, though Aublet notices it not. 59. V. stiftularis. Trailing Fringed Violet. Swartz Prodr. 117. Ind. Occ. 1956. Willd. n. 31. (V. per- ficariaefolia; Poiret in Lam. n. 39.)—Stem creeping, round, simple. Leaves ovate, crenate, smooth; taper- ing at each end. Stipulas fringed, longer than the footstalks. Flowers solitary, without a spur. Calyx dilated at the base-Gathered by Mr. Francis Masson, on a lofty mountain called mount Misery, in the island of St. Kit's. Stem rather shrubby, trailing probably to the extent of several feet, smooth, taking root, and send- ing up short leafy branches, not above an inch long, from each joint. Leaves with their footstalks an inch and half or two inches long. Stiftulas near an inch in length, crowded, ovato-lanceolate, taper-pointed, membranous, deeply fringed with fine, long, capillary teeth. Flower- stalks few, axillary, slender, shorter than the leaves, each with two awl-shaped bracteas above the middle. Calyac-leaves awl-shaped, long and slender, gibbous or dilated at the base, and apparently longer than the small blue corolla. No shur is discernible. Poiret has ta- ken an inadmissible liberty, in changing the original name of this species, in compliance with an error of Ca- vanilles; see the following. 60. V. setosa. Upright Fringed Violet. " (V. sti- pularis; Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 21. t. 531. f. 2. Poiret in Lam. n. 38.)—Stem erect, round, much branched. Leaves ovate, acute, Serrated ; unequal at the base. Stipulas fringed, longer than the footstalks. Flower- stalks solitary, twice the length of the leaves.—Native of the neighbourhood of Talcahuano, in Chili. The stem is shrubby, a foot high ; we presume it, from the plate, to be erect, though nothing is said by the author upon that subject, nor whether the leaves be smooth, the calyx dilated at the base, or the corolla furnished with a spur. By the figure, the two latter characters seem wanting, and the fietals are drawn obovate, the lift being broader, and rather longer, than the rest. The stiftulas are fringed with long prominent bristles, much like the preceding. Cavanilles did not perceive that the specific name he chose had been long pre-en- aged. We shall here introduce some new species of this author, which, according to the incomplete information afforded by his work, seem naturally to follow what have just been described; though some essential par- ticulars are neglected, especially the structure of the calyac-leaves at their base. If the figures be faithful, these V I O L A. these are not at all dilated beyond their insertion. The figure and description of V. fihilifflica, t. 529. f. 2, are such, that we dare not adopt that species at all. 61. V. rubella. Little Red Violet. Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 20. t. 531. f. 1. Poiret. in Lam. n. 37.-Stem erect, shrubby. Leaves ovate, acute, serrated. Stipulas shorter than the footstalks, with bristly serratures. Flower-stalks solitary, shorter than the leaves. Spur half as long as the petals.-Native of Chili, flowering in February. This appears to be smooth, and the stem round. Leaves thrice the size of the last, obtuse an equal at the base, on footstalks an inch long. Stihulas scarcely half so long. Flowers reddish, much like the last in size and shape, except the nectary, which is ob- tuse, projecting beyond the base of the calyac. …e62. V. maculata. Dotted-leaved Violet. Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 20. t. 530. (V. pyrolaefolia; Poiret in Lam. n. 32.)—Stem simple, erect. Leaves elliptical, crenate; acute at each end; dotted beneath. Stipulas pinnati- fid. Flower-stalks longer than the leaves.—Native of the Falkland islands, flowering in December. This is certainly remarkable in its tribe for having yellow flow- ers. The dots on the leaves occur in some other spe- eies, even in canina, yet surely the name ought not to be arbitrarily changed. The stem is six inches high. Leaves an inch and half long; their stalks still longer. Stiftulas hardly an inch in length, deeply and copiously pinnatifid. Flower-stalks axillary, rising much above the stem. Flowers drooping, the size of W. odorata, but yellow, their sfiur projecting beyond the base of the calyz, whose lanceolate taper-pointed leaves are represented a little gibbous at that side. * 63. W. adunca. Hooked Violet.—Stems simple, ascending. Leaves ovate, somewhat heart-shaped, ob- tuse, crenate, downy, dotted. Stipulas loosely fringed. Flower-stalks longer than the leaves. Nectary hooked. —Brought by Mr. Menzies from the west coast of North America. This species has the size and habit of V. canina, and their stiftulas, flower-stalks, and bracteas are similar. The calyx-leaves too are ex- tended, in like manner, at the base. The whole of the herbage is minutely speckled, as in our last species, as well as in canina. But the plant is more or less downy, and clearly distinguished by the strongly recurved form of the shur, which if straight would be as long as the Iih. The two lateral petals are downy at the base. Perhaps this species is more akin to canina than to any other, and ought to stand near it; at heast if the rubella and maculata have no elongation at the base of their calyz. 64. V. tricolor. Pansy Violet, or Heart’s-Ease. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1326. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 26. Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot. t. 1287. Curt. Lond, fasc. l. t. 65. Woodv. Suppl. t. 252. Fl. Dan. t. 623. Ger. Em. 854. Renealm Spec. 144. t. 140. Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 122. Ehrh. Pl. Off. n. 278. (V. n. 568; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 244. Jaccea, sive Flos Trinitatis; Camer. Epit. 912.) g. V. arvensis; Murray Prodr. Gotting, 73. Sibth. Oxon. 84. Sym. Syp. 6i. (V. bicolor; Rivin. Pen- tap. Irr. t. 122. Ehrh. Pl. Off. n. 359. Pursh n. 22. V, n. 569; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 244. V. tricolor petraea; Ger. Em, 854. Jaccea altera; Camer. Epit. 913. Corn Pansie; Petiv. Herb. Brit. t. 37. f. 9.) Stem angular, diffuse, divided. Leaves oblong, deep- ly crenate. Stipulas lyrate, pinnatifid. Bracteas ob- solete.--Native of cultivated ground throughout Eu- lyrate. rope, from Sweden to Greece, as well as in North America, flowering all summer long. Root annual. Stems more or less branched, especially from the bot- tom, angular, most hairy on one side, extremely varia- ble in luxuriance, when simple hearly erect. Leaves stalked, usually ovate, deeply crenate; sometimes more oblong; and in the more starved plants of variety g merely undulated. Stiftulas always deeply pinnatifid, with narrow tongue-shaped segments; the terminal one very large, ovate, crenate. Flower-stalks axillary, Solitary, firm, longer than the leaves, bearing towards the top a pair of extremely minute, close-pressed, scarcely visible bracteas. Calyx-leaves greatly and unequally dilated at the base, lanceolate in front, acute, entire. Petals extremely variable in size and colour, from the large, splendid, velvet-like Pansy of the gar- dens, which if allowed to sow itself without attention, soon becomes scarcely different from the wild plant; to the small pale-yellowish variety 8, whose ultimate state of degeneracy, among the scoriae of mount AEtna, is the V. aetnica erecta bicolor hirsuta minima, of Cupani’s Hort. Cath. 130, sent us by Baron Bivona. In general, however, there are two tolerably dissimilar wild varieties, as above indicated; one with the fietals longer than the calya, the two uppermost purple; two lateral whitish, ribbed with purple, hairy at the base ; lift yellow, inversely heart-shaped, streaked with purple, ending behind in a short shur; the other variety (3) has fetals of a pale yellow, or cream-colour, hardly so long as the calyz, but little marked with blue. The hairi- ness of the calyz, like that of the herbage in general, is certainly variable. 65. V. hilosa. Blue Hairy Heart’s-Ease. Donn Cant. ed. 3. 40. ed. 5. 52. (V. hispida; Lamarck - Franc. v. 2. 679. V. rothomagensis; Poiret in Lam. n. 45. “Decand. Franc. v. 4. 809.” Desfont. Tabl. 178. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1498. Ait. Epit. 376.)— Stem angular, zigzag, hairy, diffuse, branched. Leaves ovate, crenate, fringed. Stipulas pinnatifid, somewhat Bracteas lanceolate, toothed at the base.— Native of stony hills near Rouen, as well as in other parts of France, and on the downs near Dunkirk; pe- rennial, flowering in the spring. This plant has long been universally known in our gardens, under the apt name of V. filosa, given by the late Mr. Curtis, who gave us a specimen, so named, from his garden at Lambeth marsh, in May 1781. The date of its intro- duction is, therefore, anterior, even to what the late Mr. Donn has recorded, 1783. We had a specimen also of the same as his W. filosa, from the Cambridge garden in 1803; and we regret that Dr. Sims has fol- lowed less cassical authority and example, in the ap- pellation he has retained, to the disparagement, though undesigned, of his old friends and our’s. The plant in question is not very easily distinguishable, by a defini- tion, from tricolor, though unquestionably a different species. The root is perennial. Herb much more hairy. Flowers bright blue, the side fetals and lift striped with black. Calyac and shur much like trico- lor. Bracteas nearer the top of the flower-stalks, and much larger, lanceolate, with two very evident teeth on each side at the base. This character seems mate- rial, though not yet mentioned. The reader of M. Poiret's description may, at first sight, suppose it to have been found out by him, but a slight examination will discover that author to have written bracteas for Stiftulus. * 66. V. V I O L A. 66. V. lutea. Yellow Mountain Pansy. Huds, ed. 1. 33 1. Fl. Brit. n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 721. Ait. n. 27. Poiret in Lam. n. 46. “Decand. Franc. v. 4. 809.” Great Yellow Pansie; Petiv. Herb. Brit. t. 37. f. 10. (V. grandiflora ; Huds. ed. 2. 380. Lightf. 508. Ait. ed. 1. v. 3. 291 ; but not of Linnaeus. V. flore luteo majore; Rivin, Pentap. Irr. t. 12 I. V. n. 566 3; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 243.)—Stem triangular, unbranched. Leaves ovate-oblong, crenate, fringed. Stipulas lobed, palmate. Bracteas minute, scarcely toothed. Spur the length of the calyx.-This plant is found in grassy mountainous pastures, flowering from May to September. It is fre- quent in such situations from Sweden, if we mistake not, (see Linn. Lapiand Tour, v. 1. 41.) to Britain, Switzer- land, and France. A specimen before us, from the son of the great Haller, shows it to have been confounded, amongst other things, by that author, under his n. 566. The root is perennial. Stem weak and decumbent at the base, scarcely ever branched, three or four inches high, a little downy, especially at one side, leafy. Leaves stalked; the lowermost small, nearly orbicular. Stiftulas large, deeply cut, their middle segments largest. Flow- ers one or two, on long solitary axiliary stalks, rising high above the leaſy top of the stem, larger than in the common tricolor, to which their calyx is similar; but their shur is smaller, not extending beyond the posterior lobes of that part. Petals mostly yellow ; the two late- ral ones, and the lip, streaked with black, and all more or less downy at the base; two upper ones sometimes also streaked with black or purple, or partly spotted with the latter colour; not unirequently they are purple all over ; as in Engl. Bot. The stigma is club-shaped, hairy, hollow, with a purple line underneath. M. Poiret has shown great practical knowiedge in his remarks un- der this species, adverting to W. grandflora. We hope to remove his doubts in the next paragraph. 67. V. grandiflora. Great Mountain Pansy. I.inn. Mant. 120. Willd. n. 25, excluding all the synonyms. (V. altaica; Pallas Herb. according to Dr. Sims. “ Ker. Bot. Regist 54.” Sims in Curt. Mag, t. 1776.)—Stem angular, unbranched. Leaves ovate-oblong, crenate. Sti- pulas pinnatifid, somewhat lyrate. Bracteas minute, scarcely toothed. Spur twice the length of the hind lobes of the calyx.-Native of Siberia. Pallas is said to have gathered it on the Altay mountains. The Linnaean specimen seems of older date than the discoveries of this eminent traveller, but has no mark to indicate where it grew. This species is certainly more akin to the preceding than to the following, both which have been confounded with it. The habit and mode of growth agree with V. lutea, but every part is twice as large. The stem, weak and decumbent at the base, is about a span high, smooth, except a roughness on some of the angles, or at one of the sides. Leaves on longish stalks, the upper ones ovate, or ovato-lanceolate, a little hairy, not fringed ; lower orbicular or heart-shaped, smooth. Stiftulas very different from V. lutea, being oblong, pin- natifid in their lower half only, not palmate. Flower- stalks two or three on each plant, axillary, solitary, erect, five inches long, rising high above the stem. Bracteas an inch or mole below the summit, opposite, membra- nous, lanceolate, extremely small, with a tooth on each side at the base. Flowers pale yellow, above twice the size of V. lutea, and of a rounder figure; their lateral fetals hairy at the base, and marked, like the lif., with a few black lines. Calyx much dilated and toothed at its base, but not reaching half the length of the shur, Vol. XXXVIII. which is cylindrical, rather slender, slightly curved, affording the most decisive distinction. The specimen represented in the Bot. Mag. seems to be the top of a plant, with rounder upper leaves than our wild speci- mens exhibit. The flower is unfortunately drawn so as not to show the calyx or shur, but the description an- swers to our plant, except that the dried fetals are not remarkably undulated. The Linnaean description is good, except that the stem is not branched. Some naked flower-stalks caused this errour. The remark that this and calcarata are the offspring of W. tricolor, is per- fectly unauthorized. 68. V. calcarata. Dwarf Mountain Pansy. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1325. Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 28. (V. n. 566 a ; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 243. t. 17. f. 1. V. alpina purpurea, exiguis foliis; Bauh. Pin, 199, Melanium montanum ; Dalech. Hist. 1204.) 8. V. n. 566 3, n. 2; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 243. (V. Pal- lasii; Forst. Tr; of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 311. V. montana lutea, subrotundo crenato folio; Barrel, Ic. t. 691, et V. montana caerulea tricolor, folio subrotundo crenato ; ibid. t. 692 )—Stems quite simple, hardly so long as the foot-stalks. Leaves ovate, crenate. Stipulas three- cleft. Bracteas toothed at the base, somewhat hastate. Spur thrice as long as the hind lobes of the calyx,- Native of the mountains of Siberia, Austria, Switzer- land, Savoy, and the south of France, flowering in July and August. Generally known in gardens by the name of grandiflora, at least the variety 3; which is con- ſounded by Linnaeus in his synonyms with the true gran- diflora ; by Haller with lutea. M Poiret justly ob- serves, that a specific character of the variety 3, when it was announced in ‘i r. of Linn. Soc. by the name of W. Pallasii, ought to have been given. That name, however, is now superfluous, for we are perfectly satis- fied that no specific difference exists between the plant there intended and the original calcarata. The root is perennial, much branched under ground, and creeping extensively, each shoot crowned with a short leafy stem, much overtopped, not only by the generally solitary jlower-stalk, but by its own crowded leaves or their stalks. The leaves are smaller, thicker, blunter, more glaucous, and more uniformly ovate, than in either of the two last, with a few, slight and rounded, notches. Stiftulas usually ſonger than the footstalks, in three deep segments, scarcely more, the middle one obovate, varying in breadth. They are well represented by Bar- relier. The herb is often smooth, occasionally more or less downy. Flower-stalks rising high above the leaves, two or three inches long, more or less. Bracteas above the middle, lanceolate, with several lateral teeth, as if palmate, or hastate. Flower generally light purple, with black lines at the bottom, larger than V. lutea, some- times party-coloured like that ; in 3 almost the size of grandiflora, with more remarkable black lines, and either yellow, party-coloured. or all over violet. The calyz in both varieties is elongated, dilated, and toothed, at the base. Shur long, slender, cylindrical, slightly curved. Haller’s figure is characteristic, but shows no part with critical precision. We have endeavoured to be explicit on the subject of the three last species, as no plants have been less understood. 69. V. Zoysii. Dwarf Carinthian Pansy. Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 297. t. 11. f. 1. Willd. n. 26, exclud- ing the synonym.—Stems quite simple, hardly so long as the footstalks. Leaves ovate, crenate, smooth. Stipu- las elliptic-lanceolate, undivided, nearly entire. Brac- 4 Y teas V I O L A. teas toothed at the base. Spur thrice as long as the hind lobes of the calyx.-Native of the mountains of Carniola and Carinthia, communicated by Mr. Sieber. Wulfen received it from the Baron de Zoys, whom he com- emorates in the name. His description and figure are complete, except that we cannot account for his citing, without scruple, t. 691 of Barrelier. M. Poiret makes W. Zoysii a variety of calcarata ; but they are clearly distinguished by their stiflulas, which in the present are always oval, never lobed, though in one or two instances we find a slight lateral notch. The filant alpina minima, nummulariae folio; Bocc. Mus. 163, t. 127.)—Stems tufted, simple. Leaves orbicular-heart- shaped, nearly entire, smooth. Stipulas lanceolate, membranous, three-cleft. Spur rounded, rather longer than the dilated base of the calyx.—Native of the rocks of Corsica, Dauphiny, and Piedmont. The long, slen- der, branching roots divide at the top into tufts of little, smooth, leafy stems, erect or decumbent, not branched. Leaves fleshy, a quarter of an inch in length and breadth, obtuse, occasionally crenate, on slender stalks about twice as long. Stiftulas half or quarter the length of the moreover is smaller, more perfectly smooth, green, not footstalks, sessile, unconnected with them, pate, acute, at all glaucous. Flower stalks two or three inches high, angular. Bracteas minute Petals large, yellow, with black lines at the bottom ; sometimes parly inged with blue. Shur ascending, rather thicker than in calcarata, and not quite so long. Wulfen might well be puzzled with the determination of his plant, grandt/lora, &c. 70. V. cenisia. Violet of Mount Cenis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1325. Wild. n. 16. Alt. n. 17. Allion. Pedem. v. 2 98. t. 22, f 6. Spec. 14. t. 3. f. 4. Poiret in La- mai & k n 26. (V. n. 565; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 242.) 6. Poiret ibid. (V. vaideria ; Allion. Pedem. v. 2.98. t. 24 i. 3.)-Stems simpl. , procumbent. Leaves ovate, entire. Stipulas obovate, stalked, undivided, ut, equal. Spur thrice as long as the hind lobes of the calyx.— Native of the hill called Ronce, above the hospital on Mount Cenis, where we gathered specimens, with Dr. Bellardi, in August 1787. It also grows on the alps of Savoy and Switzerland. The roots are creeping. The whole plant bears a resemblance to V. calcarata and its allies, but has decumbent stems, two or three inches long; fleshy entire leaves, either smooth, or rough with short reflexed hairs; and very different stiftulas, on long stalks. Flowers nearly the usual size of calcarata, blue. Bracteas small. hardly toothed. V. valderia is surely a most trifling variety. The leaves are falsely described sinuated ; and the stems are not more erect than in the original cenisia. 7 l. V. arenaria. Sand Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 25. « Decand. Franc. v. 4. 806.”—“Stems simple, dif- fuse, somewhat downy. Leaves roundish-heartshaped, smoothish, slightly crenate. Stipulas lanceolate, tooth- ed. Calyx acute.”—Native of sandy places, in the Lower Valais. Root scaly at the crown, sending out two or three spreading stems, two or three inches long. Flower-stalks three or four times as long as the leaves. Flowers pale blue, or whitish, with a thick obtuse shur. Bracteas linear, acute, four or five lines long, about an inch below the flower. Decandolle. Poiret. 72. V. minuta, Minute Basil-leaved Violet. Marsch. a Bieberst Fl. Taur. Cauc. v. 1. 173. (V. orientalis minima, ocymi folio; Tourn. Cor. 303)—“Stems sini- ple, flaccid, single-flowered. Leaves roundish, crenate, nearly smooth. Stipulas ovate, entire.”—Native of the Georgian region of Mount Caucasus. Root ap- parently creeping. Stems as long as the finger-nail. Ileaves only two or three lines in length and breadth, broadly but slightly crenate. Footstalks about as long. Stiftulas rough with hairs at the edges. Flower the size and shape of V. odorata, with a 8fur the length of the fetals. Bracteas remote, very mintite. Akin perhaps to V. cenisia and alfi ina. Marsch. d Bieberst. It may possibly be more related to the following, though the stiftulas do not agree. 79. V. nummularifolia. Money-wort-leaved Violet. Allion. Pedem, v. 2, 98. t. 9. f. 4. Willd, n, 15. (V. with one or two taper teeth at each side. Flowers blue, rather smalier than V, odorata, not unlike that species in shape. Very distinct from V. cenisia. 74. V. alfuna. Aipine Radical Violet. Jacq. Obs. part 1. 21. t. 1 1. Fi. Austr. v. 3. 24. t. 24. Poiret in Lam n. 15. (V. montana secunda; Cius. Hist. v. 1. 309.)—Stein scarcely any. Leaves nearly radicai, orbi- cular-heartshaped, sligh iy crenate, nearly smooth. Stip- ulas lanceolate, membranous, entil e, united to the base of the longiootstalks. Spur rounded, twice as long as the dilated base of the calyx.-Native of the summits of the lottiest mountains of Austria, flowering in July and Au- gust. Mr. Sieber, to whom we are obliged for wild specimens, exactly agreeing with some from J.cquin, justly observes, that botanists in general have unac- countably neglected this species. It is not to be found in Linnaeus, Murray, nor Willdenow; yet none can be more distinct. It ought perhaps to stand in the first section, as having much less of a stem than some which are placed there; but its affinity to several we have just described is so great, that it more naturally ranges with the Pansy tribe, of which it has the large concave oblique stigma. The stiftulas, being laterally united to the foot- stalks, like those of a rose or bramble, though hitherto unnoticed, afford a most striking and clear character. The flowers are deep blue, striped or spotted with black, or dark violet, nearly the size of V. calcarata, but with a shorter shur, and much shorter flower-stalks. 7.5. V. tenella. Little Syrian Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 53.—“Lower leaves opposite, roundish, minute; up- per somewhat alternate, oblong, obtuse ; all smooth, and entire. Flower-stalks rather longer than the leaves.”— Native of Syria; preserved in the herbarium of professor Desfontaines. A very small plant, two inches high at the utmost. Roots simple, thread-shaped, whitish. Stems erect, very smooth, simple, slender. Leaves stalked. Flower small, on a solitary, almost capiliary stalk. Poiret. Nothing is said of the stiftulas, bracteas, calyac, or shur, so that our knowledge of this species is very incomplete, and, but for the remarkable cir- cumstance of the partly opposite leaves, we should scarcely have ventured to admit it without examination of a specimen. 76. V. tridentata. Three-toothed Magellanic Vio- let.—Stems procumbent. Leaves crowded, wedge- shaped, with three terminal teeth. Flower stalks much longer than the leaves Calyx cbtuse.—Gathered by Mr. Menzies, in February 1787, on the mountains of Staten Land, growing among the snow. This little species is so different in habit from all the rest, that we know not where to place it. The numerous stems, an inch or two in length, compose dense tufts, and are thickly covered with alternate, closely crowded, or imbricated, fleshy, shining, smooth leaves, a quarter of an inch long, more resembling a Saxifraga than a Viola, each ending fº V I O L A. in three broad blunt teeth, and sometimes notched also at the sides: the base tapers down into a short broad footstalk. We can discern no stiftulas, except the im- bricated scales on the lower part of each branch may so be called. Flowers small, drooping, on thick stalks an inch high, rising above the top of each stem. Calyz- deaves ovate, obtuse, thick, somewhat gibbous at the base. Shur scarcely any. 77. V. gracilis. Slender Mountain Violet. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. n. 51 1. Fl. Graec. t. 222, un- published.—Siem branched, angular, diffuse. Leaves lanceolate, somewhat crenata ; the upper ones crowded, opposite. Stipulas deeply three-cleft. Spur much longer than the base of the calyx-Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the summit of the Bithynian Olympus. We have also specimens from mount AEtna, collected by Baron Bivona. The roots are perennial, creeping, long and very slender, much divided at the top. Stems slender, angular, hardly a span long; subdivided at the base; leafy in the upper part ; simple, either quite smooth or very finely downy. Leaves on longish stalks, lanceolate or obovate, very rarely and obscurely crenate, smooth or a little downy, scarcely an inch long at the most ; the lower ones alternate ; upper opposite, and much crowded at the top of the stem. Stiftulas like the leaves, but about one third as large, in three deep, stalked, obovate, entire segments, the middle one rather the largest. Flower-stalks axillary, few, three or four inches long. Bracteas rather above the middle, small, lanceolate, membranous, toothed at the base in a hastate manner. Flowers about the size of V. lutea, but some- what more oblong, of a dull purplish blue, occasionally yellow. Calyx-leaves bluntish ; much elongated and toothed at the base. Shur slender, about the length of the fetals. Cafsule oblong. This is allied to the Pansy tribe, and perhaps more akin to V. cenisia than any other, but very distinct, and remarkable for the opposite leaves; a character occur- ring here and there in species otherwise little related to each other. 78. V. cornuta. Horned Violet. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1325. Willd. n. 28, Poiret in Lam. n. 48. Ait. n. 29. Curt. Mag. t. 791. (V. n. 570; Hall. Hist. v. 1. 244. V. pyrenaica, longius caudata, teucrii folio; Tourn. Inst. 421.)–Stem ascending, angular, branched. Leaves heart-shaped, crenate. Stipulas sessile, pinnatifid. Ca- lyx-leaves awl-shaped, taper-pointed, elongated and abrupt at the base, much shorter than the spur.—Na- tive of the Pyrenees, and of mount Atlas. Ray is re- ported to have found this species on the Jura ; but Hal- ler asserts there is no record of any person besides hav- ing met with it in Switzerland. Professor Ortega is said to have first introduced it at Kew in 1776. The plant is hardy and perennia!, now frequent in gardens, flower- ing in May. The stems form large lax tufts, producing abundance of sky-blue, or pale purple, inodorous flow- ers, of the Pansy kind. Their lift has a small point. The shur is slender, ascending, near an inch long. Ca- Ayac-leaves remarkably long, slender, and acute. The whole herb is somewhat downy, of a grayish-green. Stiftulas broad, variable in size, usually about as long as the foot-stalks. Ray in his Hist. Plant. v. 3. 510, seems to indicate that some of the leaves, at least, are opposite. We have seen no instance of this. The arrangement of the species of this ample and in- teresting genus might, doubtless, be greatly improved, provided any able botanist could compare the leading ones together, in a sufficiently perfect state. The flower being reversed in position, as in most European and American Violets; in other words, the lift being turned downwards, seems the natural posture, though many of Indian growth are supposed to have erect flowers. This character is not easy to ascertain in dried specimens, the only ones possible to be obtained of several of the most singular or curious kinds. We have, therefore, scarcely adverted to it. The intelligent reader will trace out the leading circumstances which have made us swerve, in part, from Willdenow’s distribution, though we are con- scious that much more remains to be done. In the ad- mission of new species, we have passed over many Ame- rican ones, mentioned by M. Poiret, because they are probably superseded by the labours of Mr. Pursh. We could not, therefore, undertake, nor did it appear re- quisite, to settle their synonymy: especially as we have reason to think the American Viola are not yet all well known. We regret that the elaborate treatise on this genus, which, for near thirty years, has been meditated by our accurate friend Mr. Forster, and which is, in fact, pro- mised in the sixth volume of the Linnaean Society’s Transactions, has never been accomplished. We are aware of the difficulty of the subject, and those who have studied it more deeply, are perhaps still more so; but we do not scruple to declare, that a full scientific bota- nical essay on Viola, might display as much skill and learning, and be made subservient to as much philoso- phical illustration of Botany, as any monographical sub- ject that could be chosen. VIoLA. See CHEIRANTHUs, LUNARIA, and TRoPE- OLU M. Viola Aguatilis. See HoTToNIA. VIoI. A Mariana. See CAMPANULA. Viola Matronalis. See HESPERIs. VIoEA Palustris. See HoTTon1A and PINGUICULA. VIola, in Gardening, contains plants of the herba- ceous, fibrous-rooted, perennial kind, among which the species cultivated are, the sweet-scented March violet (V. odorata); the palmated violet (V. palmata); the multifid-leaved violet (V. pedata); and the pansy vio- let, or heart’s-ease (V. tricolor). *. The first sort is a low creeping flower plant, which is in general very highly esteemed for its fragrance. There are different varieties of it, as the single blue and white, the double blue and white, and the pale purple ; it is also found with white flowers; and it has been seen wild with double flowers. This variety is in much esteem, both for the superior size of the flowers, and their ex- treme fragrancy; and as they appear later, they keep up the succession. The second sort is curious, and rare in this country, having no sweet scent to recommend it. The last sort varies with more than two colours, as purple, blue, yellow, white, improved and enlarged by garden culture. There is the low growing, with small flowers; the larger upright, with large flowers; large Dutch, with largest flowers; variegated, yellow ; pur- ple and white ſlowered; yellow flowered, with purple spots; purple, with yellow or white spots; white, with yellow and purple spots; entire yellow ; deep and pale yellow ; purple-flowered; scentless flowered; sweet- scented flowered. Method of Culture.—The first sort may be increased by seeds, or parting the roots. The seeds may be sown in a bed of light earth, soon after they become ripe, in 4 Y 2 the V I O V I O the beginning of autumn; and when they have some growth, be removed into a shady border, until the au- tumn, when they may be set out where they are to grow. The double-flowered sorts afford no seed. The best mode is, however, by parting the roots in the early au- tumn, or after they have flowered, and planting them out in the borders, or in beds at good distances; at the latter season watering them well. When intended for flowers, they should not be parted oftener than once in three or four years. The second and third sorts succeed best by being planted in pots filled with loam and bog-earth well mix- ed, plunging them in the mould of a north border, where they should be protected in winter, or removed under a common hot-bed frame. The fourth sort rises readily from scattered seeds, and may be raised by sowing the seed where the plants are to grow, in the autumn or spring. They may likewise be increased by planting out the offset slips of the large bushy plants, taken off with root- fibres, in the autumn or spring, in the borders, or in beds for increasing their growth. The varieties may be preserved in this way with safety. These plants afford much variety in the borders, and other parts; and the first sort is useful for the flowers. It is proper to be planted out on the verges of shrub- beries and wood-walks, as well as in tufts and patches in the borders, clumps, and other parts of pleasure- grounds ; but when cultivated for the purpose of its flowers, it is best planted out in rows in beds, or in the borders, at the distance of a foot. VIoI.A, in the Materia Medica. The common sweet violet, or viola odorata of Linnaeus, is perennial, grows wild in hedges and shady places, and flowers in March. The flowers of the V. hirta, or hairy, scentless March violet, are often substituted for the other in our markets: but this sort may be easily distinguished; the herb, by its having stalks, which trail on the ground, and bear both leaves and flowers, and by the young leaves being hairy; the flower, by the three lower petals being spotted with white, and by their want of smell. The officinal violet is the Ioy waxay of Theophrastus, and the Iov zreequesy of Dioscorides; it was also well known to the Arabian physicians, as Mesue commends its use highly in various inflammatory diseases. Viola is likewise fre- quently mentioned by the Latin poets, who allude to its effects as a vulnerary. The recent flowers only are now received in the catalogues of the Materia Medica: they have an agreeable sweet smell, and a mucilaginous bit- terish taste; when chewed, they tinge the saliva blue ; to water they readily give out both their virtue and their fine flavour, but scarcely impart any tincture to rectified spirit, though they impregnate the spirit with their fla- vour. These flowers, taken in the quantity of a drachm or two, are said to be gently purgative or laxative; and according to Bergius, and some others, they possess an anodyne and pectoral quality. The officinal preparation of these flowers is a syrup, which to young children an- swers the purpose of a purgative. This syrup is usu- ally prepared from the petals of the cultivated violet; and Dr. Withering tells us, that at Stratford-upon- Avon, large quantities of the violet are cultivated for this purpose; but the London herb-shops are chiefly sup- plied from Kent. (See Syr UPUs.) This syrup is also found useful in many chemical inquiries, to detect an acid or an alkali; the former changing the blue colour to a red, the latter to a green. The seeds of violets are reported to be strongly diuretic, and useful in gravelly complaints. The root powdered, in the dose of a diachm, proves both emetic and cathartic. That species of violet called pansy, or heart’s-ease, the viola tricolor of Linnaeus, grows in corn-fields, waste and uncultivated grounds, flowering all the summer months. By the vivid colouring of its flowers, it often becomes very beautiful in gardens, where it is distin- guished by various names. To the taste, this plant, in its recent state, is very glutinous or mucilaginous, ac- companied with the common herbaceous flavour and roughness. By distillation with water, according to Haase, it affords a small quantity of odorous essential oil, of a somewhat acrid taste. The dried herb yields about half its weight of watery extract; the fresh plant about one-eighth. It was formerly reckoned a power- ful medicine in epilepsy, asthma, ulcers, scabies, and cutaneous complaints; but its present character is ow- ing to its having been recommended by Dr. Starck, a German physician, and others, as a specific in the crusta lactea of children. He directs a handful of the fresh, or half a drachm of the dried leaves, to be boiled two hours in half a pint of milk, which is to be strained for use. This dose is repeated morning and evening. Bread, with this decoction, is also to be formed into a . poultice, and applied to the part. He observes, that when it has been administered eight days, the erup- tion usually increases considerably, and the patient’s urine acquires a smell like that of cats. When the medicine has been taken a fortnight, the scurf begins to fall off in large scales, leaving the skin clean. The use of the remedy is to be persisted in, till the skin has resumed the natural appearance, and the urine ceases to have any particular smell. Lewis. Woodville. Viola, FRANCIsco DELLA, in Biografhy, maestro di cappella to Alfonso d’Este, duke of Ferrara, a disciple of Adrian Willaert, the master of Zarlino, and one of the interlocutors in his “ Ragionamente.” He was the editor of a curious work by his master Willaert, pub- lished at Ferrara, 1558, under the title of “ Musica Nova.” Viola, in Geografhy, a river of Spain, in Guipus- coa, which rises in the mountains of Adrian, and runs into the sea, at Cumaja. VIOLA, in Ichthyology, a name by which some au- thors have called the smelt. VIOIA Serotina, the late violet, in Botany, a name given by the ancients to a garden-flower, not properly of the violet kind, but to which we, as well as they, have connected the name violet, though with a distinctive epithet, we call it viola matronalis, or dame’s violet. Pliny is very express in this distinction, but is not sufficiently attended to in it; and by this means is mis- understood in some other parts of his works, where he alludes to this flower in his description of the colour called by the Romans conchylius, or conchyliaceus color; he says that the deepest degree of it was that of the flower of the viola serotima. The commentators on his work have generally explained this into his saying, that the deepest colour of this name was a blue purple, like that of the violet; but he only means that it is of a deep- er red than the colour of the mallow flower, and with a propoltionate mixture of purple, as there is in that flower. VIOU ARIS LAPIs, in JVatural History, a fossile body, called by the Germans violstein, and by many au- thors lapis odore violarum, from its having a sweet smell when V I O V I O' when fresh broken, which has been supposed to resem- ble that of the violet. - The Germans have many stones which have more or less of a sweet smell when fresh broken, as they have many which stink very strangely ; the latter of these they call all by the common name of swine stone, and the former, all by that of violet-stone. The substance, however, which possesses this quality in the highest de- gree of all others, and is, therefore, most proper to be called distinctly by this name, is a species of taic, of the genus of the bractearia, called by Dr. Hill bractea- Tiu in niveum lucidissimum bracteis unduſa tis, or the snow-wnite shining bractearium, with undu lated scales. This is found in masses of an extremely rude and it reg- ular structure, but very compact and firm, usually of a roundish or oblong figure: these are of various sizes, from an inch or two, to a foot in diameter, and are com- posed of almost an infinite number of thin, extremely beautiful, and snow-white plates, which are all broad, thin, and flaky, and of various sizes, and perfectly irreg- ular in shape and figure, and are naturally waved, bent, and curled : its smell, when broken, is not like that of any of the known perfumes, but is a sort of mixed one, resembling that of roses and violets together : it is very heavy, and will neither give fire with steel, nor ferment with acid menstruums. It is common on the shores of rivers in Italy, and in the mountains of Germany. Hill’s Hist. of Fossils. VIOLATION, the act of violating, i. e. forcing a woman, or committing a rape upon her. Amnon, David’s son, violated his sister, who was avenged by Absalom : Tereus violated his sister-in-law Philomela. To violate the queen, the king’s eldest daughter, or the princess of Wales, is high-treason. Violation is also used, in a moral sense, for a breach or infringement of a law, ordinance, or the like. Thus, we say a violation of the law of nature, of the law of nations, of a treaty of peace, of one’s oath, &c. VIoI.ATION is also used for a profanation. In which Sense we say, to violate a church, &c. VIOLENT, in the Schools, a thing done by force. In which sense it stands opposed to spontaneous. A thing is said to be violent, when affected by some external principle ; the body that undergoes it contribu- ting nothing thereto, but struggling against it. The body, in such case, is said to struggle, because whatever is violent, discomposes and distracts a thing from its natural constitution, and tends to destroy it. The schoolmen all allow, that man, as being endued with reason, is capable of suffering such violence; but brute and inanimate bodies are not : in brutum, &c. vio- !entum mom cadet. VIol, ENT Motion. See Motion. Viol, ENT Purging, or Cling, a disease in sheep of the more inveterate bowel kind, which not unfrequently at- tacks them in some situations. It is said not to be peculiar to any soil, but appears most frequently, and spreads most rapidly, where the pasture is of a soft grassy nature. It is constantly pro- duced by improper management, such as working among the flocks inconsiderately in hot sultry weather, and in crowded folds. It is thought by some to break out most frequently in milking time, where that prac- tice is carried on, when the sheep lie, for six or seven weeks in the later warm summer months, upon the same spot for some time, during the morning and evening at the bought or milking-place. Indeed, when sheep, from whatever cause, lie upon the same spot until the ground turns foul, if the weather be soft, sultry, and warm, with thunder, or sbowers of that kind, this disease is much to be apprehended, and is often very spreading and fatal. The appearances of the disease are, that the sheep af- fected with it acquires a sickly look, the ears of it drop and hang low down, the eyes are languid, and the wool claps to the body of it. It continues for some time to follow the flock, but nostly stands in the same position, looking to the ground. It often lies down, but soon rises up again, and walks to a short distance, during which it commonly voids faces. The skin is hot, day, and scaly, and the pulse and respiration quick. It eats very little, and does not chow the cud, but seems to have an unquenchable thirst. There is frequent rumbling heard in the bowels, followed by the discharge of faeces, which are thinner than ordinary, having little or no re- semblance to the hard purl of healthy sheep. As the disease advances, the purging increases, the discharge becomes thinner, is first mixed with blood, then slime and blood, and at last is black and fetid, accompanied clearly with severe gripes and straining. After a wet summer, the discharge is sometimes green, the grass s' eming to pass with little change of colour. In the mean-time, the sheep rapidly wastes away, and in a few days is reduced to a perfect skeleton, with its belly drawn up to its back; it separates from the flock, wan- ders about in an unsteady manner, and hides itself among fern, heath, or bushes, when they are present. Its eyes are suffused with red, its breathing becomes more laborious, an unpleasant smell exhales from every part of its body, its faeces are absolutely putrid, it is quite overcome by the disease, and it continues strain- ing and purging until it expires. It is said, in the third volume of the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, to be distinguished from the ordinary diarrhoeas and loosenesses in these ani- mals, by their chiefly attacking hogs, weak-gimmers and dimmonts, while this disease is frequent among older sheep ; by their mostly occurring in the spring, and ceas- ing in the surnmer, when this disease only commences; by their having no fever, straining, or pain before passing the stools, as is the case in this disease ; by the faces in them being loose, but natural in other respects, and without blood or slime, while in this disease they consist of hard lumps occasionally passed, the rest being blood and slime; by there not being that degree of fetor in the faces in them, that takes place in this disease ; by the appetite being rather sharper than usual in them, while in this disease it is wholly gone ; by there being nothing infectious in them, while this disease is often greatly so; by there being only a temporary stop put to the thriving of the sheep, which afterwards be- comes rapidly strong and vigorous in them, while in this disease the animal wastes suddenly ; and by their having little danger in them for the most part, except where there is much debility, while this disease is very commonly fatal. According to some, if a sheep survives this disease for a fortnight, or even for a few days, it mostly reco- vers. In this case, there is either very little or no blood in the faeces, the slime dries up, and becomes mixed with hardened balls, the feverish heat abates, the skin gets moist, the vigour of the eye returns, the appetite increases, and the wool rises slowly, and as- sumes its natural appearance, though a great part of it frequently: V IO V I O frequently comes off. However, it grows again, and sheep which have had this disease commonly become very healthy and sound, being seldom attacked by any other disease. In some cases there is the feverish ap- pearances without any flux at all, which is a less fatal and of course more favourable state of the disease. Notwithstanding the disease is always originally pro- duced by improper management, it is often greatly in- fectious, and spreads rapidly among the same flocks and to different ones. It is a very dangerous sort of disor- der, which on soft soils destroys the greater number of sheep attacked with it, but which on dry hard land is less fatal and less infectious. In preventing the disease, which is more certain and beneficial that any thing that can be done in the cure of it when it is formed, the principal circumstances to be regarded are, the dispersing the sheep as equally as possible over the land; the preventing their collecting together in clumps and fouling the land; the having the situations for the boughts in milking time, high, dry and airy, shifting them often, and dividing the sheep equally among them, to prevent their being too much thronged and heated; the changing those situations frequently, where they lie, before they become foul; the removing the diseased sheep immediately as they become affect- ed to some considerable distance; the using of tar to the noses and tails of the sheep, as well as in tubs where they are confined ; and the salving of many of the sheep, and putting them in clean pastures, to lie at their ease. The disease however sometimes continues, in spite of these means, until the frost sets in, when it disappears slowly with much loss. The cure of the disease is to be attempted, when the sheep are strong and in good condition, by cutting the tails across, and afterwards causing them to perspire in some way or other freely, not letting them be suddenly exposed to cold after it. At the same time the bowels are to be cleared by the use of a little rhubarb, as about half a drachm, or, what is better, by about four grains of ipecacuanha in powder, given until they purge free- ly. A quantity of thin flour-porridge well boiled, and barley or oatmeal, may then be given with a pint of sweet milk two or three times a day. If the disease be not soon removed by these means, remedies of the pow- erful astringent kind must be had recourse to, with opi- um in small quantities, such as a decoction of logwood, bark, Japan earth, and chalk made with milk, and given in the proportion of a gill two or three times a day. Fif- teen or twenty drops of the tincture of opium may be put in each dose of the decoction. And it is often very useful when taken alone in a very little cold water. VIOLET, in Botany, Gardening, and the Materia Medica. See VIO L.A. VI ol. ET, Bulbous, a name sometimes given to the snow-drop, a plant which Linnaeus makes a distinct ge- nus under the name galanthus; but which Tournefort comprehends among the narcisso-leuconium 8. Viol ET, Calathian. See GENTIANA Pneumomanthe. VIoI.ET, Corn, a name sometimes applied to the Camſhanula hybrida. Viol ET, Damask. See HESPERIs. VIoI.ET, Dame's Rocket, or Queen’s Gilliflower. See HESPERIs. This plant is an antiscorbutic and diaphoretic, and is very serviceable in the asthma, coughs, and convulsions. The outward use of it is recommended in inflamma- tions, cancers, gangrenes, sphacelus, and contagious diseases. Bruised, it very potently resists putrefaction; and applied to pestilential buboes in the arm-pils, it ripens and softens them. James from Boerhaave. Violet, Dogs’ tooth, the name by which some call the dens canis of botanical writers. See ERYTHRONIUM. VIoLET, Water. See HoTron IA. VIOLIN, an instrument of four strings, tuned fifths, and played by a bow. It has a neck like the treble viol, but the finger-board has no frets. This may be pronounced the most powerful the most perfect, and the most useful instrument that has ever been invented. It is in the power of the performer on this sovereign of the orchestra, to make the intonation of all keys equally perfect. We have not been able to trace its antiquity higher than the 16th century. In the begin- ning of the 17th century it was hardly known to the English in shape or name; and, therefore, that superior power of expressing almost all that a human voice can produce, except the articulation of words, seemed at this time so utterly impossible, that it was not thought a gentleman’s instrument, or one that should be admitted into good company. Viols of various sizes, with six strings, and fretted like the guitar, began indeed to be admitted into chamber. concerts : for when the perform- ance was public, these instruments were too feeble for the obtuse organs of our Gothic ancestors; and the low state of our regal music in the time of Henry VIII. 1530, may be gathered from the accounts given in Hall’s and Hollingshead's Chronicles, of a masque at cardinal Wolsey’s palace, Whitehall, where the king was enter- tained with “a concert of drums and fifes.” But this was soft music compared with that of his heroic daugh- ter Elizabeth, who, according to Henxner, used to be regaled during dinner “ with twelve trumpets and two kettle-drums; which, together with fifes, cornets, and side-drums, made the hall ring for half an hour togeth- er.” Itinerarium, edit 1757, Strawberry-Hill. It has long been a dispute among the learned, whe- ther the violin, or any instrument of that kind, as now played with a bow, was known to the ancients. The little figure of Apollo, playing on a kind of violin, with something like a bow, in the grand duke’s tribuna at Florence, which Mr. Addison and others supposed to be antique, has been proved to be modern by the abbé Winckelmann and Mr. Mings. So that as this was the only piece of sculpture reputed ancient, in which any thing like a bow could be found, nothing more remains to be discussed relative to that point. With respect to an instrument with a double neck, besides that on the broken obelisk at Rome, and one from a sepulchral grotto in the ancient city of Tarquinia, there is an an- tique painting in the collection of William Locke, esq. which consists of a single figure, supposed to be a muse, with an instrument nearly in the form of a mo- dern violin, but the neck is much longer, and neither bow hor plectrum are discoverable near it. This, as Dr. Burney apprehends, may have been a chelys, which was a species of guitar, either thrummed by the fingers, or twanged with a quill. The ancients had, indeed, in- stead of a bow, the plectrum ; but in all the represen- tations which painting and sculpture have preserved of this implement, it appears too clumsy to produce from the strings tones that had either the sweetness or bril- liancy of such as are drawn from them by means of the bow or quill. Dr. Burney supposes, though it is repre- sented so massive, that it was a quill, or piece of ivory in imitation of one, rather than a stick or blunt piece of wood V I O L I N. wood or ivory; and, indeed, Virgil tells us, M.n. vi. 647, that it was made of ivory. Burney’s Hist. Mus. vol. i. The origin of the violin, according to the French ac- count, is unknown. It is only supposed to have been in- vented about the ninth or tenth century, to which opin- ion we should have subscribed, had not some ancient monuments remained with an exact representation of its form. In the pictures of Philostratus, p. 85, in an an- cient grotto, may be seen many violins which are repre- sented much like those of the present times, except that the neck is shorter. Amphion is there represented, p. 76, playing upon a kind of viol or violin with five strings, and with a bow like ours, and quite different from the plectrum of the ancients. It is believed that Athenaeus ineans the bow, when he says, “the sceptre is one thing and the plec- trum another.” It is imagined that by the sceptre he means the bow, which is very probable, especially after the ancient monuments of which we have preserved the figure. The pit or grotto, on the walls of which we see violins like the present, is ſound on silver medals which were struck by order of Scribonius Libo, a very con- siderable personage at Rome. An account of these may be seen in Pierre Valerien, author of the Hieroglyphics, book 47. This is all that antiquity has preserved concerning the violin, and, says the author, it is so little, that we learn nothing from it. The rebec is the most ancient violin in France; it had but three strings, and the romancers and troubadours frequently mention it. A figure of the minstrel Colin Muset, is still preserved at the entrance of the church of St. Julien des Menestriers, at Paris, playing on the rebec. The time is not known when a fourth string was added to this instrument. It is still used in its primi- tive state as a trichord in Turkey and other Eastern countries; the oldest violins we have in France are not more ancient than the time of Charles IX. made at Cre- mona by the famous Amati, which are still of the best medel possible. Laborde, tom. i. The violin seems to have been brought into favour at the court of France before any honourable mention is made of it elsewhere, by the arrival of Baltazarini, a great performer on that instrument; who, at the head of a band of violin-players, was sent from Piedmont by marshal Brissac to Catherine de Mcdicis, and appointed by that princess her first valet de chambre and super- intendant of her music. Galilei (Dial. p. 147.) says, that “ both the violin and base, or violoncello, were in- vented by the Italians, perhaps by the Neapolitans;” and we are unable to confute that opinion. Corelli’s violin, long in the possession of Giardini, was made in 1578, and the case painted by Annibal Caracci, proba- bly several years after the violin was finished, at which time Anib. Carach was but eight years old. Montagne, who was at Verona in 1580, says that there were organs and violins to accompany the mass in the great church. Journ. du Voyage. The restoration of monarchy and episcopacy seems to have been not only favourable to sacred music, but secular ; for it may be ascribed to the particular plea- sure which king Charles II. received from the gay and sprightly sound of the violin, that this instrument was introduced at court, and the houses of the nobility and gentry for any other purpose than country-dances, and festive mirth. Hitherto there seem to have been no public concerts; and in the music of the chamber, in the performance of fancies on instruments, which had taken place of vocal madrigals and motets, the violin had no admission, the whole business having been done by viols. - After Charles had, in imitation of Lewis XIV., esta- blished a band of twenty-four violins, tenors, and bases, instead of the viols, lutes, and cornets, of which the court band used to consist, the violin family began to rise in reputation, and had an honourable place assigned it in the smusic of the court, the theatres, and the chamber ; and the succession of periormers and compositions with which the nation was afterwards supplied from Italy and elsewhere, stimulated the practice and established the character of that class of instruments, which have ever since been universally acknowledged to be the pil- lars of a well-ordered orchestra. A general passion for this instrument, and for pieces expressly composed for it, as well as a taste for Italian music, seem to have been excited in this country about the latter end of Charles II.’s reign, when French music and French politics be- came equally odious to a great part of the nation. The Hon. Mr. North, brother of the lord keeper North, who listened critically to every kind of music, and left manuscript memoirs of the music of his time, still in the possession of his family, says, that the decay of French music, and favour of the Italian, came on by degrees. Its beginning was accidental, and occasioned by the ar- rival of Nicola Matteis. During the last century, almost all the great violinists of Europe, except Somis and Tartini, have visited this country; but Giardini, at one time perhaps the best performer in Europe, residing here so many years, form- ed a school which furnished our orchestras with a great- er number of able performers on that instrument, than can be found in the capital of any other kingdom in Eu- rope. And we may venture to assert from our own knowledge, that the lowest ripieno in the opera orches- tra at present, has more hand, and is a better sight’s- man, than the leader of that band in Festing’s time. The violin consists, like most other instruments, of three parts; the neck, the table, and the soundboard. At the side are two apertures, and sometimes a third towards the top, shaped like a heart. Its bridge, which is below the apertures, bears up the strings, which are fastened to the two extremes of the instrument; at one of them by a screw, which stretches or loosens them at pleasure. The style and sound of the violin are the gayest and most sprightly of all other instru:rents; and hence it is, of all instruments, the fittest for dancing. Yet there are ways of touching it, which render it grave, soft, lan- guishing, and fit for church or chamber music. - It generally makes the treble, or highest parts in con- certs. Its harmony is from 5th to 5th. Its play is composed of base, counter-tenor, tenor, and treble ; to which may be added a fifth part : each part has four 5ths, which rise to a greater 17th. In compositions of music, violin is expressed by V : two VV denote two violins. The word violin, alone, stands for treble violin : when the Italians prefix alto, tenore, or basso, it then express- es the counter-tenor, tenor, or base violin. In compositions where there are two, three, or more different violins, they make use of hrino, secundo, ter- zo, or of the characters I* II* III°, or 1* 2° 3°, &c. to denote the difference. The V I O V I O The violin has only four strings, each of a different thickness, the smallest of which makes the e si mi of the highest octave of the organ; the second, a fifth below the first, makes the a mi la ; the third, a fifth below the second, is d la re; lastly, the fourth, a fifth below the third, is ge resol. Most nations, ordinarily, use the clef ge re soi on the second line, to denote the music for the violin; only, in France, they use the same clef as the first line at bottom: the first of these methods is best, where the song goes very low ; the second where it goes very high. • * Mersennus speaks of the tenor and contra-tenor vio- lin, which, he says, differ only in magnitude from the treble violin. But we have at present no such instru- ment in use as the contra-tenor violin ; the part proper to it being with ease performed on the violin; and ac- cordingly in concertos, overtures, and other instrument- al compositions of many parts, the second violin is in reality the counter-tenor part. It is much to be doubt- ed, says sir John Hawkins (Hist. Mus, vol. iv. p. 1 15.) whether the counter-tenor violin ever came into Eng- land. Anth. Wood, speaking of the band of Charles II., makes no mention of the contra-tenor violin. Before the restoration of Charles II. says he, and especially after, viols begun to be out of fashion, and only violins used, as treble violin, tenor and base violin; and the king, according to the French mode, would have twen- ty-four violins playing before him while he was at meals, as being more airy and brisk than viols. JWatural Scale for the Violin. ====s-e- 4. c 4. VIOLINI Piccolo, Ital, a kit, or the pocket-violin of dancing-masters. Viol INo Scordato, Ital., a fiddle out of tunc. VIOLONCELLO, the diminutive of violone, contra- basso, or double-base. The violoncello is the natural base to the violin and tenor, and has been very much cultivated throughout Europe, and no where more suc- cessfully than in England, during the last Gentury, in proportion as the base-viol or six-stringed base lost its favour. The last English performer on the viol di gam- ba, who was favourably noticed, was Miss Ford, after- wards Mrs. Thickness; but she made little more use of it than in accompanying her voice, which she did with great expression and effect. But Abel, in spite of the natural defects of the instrument, the tone of which every one disliked, by his exquisite taste, prodigious execution when he pleased, genius, and profound know- ledge of composition, delighted all hearers, and made them forget, or at least forgive, its querulous and nasal quality of tone. The instrument now is as dead as this 4. great musician, and seems to have departed this life at the same time. The first performer on the violonceilo in our memory, who was always heard with pleasure, was Caporale, whose chief excellence was his fine tone. Gordon and Paxton had considerable merit of that kind. The elder Cervetto and Pasqualino, both defective in tone, had what was then thought considerable execution and know- ledge of the finger-board ; but Crosdil and the younger Cervetto became in all respects the most complete and delightful performers on the violoncello, which not only England but all Europe can boast. So equally perfect in all things else are these admirable artists, that the fire of the one, and the vocal tone of the other, can alone distinguish them. But, to the great regret of the pub- lie, they have retired from all professional exercise of their talents. We have however many performers on the violoncello for general business, who would have been thought wonderful players formerly ; and to con- sole us a little for the loss of Cervetto and Crosdil, a Linley, who in every requisite of a great player, may be pronounced wonderful at present (1804.) Diatonic Scale of the Violoncello, without shifts. Open —e—G- 4th String. 3d String. \–– –’ \–- ——” “ VIOLONE, a double-base, almost twice as big as the common base-violin, and the strings bigger and longer, in proportion; and, consequently, its sound an octave lower than that of our base-violin ; which has a noble effect in great concertos; but this depends upon the number of strings, and the manner of tuning them ; some performers using four strings, and others three ; and in the tuning of these there is a considerable differ- ence. The true use of the violone is to sustain the har- 2 e—sº Open ſ 2d String. —J \ 1st String. mony, and in this respect it has a noble effect : divided bases are improper for it, the strings not answering im- mediately to the percussion of the bow : these can only be executed with a good effect on the violoncello, the sounds of which are more articulate and distinct. VIOLONISTA, Ital, a performer on the violin. UJON, in Geograft hy, a town of Persia, in the pro- vince of Chusistan; 35 miles N.N.W. of Estachar. VIOTTI, , in Biografthy, a good composer and great V IP V I O great performer on the violin. He is a native of Turin, and said to be the son of the prince de Carignan’s gar- dener, and intended by his father to be brought up to his own profession, discouraging as much as possible his passion for music, which he early discovered; and even complaining to the prince that he should never make a gardener of him, as he was always scraping upon a bad fiddle. The prince advised his father to send him to Pugnani, and if he discovered in him the seeds of genius and promising talents, he would prevail on him to take the boy as a scholar or an apprentice, Pugnani immediately discovered, that with proper cultivation, he would soon distinguish himself among professors of the first class; an opinion which a few years confirmed. In 1783 he went to Paris, and first performed at the concert spirituel, was extremely applauded, and increas- ed in favour till the time of the Revolution, when the Convention invited foreigners to assist them with their Counsel in framing a new government, and elected as deputies many strangers; among the rest, Viotti was chosen a member of the senate, who had mounted to great eminence in his profession, and was a favourite of the public. He continued to act as a deputy till Danton, Marat, and Robespierre had disgraced the cause of liberty, and excited such horror as well as terror in every hu- mane breast, that he emigrated to England, where he was received as his professional merit deserved ; till an information was lodged against him at the duke of Port- land’s office (perhaps by jacobinical emissaries from Paris), that he attended jacobinical clubs, and was ca- balling against the state. He was ordered to quit the kingdom; but at the peace returned, though not as a musician or a politician, but established himself in Lon- don as a wine-merchant, and has never been heard in public since his second arrival, which is much lamented by the lovers of music. Yet, though he is no longer a public performer, we may, perhaps without improprie- ty, give our sentiments concerning his abilities as a com- poser ; and confess, that it has often struck us, in the midst of our sincere admiration of Viotti’s great abili- ties, that his style of composition was a mescolanza dell’ antica e moderna ; writing sometimes with all the solid- ity of the great Italian masters of the old school, and sometimes with the levity and frivolity of the French in modern times. He may perhaps have done this insen- sibly, in trying to please in a style which was the most certain of applause. We have sometimes, in his grave and elaborate movements, though he resembled Gemi- niani more than any other old master, with more rhythm and pathos, and indeed with more decided and medi- tated plans and subjects; but in his latter movements and finales, he generally degenerates into French mai- 2été, or rather niaiserie, which makes us forget that Viotti is a native of Italy, and a disciple of Pugnani, whom he greatly surpasses, when he does his best, both in hand and genius. He has been a considerable publisher of pieces for his instrument, which, though every one cannot play, yet all admire, when played. In 1786, he published at Paris, Berlin, and Amster- dam, twelve violin concertos, in nine and twelve parts; and the next year six violin quartets. Most of his pieces have been adapted to the piano-forte by other masters. The last work which he published at Paris, was six du- ets for violins. Vol. XXXVIII. VIOR, or DIUR, in Ancient Geografthy, a river of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, according to Pliny and Ptolemy. Hardouin says that it is now named Sus; a river of which name is known on the confines of the kingdom of Morocco. º - VIORNA, in Botany, an old synonym of our common Traveller's Joy, Clematis Vitalba, and evidently of a similar meaning, being derived from via, a road, and orno, to adorn. Gerarde, who thus explains the word, declares himself the author of the English name. Wi- orna is transferred by Linnaeus to another species of Clematis, with which it had originally no connexion. See CLEMATIs. - VIPACH, in Geografthy, See WIPACH. VIPALANKA, or UJ PALANKA, a fortress of Hun- gary, in the bannat of Temesvar, on a small river which runs into the Danube ; 50 miles S. of Temesvar. N. lat. 45°. E. long. 21°. VIPAO, a river of Carniola, which runs into the Lisonzo, in the county of Goritz. VIPA.TORE, a town of Hindoostan, in Baramaul; 28 miles E. of Darempoury. VIPER, VIPERA, in JVatural History, the coluber berus of Linnaeus, famed not only for the exceeding ven- omousness of its bite, which is one of the most danger- ous poisons in the animal kingdom, but also for the great usefulness of its flesh in medicine; whence vipers come to make a considerable article in the materia medica. We have described the common viper, as well as some other species, under the article Colub ER, and have de- tailed some of the most interesting particulars relating to this animal. Under the article Polson, we have con- sidered the nature of its venom, and some of the usual remedies applied as antidotes to its pernicious and usu- ally fatal effects. We shall not here repeat the obser- vations that may be found under those articles. The method of catching vipers is by putting a cleft- stick on or near their head, after which they are seized by the tail, and put into a bag. Dr. Mead observes, that the ancients esteemed the viper sacred; and that the kings of the East Indies caused cottages to be built for their entertainment, and their killers to be punished with death. On medals, the viper is frequently represented as a symbol of divine power; and, as such, given by way of attribute to the ancient physicians. The story of the rattle-snake’s charming its prey has been seriously discredited or ridiculed by many, and by others the effects of the animal’s fear have been sup- posed the result of a previous bite; but we have reason to be less incredulous, if we advert to an experiment mentioned in the Philosophical Transactions, of a like thing in regard to a viper. It is well known that no vi- per will feed while in confinement, except a female which is with young, but that such a one will. A viper- catcher, who had more than sixty living vipers in a chest, put a living mouse in among them; there happened to be one female big with young among these, none of the others at all regarded the mouse, but she raised up her head a little, and looked furiously at it. The mouse was terrified, and stood still for a considerable time, though the viper continued rolled up in a spiral, only raising up its head and looking at it, and vibrating its tongue; the mouse at length recovered from its fright, and began to move, but without running away, only walking in a terrified manner round and round the vi- 4 Z per, V IP E. R. per, and often squeaking; at length she came before the head of the creature, which was still raised, and the mouth open. The mouse, after some time, went up to the creature, and crept into its mouth, where she was gradually swallowed without the viper’s altering its posture. By Mr. Boyle’s experiments made upon vipers in vacuo, it appeared, that on the withdrawing of the air from the vessel where the viper was put, she began to swell, and after some time, she opened her mouth very wide, and frequently; but on continuing two hours and a half in the receiver, she did not appear to be quite dead. The gaping of the jaws was attended with a loss of the swelling, observed at first in her whole body; but after every time closing them she swelled again, and thus be- came lank and plump reciprocally many times in an hour. During the first moments this creature crawled about, as if in search of air, and afterwards foamed at the mouth. The neck and body continued swelled longer in a se- cond experiment with another viper, and a blister ap- peared on the back. This creature lived an hour and a half. The mouth remained vastly distended after death, and the internal parts of it were much distorted, and thrust forwards. After the admission of the air the mouth closed, and opened again after a time; and, in fine, on pinching the tail there was some motion perceived in the body that seemed to argue life. The common snake bears the exhausted receiver better than the viper, and, after many hours remaining in it, and seeming dead, will give signs of life on being warmed by bringing the glass to the fire; but a longer continuance in the rarefied air absolutely kills it, as it does all other creatures. Phil. Trans. No. 62. As to the manner in which the viper conveys its poi- son, authors are a little disagreed. Francisco Redi, and Moise Charras, have each of them written very curious pieces on the subject; but their result is very different. Redi maintains, that all the venom of the viper is con- tained in the two vesiculae, or bags, which cover the base of the two canine teeth; whence, upon biting, a yellow- ish liquor is squeezed out into the wound; where, mix- ing with the blood, and other juices, it produces those dreadful symptoms. This hypothesis he maintains by a great number of experiments; as of animals, viz. cocks, &c. being bit with vipers, after these vesiculae and their juice had been taken out, without any signs of poison, or any ill consequence at all. Charras, on the other hand, maintains, that this yellow liquor is not poisonous; that he has given it to pigeons as food, without their being at all disordered by it; that the viper’s bite he has always found mortal to animals, even after the bag has been taken clear out, as well as before ; and lastly, that the poison must lie in the irritat- ed spirits of the viper, which it exhales in the ardour of its biting, and which are so cold, that they curdle the blood, and stop the circulation. The controversy between these two ingenious authors is very extraordinary; their systems are opposite, yet both are maintained by a great number of well-attested experiments. Dr. Mead supposes the sentiment of Sig. Redi to be the true one, in his essay on the poison of the viper, and adds to Redi’s account, that the poison in the viper’s bag is separated from the blood by a conglomerate gland, lying in the lateral interior part of the os sincip- itis, behind the orbit of the eye; from which gland there is a duct that conveys the poison to the bags at the teeth. The teeth, he adds, are tubulated, for the con- veyance and emission of the poison into the wound; but their hollowness does not reach to the apex, or tip of the tooth, but ends in a long slit below the point, out of which slit the poison is emitted. These slits, or perforations of the teeth, Galen tells us, the mountebanks of his days used to stop with some kind of paste; after which they would publicly expose themselves to be bitten without danger. The abbé Fontana, in a treatise on the poison of the viper, first published in Italian, in 1765, and, in 1776, translated into French by M. Darcet, who has made several additions to it, has given the result of no less than six thousand experiments, in which upwards of four thousand animals were bitten, and most of them killed by the vipers. - The viper, he says, has sometimes four, seldom three, but generally two canine teeth in each jaw, falcated and inserted and fixed in a socket; at their bases, and be- hind them, are six or seven smaller teeth, adhering by a membrane, which, it is thought, are intended to sup- ply the place of the larger teeth, sometimes lost in the act of biting. A similar conjecture, with respect to the use of the same kind of teeth in the rattle-snake, was made by Dr. Bartram. Phil. Trans. No. 456, p. 358; or Abr. vol. ix. p. 60. Each of these has two cavities; one tubular, begin- ning near the base, and proceeding along the convex side nearly to the end, and open at each end; the aper- ture near the base being almost elliptical, and the other longitudinal; the other cavity, situated behind the form- er, and never before observed, is broad at the base, and diminishes as it approaches towards the point. It has only one aperture at the insertion in the gum, through which the nerves and blood-vessels of the tooth are ad- mitted. The fibrous sheath, that covers all these teeth, seems to be a continuation of the external membrane of the palate, being always open near the points of the teeth. The receptacle of the venom is a small bladder, a spon- gy gland, situated under the muscles of the side of the upper jaw, and seldom containing more than three or four drops of a yellow fluid, which is conveyed thence by an excretory duct to the socket of the canine teeth, whence it enters the lower aperture of the tube, and finds its way out again at the longitudinal orifice, near the point, into the internal part of the wound occasioned by the bite : this fluid receives its impulse from a con- strictor muscle, which, however, never propels at once the whole of the contents of the gland. For an account of the effect of the viper’s bite, we refer to ColuBER, BER Us, and Poison. See also Wounds. The cure of the venomous bites of vipers seems very unsettled : Mr. Boyle found a hot iron held near the place very successful ; but it proved otherwise with M. Charras. Again, the snake-root from the East Indies, immediately applied to the place, is much commended ; but signor Redi and M. Charras found it of no use; yet Baglivi and Dr. Havers give instances of its good suc- CCSS. Dr. Mead adds, that the snake-stone, directly applied to a pigeon when bitten, saved its life four hours; where- as most of the other pigeons bitten died in half an hour. This stone is not natural, but factitious ; its virtue lies in its porosity, which is supposed to imbibe the virus. The viper-catchers, Dr. Mead adds, have a specific, in V I P E R. in which they can so far confide as not to be afraid of being bitten. That specific is, the axungia of the viper presently rubbed into the wound ; which, consisting of clammy, viscid, penetrating and active parts, sheathes the salts of the virus. The same author applying it to the nostrils of a dog bitten, found the creature well the next day: when this is not timely applied, and the virus has insinuated into the blood, the sal viper is excellent, given and repeated till sweats be produced. This succeeded well with M. Charras; and Dr. Mead relates, that it recovered one after the virus had induced a universal icterus. The bite of the viper having been supposed certainly curable by oil of olives, vulgarly called salad-oil, alone; and a viper catcher in England having suffered himself to be bitten by one of these creatures, and having recov- ered, after many dangerous symptoms, and the cure being attributed to the oil alone, though other medicines were given him internally ; in consequence of which, Dr. Vater tried the same remedy with success at Dres- den : Messrs. Geoffroy and Hunauld, of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, made a number of ex- periments, in which this oil proved ineffectual ; and add- ed to their accounts, some other persons uitten, in which all the dreadful consequences of that poison are shown, and the remedies by which they were cured are men- tioned. Phil. Trans. No 443, 444, 445 ; or Abr. vol. ix. p. 60. Two instances are mentioned, in which the symptoms of the bite appeared much in the same manner with those of the man who suffered himself to be bitten in England, in order to be cured by the oil. The sleep came on in all the same circumstances, and they were all cured, as well he who used no unctuous application at all, as he who used the fat of the vipers, or the Englishman who de- pended upon oil. The internal medicines given to them all were of much the same kind; and all that can be con- cluded from the whole is, that either these bites would not have proved mortal in themselves, or that the cordial medicines which they took internally, were the reme- dies that prevented the mischief that would have ensued; and these seem to have acted not as specifics against the bite of this animal, but merely as medicines that would stop the spreading of a gangrene ; the unprevent- ed increase of which is the thing that proves fatal from the creature’s bite. The dissections of the animals which had died by the bite of the viper, whether they had or had not been rub- bed with oil, afforded all the same appearances. The limb which had received the wound was in all sweiled and livid, and these symptoms were usually carried along the thigh to the belly, and sometimes up to the breast. Incisions made along these parts always discovered the cellules of the membrana adiposa full of bloody-colour- ed water, and the membrane itself was swelled, blackish, and gangrened. And this appeared always more plainly in the belly than in any other part : the membrana adi- posa in all other parts of the body was in its natural state. The injured parts often had a cadaverous smell; the muscles of the wounded limb were also found of a brown- ish colour, and their fibres had lost their consistence, and seemed ready to give way to the approaching gangrene. Nor is this effect confined to the external parts alone : a goose that had been bitten had three gangrenous spots on its heart, and all the indications of a beginning gan- grene in other parts of it; the concave side of the liver was also gangrened, and had wholly lost its consistence; and the lungs of a fowl, that had been bitten on the wing, were found in part gang ened. The effects, however, were different in degree, from the bite of the several vipers; and there seems no reason to doubt, but that the bites of different animals, though of the same spe- cies, under different circumstances, either in regard to the creature wounding, or the creature wounded, may be followed with very different consequences; so that remedies are not to be depended on from their success in one or two trials. Mem. Acad. Scienc. Par. 1737. The poison of the viper is only noxious when imme- diately conveyed into the blood. Nor is it mortal to eat the flesh of creatures killed by vipers, or to drink the wine in which they have been drowned, or to suck the parts they have wounded. On the contrary, signor Redi says, sucking the wound is a sovereign remedy against the bite of vipers. This author denies what has been affirmed by Aristotle and Galen, that the Spittle of a fast- ing person kills vipers. Phil. Trans. No 9. p. 160. The practice of sucking out poisons is very ancient, and indeed nothing can be more rational. Where the bite cannot be cut out, this is the most likely way for extracting the poison. There can be no danger in per- forming this office, as the poison does no harm, unless it is taken into the body by a wound. The person who sucks the wound ought, however, to wash his mouth frequently with salad-oil, which will secure him from the least inconvenience. The Psylli in Africa, and the Mersi in Italy, were famed for curing the bites of poisonous animals, by suck- ing the wound ; and we are told that the Indians in North America practise the same at this day. When the wound is well sucked, it should be after- wards rubbed with warm salad-oil. A poultice of bread and milk, softened with salad, oil, should likewise be applied to it, and the patient should drink freely of vin- egar-whey, or water-gruel with vinegar in it, to make him sweat. Vinegar is, indeed, one of the best medi- cines which can be used in any kind of poison, and ought to be taken very liberally. If the patient be sick, he may take a vomit. This course, says Dr. Buchan, will be sufficient to cure the bite of any of the poisonous an- imals of this country. Dr. Brookes says, that the following remedy, which was the invention of a negro, who for the discovery ob- tained his freedom and a pension for life of 100l. fier an- num, from the general assembly of Carolina, has been found effectual for the bite of the rattle-snake. The prescription is as follows: Take of the roots of plantain and horehound in summer, roots and branches together, a sufficient quantity; bruise them in a mortar, and squeeze out the juice, of which give, as soon as possible, one large spoonful ; if the patient be swelled, force it down his throat. This generally will cure : but if he finds no relief an hour after, give him another spoonful, which is said never to fail. If the roots are dried, they must be moistened with a little water. To the wound may be applied a leaf of good tobacco moistened with rum. Messrs. Jussieu and Le Sage strongly recommend the use of the volatile fluor alkali as an antidote against the venom of vipers; but if the proofs alleged by the abbé Fontana, that the poison of vipers is not of an acid nature, be admitted, the utility of the alkali must be precluded. The abbé adds, that cantharides, applied outwardly, always did mischief by increasing the inflam- mation; when given inwardly, they operated as an eme. 4 Z 2 tic, ~ * V IP V IP tic, which is sometimes beneficial. Scarifications pro- duced the same effects with the external application of cantharides: Peruvian bark, theriaca, oils, the suction of leeches, and of the mouth, were all found ineffectual. He also explodes, in this case, the boasted virtue of the Pied a de Cobras, as an alexipharmic. Quick-lime also, when applied to the wound in pigeons, has sometimes been of use, but not so as to justify any confidence in the remedy. Upon the whole this writer infers, that the greatest security we have against the bite of vipers in one spe- cies, is the little probability of its being poisonous to the degree that has been always imagined, and that has caused such dreadful alarms, which alone are sufficient to irritate a tainted habit. He also doubts whether the bite of the rattle-snake is actually so venomous as is gen- erally imagined. See Fontana sur les Poisons et sur le Corps Animal, &c. in 2 vols. 4to. Florence. - Vipers make a considerable article in medicine. Most authors agree, that there is no part, humour, or excre- ment, not even the gall itself of a viper, but may be swallowed without harm. Accordingly the ancients, and, as several authors assure us, the Indians, as well as many other people at this day, both of the East and West, eat them as we do eels. Caro wiferina, viper’s flesh, either roasted or boiled, the physicians have unanimously prescribed as an ex- cellent restorative; and it has been particularly recom- mended in the elephantiasis, incurable consumptions, leprosy, &c.; and Dr. Mead thinks they might be less sparing in the quantity than they are: instead of a little viper’s flesh, he recommends the broth or jelly of vi- pers; or, as the ancients did, to boil and eat them as fish, or at least to drink vinum viperinum, i. e. wine in which they have been long infused. Viper's flesh, indeed, appears to be very nutritious, and therefore a useful restorative in some kinds of weak- nesses and emaciated habits; but in scrophulous, lep- rous, and other like distempers, the good effects which have been ascribed to it are more uncertain. Dr. Lewis says, that he has known a viper taken every day for above a month, in disorders of the leprous kind, without any apparent benefit. The form in which they are used to the best advantage, is that of broth, or jus viperinum. Viper’s flesh used to be an ingredient in several of our best antidotes, as the theriaca Andromach. &c. The apothecaries also formerly sold the pulvis viper- inus, which is only dried vipers pulverized, heart, liver, and ail, and passed through a sieve. This, to heighten the price, we suppose, they call animal bezoard. The salts of vipers, whether volatile or fixed, also their fat, or axungia, and their oil, chemically drawn, are drugs that have been in considerable repute. The fat of the viper is accounted particularly useful in disorders of the eyes; but what advantages it has above other soft fats, is by no means clear. It was form- erly supposed to have some specific power of resisting the poison of the viper’s bite, by being rubbed immedi- ately on the wounded part; but experience has now shown, that common oil is, in this intention, of equal effi- cacy. Lewis. See Colub ER Berus. VIPER, Bites and Stings of, in Animals, the affections which it produces in these ways. The bites of such reptiles should constantly be guarded against as much as possible, as they are not unfrequently attended with dangerous consequences. Animals of the neat-cattle kind are more liable to be bitten and stung by these reptiles, than those of any other sort of live-stock. In- stances have been known where the tongues of such cat- tle have even been bitten or stung while grazing or feed- ing, which have prove fatal. Such stock are, however, seldom attacked by reptiles of the adder kind, except in cases where these are disturbed by the animals in pas- turing or feeding; which is the main reason why so many of them are bitten or stung about the head, and occasion- ally the feet. There are mostly much pain, inflamma- tion, and swelling produced by these bites and stings; the progress of which may commonly be checked or stopped, and the complaint removed, by the use of such means as are directed below. - A sort of soft liquid of the liniment kind may be pre- pared by mixing strong spirit of hartshorn, saponaceous liniment, spirit of turpentine, and tincture of opium, with olive-oil ; the former in the proportion of about two ounces each to three of the last, incorporating them well together by shaking them in a phial, which will be found very useful in many cases. A proper quantity of it should be well rubbed upon the affected part, two or three times in the course of the day, until the inflamma- tion and swelling begin to disappear, after the bottle has been well shaken. In the more dangerous cases, it may often be advan- tageous to use fomentations to the affected parts, especi- ally when about the head, with the above application; such as those made by boiling white poppy-heads with the roots of the marshmallow, the leaves of the large plantain, and the tops of wormwood, in the quantities of a few ounces of the first, and a handful of each of the lat- ter, when cut small, and bruised in five or six quarts of the stale grounds of malt liquor. They may be appli- ed frequently to the diseased parts, rubbing them after- wards each time well with the above soft liquid liniment. Where there are feverish appearances, as is often the case in the summer season, a proper quantity of blood may sometimes be taken away with great benefit, and a strong purge be afterwards given of the cooling kind with much use. In slight cases of this kind, some think the continued free use of spirit of hartshorn, given internally, and ap- plied externally to the affected parts, is the best remedy of any that is yet known. As they are so dangerous, these reptiles should always be destroyed as much as possible in all pastures and gra- zing grounds. VIPER Wine, Vinum Viñerinum, is a preparation of vipers infused in wine. It is commonly made by mace- rating for a week, with a gentle heat, two ounces of the dried flesh in three pints of mountain. This has been deemed a great restorative, and provocative to venery, and also good against cutaneous eruptions, &c. But Dr. Lewis observes, that it cannot perhaps be affirmed from fair experience, that this wine has any great virtue. VIPER’s Bugloss, in Botany. See Echiu M. The flowers of the viper’s bugloss are supposed to possess the virtue of cordials, in the same degree with the borage and bugloss. Some authors greatly recom- mend a decoction of the dried plant in epilepsies. It is said that very singular cures have been done by it. VIPER’s Grass. See Sco RzoNERA. The roots of the common viper’s grass, or scorzon era Hisflamica of Linnaeus, have been employed indifferent- ly as alexipharmics, and in hypochondriacal disorders and V IR V I R and obstructions of the viscera; but at present are more properly considered as alimentary articles, in general salubrious, and moderately nutritious. They abound with a milky juice, of a soft, sweetish taste, but which, in drying, contracts a slight bitterness. Extracts made from them by water are considerably sweet and mucila- ginous: extracts made by rectified spirit have a less de- gree of sweetishness, accompanied with a slight grateful warmth. In Cartheuser’s experiments, the spirituous extract amounted to one-third the weight of the root, and the watery to above one-half. Lewis. VIPER. Key, in Geografhy, one of the Tortugas islands, VIPER A PILEATA, or Vittata, in Zoology, a name by which some authors have called a remarkable spe- cies of Indian serpent, more usually known by the name of Cobra de cañella. VIPERARIA, in Botany, a name given by some authors to the scorzonera, or viper’s grass. VIPITANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Germany, between Veldidana and Sublavio, thought to be the present Stortzingen, or rather Amoluz, a village at the foot of mount Brenner. - VIPPACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the territory of Erfurt; 8 miles N. of Erfurt.—Also, a river of Thuringia, which runs into the Gram; 3 miles S. of Sommerda. - - VIPPAch, Marck, a town of Germany, in the princi- pality of Eisenach; 7 miles N.E. of Erfurt. VIPULZAN, a town of Austria, in the county of Goritz; 6 miles W. of Goritz. VIQUE, or VIcq, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; the see of a bishop, suffragan of Tarragona; 22 miles W.S.W. of Gerona. N. lat. 41° 54'. E. long. 2° 8'. VIR, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain, the mouth of which, according to Ptolemy, is near the pro- montory on which was the altars of the sun. VIRABADRA, in Hindoo Mythology, a warlike cha- racter, usually spoken of as a son of Siva, the avenging form of the trimurti, or divine triad of that polytheistic race. (See Siva and TRIMURT1.) Sometimes he is said to be an incarnation of Siva. He is usually represented four-armed; holding a sword, shield, bow, and arrow ; and in a threatening pursuing posture, accompanied by Sivean attributes; such as collar of skulls, linga, &c. (See LINGA and SAIva.) A human figure with a ram’s head, and a handsome female figure, are commonly seen beside him, in the act of adoration. Some account of Virabadra, with represcntations of him from metallic casts, may be seen in the Hindoo Pantheon. Virabadra is a personage of extensive and ancient ce- lebrity. His exploits, parentage, &c. are recorded in the Sivpurana, and his name frequently occurs in other Sanscrit works. (See PURAN.A.) In the sacred poem just named, it is said that he was produced from a drop of Siva's sweat. He is understood, as one of the off- spring of Siva, to be included in the denomination of Bhai ava; a word derived from bheru, meaning terrific or tremendous. It is written, and we believe more cor- rectly pronounced, Vairava; which name is given to another supposed son or incarnation of Siva. See VAI- RAW A. Sonnerat mentions Virabadra as a Carnatic deity; calling him, in his inaccurate mode of writing Eastern names, Virapatrin He calls him Siva’s four: h son, produced with a thousand heads and a thousand arms, by the sweat of his body, to avert the effects of a sacri- fice. He is sometimes called also Bhir Bhadr. The other three sons of Siva, mentioned by Sonnerat, are, we suppose, Kartikya, Pollear, and Vairava. See those articles. VIRACELLUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Liguria, S.E. of Apua. VIRAGO, a woman of extraordinary stature and cou- rage, and who, with the female sex, has the mien and air of a man, and performs the actions and exercises of II, CI), The word is pure Latin, formed from vir, man, and is seldom used but in the way of diversion. Such were Semiramis and Penthesilea among the an- cients ; and Jeanne la Pucelle, commonly called The Maid of Orleans, among the moderns. In the Vulgate version of the bible, Eve is called vi- rago, because made of the rib of man. The Latin trans- lator by this, aimed to preserve the etymology as it is in the Hebrew, and of vir, formed virago ; as Adam, in the Hebrew text, called Eve Ischa, of isch, man. VIRAGUE, in Geography, a town of Hindoostan, in Dowlatabad ; 25 miles E. of Perinda. VIRAJ, in Hindoo Mythology, a very mysterious personification, originating immediately from the god- head, in a manner not reconcileable to minds which have happily shaken off the trammels of idolatry and super- stition. In the early portion of the Institutes of Menu (ch. i. v. 32.) it is said, “Having divided his own sub- stance, the mighty power became half male, half female (or, says the commentator, mature active and fiassive); and from that female he produced Viraj.” Menu next tells us that he himself was the person produced by the male power Viraj, and that he produced her lords of created beings eminent in holiness. These are usually called Brahmadikas, or offspring of Brahma; but the Puranas do not agree as to their number : sometimes nine, seven, and three only are mentioned. Consider- able difficulty is found in the attempt to reconcile the apparent contradictions in the histories of these early personages; who, it may be reasonably imagined, have had historical existence, though so much obscured by the fictions of mythology. All travellers who have visited the cavern temple, called by the English Elephanta, have been struck with a colossal one-breasted figure; and various have been the conjectures as to its allusion. The author of the Hindoo Pantheon, who has examined the temple in question, reasonably judges it to be a representation of Viraj, or nature active and passive ; and he gives several repre- sentations of similar subjects from original pictures. (See SIv A.) In our article ELEPHANTA we have noticed the supposition of some travellers, that the one-breasted armed female alluded to the fable of the Amazons. It is now found that the Hindoos also have fables of islands inhabited only by warlike women, who are called, in the Persian translations of these stories, Hamazen ; which word means, in that language, all women. (See on this curious subject, Moor on Hindoo Infanticide, p. 82.) The whole ground-work of the Amazonian fable may, therefore, have come from India to the embellishing Greeks, as well as the notion of male and female deities; all originating possibly in the mysterious sexual union, the subject of this article. In the Hindoo mythology, the co equality of the male and female power is asserted. There is less sexual con- fusion among the Hindoo than among the Greek deities. Among: V IR V IR Among the latter, the sex of several is very dubious ; while others were both male and female. Authority can be produced among the western mythologists, making both Minerva and Venus male as well as female. These goddesses correspond with the Parvati and Lakshmi of the Hindoos: the former of whom is seen in the biune figure Viraj; and the latter in her character of Sukra, or the planet Venus, is of the male sex. Soma, the moon of India, is also male, as he was among the Ger- mans and Saxons. The Parthians said that Venus was the moon, and a male deity; as, according to Macrobius, did some western mythologists. See SoMA. These are fables connected with the history of Krish- na, in which he and his mistresses, to conceal the shame of the amorous deity from his enraged consort, were va- riously metamorphosed. On one occasion, as related in a Purana, “when detected dallying in a grove of san- dal with Viraja, the figure of a quadruped concealed his Shame; and she was changed into a river.” This fable is noticed in our article RADHA. We know not if the nymph of the sandal grove have any connexion with the subject of this article. VIRAMSHAMPETTA, in Geograft hy, a town of Hindoostan, in the Carnatic ; 9 miles S.W. of Terriore, VIRANDJIK, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 16 miles W. of Kiutaja. VIRANSHEHR, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Na- tolia; 42 miles E.N.E. of Boli. VIRATARUPA, in Mythology, a name of the Hin- doo god Vishnu; and given also to his warlike incarna- tion in the person of Rama. See RAMA and Vishnu. VIRBIUS Mons, in Ancient Geogranhy, part of a mountain, now-called “Mont Albano.” The name Vir- bius (from vir, man, and bis, twice) is said to have been given to this mountain in honour of Hippolytus, who, having been put to death by a monster, had been restor- ed to life by Diana. From the Appian way another was detached, which led to a temple of Diana on this mount. This mountain was on the Appian way, from which di- verged two other ways, one of which led to the temple of Jupiter Latialis, on mount Albano, and the other to the temple of Diana, at the bottom of the centre of the lake of Armenia. - VIRE, in Geograft hy, a river of France, which rises near Calvados, and runs into the English Channel, to the north of Isigny, between the departments of the Chan- hel and the Calvados.-Also, a town of France, and prin- cipal place of a district, in the department of the Calva- dos; 27 miles S.W. of Caen. N. lat. 48° 5'1'. W. long.48'. VIRE, or Matraca, a cape of Arabia, on the coast of the Indian sea; 16 miles N.N.E. of Hassek. VIREA, in Botany, Adanson Fam. des Plantes, v. 2. 1 12, a name which seems to allude to the more green, and less hoary, herbage of the plants to which it is ap- plied, compared with many of the same tribe; like Pireo, the Latin name of the Green-finch. See APAR- GIA, under the article THRIN cIA. VIRECTA, a word derived from vireo, to be verdant, aliuding to the verdure of the plant, which however is not peculiarly striking, except in the dried specimens; whose colour, being better preserved than in some of the same natural order, might perhaps suggest to Lin- naus the idea of the name. Wirectum occurs in some copies of Virgil, for a green retreat; but viretum is ge- nerally supposed the true reading.—Linn. Suppl. 17. Schreb. Gen. 125. Willd. Sp. Pl, v. 1. 972. Mart. Mill. Dict. v; 4. Juss, 200. Poiret in Lamarck Dict. v. 8, 676. (Sipanea; Aubl. Guian, 147, t, 56. Juss. 201, under Mussanda. Lamarck Illustr. t. #15 1.)- Class and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Stellatae, Linn. Rubiaceae, Juss. - - Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth superior, of five narrow- awlshaped, erect, equal, permanent leaves, with as many solitary, glandular or bristly, intermediate teeth. Cor. of one petal, funnel-shaped; tube thrice as long as the calyx, erect, even ; slender below ; dilated in the up- per half; limb horizontally spreading, in five ovate, or lanceolate, entire, equal segments, not half so long as the tube. Stam. Filaments five, various in length, in- Serted into the middle of the tube ; anthers terminal, very long, linear-awlshaped, converging, either con- tained within the tube, or prominent. Pist. Germen inferior, globose, crowned with an elevated rim within the calyx; style thread-shaped, smooth, the length of the tube; stigma in two short, divaricated segments. Peric. Capsule globose with five furrows, hispid, crown- ed with the upright calyx, of two cells and two valves; the partitions transverse, from the centre of each valve. Recent. central, globose, meeting the partitions. Seeds numerous, small, angular, dotted with minute depres- SIOT S. Ess. Ch. Corolla funnel-shaped. *Stamens inserted into the tube. Calyx of five leaves, with intermediate teeth. Stigma deeply divided. Capsule inferior, of two cells and two valves, with contrary partitions. Seeds Ill. The I’OllS. g Obs. Though Linnaeus described this genus with great care and minuteness, he erred in attributing to it a capsule of only one cell. Hence M. Poiret justly doubted the propriety of referring hither the Sifanea of Aublet, which has two cells, and if compared with the above description will be found to answer in every ma- terial point. The only difference indeed is, that Sihanea has five bristles between the calyx leaves, instead of the minute glands of the original Wirecta. A circumstance which confirms, rather than invalidates, that part of the generic character. 1. V. biflora. Twin-flowered Virecta. Linn. Suppl. , 134, Syst. Veg. ed. 14. 197. Willd. n. 1. (V. vi- rens; Vahl Symb. v. 2. 38. Rondeletia biflora; Rottb. Surin. 7. t. 2. f. 2.)—Stem creeping. Flower-stalks unequal, terminal, in pairs. Corolla smooth. Stamens within the tube. Leaves ovate, twice as long as their footstalks.—Native of Surinam, in rather moist situa- tions, where it was gathered by Dalberg and Rolander. The root is fibrous, annual. Stems a foot or more in length, decumbent, throwing out roots from their lower joints, ascending at the extremity, square, a little hairy, leafy, forked. Leaves stalked, opposite, near an inch long, smooth, or nearly so, resembling some Parieta- Tiaº, or Urtica. Stiftulas small, triangular, opposite, connecting the bases of the footstalks. Flower-stalks from the forks of the stem, some of them terminal, each bearing two reddish flowers, about an inch long, white in the centre; the lowest of them nearly sessile. Germen bristly. Calyx, and Corolla quite smooth. 2. V. frocumbens. Procumbent Virecta-Stem pro- cumbent. Flowers terminal, aggregate. Corolla bristly. Stamens prominent. Leaves ovate, thrice as long as their footstalks.-Discovered at Sierra Leone, by Mr. Afzelius, to whom we are obliged for a specimen, and for the determination of the genus. This is about the size of the preceding, but is more procumbent, and ra- ther more hairy, especially the 8tem and footstalks. Leaves * V I R. V I R' Leaves similar, but somewhat smaller, and more taper- ing from their broad base into the footstalk. Flowers in some measure capitate, at the end of the stem or branches, not numerous, smaller than the first species; their corolla with narrow, almost linear, segments, and clothed externally with shining, bristly hairs. Filaments as long as the limb of the corolla, with short purplish anthers. 3. V. fratensis, Savanna Virecta. Vahl Eclog. fasc. 2, 11. Schrad. Journ. v. 2. 333. (Sipanea pratensis; Aubl. Guian. 148. t. 56.)—Stem erect. Flowers ter- minal, aggregate. Corolla smooth. Stamens within the tube. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, stalked.—Abundant in the meadows round the town of Caïenne, where it is almost always to be found in flower and seed. Aublet says this herb serves to make astringent decoctions, use- ful for washing wounds and ulcers, as well as in the gonorrhoea. The root is fibrous; whether annual or otherwise we are not informed. Stems two feet or more in height, roundish, with many opposite branches. Ileaves about an inch and a half long, acute, rather ta- pering at the base, a little hairy, especially their ribs beneath. Footstalks rather short. Stiftulas membra- nous, abrupt. Flowers five, six, or seven, together, in little terminal tufts, white or rose-coloured, about the size of the first species. The corolla appears to be Smooth; its segments broad, rounded or obovate. The short filaments, inserted into the middle of the tube, with their anthers of the same length, are altogether concealed therein, and do not reach near so high as the mouth. Calyz fringed with bristles, and furnished with small solitary hairs between its segments; but these do not appear quite so long in Aublet’s own specimen as in his figure. The capsule resembles V. biflora. 4. V. multiflora. Many-flowered Virecta.—Stem erect. Flowers terminal, aggregate, numerous. Corolla bristly. Stamens and style longer than the limb. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, nearly sessile.—Found by Mr. Afzeli- us at Sierra Leone. Very like the last in size and ha- bit, but the stem is rather more quadrangular, and pur- plish. Leaves an inch and a half or two inches long, deflexed, rounded at the base, hairy, on short stalks. Stiftulas lanceolate, hairy. Flowers many together, al- most sessile, in dense, hairy, terminal heads. Calyx densely fringed with long bristly hairs, such as clothe the outside of the corolla. The segments of the latter are Very narrow, almost linear. The stamens extend beyond them, and are quite capillary, stºodth, with shortish terminal anthers. The style is slender, still longer than the stamens, with a small divided stigma. We have not seen the fruit. VIRELAY, the name of a song among the Proven- gale poets, which succeeded the chants royaux, or royal Songs, so called either because Thibaut, compte de Champagne, and king of Navarre, was author of so great a number, or to give them the dignity of poems the most worthy to be sung at court. For different from the Vaudevilles which pass from mouth to mouth, they were produced for the most delicate ears, and performed by the most able musicians of those times. From the chant royal, and from the balade, came the lay and vire- lay, the rondeau, the triolet, and all those little poems, of which the refrein, or burden, is the most agreeable part. VIRET, PETER, in Biography a famous Calvinistic divine, was born in 1511, at Orbe, in the canton of Berne, and during his studies at Paris formed an acquaintance with Farel, with whom he co-operated in propagating the doctrines of the Reformation in several towns of Switzerland, and particularly at Geneva, whither he ac- companied Farel in 1534. At Lausanne he exercised his ministry with great satisfaction, so that he declined the offer of being colleague with Calvin at Geneva. He is said, in one of his visits to Geneva, to have escaped death by poison, administered to him by the instigation of some of the popish canons of that church, which, though it did not prove instantly fatal, injured his con- stitution, which was delicate, and shortened his life. From Lausanne he removed to Nismes and Montpellier, and at length settled at Lyons. But in 1653 he was obliged to quit his station, in consequence of the edict of Charles IX., which prohibited his subjects of the re- formed religion from having ministers that were not born in the kingdom. He then retired to Orange, and from thence, by the invitation of the queen of Navarre, to Berne. In 1569 he was in prison, and exchanged for the governor of a town. His death happened, probably at Pau, in 1571, at the age of 60. Viret possessed a considerable share of learning, and was an eloquent preacher. His works were numerous; of these, several upon the doctrines and superstition of the Romish church were written in a style of ludicrous sareasm, but others were serious. His work “On True and False Religion,” published at Geneva in 1560, dis- plays much reading on the subject of superstition; but his largest work is “ An Exposition of the Doctrine of the Christian Faith,” which Dupin depreciates, as he does his small tracts of controversy. Bayle. Dupin. VIRGA. See YARD. VIRGA is particularly used in law for verge, or rod, such as sheriffs and bailiffs carry, as a badge of their office. “ Ranf, ap. Howell, praepositus de Lantiffin amercia- tus pro eo quod habuit in manu sua eoram justiciariis hic virgam nigram & inhonestam, ubi habere debuisset virgum album et honestum certae longitudinis, prout decet.” In sess. Itin. de Cardiff. 7. Hen. VI. VIRGA Aurea, in Botany. See SoLIDAGO. VIRGA Pastoris, a name given by some authors to difisa cus ; which see. Where the name virga pastoris occurs in the transla- tion of the Arabian writers, it is not to be supposed to mean the plant we call virga pastoris. . It is, indeed, the literal translation of the hassalelrheir of Serapion and Avicenna; but they called the common horse-tail by this name, when they applied the adjective female to it; and when they added the male, they meant by it the common knot-grass. VIRGA Sanguinea, a name given by Matthiolus, and some other authors, to the cornus foemina, or dogberry- bush, common in our hedges. See CoRNUs. VIRGA. Lateralis Minimus, in Anatomy, a name given by some writers to a muscle, called by others levator aniparvus, and by some transversus ani. It is called by Albinus the transversus perinaei, and by some transver- salis penis. VIRG.E, in Physiology, a meteor, called also columel- la, and funes tentorii; being an assemblage of several streams of light, representing a bundle of rods or ropes. It is supposed owing to the streaming of the sun-bcams through certain rimulae, or chinks; at least through the more lax and open parts of a watery cloud, happening, chiefly in the morning and evening. There is also another kind, consisting not of streams. ot V I R V IR of mere white light, but, as it were, painted of various colours, like those of the rainbow. VIRGANTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Segusians, according to Ammianus Marcellinus. Stra- bo names it Brigantium : it is so called by Ptolemy and Anton. Itin.: it is the present Briançon. VIRGAO ALBA, a town of Hispania Citerior, called in Anton. Itin. Urcao, Vircao, and Virgao, and marked between Calpurniana and Iliturgis. VIRGATA SUTURA, a term used by some anato- mists for the sagittal suture of the cranium. VIRGATA Terræ, or Virga Terra, a yard-land. VIRGATORES SERVIENTEs, in Fleta, are vergers, or tip-staves, who attend the judges. See VERGER, and SERJEANT at Arms. VIRGI, or URCA, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of Spain, upon the gulf Virginitanus Sinus. VIRGIL, PUBLIUs VIRGILIUS MARo, in Biografthy, a celebrated Roman poet, whose name is familiar to every classical scholar, was born in the year B.C. 70 at Andes, a village near Mantua, and liberally educated at Cremona, Milan, and Naples. His teacher in philoso- phy was named Syro, and the philosophy in which he was instructed was the Epicurean. From his first ec- logue, in which he is supposed to have related his own adventures under the appellation of Tityrus, it appears that he first visited Rome in his 30th year for the pur- pose of recovering lands that were in the possession of the military belonging to Octavius and Antony, after the war against the republicans; and having been intro- duced to Octavius by Pollio, or some other person, and to his subsequent patron Mecaenas, he succeeded in the object of his visit by their influence. His life, however, was endangered by the violence of the veteran who oc- cupied his farm, and who resisted the surrender of it, so that he was obliged to seek redress by another visit to Rome, and to obtain an order for his reinstatement. His eclogues, which were completed in his 33d or 34th year, were very favourably 'received; and in his 34th year he was induced by Mecaenas to commence his Georgics; and during a period of seven years, which he employed in the prosecution of them, he resided chiefly at Napſes. The latter years of his life were devoted to the AEneid. At this time he was ranked among those friends, who were particularly distinguished by the at- tention and confidence of Augustus. After the death of Marcellus, in the year B. C. 23, he paid that admirable tribute to his memory, which occurs in the sixth book of the AFneid, and concerning which Donatus says that when it was recited before Augustus, in the presence of Octavia, the mother of the deceased, as soon as the words “Tu Marcellus eris” were pronounced, she ſaint- ed away; and afterwards rewarded the poet with ten sesterces (above 80l.) for each line of the passage. After the completion of his AEneid, Virgil went to Greece, with the view of further polishing it; and on this occasion Horace is supposed to have addressed him with the third ode of his first book, beginning “Sic, te Diva potens Cypri,” in which he expresses the warmest affection for his brother poet. At Athens he met with Augustus, and proposed returning in his company; but at Megara he was seized with a disorder, which detained him, as some say, at Brundusium, or, according to others, at Tarentum, and which soon terminated his life in the year B. C. 19, in the 52d year of his age. His remains were conveyed, in pursuance of his request, to Naples, and in- terred on the Puteolan way. On his death-bed he is said to have expressed a w’sh that his AFneid, which he re- garded as an imperfect work, might be committed to the flames; but it was saved either by the interposition of his friends Tucca and Varus, who prevailed upon him to bequeath it to them, on the condition that they should make no alteration in it, or by the injunctions of Augus- tus to his executors. His modesty, indicated by this wish, was combined with other similar qualities. “He was mild and gentle in his manners, unassuming in conver- sation, sincere and faithful in friendship, so that he was singularly beloved by Augustus, Mecaenas, and all the most distinguished persons of that period.” His poeti- cal talents, as well as general character, were highly ap- preciated by his contemporaries, insomuch that whenso- ever his verses were recited in the theatre whilst he was present, the audience rose up and paid him the respect which was usually manifested to the emperor. His emi- nent merit has been also acknowledged by ancient and modern critics, and though they have differed in opinion as to his peculiar and distinguishing excellencies, they have generally agreed, as one of his most judicious bio- graphers has said, “ in placing him upon one of the high- est seats in Parnassus.” Of the faculty of invention he seems to have possessed a very moderate share, inso- much that his Bucolics, Georgics, and Æneid, abound with traces of imitation, and even of translation ; but it is “in the diction and phraseology of poetry, in all that constitutes the artist, that his chief excellence consists; and his admirers will not allow that the Virgilian splen- dour and majesty of style have ever been equalled.”— “In two species of composition Virgil has afforded mo- dels to almost all succeeding poets, the didactic and the epic.” His fame has been testified by the numerous edi- tions of his works, as well as the commentaries and translations which they have produced. The learned professor Heyne has given an account of the various MSS. and editions of Virgil in his edition of Leipsic, 1788, which has been considered by competent judges as the most complete and valuable. For a description and character of the AEneid, see AFNEID. Vita Virgilii Ruaci et Heynii. Gen. Biog. VIRGIL, in Geografi.hy, a post-township of America, in the province of New York, and S.W. corner of Court- landt county ; 10 miles S. of Homer, and 155 miles W. of Albany. It is ten miles square, well watered, and furnished with good roads; the soil is excellent; the timber is maple, beech, bass, elm, butter-nut, &c. with some pine and hemlock. In 1810, the population was 913; the senatorial electors 77 ; and the whole amount of taxable property 84,351 dollars. VIRGILIA, in Botany, a genus dedicated by La- marck to the great Latin poet, whose Georgics may well claim for him this sort of commemoration, has taken place of the Virgilia of L’Heritier, Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 71, called by Lamarck and others Galardia. We shall submit to the general determination; for though L’ Heritier thought M. Gaillard unworthy of distinction, he may be screened by a host of names, which certainly confer less honour upon their authors than their owners, however small the merits of the latter may be.—La- marck Illustr. t. 326. Poiret in Lamarck Dict. v. 8. 677. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3, 4. Pursh 309. —Class and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Pafiiliomaceæ, Linn. Leg w minosae, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell- shaped, two-lipped; upper lip in two less deeply sepa- rated segments; lower in three spreading cnes ; the tube breaking V I R V IR - *3. breaking off circularly just above the base. Cor. papi- iionaceous; standard oval, ascending, not reflexed at the sides, emarginate; wings oblong, direct, rather shorter than the standard; keel of two elliptic-oblong petals, nearly the length of the wings. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-shaped, distinct, ascending, converging, the length of the keel which enfolds them; anthers oval, notched. Pist. Germen superior, oblong, compressed; style cur- ved, the length of the stanens; stigma obtuse, beard- less. Peric. Legume oblong, compressed, of one cell and two valves. Seeds several, orbicular, compressed. Ess. Ch. Calyx two-lipped, with five unequal teeth. Corolla papilionaceous, nearly equal ; standard not re- flexed at the sides. Stigma beardless. Legume com- pressed, oblong, with many seeds. 1. V. cafensis. Vetch-leaved Virgilia. Poiret in Lam, n. 1, Lam. fig. 2. Ait. n. 3. (Podalyria capensis; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 501. Sophora capensis; Linn. Mant. 67. Thunb. Prodr. 79. Andr. Repos. t. 347. S. oroboides; Berg. Cap. 142.)—Stamens deciduous; wool- ly at the base. Germen downy. Keel acute. Leaflets lanceolate, downy beneath. Legume silky.--Native of the Cape of Good Hope. The late Thomas Cornwall, esq. an assiduous cultivator of exotic plants, is said by Mr. Aiton to have first introduced this species in 1767. The seeds have often been imported since the plant, being frequent near Cape Town. It flowers with us in July and August, being sheltered in winter in the greenhouse. This is a tall shrub, or smail tree, having alternate pinnate leaves, with an odd leaflet, like the whole genus. The leaflets are very numerous, uniform, about an inch long, acute ; Shining, and nearly smooth, on the upper side. Flowers in stalked, axillary, downy clusters, shorter than the leaves, each half the size of a common Sweet-pea, white, with a pink, lunate spot on the standard. Le- gume downy, two inches long. 2. V. aurea. Great-flowered Virgilia. Poir. in I.am. n. 2. Lam. fig. 1. Ait. n. 1. (Podalyria aurea; Wilid. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 502. Robinia subdecandra ; L'He- rit. Stirp. Nov. 157. t. 75.)—Stamens permanent. Ger- men downy. Leaflets elliptical, obtuse, pointless. Le- gume smooth.-Native of Abyssinia. Sent to Kew in 1777, by M. Thouin. A greenhouse shrub, flowering in July. The leaflets are full as numerous as in the fore- going, and longer, more elliptical and obtuse, smooth on both sides; paler, and a little glaucous, at the back. Flowers yellow, according to L’Heritier; Poiret says white; the size of the former, in axillary clusters as long as the leaves. Legume two or three inches long, quite Smooth. - 3. V. intrusa. Small-flowered Virgilia. Br. in Ait. n. 2.-‘‘ Stamens permanent. Germen smooth. Calyx Concave externally at the base. Leaflets oval, obtuse, with a small point.”—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence it was sent to Kew garden, by Mr. Masson, about the year 1790. A greenhouse shrub, flowering most part of the summer. Aiton. 4. V. secundiflora. Unilateral-flowered Virgilia. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. l. t. 40 l. Poir. in Lam. n. 3. (“Brous- sonetia secundiflora; Ortega Dec. 5, 61. t. 7.”)--Ger- men and legume downy. Calyx tapering at the base. Leaflets oval, obtuse, pointless.--Native of New Spain, It flowered at Madrid in April. We have a specimen from Cavanilles, but the plant has not yet found its way into the English greenhouses. The stem is shrubby, three feet or more in height, with stout, round, finely VoI, XXXVIII. downy branches. Leaflets rather fewer than in any of the rest, coriaceous, veiny, smooth or very slightly silky, an inch long, sessile, mostly alternate, on a channelled common stalk. Cluster terminal, dense, of numerous jlowers all turned one way, scarcely so large as in the first or second species. Calyz finely silky, with shal- low divisions. Petals blue; the standard much paler than the rest. Stamens smooth. Germen very silky 5. V. lutea. Yellow American Virgilia. Pursh n. 1. - “Leaflets alternate, ovate, short-pointed, smooth. Clusters elongated, pendulous. Legumes stalked, flat.” -On mountains between Georgia and Tennessee. A handsome tree, much like our Laburnum, flowering in June. The bark gives a beautiful yellow dye. Purgh. VIRGILIAN H USBANDRY. See HUSBANDRY. VIRGILIANAE, SoRTEs. See So RTEs. VIRGIN, VIRGo, a female who has had no carnal commerce with a man; or, more properly, who has still the flos virginis, or maidenhood. By the Mosaic law, the priests are enjoined to take none to wife but those that are virgins; the widow, the divorced, and the harlot, are to be refrained from. In the Roman breviary there is a particular office for virgins departed, answering to those of Saints, martyrs, and confessors. VIRGIN is also applied, by way of eminence, to Mary the mother of our Saviour. Many of the fathers, with the modern churches, hold, that the Virgin not only conceived, but brought forth, or was delivered without breach of her virginity ; other- wise, saith St. Augustine, it would be false which is said in the creed, that he was born of a virgin. It is even alleged that she still remained a virgin to the end of her life; whence the Greeks always called her as rap0svog, ever Virgin Mary ; and after them the Latins, semfier virgo. Though, as this is not recorded in Holy Writ, many have denied it, and held that she had afterwards to do with Joseph, and bore other children; and this as early as the time of Origen. Tertullian himself is pro- duced as one that denied the perpetual virginity; and the like may be said of Apollinaris and Eunomius, with their followers. See ANTID1GoMARIANITEs and HELv1DIANs, VIRGIN, Charity of the Holy. See CHARITY. VIRGIN, Mativity of the. See NATIvity. VIRGIN, Presentation of the. See Present ATION. VIRGINs of Love. See Mission. VIRGIN is also applied, figuratively, to several things that retain their absolute purity, and have never been made use of. Thus, VIRGIN Cohfier. See CoPPER. VIRGIN Gold. Sce Gold. VIRGIN Oil. See Virgin OIL. VIRGIN Parchment. See PARCHMENT. VIRGIN Quicksilver, is that found perfectly formed, and fluid in the veins of mines; or at least such as is got from the mineral earth, by mere lotion, without fire. VIRGIN Sulfinur. See SULPH.U.R. VIRGIN Waac. See Virgin WAx. VIRGIN’s Bower, in Botany. See CLEMATIs. The leaves and flowers of the upright virgin’s bower, or clematis erecta of Linnaeus, called also flammula Jovi's, and distinguished by its pinnated oval leaves and erect stalk, are extremely acrid ; the former, when fresh, raising blisters on the part to which they are applied. This is one of the new medicines introduced by Dr. Stoerck. He has published several cases of its efficacy 5 A in V IR V I R in cancerous, venereal, and other malignant ulcers, ob- stinate pains of the head and bones, inveterate itch, and other diseases proceeding from peculiar acrimony. It was used internally, in infusion of the flowers or leaves, and extract of the plants; and the powder was sprinkled on the ulcers externally, where it was found to act as a most excellent escharotic and detergent. The medicine is said to have proved diuretic to some patients, and sudorific to others, but rarely to have moved the belly. Small doses, of only half a grain of the ex- tract, and half a drachm of the dried leaves in infusion, were at first exhibited, which were gradually increased. Lewis. VIRGIN’s Milk, in the Materia Medica, is a name given to a solution of benzoin in spirits, mixed with twenty times its quantity, or more, of water, which ren- ders it milky. It is said to be of great service in disorders of the breast, for resolving obstructions of the pulmonary ves- sels, and promoting expectoration. It is also used as a cosmetic VIRGIN’s Milk. See Virgin’s MILK. VIRGIN’s Thread, a sort of meteor that flies in the air, like small untwisted silk, and which falling upon the ground, or upon plants, changes itself into a substance like a spider’s web. In these northern climates it is most frequent in sum- mer; the days being then temperately warm, the earth not exceeding dry, nor yet overcharged with moisture. This has formerly passed for a sort of dew of an earthy slimy nature; but naturalists are now agreed, that the virgin’s thread are no other than so many spi- ders’ webs. VIRGIN Cafe, in Geografthy, a cape on the S E. coast of South America, at the entrance into the straits of Magellan. It was so called by Magellan, because he discovered it on the feast of St. Ursula. S. lat. 52° 24'. W. long. 67° 52'. VIRGIN Islands, a group of islands in the West In- dies, E of Porto Rico, extending 60 miles in length and upwards of 36 in breadth; dangerous to navigators, though in the midst of them there is a basin, 18 or 20 miles long, and 9 or 12 broad, in which ships may an- chor and be sheltered from all winds, called the “Bay of Sir Francis Drake,” from his having passed through them to St. Domingo. Some have erroneously suppo- sed that the name was bestowed upon them, in 1580, by sir Francis Drake, in honour of queen Eliz. bºth ; but the fact is that these islands were named “Las Virgines” by Columbus himself, who discovered them in 1493, and gave them this appellation, in allusion to the well- known legend in the Romish church of the 1 1,000 vir- gins. After having been long neglected by the Span- jards, they were visited in 1596 by the earl of Cumber- land, in his way to Porto Rico; and the historian of that voyage describes them as “a haunt of little islands, whol- ly uninhabited, sandy, barren, and craggy " The whole group comprehends about 40 islands, isle's, and keys, and they are at present divided between the English, the Spaniards, and Danes. The English hold Tortola, and Virgin Gorda, called Penniston, and corruptly Spanish- Town, in which are two very good harbours; Josvan Dykes, Guana isle, Beef and Thatch islands, Anegada, Nicker, Prickly Pear, Camane’s, Ginger, Cooper’s, Salt island, Peter’s island, and several others of little value. The Danes possess Santa Cruz, or Sta. Croix (which see), St. Thomas, with about twelve smaller de- pendent islands, and St. John, having the best harbour of any island to the leeward of Antigua; and the Span- iards claim Crab island, the Green or Serpent island, the Tropic Keys, and Great and Little Passage. Those islands which now belong to the British government were first possessed by a party of Dutch Buccaneers, who fixed themselves at Tortola (which see), and the English title has remained. The colony struggled with difficulties until the year 1773; when a petition was presented to his majesty. It questing that the governor and council might be permitted to frame proper laws for their government and welfare; pledging themselves, in such case, to grant to his majesty, his heirs and suc- cessors, an impost of 4% fier cent., in specie, upon all commodities the growth of these islands, similar to that which was paid in the other Leeward islands. This ap- plication succeeded; and an assembly was convened Feb. 1. 1774, which honourably complied with their en- gagement to the crown. They afterwards passed a grant of 400l. currency fier annum, as their proportion towards the salary of the governor-general. Such was the price at which the Virgin islands purchased the es- tablishment of a constitutional legislature. The chief and almost the only staple productions of these islands are sugar and cotton. These islands lie in about N. lat. 18° 20'; and the passage through them is safe, at W. by N. and W.N.W. as far as to the W. end of the fourth island. Edwards’s Hist. of the West Indies, vol. i. VIRGIN Rocks, rocks in the Atlantic, 60 miles S.E. of Cape Race, on the coast of Newfoundland. N. lat. 46° 20'. W. long. 50°. VIRGINAL, is a keyed musical instrument of one string, jack, and quill to each note, like a spinet; but in shape resembling the present small piano-forte. It has been imagined to have been invented in England during the reign of queen Elizabeth, and to have been thus denominated in honour of that virgin princess; but we have here not only a proof of its use in this kingdom before she was queen, but a drawing and description of it appeared in Luscinius’s Musurgia, before she was born. Dr. Johnson imagines that this instrument had its name from being chiefly cultivated by young ladies. VIRGINAL - Book of Queen Elizabeth. See QUEEN JElizabeth. and BIRD. VIRGINAL-Book of Lady JWevil. See BIRD. For the first music that was printed for the virginal, See PARTHENIA. VIRGINALE CLAustruM, in Anatomy, the same as hymen. VIRGINES, LAs, Bay of in Geograft hy, a bay on the coast of New Albion, between Cape Colne and Point Zuniga. VIRGINEUS MoRBus, Virgin’s disease ; the green- sickness, or chlorosis. VIRGIN GORDA, in Geography, Town. VIRGINIA, one of the United States of America, situated between 36° 30' and 40° 43' N. lat., and 1940' E. and 6° 20' W. long. from Washington; and bounded on the N. by Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Ohio; on the S. by North Carolina and Tennessee; on the E. by Mary- land and the Atlantic ocean; and on the W. by Ken- tucky and Ohio. Its extent from N. to S. is 220 miles, and from E. to W. 370 miles; and its area about 64,000 square miles, or 40,960,000 acres. The number of See SPAN1sh- v I R G IN I A. of inhabitants, deduced from the census of 1810, and stated by Mr. Melish, is 974,622, as in the following Tofiografi.hical Table. Counties. No, of Inhabitants. Chief Towns. Accomack - 15,743 Drummond. Albemarle - l 8,268 Charlottesville - 400 Amelia - - 10,594 \ Amherst - - 10,548 New Glasgow. Augusta - - 14,308 Staunton - - 1000 Bath - - 4,837 Warm Springs. Bedford - - 16, 148 Liberty • * 400 Berkley - - 1 1,479 Martinsburg. Botetourt - - 13,301 Fincastle • - YOO Brooke - - 5,843 Charlestown. Brunswick - 15,41 1 Buckingham 20,059 New Canton. Campbell - 1 1,001 Lynchburg - - 3000 Caroline - 17,544 Port Royal - - 1500 Charles City 5, 186 Charlotte - 13,161 Marysville. Chesterfield 9,979 Manchester - - 1200 Cumberland 9,992 Cartersville - - 700 Culpeper - 18,967 Fairfax. Cabell º 2,717 Dinwiddie - 12,524 Petersburgh - - 5668 Elizabeth City 3,608 Hampton. Essex * , 9,376 Tappahannock - 600 Fauquier - 22,689 Warrentown. Fairfax - 13, l l 1 Centreville. Fluvanna - 4,775 Columbia. Frederick - 22,574. Winchester - 2500 Franklin - 10,724 Rocky Mount. Gloucester 10,427 Goochland 10,203 Grayson - 4,941 Greensville. Greenbriar - 5,914 Lewisburg. Greensville 6,858 Hicksford. Giles 3,745 Halifax - 22,133 South Boston Hampshire - 9,784 Romney. Hanover - 15,082 Hanover. Hardy º 5,525 Moorfields. Harrison - 9,958 Clarkesburg. Henrico - 16,210 Richmond - - 16000 Henry gº 5,61 1 Martinsville. Isle of Wight 9, 186 Smithfield. James City - 9,094 Williamsburg - 1500 Jefferson - 1 1,851 Charles Town. Kanhawa - 3,866 Charles Town. King and Queen 10,988 Dunkirk. King George 6,454 King William 9,285 Delaware. Lancaster - 5,592 Kilmarnock. Lee tº 4,694 Jonesville. *Lewis Loudon - 21,338 Leesburgh. Louisa º l 1,900 Lunenburg 12,265 Hungary. Madison sº 8,381 Madison. Matthews - 4,227 Mecklinburg 18,453 St. Tammany. Middlesex - 4,4 l 4 Urbanna. Monongalia 12,793 Morgan Town. Monroe tº 5,444 Union Town. Montgomery 8,409 Christiansburg. Mason gº 1,991 Point Pleasant. Counties. Nansemond 10,324 New Kent 6,478 *Nicholson Norfolk County 13,679 Northampton 7,474 Northumberland 8,308 Nottaway - 9,278 Nelson gº 9,684 Ohio tº. 8, 175 Orange - 12,323 Patrick sº 4,695 Pendleton - 4,239 Pittsylvania - 17, 172 Powhatan - 8,073 *Preston Prince Edward 12,409 Princess Anne 9,498 Prince William 1 1,311 Prince George 8,050 Randolph - 2,854 Richmond - 6,214 Rockbridge - 10,318 Rockingham - 12,753 Russell dº 6,316 *Scott Shenandoah - 13,646 Southampton - 13,497 Spotsylvania - 13,296 Stafford - - 9,830 Surry tº sº 6,855 Sussex - - 1 1,362 Tazewell * - 3,007 *Tyler Warwick - - 1,835 Washington - 12,136 Westmoreland 8, 102 Wood gº tº 3,036 Wythe - - 8,356 York gº tº 5,187 City of Richmond 16,000 Norfolk Borough 9, 193 Petersburgh - 5,668 * Laid out since last census. No. of Inhabitants. Chief Towns. Suffolk. Cumberland. Norfolk - - - 9 193 Bridge Town. Wheeling. Stannardsville. Franklin. Danville. James Town. Kempsville. Haymarket. Beverly. Lexington - 400- Franklin. Woodstock. Jerusalem. Fredericksburg 1500 Falmouth. Cobham. Jeffersonville. Abingdon. Leeds. Newport. Evansham. York tº ge 700 [The state of Virginia may be divided into four zones, essentially differing from one another, but having a cha. racter constant in each. The first, extending from the sea coast to the termination of tide-water at Fredericks- burg, Richmond, &c., is low and flat, sometimes fenny, sometimes sandy, and on the margins of the rivers composed of a rich loam covered with a luxuriant and even rank vegetation. This zone has been formed by a comparatively recent alluvion; marine shells and bones are every where found near the surface of the earth; and, what has not been remarked, the stones, even on the surface, are smooth, and somewhat flatted by the in- cessant attrition of the waves and sand, to which they had been exposed for ages. This figure of the stones is not the effect of the currents of rivers ; for they are found of this form every where below tide water; and, indeed, are not exactly in the same shape with those worn by a current running constantly in the same di- rection. The pebbles found on river shores above tide- water, are generally oblong, or angular; those on the sea beach are round, or oval, and regularly flatted. This part of Virginia is unhealthy in the months of Au- 5 A 2 gust, V I R G IN I A. gust, September, and Gctober. The inhabitants are generally smaller than those in the middle parts of the state, of a more relaxed fibre, swarthy complexions, and languid physiognomy. The next division is that extending from the head of tide-water to the Blue ridge. It is not so uniform in its character as the preceding, but still differing from either region to which it is adjacent. The surface near tide- water is level ; higher up the rivers it becomes swelling; and near the mountains often abrupt and broken. The soil is divided into sections of very unequal quality, parallel to each other, and extending across the state. The parallel of Chesterfield, Henrico, Hanovel, &c. is a thin, sandy, and, except on the rivers, an unproduc- tive soil. That of Goochland, Cumberland, Prince Ed- ward, Halifax, &c. is generally fertile. Fluvanna, Buckingham, Campbell, and Pittsylvania, again, are poor; and Culpeper, Orange, Albemarle, Bedford, &c. a rich, though frequently a stony and broken soil, on a substratum of tenacious, red-coloured clay. The pop- ulation of this section, especially near the mountains, is more robust and healthy, and endowed with greater muscular power, than that of any other part of the state. The scenery of the upper part is highly picturesque and romantic. To the north and west, the prospect is terminated by an uninterrupted ridge of mountains, whose deep blue colour has given them the name by which they are distinguished. To the south and east, from the eminences of Albemarle, Orange, &c. one be- holds an unbroken plain, covered with a rich atd varie- gated forest. The landscape is often beautifully sloped, and cut into various irregular figures, affording fine situations for houses, gardens and farms. The third region is the valley between the Blue ridge, and North and Alleghany mountains ; a valley which extends, with little interruption, from the Potomac, across the state, to North Carolina and Tennessee ; narrower, but of greater length than either of the pre- ceding zones. The soil is a mould formed on a bed of limestone, which appears, too often, above the surface, in veins parallel to the mountains, and making every possible angle with the horizon. The surface of this valley is sometimes broken by sharp and solitary moun- tains detached from the general chain, the sides of which, nearly bare, or but thinly covered with blasted pines, form disagreeable objects in the landscape. The bed of the valley is fertile, producing good crops of Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, hemp, flax, timothy, and clover. The farms are smaller than those in the lower parts of Virginia. The cultivation is generally better ; and the enclosures and farm-houses more neat and substantial. They have few slaves; but the number is increasing. At the north-eastern termination of this valley is the celebrated passage of the Potomac, at Harper’s ferry, an object truly grand and magnificent. The cye takes in at a glance, on the north side of the Potomac and Shenandoah, at their junction, an im- petuous torrent foaming and dashing over innumera- ble rocks, which have tumbled from the precipices that overhung them ; the tops of the mountain crowned with stunted fir, and pines grotesque and wild, their sides clothed with trees of larger growth; the margin of the river below the chasm fringed with a gay and lively ver- dure ; the slow and winding approach of the two rivers running in opposite directions at the base of the ridge; the tranquil scene which the vista, between the rough edges of the jagged precipice, opens to the view—alto- gether composing a landscape capable of awakening the most sublime and delightful emotions. Whether the united weight of these rival rivers forced this outlet for waters once accumulated in the valley, is, at this day, difficult to decide. The structure of the mountains at this spot, is not exactly the same with that of other places, and there may have been here a natural breach of continuity. - The fourth and last division, is that region which ex- tends from the Alleghany mountains to the Ohio river, a country wild and broken, in some places fertile, but generally barren ; with a population hardy and enter- prising ; having treasures in its bosom which will here- after compensate in some degree for the roughness and sterility of its surface. Here are mines of lead, iron, coal, saſt, and no doubt many precious ores, which sci- ence has not yet explored, nor accident discovered. Being a calcareous country, with sulphur springs, it is nearly certain that gypsum must exist in many places: Indeed it has already been found, of a very good quality, and in great abundance, in Washington county. Minerals.—Few minerals will, naturally, be found in the first zone which has been described. An alluvial soil is generally composed of the sands of the sea, and of such organic substances as have perished on its sur- face since its emersion. In the first case, valuable mi- nerals are not found in sea sand, which is pure silex or quartz, sometimes containing a small portion of iron, as the sands on the Potomac and the James do; and in the second, minerals are not formed by the decomposi- tion of organic bodies, Very small pieces of gypsum have been found in the banks of the rivers below tide- water, but never in an amorphous state, and probably never will be in quantities sufficient to become useful in agriculture or the aris. The second section contains pit coal of a good quality, within twenty miles of Rich- mond on James river; a fine quarry of slate ; speci- mens of marble have also been exhibited from the mouth of Rockfish river, and from James river, above Lynch- burg, but neither quarry has yet been opened. There is a vein of limestone running through Albemarle, Orange, &c. The most common stones are quartz, schist, silex, grés (or sandstone) gneiss, trapp, and sometimes granite. The south-western parts of Vir- ginia under the mountains very generally contain mica, which perhaps is only the detritus from the granitic mountains. The third region is a bed of limestone, interrupted on the sharp and higher hills by schist, and on the higher mountains by gneiss and granite. The rock at Harper’s ferry is gneiss. This valley has many inexhaustible mines of iron ore, of a fine quality, which supplies the upper parts of the state, from half a dozen furnaces and forges, with that valuable metal. Chalk is also found in Botetourt county. The minerals in the north-western section have already been enumerated, so far as they are known ; but being a country in which primitive and secondary formations are often blended, it will probably be found rich in cres which have not yet been detected. The few pieces of gold found in Buckingham county, and on the Rappahannock, do not afford reason to believe that there are mines of that metal at either place. Virginia has yielded but few precious jewels. Crystallized quartz, very transparent and brilliant, is often found, and some amethysts of a fine quality have been discovered. Chalcedony, equal to that which is found in Scotland, is not uncommon; and black lead exists in many parts of the state. There aré V I R G IN I A. are many mineral springs in Virginia. Chalybeates are too frequent to be enumerated. The hot and warm springs of Bath county, the sweet springs of Monroe (simply carbonated water), the sulphur springs of Greenbriar, and of Montgomery, and the baths of Berk- ley county, are much frequented. Indeed there is scarcely a county, beyond the Blue ridge, which does not contain waters strongly impregnated with some mine- ral, beside lime, which is common to them all. The warm springs are the finest natural bath known in America. It is difficult to imagine one either natural or artificial more delightful The temperature, being very little above that of the surface of the human body, is agreeable to every one. The bottom, composed of round, flatted pebbles, cannot be made muddy. The spring most commonly used, is copious enough to sup- ply a bath forty feet in diameter. The violet colour of the water gives an alabaster whiteness to the body while immersed; its unctuous lubricity both cleanses and softens the skin; while the innumerable bubbles of air, which are constantly rising from the bottom, titillate the surface, exhilarate the spirits, and delight the whole senses. Indeed the full extent of pleasant sensations cannot be known until one enjoys the luxury of this bath. The white sulphur springs of Greenbriar are very efficacious in removing visceral obstructions. They are probably impregnated with the sulphat of magne- sia, with an excess of sulphurous acid in an uncombined state. They have however never been accurately ana- lysed, though the Americans resort to them and many other waters for different and even opposite diseases. The fact is they live too entirely on meats, drink too much spirituous liquor, lie in bed too late in the morn- ing, take irregular exercise, drink quantities of hot tea, and seldom bathe. Consequently their systems are worn down by the perpetual application of stimuli to the stomach, which they finally, and indeed very speedi- ly, become unable to digest. Then they resort to calo- mel, which to be sure removes the present obstruction ; but a recurrence to former habits soon renews it. They should use diluents, a nutritious but less stimulating diet, that their constitutions, exhausted by indirect de- bility, might recover their tone. If they would rise early, take regular exercise, bathe, eat more vegetable and less animal food, drink light wines instead of whis- key, they would need neither calomel nor sulphur water; would enjoy better health, live longer, and be more happy. The early wrinkles, dry skin, and decayed teeth so common in America, are but the particular modes in which the debility produced by improper habits, ma- nifests itself. JVatural Curiosities.—Harper’s ferry has already been mentioned. There are several similar but less known passes of rivers through the mountains. The ſalling spring in Bath county forms a beautiful cascade, stream- ing from a perpendicular precipice two hundred feet high. The volume of water, however, is too inconsid. erable to produce a sublime effect. The natural bridge of Rockbridge county, is certainly the most magnificent monument of the power of nature in Virginia. Its vast dimensions, its lofty, sublime, and even awful air, cannot be adequately recalled even by those who have seen it : only while we gaze upon its height and proportions can we feel the full effect of its terrible beauty. To form an idea of this wonderful object, we must imagine an arch varying from sixty to forty feet in depth, sixty feet wide, and ninety long, supported by abutments so grace- fully curved, so long, and light, and springing, as to ap- pear not more heavy than the capital of a Corinthian pillar. It has manifestly been formed, not by any sud- den convulsion of nature, (which can explain nothing satisfactorily, being itself an hypothesis,) but by the gradual, and very slow operation of the water flowing through the chasm, which wears away the limestone, as well by chemical decomposition as by mechanical attri- tion. [See a Memoir on the geological formation of the natural bridge, in Phil. Trans, of Soc. of Philadel- phia, 1817.] There is another natural bridge in Scott county of nearly the same height, that is, 200 feet ; but from the thickness of its arch, less beautiful. There are many caverns in the calcareous parts of Virginia, which are not thought worthy of a particular account ; nor is the burning spring in the great Kenhawa river more interesting. The Peaks of Otter, in Bedford county, are considered the most elevated points of land in Virginia. The highest, which is the eastern peak, having a round top, is 3103 feet 9 inches in altitude 3 the western and sharp top peak is only 2946 feet 6 inch- es. Their summits are base granite, but not elevated enough to retain snow considerably longer than the ad- jacent plain. The highest is not more than half the height of perpetual congelation in latitude 37° 33' 17", which is the latitude of the top of the western peak. Climate.—The spring is short and inconstant in Vir- ginia; the summer long, but not oppressive more than two months. Autumn, in the mountains, is the finest season of the year; the air is dry and of a grateful tem- perature; the sky assumes a softer tint; the sun, after having burnt through July and August with an almost torrid heat, relents; the forest, now fading and Sear, puts on a more gorgeous livery, exhibiting an enchanting prospect, checkered by the gay yellow of the hickoly and the poplar, the bright red of the dogwood and ma- ple, the sombre brown of the oak, and the mournful and unaltered green of the pine. In the middle parts of Virginia constant fires are required during five months ; none at all for five others; and irregularly during the remaining two. The country often suffers from drought in summer and autumn, which should be obviated by irrigation. Vegetable Productions. – It is worthy of observation, that while the Virginians have been at some pains to import ornamental trees and shrubs from Europe, they have in their native mountains and forests, many of the most admired plants which adorn the pleasure grounds of Europe. The elm, the forest poplar, (liriodendron), locust (robi- * * * ** tla a y * * * * thc gum (myssa), the linden (tilia) - nia), the mountain bay (rhododendron), a truly splen- did shrub, with its large bright evergreen leaves, its clusters of crimson blossoms hanging like roses in Wan- ton profusion ; the orange honey-suckle (czalea ca- lendulacea), is also a bright, gay and brilliant shrub ; the Kalmia, or laurel and ivy, as it is alternately and impro- perly called, is already well known ; the yellow jessa- mine (bignonia semper wivens of Linnaeus, now gilse- mium) is a noble vine both for its beauty and fragrance. Some of the native fruits of this state are well worthy of cultivation. Many of them are better than the originals of the present garden fruits. The persimmon (dios- pyros Virginiana), the red haw (mespilus coccinea) ałready better than the European medlar ; the mountain raspberry (rubus odoratus) the finest plant of the whole genus, having a very ornamental flower, a large, delicious and highly fragrant fruit; the summer grape (Vitis estivalis); V I R G IN I A. estivalis); the papau (annona occidentalis), and many others, would afford agreeable varieties if cultivated. But the fruits already mentioned in Europe, are little attended to in Virginia. Even grapes and figs are rare. .dshect of the Country.—Two circumstances conspire to give not only to this state, but to the United States, a landscape very different from that of the greater part of Europe. The first is the uniform surface of the coun- try, which has no great mountains like the Alps and Py- rennees, nor indeed are the hills generally so high and swelling: the south-eastern sides of the hills are gene- rally the most abrupt. The second cause is, the preva- lence of a strong wind from the north-west. The first of these circumstances affects the earth, the latter the sky. The firmament of the United States, though clear and remarkably bright, has not the soft, deep azure of Italy, of Greece, and of the southern part of France. There are more cloudless days in the United States than in any part of Europe south of the Baltic ; because in America the wind most constantly blows from a north- western direction, and consequently, when it reaches the Atlantic coast, it has passed 5000 miles over an unwater- ed waste. The clouds of the American sky, instead of lying on the horizon in curled heaps, with bright and variegated fringes, are generally dark, dense, and drawn out into well defined, pointed beds. The stars are more radiant, and the nights lighter than in Europe. One may often read very small print by the light of a full moon, in America, but rarely, even in France. The unvaried aspect of the country, and the extremes of heat and cold which proceed from the continent having no inland seas to preserve an equilibrium of tempera- ture, and which extend their influence even to the 32° of latitude, are probably the causes why fewer species of animals and of vegetables have been found in the United States than in any nearly equal portion Uf Eu- rope in the same parallel. It is not the medium tem- perature which limits the production of animals and of vegetables, but the extremes: and in that sense, there is no great difference between the climate of Virginia, and of New York. Accordingly the mass of forest trees is the same in both states, and the indigenous ani- mals are very little different. The forest near the sea in Virginia is conſposed of pine, oak, cypress, cedar, juniper, holly, &c. Above tide-water, of pine, oak, poplar, hickory, locust, chestnut, gum, ash, sycamore, elm, &c. In the valley, of nearly the same trees, with maple, scaly-bark hickory, fir, arbor vita (thuia,) &c. In the more western parts of the state, buck-eye (es- cuius), sugar maple, and some other trees become com- mon, but the body of the forest is the same as between the mountains and tide-water: except indeed that the western forests are far more heavy, more lofty, and less intermixed with copse. The waters of the west are deep and transparent ; those of the Atlantic coast shal- low, muddy, with low banks, which they often overflow, and, what is curious, have few fish. Literature.—There are three colleges in Virginia; William and Mary, Hampden Sidney, and Washington. The first of these was established under the royal go- vernment ; the other two owe their existence to the liberality and zeal of private individuais, whose princi- pal object was to afford to pious young men destined for the ministry of the gospel, the facilities of obtaining an education. This indeed was the primary design in erecting the college of William and Mary; as appears from the acts of the “Grand Assembly” of Virginia. In the session of 1660-1, an act was passed entitled “Provision for a Colledge,” the preamble of which is in these words: “Whereas the want of able and faithful ministers in this country deprives us of these great bless- ings and mercies that all waies attend on the service of God, which want, by reason of our great distance from our native country, cannot in probability be ailwaies sup- plyed from thence, Beitt enacted,” &c. See Henning’s Statutes at large, vol. ii. 25, and 37.56. In the passages referred to in the margin similar declarations occur. Hence, it may be remarked, the Virginians are indebted to Christianity for the institutions of learning which ex- ist among them. A history of the colleges that have been established in the other states in the Union, would afford undeniable evidence of similar obligations. Har- vard, Yale, Nassau Hall, and Providence, whatever may be the present character of their influence, owe their existence to the enlightened piety of our forefathers. The college of William and Mary flourished for a number of years in great prosperity; and in former times furnished for the service of the state many ripe and good scholars. But the war of the revolution gave it a shock from which it has not yet recovered. On the decease of bishop Madison, the late president, it seemed to be threatened with total extinction. Exertions, however, have been recently made to revive it, and sanguine hopes are entertained by some that it will again flourish. The colleges of Hampden Sidney and Washington have been chiefly supported by the fees paid by stu- dents. They were originally academies, established by presbyterians, and incorporated for the general purposes of education by the legislature. Whatever reputation they have had, has been chiefly acquired and sustained by the character of their presidents. To the former the legislature granted some escheated lands, worth a few hundred pounds; and to the latter, Washington be- queathed a hundred shares in the stock of the Rich- mond Canal Company. Resources so scanty as these have not enabled the trustees of these institutions to pro- cure extensive libraries, or complete apparatus ; much less to support a competent number of able professors. On this account, and perhaps because it was imagined that better discipline is maintained in the northern schools, many men of wealth have sent their sons to be educated either in Nassau Hall, Yale, or Harvard. These, it is understood, have generally maintained a good standing in their classes. And if they have not made distinguished scholars, the censure ought not to lie on the schools where they were not educated. The fact however is, that literature, as a profession, is not known in Virginia. Education is sought as a qualifica- tion for the business of life. The manner in which Vir- ginians have discharged the duties of the various learned professions, and acted their part as politicians and war- riors, affords the proper criterion by which to deter- mine whether they have been subjected to a salutary course of intellectual discipline. There is a number of incorporated academies in the state; few of which are on a permanent foundation, or in a very flourishing condition. Of this perhaps the principal reason is, that there exists among the wealthy Virginians a strong predilection in favour of domestic or private education; most gentlemen preferring to employ family tutors, instead of sending their children to academies. - While the state of Virginia has left the important bu- siness of education to mere private management, it may well V I R G IN I A. well be taken for granted, that the people at large have been but imperfectly instructed. Schools for common education, perhaps the most important of any, have been few, and in general badly conducted. This subject has not indeed been wholly neglected. In the year 1811, the legislature constituted a board, under the title of “ the president and directors of the literary fund,” hav- ing in the preceding year enacted that all escheats, con- fiscations, &c. should be appropriated to the encourage- ment of learning. The governor, lieutenant-governor, treasurer, attorney-general, and president of the court of appeals, constitute this board. This fund has been increasing from year to year, and now nearly amounts to the sum of 1,000,000 dollars; to which a very consi- derable increase is expected to be shortly made. By an act of the last general assembly, forty-five thousand dol- lars of the annual proceeds of this fund are appropria- ted to the education of poor children, in the several counties and corporations within the commonwealth ; such proportions of this sum being applied to each coun- ty or corporation, as its population bears to the free white population of the state. In the same act, the legislature determined on the establishment of a university in Virginia, appointed commissioners for fixing its scite, and for other pur- poses; and appropriated fifty thousand dollars per an- num for procuring land, erecting buildings, and perma- nently endowing the university. Thus the state has en- gaged, it is hoped, in good earnest, in the important work of patronizing learning, and diffusing it through every part and class of society. These acts are only parts of a great system; an outline of the whole of which may be exhibited in few words. Primary schools in wards or townships throughout the state, academies, colleges, a university. When this outline will be filled up, and whether this great object will be steadily pur- sued, and wisely conducted, time alone can discover. The question concerning the appropriation of this litera- ry fund, has produced a difference of opinion which per- haps it will not be easy to reconcile. The subject is con- fessedly one of delicacy and difficulty. The duty of the state, first in point of importance, is to afford the means of a good common education to the people. Of this there can be no doubt ; but the difficulty is how to oc- complish this object. Not every one who has acquired the elements of learning is qualified to be a teacher. The demand for men of abilities in the various depart- ments of life is so great, and in general the profit so considerable, that few men of education will devote themselves to the business of instruction for the salaries that the literary fund could afford them. If then at the present time the state of Virginia were divided into wards, and a primary school established in each, the teacher, in most cases, would be some man too lazy to work, and too ignorant to obtain a higher employment ; or, which is more likely, some adventurer from abroad, whose moral and intellectual qualifications could not be ascer- tained, would impose on the school committee, and be imposed on the people, until, having gathered up as much money as his ulterior purposes should require, he would return to the place whence he came. Per- haps then it might be the wisest course, first to establish a number of respectable colleges and academies in va- rious parts of the state, at which the terms of education should be so low that any, even the poor, might avail themselves of the advantages which these institutions would afford. In this way teachers might in a few years be raised up to supply the demand which primary schools would create. But however this may be, it is gratifying to know that a fund so large has been accu- mulated for literary purposes; and whatever doubts may exist as to the best manner of appropriation ; should it be diverted from its original purposes, the character of the state will be materially injured, and they whom the people choose to manage their affairs will be utterly inexcusable. Religion.—The state of religion in Virginia, as far as relates to its connexion with civil and political affairs, is very nearly such as every truly enlightened and unpre- judiced Christian could wish. The Bill of Rights, and the Act concerning Religious Freedom, passed by the legislature in the year 1785, secure to every citizen the most perfect and absolute liberty of conscience. Toleration is not known among the Virginians; because the term implies superior privileges granted, or great- er favour shown to one denomination than to others; while these others are barely allowed to worship accord- ing to the dictates of conscience. It is not so in that state. In the eye of the law all are absolutely equal. The same rights are secured to Catholic and Protestant, to Jew and Christian. Nothing seems wanting to the perfection of this part of Virginian institutions, but, under suitable restrictions, a legal title to property granted by pious individuals for the support of religion. So well convinced are all judicious Christians of the impolicy of ecclesiastical establishments, that there is perhaps no religious society, at the present time in that state, which would not refuse the boon of legal prefer- ence were it tendered. At an early period, the church of England was esta- blished by law. The colony formed a part of the dio- cess of London; and notwithstanding the laudable ef- forts of the colonists to procure a succession of able and faithful men by the establishment of a college for their education in the country, most of the clergy were sent over by the diocesan. Of these, some were men of high qualifications and most exemplary zeal; and others were mere adventurers, who sought admission . into the church as a decent way of making a living. Their unworthy conduct brought religion into contempt, and the church into discredit. This opened the way for the introduction of dissenters, and ensured them suc- cess. Some high-handed attempts to silence them by the exercise of civil authority, enlisted on their side the sympathies of the people, and greatly increased the popularity of their preachers. In the mean-time num- bers of emigrants, originally from the north of Ireland, settled themselves in the western parts of the state. These were all by profession Presbyterians. Hence at the commencement of the revolution the friends of the established church were in the minority. The es- tablishment was overthrown, and complete religious liberty secured to the citizens. At the time of this overthrow, there was in possession of the Episcopal church, property to the value of nearly four hundred thousand dollars, consisting of glebe lands and houses. In consequence of petitions presented from year to year to the legislature by the Baptist society, an act was passed in 1802, authorizing the sale of this property, The proceeds belonged to the people, and might have formed a very efficient fund for the establishment and support of schools, the erection of churches for the ge- neral benefit, or other purposes of inteljectual and mo- ral improvement. Instead of this, by far the greater part V H R G I N I. A. part of the money arising from the sale was applied to the temporary diminution of the county and parish Ievies . In one or two instances free schools have been established ; but in general the people have been pro- fited in no one thing by the appropriation. The episco- pal church, which, by this course of events, had been brought near to extinction, is reviving; and the number of evangelical preachers and of pious converts is said to be increasing. The presbyterians made a lodgment in Virginia se- venty or eighty years ago. Their descendants form the most numerous part of the population. Hence it has been commonly stated that the influence of this society is predominant. This however is not the fact. Among them none are registered as members, except those in the full communion of the church, and their baptised children: and according to this principle the people of that denomination, as well as the episcopalians, are in the minority. It is believed that the actual professors of religion, in regard to numbers, may be thus arranged, baptists, methodists, presbyterians, episcopalians, luthe- rans, quakers or friends, catholics. These different soci- etiès have nothing by which they are remarkably distin- guished from the same denominations as they exist else- where ; and of course need not be described. Their whole number in the state probably does not exceed se- venty thousand, in a population of one million. Hence it is obvious that there are many who do not properly belong to any church, having never made an open pro- fession of religion. And while they own some prefer- ence to the church of their fathers, whatever that may have been ; they have never thought enough on the sub- ject of religion to have a decided opinion respecting it. In general they are neither christians nor infidels. There is perhaps a more liberal and charitable spirit among the different denominations in Virginia than almost any where else. Episcopalians, methodists, and presbyte- rians being often seen at the same communion table. And in proportion to the whole number who join in full communion, probably fewer are mere nominal chris- tians, than in countries where it is more fashionable, or more customary, for the sake of example, to partake of the sacraments of the church. In the religious condi- tion of Virginia, the most important deficiencies are, the want of good churches, of a competent number of well-taught instructors; of liberal support of the minis- ters of religion; and due attention to the religious edu- cation of youth. Character.--It is not denied that physical causes have influence in the formation of character; yet that influ- ence is small, compared with the efficiency of moral causes. This is evident by comparing the inhabitants of contiguous countries. It is only twenty-four miles from the English to the French coast; yet how widely do the inhabitants of Dover and Calais differ! France is sepa- rated from Spain only by the Pyrenees; and Spain from the coast of Africa by the straits of Gibraltar; yet how great is the difference between the Frenchman and the Spaniard, and between the Spaniard again and the Afri- can on the opposite shore | Difference in race or breed, is another cause of difference in character, as efficient as either, or both of those which have been mentioned. It is set down as distinct from them, because the reason of the varieties which we see, is yet to be discovered. It may be the result of the combined operations of phy- sical and moral causes; or it may have proceeded from the immediate agency of the Creator. In the present *— state of knowledge the distinction which has been mad is no doubt just. -- In respect to character, the Virginians may be divi- ded into two classes, those below, and those beyond the Blue ridge. The former of these are chiefly of English descent; the latter owe their origin to the Scotch-Irish, that is, to emigrants as before remarked from the north of Ireland. The former were originally episcopalians, the latter presbyterians. Among the former, slaves are numerous; anrong the latter, few. These chiefly live by their own labour ; those by the labour of others. Previously and immediately subsequent to the war of the revolution, the difference between the two classes was strongly marked. The abolition of religious dis- tinctions, and the continually increasing intercourse be- tween the two sides of the Blue mountains, have lessened this difference. The general character of the people west of the mountains, is that of industry, frugality, tempe- rance, shrewdness in bargains, and perseverance in their undertakings: they are not easily roused, but when exci- ted, not quickly cooled ; they are jealous of their privi- leges, and prepared to defend them; clear-sighted as to their interests, and steady to pursue them ; inquisitive as to the purposes of others, but uncommunicative of their own ; sociable among themselves, but reserved to strangers; tenacious of the traditions of their fathers, and slow to change their opinions. Their brethren in the eastern parts of the state are warm-hearted, hospi- table, generous, fond of good cheer, yet not very logua- cious; rather inactive except when stimulated by some strong passion; prompt to resolve, yet unsteady in the pursuit of their purposes ; quick to resent an injury, yet ready to forgive ; more willing to communicate their own designs than to pry into those of other men; so fearful of being thought hypocrites, as often to appear worse than they really are ; jealous of personal honour and that of their state, yet not unwilling to show res- pect where they think that respect is due. Wealth is very unequally distributed among them, yet the poor are less abject, and the rich less domineering and haughty, than perhaps in any country in the world where the difference of condition is so great. This is owing in part, at least, to slavery. Every freeman, how- ever poor, disdains to place himself in the condition of a servant, and thinks himself, as to every important point, on a level with the richest in the state. The wo- men in Virginia are neither forward nor reserved; they love home, and enjoy domestic pleasures with exquisite relish; they are not passionately fond of balls, nor of any public amusements. With a sensibility which many would think morbid, they shrink from public exhibitions of themselves; and in general greatly prefer the conver- sation of men of talents and information to either dan- cing or the theatre. No where do women perform more domestic labour than they do west of the Blue ridge; and no where can more admirable domestic economists be found than among the ladies in Old Virginia. Fe- male education is much more attended to now than for- merly ; and if the ladies of that state cannot boast of learned authors among themselves, the gentlemen may boast that they make affectionate wives, dutiful daugh- ters, and delightful companions. The vices of profanity and intemperance are but too common among the people of that state, as they are among many others; yet it is due to them to say that the traditional calumnies respecting horse-racing, cock- fighting and gouging, ought long ago to have become obsolete. V I R G IN I A. obsolete. The principal faults in the character of that people have originated from the prevalence of slavery, and the want of a wise course of domestic discipline. Political Constitution, {5'c.—The eacecutive defiart- ment is managed by a governor, and council consisting of eight members. The governor is chosen annually, by the legislature, but the same person cannot serve more than three years in seven. His salary is 33333.33 per annum. He is in fact little more than president of the council, without whose advice he can do no- thing. The members of the council are also elected by the legislature. Two of their number are removed by joint ballot of both houses every three years, and the vacancy supplied in the same manner. The legislative power is vested in two houses of assembly: one called the house of delegates, and the other the senate. The former is elected annually, the latter once in four years. Two members are chosen in each county for the house of delegates. The senate consists of twenty-four mem- bers, chosen fl om twenty-four senatorial districts, into which the state has been divided. Electors, both of de- legates and senators, must be citizens, possessing a life estate, either in fifty acres of unimproved land, or twen- ty-five acres with a house, or a house and lot in some town. The concurrence of both houses is necessary for the passage of a law. The governor possesses no veto on the proceedings of the legislature. With the advice of council he can convoke them on any emer- gency. They alone can adjourn, or dissolve their meet- ings. Of the judicial y business of the state, much is managed by the county and corporation magistrates, at their monthly and quarterly courts. There is however a general court consisting of fourteen judges; to each of whom is assigned a district containing a certain num- ber of counties, in all of which the judge holds a court twice every year. In these courts all criminal prose- cutions against citizens are carried on ; and civil causes of a certain dignity are decided. The general court is held in Richmond twice in the year. It is not a court of original jurisdiction; but, except in a few cases, ra- ther one of reference, in which questions of difficulty, and doubtful character, which a single judge does not think proper to decide, are examined and determined. The state is also divided into four chancery districts; in each of which a chancellor holds a court. Besides these, there is a high court of appeals, composed of five judges, who are obliged to sit, should business require it, two hundred and fifty days in the year. This is the highest judiciary tribunal in the state ; its decisions of course are regarded as legal authorities. The law of Virginia recognizes only three capital crimes—treason, murder, and arson. Other offences are punished by confinement and labour in the penitentiary for a number of years proportioned to the nature of the offence; and by fines and imprisonment in ordinary jails. The average number of convicts in the penitentiary at any one time may be stated at from 120 to 150. Capi- tal punishments are extremely rare; not amounting to as many as three or four per annum, in the whole State. * Revenue, &c.—The ordinary revenue of Virginia amounts to about $600,000, and is raised principally by a tax on land and slaves. There are other minor sub- jects of taxation which need not be enumerated. The current expenses of the state, including the civil list and the interest on the public debt, amotunt to nearly the same sum. The salaries of all the officers of govern- Vol. XXXVIII. ment are low, and, in the present depreciation of mo- ney, inadequate to their support. The staple products of Virginia are wheat, Indian corn, and tobacco : the quantity grown of the last mentioned article has consi- derably diminished of late, while that of the former has greatly increased. The exports amount in value to about 38,000,000 annually. The shipping compared with that of some other states is trifling. For a long time to come, northern seamen will be carriers of the produce of Southern plantations. History.—The principal epochs in the history of Vir- ginia are : 1585. First colony sent to settle Virginia. 1607. First permanent settlement made in Virginia, 1610. Arrival of lord Delaware. 1621. First Negroes brought into the colony by Dutch traders.-Colonial produce required to be sent to England, landed, and customs paid, before it could be exported to foreign Loun- tries. 1622. Massacre by the Indians. 1624. Charter of Virginia vacated. 1650. The colony submits to parliament. 1659. Charles II. proclaimed king, before he was ac- knowledged in England. 1676. Bacon’s rebellion. 1732. Washington born. 1753. Beginning of the war with the French and In- dians. 1754. Washington, then only 21 years of age, com- mands a regiment for restraining encroach- ments of the enemy. 1769. Resolutions by the house of burgessess, assert- ing the rights of the colonies.—House pro- rogued by the governor. 1774. General congress proposed by Virginia. 1776. Constitution of the state adopted. 1785. Act passed for freedom of religion—and for re- vision of the laws. 1788. Federal constitution adopted. A history of Virginia, such as would satisfy the just demands of an enlightened student, is yet a desideratum; and there is reason to apprehend that the want will not be soon supplied. In the confusion produced by the in- vasion of Richmond during the revolutionary war, many of the public documents were lost. Those which re- main are a mere chaotic heap, having never been re- duced to order. There are no public libraries in the state where authentic and original papers are preserved for the inspection of the curious and the use of the his- torian. There is no historical or antiquarian society for the investigation of the subjects which fall within the range of such society’s researches, and for the pre- servation of historical records. The rare books and manuscripts necessary for the full display of facts, cha- racters, and manners, must be sought in libraries abroad. To the talents and learning always required in a histo- rian, then, must be added, that patience of understand- ing which can bear long suspense ; that perseverance which pursues its inquiries through all difficulties; that industry which never wearies until its object is accom- plished; that leisure which would allow much time to the study ; and either the wealth which could sustain very considerable expense in procuring materials; or that public patronage which would supply its place. These considerations justify the apprehension which 5 B * has V I R V I R has been expressed. Yet such have been the events in the history of Virginia, and such the character of her distinguished sons; such the spirit of her warriors, the wisdom of her statesmen, and the genius of her orators, that the want may well be deplored by the citizens of that state. Instead of the meagre sketch which only could be given in this article, reference is made to Smith, Beverly, Stith, and Burk. The last named work, continued by Gerardin; is brought down to the year 1781, and contains the completest body of Virgi- nia history that has been laid before the public. To the books here mentioned may be added “The Statutes at Large by W. W. Hening;” a work full of curious and authentic information, by which some of the most important errours of Burk may be corrected. - Respecting the system of slavery which prevails in the state, it is nothing more than justice to add—that the colonists, at an early period, became convinced of the evil, and made efforts to check it, which were repressed by the authority of the sovereign. The writer of this has now before him several extracts from the records of the council of state, dated 1723, 1732, 1742, fromi which it appears, that acts of the colonial legislature, laying a duty on the importation of slaves, were disap. proved, and of course nullified by the king. The ground of objection was, that they injuriously affected the trade and shipping of Great Britain. Thus was an odious traffic forced on the colony, for the sake of promoting. the commercial prosperity of the mother country. Since the Revolution, the rigours of slavery have been greatly relaxed; its disastrous effects are in some degree appreciated ; and the feeling of the rising generation is more strongly against it, than that of the past. In a word, it is seen to be a great and sore evil brought on the people of that state, without any act of their own; and the greater part of them would regard as their best benefactor, the man who should devise a feasible method of delivering them altogether from it.] - VIRGINIA, a post-town of the county of Cavan, Ire- land, situated on Lough Ramor; 40% miles N.W. from T]ublin. • V1RGINIAN ACAcIA, in Botany. See Robin IA. VIRGANIAN Creefter. See CLEMATIS. - VIRGINAN Guelder-Rose. See SPIRAEA Of ulifolia. VIRGINIAN Poke. See PHYTolaccA Decandra. VIRGINIAN Silk. See PERIPLoca. VIRGINIANA Bolus, is a pure earth, of a compact texture, hard and heavy, of a pale red or rose colour, variegated with veins of deep red, and often with large. spots and veins of bright yellow ; it is of a glossy sur- face, does not colour the hands, adheres firmly to the tongue, melts with difficulty in the mouth, is of a rough astringent taste, leaves no grittiness in the teeth, and is diffusible with difficulty in water. It burns in the fire to an almost stony hardness, without any change of co- lour. It is the product of Pennsylvania, and most parts of America. This kind of bole has not yet been used in medicine. - VIRGIN IS, SPICA. See SPICA. VIRGINITY, VIRGINITAs, the test or criterion of a virgin ; or that which entitles her to the denomination. In the first ages of the Christian church, virginity grew into great honour and esteem, insomuch that the women were admitted to make solemn vows of it in pub- lic. Yet was it held infamous among the Jews for a woman to die a maid. * The vestals among the ancients, and the nuns or re- ligious among the moderns, found guilty of a breach of the vow of virginity, are allotted a severe punishment; the first to be buried alive, the latter to be immured. The physicians, both ancient and modern, are exceed- ingly divided upon the subject of virginity, some holding that there are no certain marks or testimonies of it; and others that there are. Solomon says expressly, there are four things too wonderful for him to know : “the way of an eagle in the air; of a serpent on the rock ; of a ship in the midst of the sea; and the way of a man in a maid;” which our translators have rendered, less justly, the way of a man with a maid. • - Yet Moses established a test, which was to be con- clusive among the Jews. The nuptial sheets, it seems, were to be viewed by the relations on both sides : and the maid’s parents were to preserve them as a token of her virginity, to be produced, in case her husband should ever reproach her on that score. In case the token of virginity was not found on them, she was to be stoned to death at her father’s door. This test of virginity has occasioned abundance of speculation about the parts concerned; but the nicest inquiries cannot settle any thing certain about them. Dr. Drake says expressly, that, whatever might be ex- pected among the Jews, there is not the same reason to expect those tokens of virginity in these countries; for, besides that the Hebrews married extremely young, as is the custom in all the Eastern countries, there are several circumstances which may here frustrate such expectations, even in virgins not vitiated either by any, male contact, or any wantonness of their own. In effect, in these northern climates, the inclemency of the air exposes the sex to such checks of perspira- tion, as gives a great turn to the course of the humours, and drives so much humidity through the parts, as may extraordinarily supple and relax those membranes from which the resistance is expected; and from which, in hotter countries, it might more reasonably be depend- ed on. t . . . . * • * What most commonly passes among us for the test of virginity is the hymen (which see); and yet the most curious among the anatomists are greatly divided, not only about the figure, substance, place, and perforations. of this famous membrane, but even about the existence of it, some positively affirming, and others as flatly de- nying it. See GENERATION. • * , I - , , As nice a point as that of virginity is among anato- mists, the midwives and matrons treat it with less diffi- dence. In the statutes of the sworn matrons, or mid- wives of Paris, containing likewise divers formulas of reports and depositions made in court, upon their being called to visit girls that made their complaint of being deflowered, they laid down fourteen marks on which to form a judgment. • * * * , -, . Laur Joubart, a famous physician of Montpelier, has transcribed three of these reports; one made to the provost of Paris, another in Languedoc, and a third in Berne. These reports are very consistent with each other, and contain fourteen marks of virginity, express- ed in their proper terms, such as were received among the women in that profession, and authorized in court. M. Joubart does not explain those terms, nor do we find any explanation of them any where, but in another report, of the 23d of October, 1672, inserted in the Picture of Love of Vennette, a physician of Rochel. In Peru, and several other provinces in South Ame- rica, we are assured by Pedro de Cieca, in the history of • . . f the V I R. v I R the Incas, &c. that the men never marry but on condition that the next relation or friend of the maid shall under- take to enjoy her before him, and take away her virgini- ty. And our country man Lawson, relates the like of some of the Indian nations of Carolina. So little is the flos virginis valued in some places. VIRGINIUS RUFUS, L., in Biography, a distin- guished Roman citizen and commander, whose merit raised him to the consulate in the reign of Nero, A. D. 63. When the Gauls revolted under Vindex, A. D. 68, he marched to Besançon, in order to resist his designs. On this occasion the legions proclaimed him emperor, but he refused the title, alleging that the disposal of the empire belonged not to them, but to the senate and people. After the death of Nero, and the succession of Galba, he was again solicited by the army to become a candidate for the empire, and he was threat- ened with death by one of . tribunes if he did not comply with the wishes of the soldiers. But he reso- lutely resisted, and prevailed with them to acknowledge the new emperor. When Otho acquired temporary dominion, he endeavoured to engage the attachment of the Germanic legion, by conferring a second consulate, A. D. 69, on Viginius, their old commander; and after his death, he was a third time urged by the soldiery to accept the empire, but he persisted in refusing the offer. Upon Vitellius’s entrance into Rome, Virginius was very unjustly suspected of a design to assassinate him; and though Vitellius had no doubt of his innocence, it was net without great difficulty that he preserved his life. From this time till the reign of Nerva he lived in retirement, calling the place of his retreat near Alaium “ the rest of his old age.” To Pliny the younger he was guardian, and was always regarded by him with filial veneration; and at Rome he was respected as one of the most excellent of its citizens. “He read,” ac- cording to the account giving of him by Pliny, “verses and histories of which he was the subject, and lived, as it were, with his own posterity;” and Pliny relates the following instance of his love of historical fidelity. Clu- vius Rufus, an eminent historian, said to him, “You are sensible, Virginius, of the fidelity required in a writer of history; if, therefore, you meet with any thing in my work which is displeasing to you, I request that you will pardon it.” He replied, “Are you ignorant, Clu- vius, that my purpose, in doing what I have done, was that you writers might freely say what you should think fit P” In his eighty-third year Nerva honoured him by advancing him to a third consulate, as his own colleague in that office. On this occasion he intended to a discourse, and whilst he was preparing at home for the recitation of it, a large book fell from his hand upon the floor; and, in stooping for it, his foot slipped, and in the fall he broke his thigh. The fracture occasioned his death, A. D. 97. His remains were honoured with a public funeral, and his eulogy was pronounced by Cornelius Tacitus. The epitaph which he had written for himself was comprised in two lines, and merely re- corded one of the principal actions of his life, with its motive : - “ Hic situs est Rufus, pulso qui Vindice quondam Imperium asseruit, non sibi, sed patriae.” « Here Rufus lies, who, by the repulse of Vindex, se- cured the empire, not for himself, but for his country.” Crevier. Plin. Epist. Gen. Biog. A 21: Ge HVe?" VIRGO, in Astronomy, one of the signs or constella- tions of the zodiac, into which the sun enters in the middle of August. See ConstELLATION. The stars in the constellation Virgo, in Ptolemy's catalogue, are 32 ; in Tycho's, 33 ; in Hevelius’s, 50 ; and in the Britannic, 1 1 0. VIRGULA, in Grammar, a term which Latin, French, and some other authors use for a point in writ. ing, usually called by us, comma. Virgulas, F. Simon observes, are an invention of the modern grammarians, to give the greater clearness to discourse. The use of them was unknown to the an- cient Greeks and Romans, who wrote all without taking off the pen, so that their books lie all together, without any distinction of points and virgulas. , VIRGULA, or Virgola, in Music, the tail or stem to a note. The first notes in the old time-table had no tails till the minim was invented, which had a tail to distin- guish it from the semibreve, as the crotchet had a black head to distinguish it from the minim, of which the head is white, and the quaver a hook to the tail, to distinguish it from the crotchet, of which the tail was straight, &c. VIRGULA Divina, or Baculus divinatorius, a forked branch in form of a Y, cut off a hazel-tree, by means of which people have pretended to discover mines, springs, &c. under ground. The method of using it is this: the person who bears it walking very slowly over the places where he sus- pects mines or springs may be, the effluvia exhaling from the metals, or vapour from the water, impregnat- ing the wood, makes it dip or incline, which is a sign of a discovery. We find no mention made of this virgula in any au- thor before the 11th century; but from that time it has been in frequent use. Divers fine names have been invented for it, some calling it caduceus, others Aaron’s rod, &c. Some dispute the matter of fact, and deny it to be possible; others, convinced by the great number of ex- periments alleged in its behalf, look out for the natural causes of them. The corpuscles, say these authors, rising from the springs, or minerals, entering the rod, determine it to bow down, in order to render it parallel to the vertical lines which the effluvia describe in their rise. In effect, the mineral or watery particles are suppo- sed to be emitted by means of the subterraneous heat, or of the fermentations in the entrails of the earth: and the virgula, being of a light porous wood, gives an easy pas- sage to those particles, which are also very fine and sub- tile; the effluvia then driven forwards by those that fol- low them, and oppressed, at the same time, by the at- mosphere incumbent on them, are forced to enter the little interstices at the fibres of the wood; and, by that effort, they oblige it to incline or dip down perpendicu- larly, to become parallel with the little columns which those vapours form in their rise. A late writer has recited no less than six hundred ex- periments, made with all possible attention and circum- spection, and several of which are very curious and ex- traordinary, in order to ascertain the facts attributed to the divine rod : and he has also undertaken to unfold their resemblance to the admirable and uniform phenomena of electricity and magnetism. See M. Thouvenel’s Memoire Physique et Medicinale Montvant des Reports evidens entre les Phenomenes de la Baguette divinatoire, &c. 12 mo. Paris, 1781. 5 B 2 Mr. Pryce V IR V IR Mr. Pryce has collected several observations on the nature and use of the Virgula divinatoria, in his Miner- alog, Cornub. lib. iii. cap. 1. VIRGULARIA, in Botany, so called from virga, in allusion to its slender wand-like branches, by the authors of the Flora Peruviana.-Poiret in Lamarck Dict. v. 8. 679.--Class and order, Didynamia Angiosfermia. Nat. Ord. Personata, Linn. Scrophularia, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, bell-shaped, perma- nent, somewhat two-lipped, with ten angles, and five sharp spreading teeth; the two lowermost a little distant. Cor. of one petal, bell-shaped, irregular; tube a little recurved; mouth inflated, gibbous: limb in five round- ish, concave segments; the two uppermost shortest, as- cending; three lowermost spreading, the middle one narrowest. Stam. Filaments four, thread-shaped, com- pressed, hairy at their base, inserted into the tube, two of them shorter than the rest; anthers inclining, arrow- shaped, of two cells. Pist, Germen superior, obovate ; style awl-shaped, recurved, as long as the corolla; stigma oblong, compressed, of two lobes, the uppermost chan- nelled, half sheathing the lower. Peric, Capsule invest- ed with the calyx, oval, obtuse with a point, with two furrows, two cloven valves, and two cells, the partition contrary. Seeds numerous, very small, inserted into a convex central receptacle, attached to each side of the partition. { Ess. Ch. Calyx five-toothed, with ten angles. Corol- la somewhat bell-shaped, irregular, recurved. Stigma with one lobe sheathing the other. Capsule of two cells, two valves, and a transverse partition. Seeds numerous. This genus appears to come near Buddlaa. It is said to consist of only two known species, natives of Peru, of a shrubby habit, with numerous slender twigs. Neither of the species has as yet been described. VIRGULTUM, in our ancient Law-Books, is used for an holt, or plantation of twigs, or osiers. Sometimes, also, for a coppice of young wood. “Et praeterea concedo virgultum meum, et totam communi- am dominii mei.” Mon Angl. In another place of the same work, virgultum, or rather virgulta, may be taken for virgata ; viz. “Dedit praedictae ecclesiae unam virgultum terrae in manerio de Crumptone.” See YARD-Land. VIRIBAL.LUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a promon- tory on the western side of the isle of Corsica, between the gulf Casulus and the mouth of the river Cicidius; supposed to be Punta di Adiazza. * VIRICONIUM. See URIC on IUM. VIRIDARIO ELIGENDo, in Law, a writ that lies for the choice of a verderor in the forest. See VERDERoR. VIRIDE AERIs, the same as aerugo, or verdigrease. VIRIDELLUS, a word used by some medical writers to express the epilepsy, and, by some of the chemical ones, as a name for the common green vitriol. VIRIEU, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Isere; 6 miles S.S.E. of La Tour du Pin. VIRIEU le Grand, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Ain ; 6 miles N. of Belley. VIRILE, something that belongs, or is peculiar to man, or the male sex. Thus, virile member, membrum virile, is frequently used for the penis. VIRILE Age, Æt as virilis, is the strength and vigour of a man’s age, viz. from thirty to forty-five years, which is an age in which we are equally removed from the ex- tremes of youth and old age. See AGE. The civil lawyers only make one age of youth and virility, and yet their different temperatures seem to re- quire a distinction, for which reason some compare youth to summer, and virility to autumn. At Rome, the youth quitted the praetexta at fourteen or fifteen yeras of age, and took the virile gown, toga virilis, to show, it seems, that they then entered on a serious age. k M. Dacier will have it, that children do not take the praetexta till thirteen years of age, nor quit it for the to- ga virilis till seventeen. VIRILIA, a man's genitals, or privy members, in- cluding the penis and testes. See GENERATION. The cutting off the virilia, according to Bracton, was felony by common law; and that whether the party were consenting or not. - “Henricus Hall et A. axor ejus capti et detenti in prisona de Evilchester, eo quod rectati fuerunt, quod ipsi absciderunt virilia Johannis Monachi, quem idem Hen- ricus deprehendit cum predicta A. uxore ejus.” Rot. Claus. ! 3 Hen. III. VIRILIS Testis Musculus, in Anatomy, a name given by Vesalius and others, to the muscle generally known by the name of the cremaster. VIRIM.GAM, in Geography, a town of Hindoostan, in Guzerat; 55 miles W. of Amedabad. VIRITES, a name by which the writers of the mid- dle ages have called the pyrites. VIRIVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Isere; 12 miles N.N.W. of St. Mar- cellin. VIRNENBURG, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Rhine and Moselle, late capital of a county, to which it gave name; 20 miles W. of Coblentz. N. lat. 50° 27'. E. long. 6° 58'. VIROLA, in Botany, the vernacular name in Guiana of a sort of bastard Nutmeg-tree ; Aubl. Guian. 904. t. 345. Juss. 81. (See MyRISTIC A.) Aublet calls it V. sebifera, and describes it as a tree from thirty to sixty feet high, and above two feet in diameter, with nume- rous spreading branches. Leaves alternate, stalked, ob- long, acute, entire, wavy, eight inches long ; downy be- neath. Flowers dioecious, in compound, dense, axillary panicles. Anthers but three. Cafistule globose, point. ed, coriaceous, of two valves, containing a seed like a nutmeg, enveloped in a many-cleft tunic, like mace, and yielding a copious oily acrid substance, used for making candles.—This tree is common in Cayenne and Guiana. Swartz in his F1. Ind. Occ. 1129, and Willd. in Sp. Pl. v. 4, 872, have referred it to Myristica, by the specific name of sebifera, where, notwithstanding our learned friend Mr. Brown’s doubts, we should think it ought to remain. § VIROSIDUM, in Ancient Geograft hy, a town of Great Britain, thought by Camden to be Warwick, in Cumberland. VIROVESSA, a town of Hispania Citerior, S.E. of Julio-Brigduna, one of the ten cities of the Autrigones, according to Pliny. In the Itin. Anton. it is marked on the route from the Gauls to the place named Ad Legi- onem Geminum, between Segasamundum and Segesa- mono. Ptolemy calls it Vireusta, and it is now named Briviesca. VIROVFACUM, a place marked in the Itin. Anton. * between V IR V IR between Castellum and Turnacum, or Cassel and Tour- nai, at the same distance from both places. VIROUR, in Geograft hy, a town of Hindoostan, in Tinevelly; 57 miles N.N.E. of Neermul. VIRPRINACHya town of Istria; 9 miles E.N.E. of Pedena. VIRREIES, three small islands among the Philip- pines. N. lat. 13° 18'. E. long. 121° 48'. VIRSBO, a town of Sweden, in Westmanland; 24 miles N. of Stroemsholm. VIRTON, a town of France, in the department of the Forests; 10 miles S.W. of Arlon. VIRTS UNGIANUS DUCTUs, or Ductus Virtsungii, so called from the inventor, Virtsungius, a professor at Padua, in Anatomy, a canal, more usually called ductus fiancreaticus. See PANCREAs and PANGREAT1c Juice. VIRTU, Ital. force, talents. VIRTUAL, PotentIAL, something that has a power, or virtue, of acting, or doing. The term is chiefly understood of something that acts by a secret invisible cause, in opposition to cetual and sensible. VIRTUAL Focus, in Oñtics. See Focus. VIRTUALITY, VIRTUALITAs, in the Schools, de- notes some mode or analogy in an object, which, in re- ality, is the same with some other mode, but, out of re- gard to contradictory predicates, is considered as if distinct from it. And hence arise what we call virtual distinctions, by which one virtuality is distinguished from another, not one thing from another. Thus it is, the divine nature is distinguished from the divine person; and the divine understanding from the divine will. - VIRTUALLY, VIRTUALITER, is applied to a mode of existence. A thing is said to be virtually any where, when it is deemed to be there by some virtue, influence, or other effect, produced by it. Thus the sun is virtu- ally on earth, i. e. by his light, heat, &c. A thing is also said to be virtually present, when the virtues, or properties, belonging to it, and issuing from it, remain. In which sense, the forms of the elements are held to be virtually in mixed bodies. A thing is also said to be a cause virtually, or a vir- tual cause, and that two ways: the first, when there is no real distinction between it and the effect attributed to it; and yet it is conceived by us as if it were really the cause of it. Thus, immutability in God is the cause of eternity. Secondly, when any effect is not of the same kind with the cause, and yet the cause has the power or vir- tue of producing the effect; thus the sun is not formally, but virtually hot ; and fire is not contained formally, but virtually, in heat. --~~ VIRTUE, VIRTUs, a term used in various significa- tions. In the general, it denotes flower, or fierfection, of any thing, whether natural or supernatural, animate or inanimate, essential or accessary. Hence the virtues, that is, the powers of God, angels, men, plants, ele- ments, &c. VIRTUE, in its more proper and restrained sense, is used by some writers to signify an habit, which improves and perfects the possessor and his actions. According- ly, in this sense of the term, virtue is a principle of act- ing or doing well and readily; and as there are two fac- ulties or powers in man from which all his actions pro- ceed, viz. the understanding and the will, so the virtue (as these authors say), by which he is perfected or by which he is disposed to do all things rightly, and to live happily, must be two-fold ; the one of the understand- ing, the other of the will. That which improves the understanding, is called intellec wal, or diamoetic ; and that, the will, moral, or ethical. For, since there are two things required in order to live aright, viz. to know what should be done, and, when known, readily to per- form it; and since man is apt to err various ways in each respect, unless regulated by discipline, &c. he alone can deport himself rightly in his whole course of life, whose understanding and will have attained their ut- most perfection. VIRTUE, Intellectual, then, according to Aristotle, is an habit of the reasonable soul, by which it conceives or speaks the truth, either in affirming or denying. The virtues which come under this class are divided into speculative, which are those conversant about ne- cessary things, that can only be known or contemplated; and firactical, which are conversant about contingent things, that may likewise be practised. Aristotle has another division of intellectual virtue, derived from the subject; as some of them are seated in the ezrisºkovuzn, or contemplative fiart ; viz. those con- versant about necessary things, as science, wisdom, in- telligence : and others in the Aoytsix”, or firactical fiart, such as those conversant about contingent things, as fºrudence, art, &c. VIRTUE, Moral, is defined by Aristotle to be an elec- tive habit, placed in a mediocrity, determined by reason, and as a prudent man would determine. See the sequel of this article. - We shall here subjoin as concise an account as possi- ble of the principal systems of morality or ethics that have been proposed by different writers, both ancient and modern, who have treated of this subject; from which the reader will be able to discover the opinions that have chiefly prevailed with regard to the nature, foundation, and obligation of virtue, referring for a more extended and elaborate account of the subject to the ar- ticle Moral PHILosophy. It may be proper to premise, that virtue has been dis- tinguished into abstract or absolute, and relative or fractical virtue. Abstract virtue is, most properly, a quality of the external action or event; and denotes what an action is, considered independently of the sense of the agent; or what, in itself and absolutely, it is right such an agent, in such circumstances, should do, and. what, if he judged truly, he would judge he ought to do. Practical virtue, on the contrary, has a necessary reia- tion to, and dependence upon, the sense and opinion of the agent concerning his actions: or it signifies what he ought to do, upon supposition of his having such and such sentiments of things. Agreeably to this distinc- tion, good actions have been by some divided into such as are materially good, and such as are formally so. The inquiry concerning the foundation of virtue-refers to absolute virtue: and if it be asked what the founda- tion of virtue is, we may mean either, what is the true account or reason that such and such actions are right, or apprehended as such by us; or, what are the prima- ry principles and heads of virtue, i. e. the considerations inferring obligation in particular cases, and rendering particular actions right and fit to be done; or, moreover, what are the motives, causes, and reasons. which en- gage or attach us to it, and support the practice of it in. the world. In this last sense the term must be used by these. V I R T U E. those who represent the will of God, self-interest, the reasons of things, and the moral sense, as all distinct and coincident foundations of virtue. - An ingenious writer, in forming his arrangement of the different systems of moral philosophy, of which we shall here avail ourselves, observes, that in treating of the principles of morals, there are two questions to be considered : first, wherein does virtue consist, or what, in temper and conduct, constitutes the excellent and laudable character P and secondly, by what power of the mind is this character, whatever it be, recommended to us? The first question is examined when we consider whether virtue consists in benevolence, as Dr. Hutche- son imagines; or in acting suitably to the different rela- tions of persons and things, as Dr. Clarke supposes; or in a conformity to the will of God; or in the prudent pursuit of our own true happiness, as others have main- tained. In reference te the second question we consi- der, whether the virtuous character, whatever it consists in, be recommended to us by self-love, which makes us perceive that this character, both in ourselves and others, tends most to promote our own private interest; or by reason, which points out to us the difference between one character and another, in the same manner as it does that between truth and falsehood; or by a peculiar power of perception, called a moral sense, which this virtuous character gratifies and pleases, as the contrary disgusts and displeases it; or lastly, by some other principle in human nature, such as the modification of sympathy, or the like. The different accounts which have been given of the nature of virtue, may be reduced to three different classes. According to some, virtue, or the virtuous temper of mind, does not consist in any one species of affections, but in the proper government and direction of all our affections, which may be either virtuous or vicious, according to the objects which they pursue, the principles and motives that direct the pursuit of them, and the degree of vehemence with which they pursue them. According to these authors, therefore, virtue consists in propriety. According to others, virtue consists in the judicious pursuit of our own private interest and happiness, or in the proper government and direction of those selfish affections which aim solely at this end. In the opinion of these authors, virtue consists in prudence. Others again make virtue consist in those affections only which aim at the happiness of others, not in those which aim at our own. According to them, therefore, disinterested benevolence is the only motive which can stamp upon any action the character of virtue. According to Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno, virtue con- sists in propriety of conduct, or in the suitableness of the affection from which we act to the object which ex- cites it. In the system of Plato, reason is the judging and ruling faculty ; and virtue, according to him, con- sists in that state of mind in which every faculty con- fines itself within its proper sphere, without encroaching on that of any other, and performs its proper office with that precise degree of vigour which belongs to it: or, in other words, virtue consists in propriety of conduct. Virtue, according to Aristotle, (as we have already stated.) consists in the habit of mediocrity, according to right reason; every particular virtue lying in a kind of medium between two opposite vices; and thus, by mak- ing virtue to consist in practical habits, he probably had in view to oppose the doctrine of Plato, who seems to have thought that just sentiments concerning what was fit to be done or avoided, were of themselves sufficient to constitute the most perfect virtue. Aristotle, on the contrary, was of opinion, that no conviction of the un- derstanding was capable of getting the better of invete- rate habits, and that good merals arose not from know- ledge but from action. Others disallow the Peripatetic notion of virtue, as placed in a habit : for a habit, or hability, say they, in- cludes two things; a custom, and facility; the first as a cause, and the second as an effect: so that a habit is no- thing but a facility acquired by custom. They, there- fore, who make virtue a habit of doing well, must, of necessity, ascribe it to a frequent exercise of good ac- tions. But this cannot be; for the virtue inust be before the good actions; and the habit, after them. Indeed, whence should the actions proceed, but from virtue P Virtue, therefore, is before the good actions, and, cer- tainly, before a habit, resulting from a frequency of good actions. Hence, they define virtue to be a firm pur- pose, or reselution, of doing whatever right reason de- mands to be done. For, though a custom of doing well be required to make a person esteemed good among men; yet it does not follow that that custom, or habit, is the formal cause of that denomination, or the good- ness itself. Besides, from the definition of Aristotle, none can know what virtue is; for what mediocrity is, or what an extreme, in which he supposes vice to consist, can never be determined, till we know what is agreeable to the nature of things; and, moreover, the definition is faulty, because there are some branches of virtue which cannot be carried to an extreme. In this connexion we may observe, that as on various occasions mankind act more from habit than reflection, and that they are in a great degree passive under their habits, the exercise of virtue, the guilt of vice, or the use of moral and religious knowledge, consist in form- ing and contracting these habits. Hence it appears, that it is in many cases a very important and useful principle of virtue (see HABIT); and we shall thus be able to explain the nature of habitual virtue. What- ever definition of virtue we may adopt, a man may, in fact, perform many acts that justly merit the denomina- tion of virtuous, without thinking at the time of the principle from which he acts; whether it be rectitude, benevolence, a regard to the will of God, or a view to his own happiness. According to Zeno and the Stoics, virtue consisted in choosing and rejecting all different objects and circum- stances according as they were by nature rendered more or less the objects of choice or rejection; in selecting those which were most to be chosen, when all could not be obtained; and in selecting those which were least to be avoided, when all could not be avoided. This con- stituted the essence of virtue, and was what the Stoics called to live consistently, to live according to nature, and to obey those laws which nature, or the Author of nature, prescribed for our conduct: and in this course, they required the most perfect apathy, and considered every emotion which might in the smallest degree dis- turb the tranquillity of the mind, as the effect of levity and folly. - Besides these ancient there are some modern systems, according to which virtue consists in propriety; or in the suitableness of the affection from which we act, to the cause or object which excites it. The system of Dr. Clarkes V I R T U E. Dr. Clarke, Mr. Balguy, and other writers, which places virtue in acting according to the relations of per- sons and things, in regulating our conduct according to the fitness or incongruity which there may be in the ap- plication of certain actions to certain things, or to cer- tain relations; that of Mr. Grove and others, who ex- plain virtue by saying, that it is the conformity of our actions to reason or wisdom; that of many others, who represent it as originating in a regard to the will of God; that of Mr. Wollaston, which places it in acting ac- cording to the truth of things, actions as well as words having a language, so that when this action is agreeable to the nature of things, the action is virtuous, and when it implies a false assertion, vicious: that of lord Shaftes- bury, which places it in maintaining a proper balance of the affections, and allowing no passion to go beyond its proper sphere, or in a certain just disposition of a rational creature towards the moral objects of right and wrong: are all of them reducible to the same funda- mental idea of propriety, as it has been explained. The most ancient of those systems, which make vir- tue consist in prudence, is that of Epicurus, who main- tained that bodily pieasure and pain were the sole ulti- mate objects of natural desire and aversion, and were the Sources of those of the mind; and who placed the most perfect happiness which man was capable of enjoy- ing in ease of body, and in tranquiliity of mind. Ac- cording to him, virtue did not deserve to be pursued for its owe sake, nor was itself one of the ultimate objects of natural appetite, but was eligible en account of its tendency to prevent pain, and to procure ease and plea- sure. Among our modern writers on the subject of II, orality, there virtue in a wise regard to our own interest : this seems to have been the opinion of Dr. Wateriand, Dr. Ruther- ford, &c. The system which makes virtue consist in benevo- lence, seems to have been the doctrine of most of those philosophers who, about and after the age of Augustus, called themselves Eclictics, who pretended to follow chiefly the opinions of Plato and Pythagoras, and who are commonly known by the name of the later Platon- ists. In the divine nature, according to them, benevo- lenge was the sole principle of action, and directed the exertion of all the other attributes. The wisdom of the Deity was employed in finding out the means for bring- ing about those ends which his goodness suggested, as his infinite power was exerted to execute them. Bene- volence, however, was a supreme and governing attri- bute, to which the othel S were subservient, and from which the whole excellency of the divine operations was ultimately derived. The whole perfection and virtue of the human mind consisted in some resemblance and par- ticipation of the divine perfections, and, consequently, in being filled with the same principle of benevolence, which influenced all the actions of the Deity. This sys- tem, as it was much esteemed by many of the ancient fathers of the church, was, after the Reformation, adopt- ed by several divines of the most eminent piety and learn- ing, and of the most amiable manners; particularly by Dr. Ralph Cudworth, Dr. Henry More, and Mr. John Smith, of Cambridge. Mr. Bayes has also more lately considered benevolence as the spring of the divine ac- tions; whilst Mr. Balguy referred them all to rectitude, and Mr. Grove to wisdom. The subject was ably can- vassed by these writers, and several excellent pamphlets published on the occasion. But of all the patrons of the have been some who have placed ail. system of benevolence, the late Dr. Hutcheson pursued it to the greatest extent, and with distinguished acute- ness and accuracy. Accordingly, he defines moral goodness to be a quality apprehended in some actions, which produces approbation and love towards the actor, from those who receive no benefit from the action; and he observes, that the mixture of any selfish motive di- minishes or altogether destroys the merit which would otherwise have belonged to any action, and, therefore, that virtue must consist in pure and disinterested benev- olence alone. Others, and particularly Dr. Cumber- land, in his Law of Nature, have placed the whole of virtue in the love of God and our fellow-creatures; to this purpose he observes (De Legat. Nat. cap. i. sect. 4.), the foundation of all natural law is this, that the great- est benevolence of every rational agent towards all forms the happiest state of every and of all the benevolent, as far as is in their power, and is necessarily requisite to the happiest state which they can attain; and, therefore, the common good is the supreme law. Archdeacon Paley, deservedly esteemed as one of our most popular modern writers, defines virtue to be “the doing good to mankind, in obedience to the will of God, and for the sake of everlasting happiness.” According to this defi- nition, in our judgment partly just and partly erroneous (see Moral PHILosophy), but comprehending the senti- ments of those who refer virtue to benevolence, to the will of God, and to a regard to their own happiness, the good of mankind is the subject, the will of God the rule, and everlasting happiness the motive of human virtue. The three systems above recited comprehend the principal accounts which have been given of the nature of virtue. To one or other of these, all the other defi- nitions or descriptions of virtue, how different soever they may appear, are easily reducible. That system which places virtue in obedience to the will of the Deity, may be counted among those which makes it consist in prudence, or among those which make it consist in propriety. When it is asked, why we ought to obey the will of the Deity, the question can admit but of two different answers. It must either be said, that we ought to obey the will of the Deity because he is a being of infinite power, who will recompense or punish: or it must be said, that, independent of any regard to our own happiness, or to rewards and punishments of any kind, there is a congruity and fitness that a creature should obey its Creator, and a limited imperfect being submit to one of infinite perfection. In the first case, virtue consists in prudence, or in the proper pursuit of our own final and supreme interest; since it is upon this account that we are obliged to obey the will of the Deity: and in the latter case, virtue must consist in propriety ; since the ground of our obligation to obedience is the suitableness or congruity of the sentiments of humility and submission to the superiority of the object which ex- cites them. That system which places virtue in utility, coincides too with that which makes it consist in pro- priety. All the systems above recited suppose, that there is a real and essential distinction between virtue and vice, whatever these qualities may consist in. There is a real and essential difference between the propriety and impropriety of any affection; between benevolence and any other principle of action; between real prudence and short-sighted folly or precipitate rashness. And the general tendency of all these systems is to encourage the best and most laudable dispositions and habits. There. V I R T U E. There are, however, some other systems, which seem altogether to annihilate the distinction between vice and virtue, and the tendency of which is, therefore, wholly pernicious; such are the systems of Rochefoucault, and Mandeville, who ascribes actions commonly accounted virtuous to the frivolous motive of vanity : treating every thing as vanity that has any reference to what are, or ought to be the sentiments of others; and by means of such sophistry he establishes his favourite conclusion, that private vices are public benefits. After the inquiry concerning the nature of virtue the next question of importance in moral philosophy con- cerns the principle of affirobation (which see), or that faculty of the mind which renders certain characters agreeable or disagreeable to us, makes us prefer one tenor of conduct to another, denominate the one right and the other wrong, and consider the one as the object of approbation, honour, and reverence, and the other as that of blame, censure, and punishment. Three differ- ent accounts have been given of this principle of appro- bation. According to some, we approve and disapprove both of our own actions and of those of others, from self- love only, or from some view of their tendency to our own happiness or disadvantage. (See Utility.) Ac- cording to others, reason, the same faculty by which we distinguish between truth and falsehood, enables us to distinguish between what is fit and unfit both in actions and affections; according to others, this distinction is altogether the effect of immediate sentiment and feeling, and arises from the satisfaction or disgust with which the view of certain actions or affection inspires us. Those who account for the principle of approbation from self-love, differ in their representation of its influ- ence. According to Mr. Hobbes, and many of his fol- Iowers, man is driven to take refuge in society, not by any natural love which he bears to his own kind, but because without the assistance of others, he is incapable of subsisting with ease or safety : virtue being the great support, and vice the great disturber of human society, whence the former necessarily pleases, and the latter is as naturally offensive. Moreover, a state of nature, ac- cording to Mr. Hobbes, being a state of war, so that antecedent to the constitution of civil government, there could be no safe and peaceable society among men; to preserve society was to support civil government, and the support of civil government depends upon the obedi- ence that is paid to the supreme magistrate; hence it was inferred, that the laws of the civil magistrate ought to be regarded as the sole ultimate standard of what was just and unjust, right and wrong. See Hobbism. In order to confute so odious a doctrine, it was ne- cessary to prove, that antecedent to all law or positive institution, the mind was naturally endowed with a fa- culty by which it distinguished in certain actions and affections the qualities of right, laudable, and virtuous, in others, those of wrong, blameable, and vicious. This faculty was reason, which pointed out the differ- ence between right and wrong, in the same manner in which it did between truth and falsehood. Right and wrong, it is argued, denote simple ideas, and are, there- fore, to be ascribed to some immediate power of percep- tion in the human mind, which power is the understand- ing. Besides, all actions have a nature; some charac- ter belongs to them, and there is something that may be affirmed of them, i. e. some are right and others wrong. But if our actions are, in themselves, either right or wrong, or any thing of a moral and obligatory nature which can be an object to the understanding, it must follow that in themselves they are all indifferent. From such reasoning it follows, that morality is eternal and immutable : because right and wrong denote what actions are ; and whatever any thing is, that it is not by will, or decree or power, but by nature and necessity. No will can render any thing good and obligatory, which was not so antecedently and from eternity; or any action right, that is not so in itself. In this view of it, morality appears not to be, in any sense, factitious, or the arbi- trary production of any power, human or divine; but equally everlasting and necessary with all truth and reason. Some have supposed, however, that, in men, the rational principle, or the intellectual discernment of right and wrong, should be aided by somewhat in- stinctive. Of this number is Dr. Price, who in his rea- soning concerning the original of our ideas of the beau- ty and deformity of actions, observes, that in contem- plating the actions and affections of moral agents, we have both a perception of the understanding and a feel- ing of the heart; and that the latter or the effects in us accompanying our moral perceptions, are deducible from two springs; they partly depend on the positive constitution of our natures, but the most steady and universal ground of them is the essential congruity or incongruity between the object and faculty ; in other words, filacet suaſhte natura-virtus : Sen, or, Etiamsi d mullo laudetur, natura est laudabile. Tully. See COMMON SENSE. This leads us to mention those systems which make sentiment the principle of approbation; these may be distributed into two different classes. According to some the principie of approbation is founded upon a sentiment of a peculiar nature, upon a particular power of perception exerted by the mind at the view of certain actions and affections; some of which affecting this faculty in an agreeable, and others in a disagreeable manner, the former are stamped with the characters of right, laudable, and virtuous; the latter with those of wrong, blameable, and vicious. This sentiment being of a peculiar nature, distinct from every other, and the effect of a particular power of perception, they give it a particular name, and call it a moral sense. Dr. Hutcheson, having taken great pains to prove that the principle of approbation was not founded on self-love, and that it could not arise from any operation of reason, supposed it to be a faculty of a peculiar kind, with which nature had endowed the human mind, in or- der to produce this particular and important effect. This power, which he called a moral sense, he sup- posed to be somewhat analogous to the external senses. According to his system, the various senses or powers of perception, from which the human mind derives all its simple ideas, were of two different kinds, of which one were called the direct or antecedent, the other the reflex or consequent senses. The direct senses were those faculties from which the mind derived the percep- tion of such species of things, e. gr. sounds and colours, as did not pre-suppose the antecedent perception of any other quality or object. The reflex or consequent senses, were those faculties from which the mind de- rived the perception of such species of things as pre- supposed the antecedent perception of some other; such as harmony and beauty. 3. The V I R T U E. The moral sense was considered as a faculty of this -kind. That faculty, which Mr. Locke calls reflection, and from which he derived the simple ideas of the dif- ferent passions and emotions of the human mind, was, according to Dr. Hutcheson, a direct internal sense. That faculty again, by which we perceived the beauty or deformity, the virtue or vice of those different pas- sions and emotions, was a reflex internal sense. Dr. Hutcheson endeavoured still farther to support this doctrine, by showing that it was agreeable to the analogy of nature, and that the mind was endowed with a variety of other reflex senses exactly similar to the moral sense; such as a sense of beauty and deformity in external objects ; a public sense, by which we sympa- thize with the happiness or misery of our fellow-crea- tures; a sense of shame and honesty, and a sense of ridis cule. *. To this system it has been objected, that it makes virtue an arbitrary thing, depending on the positive con- stitution of our minds; that right and wrong are only qualities of our minds and sensations, depending on the particular frame and structure of our natures, which have no other measure or standard besides every one’s private structure of mind and sensations; that it implies, that a creature with intelligence, reason, and liberty, could not have performed one good action, without that instinctive affection to which Dr. Hutcheson ascribes every good action ; that it makes brutes capable of vir- tue, because they are capable of affections; that it esti- mates the excellency of characters by the strength of passions, by no means in our power; and that, upon the whole, it gives us a much less honourable idea of virtue than other systems, which make it to consist in the agreement of the actions of an intelligent being, with the nature, circumstances, and relations of things, and of which reason is the judge. We shall only add, that the opinion of those who maintain our ideas of morality to be derived from sense, is far from being entirely modern. There were, among the ancients, philosophers, particularly Protagoras and his followers, who entertained a like opinion, but ex- tended it much farther, that is, to all science, denying all absolute and immutabie truth, and asserting every thing to be relative to perception. According to others, who ascribe the principle of ap- probation to sentiment, there is no occasion for suppos- ing any new power of perception ; nature acting in this, as in all other cases, with the strictest economy, and producing a multitude of effects from one and the same cause; and therefore, sympathy, they say, a power which has always been taken notice of, and with which the mind is manifestly endowed, is sufficient to account for all the effects ascribed to this peculiar faculty. Of this number is Dr. Adam Smith. (See SyMPATHY.) See also Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments, passim; and particularly part i. sect. 1, 2, 3. The term obligation of virtue, or moral obligation, frequently occurs among moral writers; and it is very differently defined and explained. Mr. Balguy defines obligation to be a state of the mind into which it is brought by perceiving a reason for action; but an excel- lent writer observes, that this is the effect of obligation perceived, rather than obligation itself. Other writers, with Dr. Cumberland, have defined obligation the necessity of doing a thing in order to be happy : but if this be the only sense of obligation, what Vol. XXXVIII. is meant, when we say a man is obliged to study his own happiness : In this case we can only mean, that it is right to study our own happiness, and wrong to neglect It. -- Dr. Warburton maintains, that moral obligation al- ways denotes some object of will or law, or implies some obliger; and accordingly, the word obligation signifies only the particular fitness of obeying the divine will, and cannot properly be applied to any other fitness, which is restraining the sense of the word in a manner unwarrant- ed by the common use of it. Moral obligation, says Dr. Paley, is like other obliga- tions; and all obligation is nothing more than an in- ducement of sufficient strength, and resulting, in some way, from the command of another. As the will of God is our rule, to inquire what is our duty, or what we are obliged to do, in any instance, is, in effect, to inquire, what is the will of God in that instance : This is to be determined either by his express declarations, which must be sought for in scripture, or by the light of nature, i. e. what we can discover of his designs and disposition from his works; and therefore it is absurd to separate natural and revealed religion from one another. Mr. Hume, in his fourth Appendix to his Principles of Morals, has been pleased to complain of the modern scheme of uniting ethics with the Christian theology. They who find themselves disposed to join in this com- plaint will do well to observe what Mr. Hume himself has been able to make of morality without this union. And for that purpose, let them read the second part of the ninth section of the above essay; which part contains the practical application of the whole treatise, a treatise, which Mr. Hume declares to be “incomparably the best he ever wrote.” When they have read it over, let them consider, whether any motives there proposed are likely to be found sufficient to withhold men from the gratifi- cation of lust, revenge, envy, ambition, avarice, or to pre- vent the existence of these passions. Unless they rise up from this celebrated essay, says archdeacon Paley, with stronger impressions upon their minds, than it ever left upon mine, they will acknowledge the necessity of additional sanctions. But the necessity of these sanctions is not now the question. If they be in fact established, if the rewards and punishments held forth in the gospel will actually come to pass, they must be considered. Such as reject the Christian religion are to make the best shift they can to build up a system, and lay the foundations of morality without it. But it appears to be a great inconsistency in those who receive Christian- ity, and expect something to come of it, to endeavour to keep all such expectations out of sight in their reason- ings concerning human duty. Dr. Hutcheson says, a person is obliged to an action, when every spectator, or he himself, upon reflection, must approve his action, and disapprove omitting it. Obligation to act, however, and reflex approbation or dis- approbation, do, in one sense, always accompany and im- ply one another; yet they seem as different as an act and an object of the mind, or as perception and the truth perceiv- ed. After all it may be observed, that however various- ly and loosely this word may be used, its primary and original signification coincides with rectitude: right im- plies duty in its idea, so that to perceive an action to be right, is to see a reason for the doing it in the action it- self, abstracted from all other considerations whatever; and this perception, this acknowledged rectitude in the 5 C action, V IR V IR action, is the very essence of this obligation, or that which commands the approbation and choice, or binds the conscience of every rational being. See Price's Re- view of the Principal Questions, &c. in Morals, chap. vi. ; Adams's Sermon on the Nature and Obligation of Vir- tue; and Paley’s Principles of Moral and Political Philos- Ophy, vol. i. Moralists usually distinguish four principal, or, as they are vulgarly called, cardinal virtues; viz. frudence, jus- tice, fortitude and temperance : the reason of which di- vision is founded in this : that, for a man to live virtu- ously and honestly, it is necessary he know what is fit to be done ; which is the business of firudence. That he have a constant and firm will to do what he judges best; which will perfect the man, either as it restrains too vio- lent perturbations, the office of temperance : or as it spurs and urges on those that are too slow and languid, which is the business of fortitude: or, lastly, compara- tively, and with regard to human society; which is the object of justice. - To these four all the other virtues are referred, either as parts, or as concomitants. Some ethical writers divide virtue into benevolence, firudence, fortitude, and temperance; by others it is distinguished into two branches only, firudence and be- nevolence; the former attentive to our own interest, and the latter to that of our fellow-creatures, both directed to the increase of happiness, and taking equal concern in the future as in the present: but the division that is now most common, is into duties towards God, as piety, reverence, resignation, gratitude, &c.; towards other men (relative duties), as justice, charity, fidelity, loyalty, &c.; towards ourselves, as chastity, sobriety, temper- ance, preservation of life, of health, &c. VIRTUEs, in the Célestial Hierarchy, the third rank, or choir, of angels, being that in order between domina- tions and flowers. To these is attributed the power of working miracles, and of strengthening and reinforcing the inferior angels in the exercise of their functions. VIRTUEs of Plants, in the history of Botany, are generally understood to be certain qualities, appropria- ted to evèry plant, and inherent in its constitution, by which it is rendered effectual in the cure of particular diseases. The discovery of such qualities was, doubt- less, at first, in every country, casual or empirical ; and the history or knowledge of them traditionary. Such knowledge, acquired to any considerable extent, renº dered its possessor an important personage in human society; and when combined with skill in the discrimi- nation of diseases themselves, completed the character of a physician. Such was the science of Hippocrates and Dioscorides; the former having been best versed in the knowledge of diseases; the latter in a practical acquaintance with their reputed reºnedies. This kind of practical knowledge makes up the whole history of ancient medicine. How soon hypothetical inquiries. or opinions, may have arisen, it is scarcely possible to learn, or even to conjecture. Among these, the supposed in- fluence of the heavenly bodies upon the properties of plants, particularly with respect to the time when they ought to be gathered in order to be the most effectual, seems one of the most ancient hypotheses. When the imagination was once let loose, and theory took place of experience, mankind were disposed to run headlon into this, like every other superstition or folly. The complete history of such, is buried in the darkness of antiquity; but its traces are abundantly visible in the medical records of every ancient nation, especially of China, Hindoostan, Arabia, and Greece, nor are they quite effaced among the most enlightened people. Into these it is by no means our present purpose to enter. At that memorable era in the history of mankind, em- phatically termed the revival of learning, the first ob- ject of learned physicians was to inform themselves of the opinions of the ancients, on every subject connected with their science, and above all, on the Medical Vir- tues of Plants. No one presumed to have an opinion which was not authorized by a Greek or Latin, or per- haps an Arabian, writer. So that here the science of medicine, philosophically considered, made a complete stand, and became once more traditional and empirical. We have, under the article ODoNTITEs, spoken of one method, which was systematically used, to investi- gate the qualities of plants; a comparison of their out- ward form with certain parts of the human body, on which they were supposed specifically to act. Some traces of this notion may be found in Dioscorides; in his account of the Orchis, for instance; which plant is . indeed so remarkable for the figure of its root, that one cannot wonder at any fancies it may have excited, nor that supposed qualities, founded thereon, should have been handed dºwn to our times. The celebrated resto- rative prºperties of Salep rest, we believe, on no firmer foundation whatever may be the effect of the wine, su- gar, or at omitics added to make that mucilaginous sub- stance paiatable, or whatever nutriment it may, as a mucilage, contain. If however there be, in this instance, some casual coincidence between the shape and the spe- cific virtue of the plant, the same will scarcely be be- lieved to exist between heart-shaped leaves, or roots, and the human heart ; or between herbs with capillary stalks, like ferns or mosses, and the hair of our heads. A person raging with the toothach would not twice recur for a cure, to the various kinds of Toothwort, because of their notched roots, though one of them, La thraºa Squamaria, be ever so goºd an imitation of the fore teeth. Yet these, and many ºther vain imagi- nations, are found in the elal,6rate book of Baptista Por- ta, So far we might take him for an bones, enthusiast. But when he purposely delineates the roots of Doroni- cum or Arnica, with the precise shape of a Scorpion, to prove the plants a cure for its sting; we can scarcely believe he intended to deceive himself, and therefore he must have had some other aim, not worth inquiring into. Few persons will be led by this author, to believe in any connexion between the hooked prickles of a Bramble, and the teeth of a Viper, or the scales of a Lily-root, and those of a Fish. We shall detain the reader no longer on this part of our subject. Chemical analysis has proved absolu ely useless to detect the properties of plants. The world is obliged to Geoffroy, Chomel, and their pupils, who with this aim have analyzed nearly two thousand different spe- cies; because their labouls, having led to no discovery whatever, except of their own futility, no man in future will have any inducement to waste his time in this pur- suit. - Linnaeus was, if we mistake not, the first pe) son who suggested an inquiry into the qualities of plants, on the principle of botanical affinity, or technical characters, That vegetables of one great obvious natural class, such 3& V IR V I S as Grasses, Leguminous or Umbelliferous plants, should have a general agreement with each other, is probable at first sight. Each class may be expected to be throughout salutary or dangerous, and they generally prove so, with certain limitations. The Darnel is al- most a solitary instance of any thing pernicious among Grasses; Umbellate plants in a dry soil are aromatic and wholesome ; in a wet one, acrid and highly dan- gerous. The Convolvulus genus affords several emi- nently purgative roots, nor would any rational botanist venture to use them without caution ; though the ope- rations of cookery render one of this genus, C. Batatas, wholesome and delicious. The acrid qualities of one species of Eufthorbia, as being a most decidedly mark- ed, and very peculiar, genus, are found in more or less activity, in all. Agreement in the parts of fructifica- tion is therefore, with great reason, set forth by the learned author of the sexual system, as the index to a similarity of properties. Thus the Stellatae are diure- tic, the Asfierifolia emollient, the Lurida narcotic and dangerous, the Bicornes astringent, the Verticillata fra- grant and harmless, the Comfiositae bitter, greatly meli- orated by culture and cookery. All these, though named from various characters, are distinguished by their fructification. The different insertion of parts sometimes indicates a difference of quality, of which the class Icosandria is a memorable and often repeated ex- ample. The insertion of its stamens into the calyx, is attended with a wholesome fruit, and the same insertion in other classes, may be safely trusted in that respect. Plants which have a mectary distinct from the fetals, are always to be mistrusted. So are milky plants in general, yet not without exception. A dry soil usually renders plants aromatic and wholesome, and abounds most with such ; moisture, or much wet, nourishes virose, acrid, poisonous tribes, of various descriptions. Sweet-smelling and agreeably-flavoured vegetables are, for the most part, wholesome, for it were a sort of treachery in Nature to have made them otherwise. Fetid herbs and nauseous fruits are revolting to our senses, and warn us of danger. Linnaeus observes that a pale colour indicates insipidity, at least in the herbage ; yellow is a sign of bitterness or acrimony; red, of acid- ity or astringency; black, of a noxious quality. Even this last however, is overruled by the insertion of the stamens into the calyx; witness Prunus and Ribes. Such are a few of the hints given by Linnaeus. They are well worthy of consideration, and may be extended or modified by practical observation. Exceptions, of course, will present themselves, but scarcely more than occur in any other department of natural science. It is hardly necessary to say that the above rules re- late exclusively to the human constitution. Some ani- mals feed on what are fatal poisons to others. The Goat and Deer browse on the Clematis, which would blister our throat, or even our skin; and delight in the nauseous virulent seed of the Horse Chestnut. Insects thrive on the most bitter or burning milky herbs or shrubs, which no quadruped could taste with impunity. Nature teaches every animal what is salutary to itself, and what is dangerous; but man is capable of reason and science, to make experiments and observations, and to enlarge the sphere of his knowledge by drawing ge- neral conclusions. VIRTUOSO, a man possessed of talents in any of the fine arts is called a virtuoso, but particularly in mu- sic, where it usually implies a professor of talents. Among us, the term seems appropriated to those who apply themselves to some curious and quaint, rather than immediately useful art or study; as antiquaries, collectors of rarities of any kind, microscopical observ- ers, &c. 2 VIRTZ, in Geografthy, a lake of Russia, in the go- vernment of Riga, about forty miles in circumference; 96 miles N N.E. of Riga. VIRUCINATES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Vindelicia, denominated Rucinates by Hardouin, whe is justified in this reading by Ptolemy. VIRUELA, in Geografhy, a town of Spain, in Ara- gon; 6 miles from Tarracona, VIRVESCA. See BIRVIEscA. VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that yields a virus, that is, a contagious or malignant pus. The gonorrhoea virulenta is what we popularly call a claſh. VIRUNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ger- many, placed by Ptolemy with the Teutonari, between the country of the Saxons and that of the Suevi. VIRUNUM, a town situated in the northern part of Germany, probably belonging to the Viruni, and sup- posed by Cluvier to be the present Warren, in Meck- lenburg.—Also, a town of Norica, or isle of Norica, in the middle of the Danube, upon the route from Aqui- leia to Lauriacum, between Santicum and Candalica, according to Anton. Itin. In the table of Peutinger it is named Varenum. It is thought that the emperor Claudius established a colony in this place. Cellarius supposes that this is the present Volckmarck, in Carin- thia. VIRUPAKSHA, in Mythology, a name of the Hin- doo deity Siva; which see. It is said to mean with three eyes, similar to Trilokan; which see. The epi- thet Sri, or divine, is commonly prefixed to this name. See SRI and SR 1 virtu PAKSHA. VIS, or VISAY, in Commerce, a weight in the East Indies, which is the eighth part of the maund. See MAUND. Vis, in Physiology, a term employed to denote the vital powers : thus, vis insita is the contractiſe power of a muscle, so named because it is inherent in the or- ganization of the part, and not dependent on any other influence : it is equivalent to vis irritabilis. Wis nervea is that power of contraction which depends on the nerves. Wis vita is a general expression for the vital power altogether. See LIFE, MUSCLE, and NERwo Us System. VIs, a Latin word, signifying force or power; adopt- ed by physical writers, to express divers kinds of nat- ural powers or faculties. See Folac E. This is active and passive ; the vis activa is the pow- er of producing motion; the vis fiassiva, that of receiv- ing or losing it. The vis activa is again subdivided into vis viva, and vis mortua. - VIs Absoluta, or absolute force, is that kind of cen- tripetal force which is measured by the motion that would be generated by it in a given body, at a given distance, and depends on the efficacy of the cause pro- ducing it. Vis Acceleratrix, or accelerating force, is that centri- petal force which produces an accelerated motion, and 5 € 2 is V I S V IS is proportional to the velocity which it generates in a given time. ~. This is different at different distances from the same central body ; and depends not on the quantity of mat- ter that gravitates, being equal in all sorts of bodies at equal distances from the centre. See Accel ERATION. VIs Infiressa is defined by sir Isaac Newton to be the action exercised on any body to change its state, either of rest or moving uniformly in a right line. This force consists altogether in the action; and has no place in the body after the action has ceased. For the body perseveres in every new state by the vis iner- tide alone. - The vis imſiressa may arise from divers causes; as from percussion, pression, and centripetal force. VIs Inertia, flower of inactivity, is defined by sir Isaac Newton to be a power implanted in all matter, by which it resists any change endeavoured to be made in its state, i. e. whereby it becomes difficult to alter its state, either of rest or motion. This power, then, coincides with the vis resistendi, power of resisting, by which every body endeavours, as much as it can, to persevere in its own state, whether of rest or uniform rectilinear motion; which power is still proportional to the body, and only differs from the vis inertia of the mass, in the manner of conceiving it. Bodies only exert this power in changes brought on their state by some vis impressa, force impressed on them. And the exercise of this power is, in different respects, both resistance and impetus ; resistance, as the body opposes a force impressed on it to change its state ; and impetus, as the same body endeavours to change the state of the resisting obstacle. Phil. Nat. Princ. Math. lib. i. The vis inertia, the same great author elsewhere ob. serves, is a passive principle, by which bodies persist in their motion, or rest, receive motion, in proportion to the force impressing it, and resist as much as they are resisted. For the effect of the vis inertia, in resisting and re- tarding the motion of bodies, &c. see RESISTANCE. VIs Insita, or inmate force of matter, is a power of resisting, by which every body, as much as in it lies, en- deavours to persevere in its present state, whether of rest or of moving uniformly forward in a right line. This force is ever proportional to that body whose force it is, and differs nothing from the vis inertia but in our manner of conceiving it. VIs Centrifieta. See CENTRIPETAL Force. VIs Centrifuga. See CENTRIFUGAL Force. V is Motrix, or moving force, of a centripetal body, is the tendency of the whole body towards the centre, re- sulting from the tendency of all the parts, and is propor- tional to the motion which it generates in a given time, so that the vis motrix is to the vis acceleratriac, as the motion to the celerity ; and as the quantity of motion in a body is estimated by the product of the celerity into the quantity of matter, the vis motrix arises from the vis acceleratriz, multiplied by the quantity of matter. The followers of Leibnitz use the term vis motriz for the force of a body in motion, in the same sense as the Newtonians use the term vis inertia: ; this latter they allow to be inherent in a body at rest; but the former, or vis motriar, is a force inherent in the same body whilst in motion, which actually carries it from place to place, by acting upon it always with the same intensity in every physical part of the line which it describes. and MoTION. *- VIs Viva, in Mechanics, a term used by Leibnitz and his disciples for force, (which see,) which they distin- guish into two kinds, vis mortua, and vis viva 5 under- standing by the former any kind of pressure, or an en- deavour to move, insufficient to produce actual motion, unless its action on a body be continued for some time, and by the latter, that force or power of acting which re- sides in a body in motion. VISAKNA, or SALzBURG, in Geografhy, a town of Transylvania, famous for its salt-works; 4 miles N. of Hermanstadt. VISAN DONE, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 5 miles S.W. of Udina. VISBECK, or Fisch BEck, a town of Westphalia, in the county of Schauenburg, with an imperial free Lu- theran abbey for ladies, on the Weser; 8 miles E. of Rinteln. VISBURGII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ger- many, N. of the Hercynian forest. Ptol. According to Cluvier, they are the same people with those placed by Ptolemy in Sarmatia, and named Burgiones. He thinks they inhabited the mountains of Sarmatia and the Vistula, and that from the name of this river they were called Thi-Wisselburges, which the Latins corrupted into Visburgi, and others into Burgiones. VISCAGO, in Botany, from viscum, bird-lime, and ago, to produce or bear, a name borrowed by Dillenius, in Hort. Elth, 416, from Caesalpinus and Camerarius, and applied to such species of the old genus of Lychnis, as have several cells in the capsule. These come chiefly under SILENE ; see that article. The above name al- ludes to the viscidity of these plants, and is synonymous with their English appellation, Catchfly. VISCAGo is also used by some pharmaceutic writers to express a mucilage. VISCAR i)O, in Geografthy, a sea-port town on the N. coast of Cephalonia, opposite to the island of Teaki, which gives name to a narrow strait that separates the two islands. VISCARIA, in Botany, a word of the same import as ViscAgo; see that article. It was originally appli- ed by Tabernaemontanus to the common Lobel’s Catch- fly, Silene Armeria; and has been retained by Linnaeus, as the specific name of the German Catchfly, Lychnis Viscaria. He always wrote it with a capital letter, as if it had previously been used for a generic or proper name, which not being the case, it had better have been con- sidered as an adjective, and made viscata. VISCERA, in Anatomy, a term originally applied to the bowelssor intestines, but now used indiscriminately for the organs contained in any cavity of the body. Thus, the heart, lungs, &c. are called the thoracic vis- cera; the liver, spleen, pancreas, stomach, and intestines, the abdominal viscera, &c. The term is formed of vesci, to feed; by reason eat- ables, called in Latin vesca, undergo divers preparations in the viscera. The word is also frequently used singularly, viscus, to express some particular part of the entrails, because the word entrails has no singular. The different internal organs, comprised under the general designation of viscera, are described under their respective heads: see HEART, LUNGS, THYMUs, Stom- AcH, INTESTINES, LIVER, SPLEEN, PANGREAs, EPIPLoon, and GENERATION. See Ford E. We V IS C E R A. We have only to add, in the present article, an ex- planation of the references in the plates representing the anatomy of the viscera. * Fig. AMATOMY (Viscera). Plate I. 1. is a front view of the chest and abdomen in a newly born child; the sternum and neighbouring part of the ribs, with the corresponding pleurae, the front of the abdominal parietes and diaphragm, having been cut through and removed. 1. 2. 2. 3. 5, 6. : . 8. . 9. 10, 10. 1 l. 1 1. 12. 1 3-1 5. : 16, 17. 18. | 9. 2 l. 22. 23. 24. . 26. 19. 20. 27. 28. 29. . 30. . 3 l. 32. 33. 33. 34. 35. 36, 37. 36. 37. 38. 38. 39. 39. 40, 40. 41. Fig. Os hyoides. Portion of the sterno-hyoideus and omo-hyoideus muscles. . Portion of the sterno-thyroideus turned back. . Thyroid cartilage. . Hyo-thyroideus. . Thyroid giand. . Trachea. Portion of the sterno-cleido mastoideus. Clavicle. First rib. Ninth rib. Thymus. Right lung : 13. Its superior lobe; 14. Middle lobe; 15. Inferior lobe. Left lung: 16. The superior lobe; 17. The in- ferior lobe. Pericardium. Diaphragm. Liver: 20. The right lobe; 21. The left lobe. Suspensory ligament of the liver. The umbilical vein turned back. The spleen. Great omentum ; 25. Its portion lying on the mesocolon; 26. Loose portion. Arch of the colon. Left portion of the colon. The right portion. 30. The jejunum, filled partly with meconium, partly with air. 31. The ileum. Urinary bladder, with its fundus turned for- wards. Umbilical artery. Urachus. Internal surface of the peritoneum, Internal jugular vein. Thyroid vein. Subclavian vein. Common carotid artery. Subclavian artery. CEsophagus. 2. exhibits the same view as the last, except that the thymus and pericardium have been removed, and the liver turned up towards the right, so as to expose the stomach. 1–4. The heart : 1. Appendix of the right auricle; 5 2. Pulmonary ventricle ; 3. Appendix of the left auricle ; 4 Aortic ventricle. (The out. line of the heart is marked by a dotted line on the surface of the liver.) . Pulmonary artery. 5, Aorta. 7. 8. 9, 10. 1 l. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16, 17. 18, 19–22. 23. 24. 24. 25. 25. 27. 28. 29. 3O. 31. 32. 33. 34. S5. S6. 37. 36. Two Left subclavian artery. Left carotid. Arteria innominata. Right carotid, Right subclavian artery. Superior vena cava. Right internal jugular vein : 13. Portion in the chest; 14. Portion in the neck. Right subclavian vein. Left internal jugular vein: 16. Thoracic por- tion; 17. Cervical portion. Left subclavian vein. Concave or under surface of the liver : 19. Right lobe; 20. Square portion; 21. Left lobe; 22. Lobulus Spigelii, seen through the small omentum. Part of the superior or convex surface. 24. Thin edge. Thick edge. . Umbilical vein cut through and turned back. The pons covering the notch of the umbilical vein. Gall-bladder. Part of the diaphragm. Spleen. CFsophagus entering the stomach. CEsophagus in the neck. Stomach. Pylorus. Duodenum. 36. Transverse portion of the colon. Right portion of the colon. The other parts are the same as in the preceding figure. ANAToMy (Viscera). Plate II. views from a subject of the same age, as that from which the figures of Plate I. are taken, to show the more deeply seated parts. Fig. 1. The heart and large vessels only are seen in the chest, the other parts having been removed. The small intestine is removed from the abdomen, and the arch of the colon is turned upwards. 1. 2. i 10. 1 l. 12. 13. 1 4. 15. 16, 17. I 8. 19. 2O. 17. Right or pulmonary ventricle of the heart, Aortic or left ventricle. . Appendix of the right auricle. . Appendix of the left auricle, . Pulmonary artery. Aorta. . Arteria innominata. . Right carotid. ** . Right subclavian, Left carotid. Left subclavian. Inferior vena cava covered by the pericardium, Superior vena cava. Right internal jugular vein. Left internal jugular vein. Trachea. Thyroid gland. Thyroid cartilage. Thyro-hyoideus. Sterno-thyroideus detached and turned back, (The sterno-hyoideus is removed.) Part of the sterno-cleido-mastoideus, Clavicle, 19. 20. 21. 22. 21. 22. 23, 23. VIS C E R A. 39. 43. Pig. 2. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 4 I. 42. 43. 44. . First rib. . Second rib. . Cut edge of the diaphragm. . Arch of the colon. . Right portion of the colon. . Part of the left colon. . Transverse mesocolon. . Stomach seen obscurely through the meso- colon. . Left or great extremity of the stomach. Spleen. . Right kidney. - Right portion of the colon. Caecum and appendix vermiformis. End of the ileum. Commencement of the jejunum. Mesentery. Sigmoid flexure of the colon. Its mesocolon. Rectum. Urinary bladder turned forwards and down- wards. Umbilical arteries. Urachus. All the thoracic viscera are removed ; also the diaphragm, and the small intestine, excepting the duodenum. The peritoneum is cleared from the kid- ney and larger vessels. 1. 2. 3. 4. 6, 8. : : 9- 1 1. 9. 1 O. 1 l. 12-14. 36. . Thyroid gland. . Portion of the sterno-cleido-mastoideus. . Sterno-thyroideus detached and turned back. (The sterno-hyoideus is removed.) Thyro-hyoideus. . Thyroid cartilage. Clavicle. . Trachea. . CEsophagus; its longitudinal muscular fibres are exposed. Stomach moderately distended. The cardia. The blind pouch. Pylorus. Duodenum : 12. The first curvature; 13. The second; 14. The third. Pancreas. . Spleen. Right kidney. . Left kidney. . Right renal capsule. . Portion of diaphragm. . Arch of the aorta with its three great branches. See fig. 1, N° 7. 10. 1 1. . Canalis arteriosus. . Descending thoracic aorta. . Descending abdominal aorta. Right iliac artery. . Left iliac artery. . Spermatic artery and vein. . Ureter. . The cut orifice of the rectum. . Urinary bladder turned down. . Umbilical artery. . Urachus. . First rib. ANATOMY (Wiscera). Plate III. Views of the thoracic and abdominal viscera from be- hind. Fig. 1. The muscles of the neck and back, the back of the ribs, and the spinous processes of the verte- brae, are removed. l. 1. 2. 2. cº C - 3 0.8. : i l I º | o l 3—15. 16–18. 19. 2O. 2 l. 22. 23. 24. 25. Fig. 2. First rib. Eleventh rib. Twelfth rib, with the diaphragm and abdomi- nal muscles still attached. The ribs are gent- ly drawn aside, to expose the lungs. . Sixth cervical vertebra. . Sacrum. . Gluteus maximus. . Gluteus medius. . The vertebral the ca of the dura mater. . The same, covering the cauda equina. . The scapula: a little drawn aside. The left lung : 1 1. Superior lobe; 12. Inferi- or lobe. Right lung : 13. Superior lobe ; 14. Middle lobe; 15. Inferior lobe. Diaphragm : 16. Covering the left lobe of the liver, stomach, and spleen; 17. Covering the right lobe ; 18. 18. Attached to the twelfth rib. Right renal capsule. Left kidney. Right kidney. Interior surface of the right lobe of the liver. Left part of the colon. Sigmoid flexure of the colon. Portion of the ileum. The vertebral column, together with part of the os innominatum, is removed. i | 9 l 1 1. 12. 13. 14. 1 5. 16. 17. 18. 19. 18. 19. 2O. 2 l 21. 22. 23. 24. 26. 27. 28. 29. . First rib. . Eleventh rib. . Scapula drawn aside. . Internal jugular vein. Common carotid artery. . Subclavian artery. . Inferior thyroid artery. . Part of the aortic arch. . Descending aorta: 9. Thoracic ; 10. Abdomi- nal. Division of the aorta into the common iliacs. Middle sacral artery. The intercostal, renal, and lumbar arteries are not numbered. Vena azyges cut off. Inferior vena cava. Left renal vein. Right renal vein, double in this subject. Union of the iliac veins to form the inferior Cava. Par vagum. Thyroid gland; the blood-vessels are drawn aside by a hook on the left side. Lower part of the pharynx. Thyroid cartilage. CEsºphagus. CEsophagus entering the stomach. Part of the stomach. Superior and inferior lobes of the left lung. 30. Superior, middle, and inferior lobes of the right lung. 31, 31. 31, V IS W H S 31. 31. 32. 32. 33 34. 35–37. 31. Diaphragm. Abdominal muscles. Spleen. Part of the pancreas. Left and right lobes, and processus caudatus of the liver. . Left renal capsule. . Right renal capsule. . Left kidney. 41. Right kidney. , Left ureter. . Right ureter. . Spermatic vessels. . Left portion of the colon. . Sigmoid flexure. . Part of the jejunum seen through the perito- The Ul II] . 48. Rectum. 49, Portion of the ileum. 44. ANAtomy (Viscera). Plate IV. Four views of the heart, two of which represent its external appearance; the other two, its cavities laid open. Fig. 1. The convex or superior surface. Right auricle. . Its appendix. . Left auricle. . Its appendix. . Left pulmonary veins. Superior vena cava. Place from which the pulmonary artery has been cut off. 9. Aorta. 10. Arteria innominata. ll. Left carotid artery. 12. Left subclavian artery. 13. Right or inferior coronary artery. 14 Left or superior coronary artery. 16. Anterior branch of the great coronary vein. 17. A small vein of the heart opening into the right auricle. * Fig. 3. The heart and its blood-vessels seen on the inferior or flat surface. . Right auricle. . Inferior vena cava cut off and tied. . Superior vena cava. . Left auricle. . Its appendix. Right pulmonary veins. . One of the left pulmonary veins. Right coronary artery. *- Circumflex branch of the left coronary artery. . Great posterior branch of the great coronary Welſh. . Smaller posterior branches. 15. Small branch from the right auricle. 16. Trunk of the great coronary vein ending in the right auricle. Fig. 3. The left side of the heart exposed. 1–5. Left auricle. 4. The appendix. 5. Septum auricularum. 6–12. Left ventricle. 6. 6. Auriculo-ventricular opening. 7, 8, 8. Mitral valve. † i 6. l 3 l 4 7. Superior or larger portion. 8. 8. Inferior or smaller portion cut through. 9. 9. 9. Fleshy column, connected to the valve. 10. 10. Reticulated muscular columns. 11. Ventricular septum. 12. Tube placed in the mouth of the aorta. Fig. 4. The left ventricle and beginning of the aorta laid open. 1. 1. Part of the right ventricle exposed. 2. 2. The septum ventriculorum divided to expose the left ventricle. 3. Cavity of the left ventricle. 4. Part of the imitral valve. 5. 6. 7. Sigmoid or semi-lunar valves. 8. 8. 8. Corpora sesamoidea Arantii. 9. 10. Orifices of the coronary arteries. 11. Cavity of the aorta. 12. 13. 14. Orifices of its three great superior branches. VISCERA, Wounds of the. See Wounds. VISCERALIA, a term used by physicians to denote such medicines as impart strength and firmness to the Sanguineous viscera, such as the liver, spleen, &c. VISCERATIONES, among the Romans, a feast consisting of the entrails of animals, given to the peo- ple at the burial of great men in Rome. VISCHAR, in Geography, a town of Persia, in the province of Irak; 20 miles S.S.E. of Hamadan. VISCHER’s Island, a small island in the Pacific ocean, near the E. coast of Morty. N. lat. 2° 21'. E. long. 128° 39'. VISCHERA, a river of Russia, which runs into the Kama, 16 miles N. of Solikamsk, in the government of Perm.—Also, a river of Russia, which runs into the Vit- chegda, 20 miles E. of Nebdanskoi, in the province of Ustiug. VISCH MA, a town of Russia, in the government of Tobolsk; 268 miles S.W. of Tobolsk. N. lat. 62° 36'. E. long. 60° 14'. VISCHNEIVOLOGOK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, on a canal, which forms a commu- nication between the Msta and the Tvertza; 60 miles N.W. of Tver. This place is remarkable for the ex- tensive canals on which the great inland navigation of Russia is carried on. The communication just men- tioned is by a navigable canal of at least 500 versts, uni- ting the Caspian with the Baltic. N. lat. 57° 8'. E. long. 34°54'. VISCIDITY, or Viscosity, the quality of something that is viscid, or viscous, i. e. glutinous and sticky, like bird-lime; which the Latins call by the name viscus. Viscid bodies are those which consist of parts so im- plicated within each other, that they resist, a long time, a complete separation, and rather give way to the vio- lence done them by stretching, or extending each way. The too great viscidity of foods has very ill effects; thus meals, or farinae not fermented, jellies, &c. of ani- mals, tough cheese, or curd too much pressed, produce a weight, or oppression in the stomach; wind, yawnings, crudities, obstructions of the minuter vessels in the in- testines, &c. Hence an inactivity of the intestines them- selves, a swelling of the abdomen; and hence a viscidity of the blood, from the reunion of the viscid particles; obstructions of the glands, paleness, coldness, tremours, &c. VISCO, in Geografthy, a village of Italy, in Friuli; 2 miles E. of Palma Nuova. VISCONTI, V I S W I S VISCONTI, CATERINA, of Milan, in Biography, an opera singer of great reputation in her day, arrived here in 1742, at the beginning of lord Middlesex’s regency, and performed with Monticelli in the operas of Galup- pi and Lumpugnani, &c. till the year 1745, when the breaking out of the rebellion occasioned an interdict against the whole opera band, vocal and instrumental. The Visconti had a shrill flexible voice, and could run divisions faster than the violins of those times could follow her. And bravura or execution was then so new, that she pleased more in rapid songs than she could have done in those that required high colouring and pa- thos, if she had been possessed of either. She was so fat. that her age being the subject of conversation in a company where lord Chesterfield was present; when a gentleman, who supposed her to be much younger than the rest, said she was but two-and-twenty ; his lordship, interrupting him, said, “you mean stone, sir, not years.” She was engaged a second time in the Haymarket for the season of 1753 and 1754; but having been heard in her better day, her talents were pronounced on the de- cline, which occasioned a declension in the public fa- vour. And at the end of a heavy season she gave way to Mingotti, who, in the autumn of 1754, revived the favour of our lyric theatre, and for two or three seasons gave it a considerable degree of splendour. VISCOUNT. See VI count. VISCUM, in Botany, so called by Pliny, and by some Latin writers Viscus, derives its name from the Greek 4ãog, altered by the AEolians into guazog. The transition is easy enough to the Latin, though scarcely to the En- glish appellation of this plant, Misletoe, so famous in the history of our superstitious and barbarous ancestors. We have hinted, under the biographical article SIB- THORP, that this learned traveller and botanist, though he reckoned our W. album, still called tâte, to be the 130% of Dioscorides, nevertheless suspected latterly the Lo- ranthus eurofleus might have been considered by the ancients as a more genuine or perfect kind. The latter grows in Arcadia on the Oak; our Viscum album on the Silver Fir only. Hence perhaps the Druids, not knowing the Loranthus, or true Misletoe of the Oak, attached such importance to the particular plants of the Wiscum found on this tree ; in which over-curious per- sons, who see with the eyes of tradition and prejudice, rather than with their own natural organs, still affect to perceive something peculiar. We submit this point to the consideration of the learned, not being aware of its having ever been suggested by any one before.—Linn. Gen. 517. Schreb. 680. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 737. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1074. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 256. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 371. Swartz Ind. Occ. 266. Pursh l l 4. Juss. 212. Tourn. t. 380. Lamarck Dict. v. 3. 55. Illustr. t. 807. Gaertn. t. 27.—Class and order, Dioecia Tetrandria. Nat. Ord. ...Aggregataº, Linn. Cañrifolia, Juss. Gen. Ch. Male, Cal, none. Cor. Petals four, calyx- like, ovate, equal, dilated and connected at the base. Stam. Filaments none; anthers four, oblong, pointed, dotted, each attached to the disk of one of the petals. Female, Cal, a slight four-cleft border. Cor. Petals four, superior, small, ovate, sessile, calyx-like, decidu- ous. Pist. Germen inferior, oblong, three-sided, crown- ed with the obsolete calyx; style none ; stigma obtuse, scarcely notched. Peric. Berry globose, smooth, of one cell. Seed solitary, heart-shaped, compressed, obtuse, fleshy, lodged in viscid pulp. Ess, Ch. Male, Calyx none. Petals four, calyx-like, dilated and cohering at their base. Anthers sessile upon the petals. Female, Calyx a slight border. like, dilated at the base. with one seed. Obs. The analogy, or natural affinity, of this genus has always induced us to follow Jussieu, rather than Lin- naeus, in denominating the principal, or only, integu- ment of its flowers a corolla, rather than a calyx. All the known species are parasitical, and though probably to be cultivated, if sown on the branches or stems of particular trees, like our only English one, provided we could have their berries fresh, none of them has yet been introduced into any garden, except that species. Their habit is rigid and coriaceous; leaves, if present, simple, undivided, entire, on short stalks, opposite as well as the branches. Flowers in axillary heads or spikes, sessile or stalked, generally greenish and inconspicuous. The species are by no means well understood. We fol- low Willdenow, who has given the best aecount of them. 1. V. album. Common Misletoe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1451. Willd. n. 1. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1470. Petals four, calyx- Style none. Berry inferior, Mill, Illustr. t. 87. Woodv. Suppl. t. 270. (Viscum ; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 161. Camer. Epit. 555. Ger. Em. 1350.)—Leaves lanceolate, obtuse, ribless. Stem fork- ed. Flowers five together, in terminal, sessile heads.- Found throughout Europe, on the branches of old apple- trees, hawthorns, lime-trees, oaks, Scotch fir, or the sil- ver fir, as above-mentioned, flowering in the spring, and ripening its large white berries late in autumn. The plant forms large, smooth, perennial, bushy tufts, of a pale green, becoming yellowish, and therefore most con- spicuous, in winter. The stems are round, repeatedly forked. Leaves about an inch, or inch and half, long, thick and leathery, smooth, tapering down into short thick footstalks. Flowers crowded, yellowish. Anthers singularly and beautifully dotted, almost as large as the fetals on which they lie. The sweetish viscid pulp of the pearly berries makes an indifferent sort of bird-lime. This Misletoe, the golden bough of Virgil, which was Æneas's passport to the infernal regions, and the sacred plant of the Druids, still retains some respect in our churches and kitchens at Christmas, intermixed with Holly, which last, if we mistake not, is Virgil’s Acan- thus. 2. V. macrostachyon. Long-spiked Misletoe. Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 109. t. 5. f. 3. Willd. n. 2.—Leaves linear- lanceolate, obtuse, ribless. Spikes axillary, slender, many times longer than the leaves. Flowers remote- Gathered by Jacquin on trees in Martinico. Branches and leaves smooth, not unlike the foregoing, but the long, slender, articulated spikes abundantly distinguish this species. The flowers are either opposite, or solitary, having but three fetals, at least the female ones, ac- cording to Jacquin. 3. V. orientale. East Indian Misletoe. Willd. n. 3. —Leaves elliptic-oblong, obtuse, three-ribbed; taper- ing at the base. Stalks axillary, aggregate, about three- flowered.—Native of the East Indies. We have Speci- mens from the author, as well as from the Rev. Dr. Rottler. The branches are angular when dry. Ileaves an inch or more in length, and full half as broad, on short stalks. Flowers either solitary or three together, on very short stalks, as well as crowded into a sort of axillary whorls. Berries red. Willdenow. V 4. Ve - V I S C U M. f 4. V. hauciflorum. Hoary Cape Misletoe. Linn. Suppl. 426. Thunb. Prodr. 31. Willd. n. 4.—“Leaves oblong, obtuse, three-ribbed, hoary, smooth ; tapering at the base. Flowers axillary, solitary.”—Gathered by Thunberg, at the Cape of Good Hope. The plant is described as hoary, though not downy. The ribs do not extend beyond the middle of the leaf, and escaped the observation of the younger Linnaeus. We have seen no specimen. 5. V. rubrum. Red Misletoe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1451. Willd. n. 5. (“V. foliis longioribus, baccis rubris; Ca- tesb. Car. v. 2. t. 81.”)—“Leaves obovato-lanceolate, obtuse. Spikes axillary, whorled.”—Found upon trees in Carolina. Catesby alone appears to have seen this species. 6. V. hurhurium. Purple Misletoe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1451. Willd. n. 6. (“V. foliis latioribus, baccis pur- pureis, pediculis insidentibus; Catesb. Car. v. 2. t. 95.”) —Leaves obovate, obtuse, obscurely three-ribbed. Spikes axillary, shorter than the leaves. Flowers op- posite.—Native of Carolina. Berries purple. 7. V. buccifolium. Box-leaved White Misletoe. Willd. n. 7. (V. purpureum 3; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1451. V. baccis niveis racemosis, foliis buxi luteis ; Plum. Ic. 256. t. 258. f. 3.)—Leaves obovate, obtuse, single-rib- bed. Spikes axillary, nearly the length of the leaves. Flowers opposite.—Native of trees in the West Indies. Perries white. . We suspect this may be the first Vis- cum in Browne's Jamaica, p. 356, which he mistook for the verticillatum of Linnaeus, a widely different plant. But Browne’s specimen has occasionally traces of three ribs in the leaves, and he has confounded with it the fla- vens of Swartz. 8, V. myrtilloides. Bilberry Misletoe. Willd. n. 8. —Leaves obovate, obtuse, five-ribbed. Spikes solitary, axillary. Flowers whorled.—Native of trees in Marti- nico. Leaves an inch long, coriaceous, with five ribs, the lateral ones least conspicuous. Shikes oppo- site, rather longer than the footstalks. Willdenow. We have West Indian specimens answering to these cha- racters, except that the leaves are three inches long, and rather elliptic-lanceolate than obovate. 9. V. rotundifolium. Round-leaved Cape Misletoe. Linn. Suppl. 426. Thunb. Prodr. 21. Willd. n. 9.- Leaves nearly orbicular, acute, ribless, Flowers some- what whorled.—Found by Thunberg on trees at the cape of Good Hope. Willdenow says the flowers are either solitary, on simple, aggregate, axillary stalks ; or many together, on solitary stalks. 10. V. antarcticum. Antarctic Misletoe. Forst. Prodr. 70. Willd. n. 10.-4: Leaves oblong, tapering at each end, obtuse, ribless. Clusters terminal, of about five flowers.”—Native of trees in New Zeeland. 1 1. V. caſhense. Naked Cape Misletoe. Linn. Suppl. 426, excluding the synonym. Willd. n. 11. Thunb. Prodr. 31.—Stem leafless, obscurely quadrangular, roughish, rugose. Flowers whorled, sessile.—Gather- ed at the Cape of Good Hope by Dr. Sparrmann. The stem is much branched, jointed, roughish to the touch, each joint crowned with two scales, like a Salicornia. Leaves none. Anthers two or four, dotted with minute excavations. Berries opposite, sometimes three toge- ther, sessile, crowned with a small, angular, hardly four- cleft, calyz. - 12. V. vaginatum. Sheathed Misletoe. Willd. n. 12-‘‘Stem leafless, quadrangular. Branches com- pressed, semi-cylindrical. Joints sheathing.”—Gather- Vol. XXXVIII. *. ed by Humboldt and Bonpland, on trees on the moun- tains of Mexico. Stem round below, angular upwards. Joints each crowned with a tubular permanent sheath. Leaves none. Berries in the bosom of the sheaths, op- posite, solitary. Willdenow. 13. V. of untioides. Wedge-jointed Misletoe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1452. Willd. n. 13; excluding Plumier’s sy- nonym. (V. opuntioides, ramulis compressis; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 93. t. 201. f. 1.)—Stem proliferous, much branched, leafless. Joints wedge-shaped, furrowed, compressed.—Native of trees in Jamaica, and the isle of Bourbon. The flat joints at once distinguish this species. Each joint is an inch or inch and half long, of a yellowish-green. “Flowers small, terminating each joint, in pairs. Berries white, resembling our English Misletoe.” Sloane. Plumier's t. 258. f. 1, must surely be Cactus fiendulus, Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 178, which is Cassytha baccifera of Solander, in Mill. Illustr. t. 29. 14. V. obscurum. Elliptical Cape Misletoe. Thunb. Prodr. 31. Willd. n. 14.—“Leaves elliptical, smooth. Stem shrubby.”—Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope, on trees, by Thunberg. Nobody else appears to have See In It. 15. V. flavens. Yellowish Misletoe. Swartz Ind. Occ. 266. Willd. n. 15. Pursh n. 1. 2 (V. aliud ra- cemosum, foliis latissimis; Plum. Ic. 256. t. 258. f. 4. V. racemosum ; Aubl. Guian. v. 2. 895.)—Leaves ovate, five-ribbed, veiny, Spikes axillary, from one to four at each side. Flowers whorled.—Found on trees in the West Indies, especially near the sea. Two feet high, with round, livid, roughish branches. Leaves two inch- es or more in length, bluntish, of a livid hue. Shikes stalked, sometimes solitary, 16. V. latifolium. Broad-leaved Misletoe. Swartz Ind. Occ. 268. Willd. n. 16.-Leaves roundish-ovate, acute, flat, obscurely veined. Spikes axillary, stalked, solitary or in pairs.—On trees in Jamaica. Two feet high, smooth. Leaves contracted at each end, brown- ish-green, on very short stalks. Flowers minute. Ber- ries oblong. . 17. V. verticillatum. Whorled Misletoe. Linn. Sp. Pl, 1452, Willd. n. 17; excluding the synonyms of Browne and Plumier. (V. ramulis et foliis longis, den- sissimis, striatis et radiatis; Sloane Jam. v. 2.93. t. 201. f. 2.)—Ultimate branches aggregate, imperfectly whorl- ed, tootbed at the end.—Native of Jamaica, where it hangs from the branches of trees. The main stem is divided, angular, striated, smooth, beset here and there with whorls of simple spreading branches, an inch and half or two inches long, destitute of leaves, tipped with a few scales. Nothing is known of the fructification, so the genus is very doubtful. It may turn out a Cactus, or at least of the same genus a C. fendulus above men- tioned under n. 13. What we here describe is, how- ever, the plant intended by Linnaeus, though he has con- founded with it one altogether different, and has thence perverted the specific character. 18. V. caſhitellatum. Capitate Misletoe.—Leaves wedge-shaped, concave, obtuse. Berries capitate, on axillary stalks.-Gathered in Ceylon by Koenig, who sent specimens to Linnaeus, but the plant has remained hitherto undescribed, though certainly very distinct. The stems are three inches high, branched, roughish to the touch. Leaves an inch long at most, smooth, fleshy. Flower-stalks rather shorter, crowned with two thick bracteas under the little head of four or five flowers. Berries oval, crowned with a blunt caliz. 5 ID Willdenow V H S V IS Willdenow rightly observes that V. terrestre, Linn. Sp. Fl. 1452, is no other than Lysimachia stricta, Willd. Sp. Pl. 818. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 314. (L. bulbife- ra; Curt. Mag. t. 104.)—Kalm gathered it in Philadel- phia, and whether the mistake were his own, or his great preceptor’s, it one of the most reprehensible that ever was made. Several species of Wiscum probably are still unde- scribed among the botanical treasures of the West, and perhaps East Indies. Viscum, in Gardening, furnishes a plant of the un- der-shrub, evergreen, curious, parasitic kind, of which the sort made use of is, the white-berried or common misletoe (V. album.) It has a woody branchy growth and yellowish-green appearance, producing white transparent berries of a considerable size, which ripen themselves in the winter. It is a remarkable plant, as not growing in the earth or soil, but upon the trunks or branches of other plants, mostly on those of the soft-wooded tree sorts, being of- ten found in woods and orchards, on the ash, the hazle, the maple, the crab, and the apple-tree. Method of Culture.—It is for the most part increased by the seeds which are accidentally dispersed and de- posited upon some parts of the trees by means of birds, commonly taking root and fixing themselves on the un- der sides of the boughs or branches, to which parts they have been washed by the rains or in other ways, being kept in such situations until they strike root, or plant their radical fibres in the bark between it and the wood, by their soft glutinous quality; the young plants grow- ing downwards in a pendulous manner. The plants may also be propagated in garden or orchard plantations, by procuring some fully ripened berries or seeds in the winter, and sticking or rubbing them on the smooth parts of the under sides of the branches of some of the above kinds of trees, where they will grow as already noticed. The outer bark, in some cases, is cut or rub- bed off in the part before this is done, in order to make it more certain. The want of success, in particular instances, is to be ascribed to the defective fecundation of the plants from which the berries or seeds were taken which are employ- ed. They should of course always be gathered from plants where different sorts grow together. They are chiefly grown for curiosity; but sometimes for medicinal purposes. VIsc UM is also used for bird-lime. This was esteem- ed a poison among the ancient Greeks, and is seldom omitted under the class of deleterious things enumera- ted in their writings. It is called by these authors izias ; but this word has occasioned great errors in late writers, the word ixias having been applied to the white chamaeleon thistle, not because of any poisonous quality it had, for they all de- clare it to be innocent, but because of its yielding a vis- cous or clammy juice. The black chamaeleon thistle was always esteemed poisonous among them ; and hence some have supposed the word ixias to be applied to that, and the poison ixias, mentioned by the Greeks, to be the root of that plant. Paulus AEgineta, indeed, seems to have understood it so, the poison ixias being by him placed among the roots; but Galen, who calls it a slow poison, and says that it kills by stopping up and gluing together the intestines, plainly enough means bird-lime, not the root of any plant. Viscusſ Caryofiñylloides, a name given by sir Hans Sloane, and many other authors, to a genus of plants of a very peculiar kind. They are called viscum, from their growing upon other trees, in the manner that the misletoe does with us ; and caryofibylloides, from their leaves, in some de- gree, resembling those of our pinks or carnations; but the plant itself, in all its species, is wholly different, both from the misletoe and pink, in all other respects. The several species of these plants differ greatly also from one another ; the most fragrant species in Jamai- ca is a very large one, called by the common people the wild pine. See the description of it in Phil. Trans. N* 252. p. 114. - VISCUS, and Viscosity. See ViscertA and VIs- C ID IT Y. - VISEGLIA, in Geografthy. See BISEGLIA. VISENTIUM, or VISENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Etruria, upon the western bank of the lake Thrasimené. Pliny suggests that this town be- longed to the Visentini who inhabited the vicinity of the Vulcinian lake : it is the present Bisentio. VISET, in Geografthy, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Ourthe, situated on the E. side of the Meuse. It was surrounded with walls in the year 1338, by Adolphus de la Mark, bishop of Liege. John de Heinsberg, the fifty-second bishop, granted it many pri- vileges, in the year 1429; among others, the liberty of choosing their own magistrates; 6 miles S. of Maes- tricht. VISEU, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira. This town was founded by the Romans, and by them called “Visontium.” It is the see of a bishop, contains three parish churches, an hospital, and three convents. In 1027, Alphonso V. king of Leon, was killed by an arrow before this town, as he attempted to take it from the Moors; 27 miles S. of Lamego. N. lat. 40° 45'. W. long. 7° 46'. VISHIANARY, a town of Hindoostan, in Tinevelly; 18 miles S.S.E. of Palamcotta. - VISHNU, in Mythology, is one of the chief deities of the Hindoo trimurti or triad. He is reckoned the se- cond person of this mysterious unity, being a personifi- cation of the fireserving power of the deity. On the whole, Vishnu may be called the chief of the Hindoo gods ; as either in himself, or through his consort, or active energy, Lakshmi, or in his various incarnations, he is, perhaps, the god most extensively worshipped : if the numerous sects that indirectly adore him be inclu- ded, he certainly is. Like the gods and goddesses of other polytheistic people, all the deities of the Hindoo Pantheon are resolvable ultimately into one; that one is the sun, and he, the Hindoo theologians affirm, is mere- ly a symbol of that “infinitely greater light which alone can irradiate our intellects.” This esoteric doctrine is of course unknown to the multitude who address and adore Vishnu, as well as the other deities, in the gross- ness of idolatrous superstition. Under the article S1 v A it is shewn that Vishnu, in a strictly mythological view, is the fireserving attribute : he represents also the wisdom of the deity, as Brahm does his flower, and Siva his justice. Extending our view, we find that Vishnu metaphysically is a personifi- cation of shace ; ºnatter and time being assignable to his coeternal associates in the Hindoo triad. In phy- sics, Vishnu is water, or the humid principle generº : thūS V IS H N U. thus he is the air ; and in a degree of relationship less intimate, he is the earth. He is also time ; and, as be- fore said, the sun. See LAKSHMI, the name of the sak- ti, or consort of Vishnu ; SAR Aswa TI, the consort of the creative Brahma ; and PARVATI, the active energy of the destroying Siva, for farther particulars of this fireserving attribute of the inseparable Hindoo triad. These female divinities, which we indiscriminately call the active energy, or power, or consort of their respec- tive lords, are generally termed their Sakti ; which see. See also MATRI. As well as wives, or active helpmates, the Hindoo gods have severally vehicles assigned them. These are termed Vahan ; which see. Vishnu, the Jove of India, has his eagle, like his brother of Greece and Rome. The Hindoo bird is named Garuda and Superna. Un- der the latter word an account of him will be found. The whole race of Hindoos may be theologically comprehended under the two denominations of Saivas and Vaishnavas, or worshippers of Siva and Vishnu ; either directly of the god himself, or of his sakti; or in- directly of a symbol, or through the intervention of an incarnation. This, however, opens a door to diversity and schism. Under the article SECTs of Hindoos, we bave endeavoured to class them in a triple arrange- ment, of theological, civil, and fihilosophical sectarists. To that article, to SAIv A, VAISHNAvA, and PHILOSOPHY of the Hindoos, with others therein referred to, connect- ed with and farther explaining them, we beg to refer the reader inquisitive on points relating to this branch of the mythology of the Hindoos. See also the Hindoo Pantheon. Representations of Vishnu are very common in all parts of India ; in metallic casts, in carvings in wood, stone, or ivory, and in pictures. See the plates of the work just named. When in his own person, he is de- picted young and handsome ; sometimes two, but com- monly four-handed. In his hands are usually seen a club or mace, called gada, a shell or shank, a lotos or padma, and a discus or quoit, called chakra or vajra. The chakra is a discus or quoit, with a hole in its cen- tre, on which Vishnu is fabled to turn it round his fore- finger so vehemently, that irresistible fire flames from its periphery. It is said to be a missile still used; but whatever mythological mischief may have ensued from its effects, it does not seem capable of producing much sent from a mortal finger. With the Hindoos now, as with the Egyptians of old, this is a very mysterious symbol ; the word in Sanscrit means a wheel, or some- thing rotatory ; and has a like meaning in several spo- ken dialects of India. Chakra-varti, or the Chakra- whirler, is a name of Vishnu, and is sometimes given to other deities and mythological heroes. The notion of incarnations of their deities is very com- mon among the Hindoos. This terrestrial manifesta- tion they call avatara, meaning a descent. The avata- ras of Vishnu have been very numerous; but ten of them are of great celebrity; and the histories of them form the principal subject of several of the sacred po- ems called Purana (which see), and of a great many books in all the languages of the East. We subjoin the names of these ten descents, or dasavatara, as they are called in Sanscrit; with some incidental remarks in ad- dition to what we have offered under several of their names. 1. Matsyavatara. This, as the name implies, was a descent in the form of a fish ; and is represented . by a figure of Vishnu, half man half fish; reminding us b • strongly of the pisciform god of the Assyrians; “sea- monster, Dagon named, upwards man and downwards fish,” as well described by Milton. This incarnation and the next are supposed to have allusion to the flood, and re- presentations of half man half fish to Noah. 2. Kurma- vatara, or the descent in the form of a tortoise. 3. Vara- havatara, in the form of a boar. 4. Narasingha, or man- lion. 5. Vamana, or the dwarf. 6. Parasu Rama, a hero so named. 7. Rama, surnamed Chandra. 8. Krishna. 9. Boodh or Budha, or Sakya. 10. Kalki is the last, and is yet to come, when Vishnu will appear mounted on a white horse ; and, as mentioned under the article KALKI, end the present iron or kali age, and re- novate the creation with an era of purity, called Satya or Sati. See KALI and SUTTEE. These are the chief of the descents of Vishnu, called pre-eminently dasavatara. The reader will see them very ingeniously discussed in Maurice's Indian Antiqui- ties and Ancient History of India. Besides these grand incarnations, Vishnu has de- scended in various places and times, usually accompanied by his sakti or consort Lakshmi, also incarnated for that purpose ; sometimes retaining her own name and some- times taking another. - In the spirit of Grecian mythology, these avataras, as the Hindoos more decorously describe them, would ap- pear as the sons of Jove. But we have not convenience to pursue, in this place, these analogies of eastern and western fable. Vishnu, like Siva, and others of the Hindoo deities, has many names. He is said to have a thousand; but this may mean merely a great many. They are strung together in a sort of metrical arrangement, and are men- tally recited in some species of worship; the votary sometimes holding in his hand a rosary, and dropping a bead as each name and the excited idea occur : to aid abstraction, the hand and rosary are put into a bag. This silent adoration is called jafi : which see. Among the names of Vishnu are the following : Janardana, said to mean the devourer or absorber of souls. Vishnu being the sun, this may have some solar allusion : other- wise we do not see its applicability to the fireserving energy. Heri, a name also of Krishna, who is, indeed, by sectaries, identified with Vishnu. Heriprya, mean- ing beloved of Heri, is a name of Lakshmi. In other avataras, a fortion only of his essence is said to have been incarnated; but in that of Krishna the whole deity, in all his plenitude of potentiality. Bhagavan, alluding to the lord of nature ; Bhaga and Bharga are names of Siva, of like allusion. Padmanabha, meaning lord of Padma; the latter being a name of Lakshni, and of the lotos, the appropriate symbol of a deity who is a personi- fication of the humid principle. Lakshmi is the queen of beauty, and the lotos is the proverbial type of female loveliness. (See Lotos and PADMA.) Probhu ; this name may allude to Vishnu’s solar godhead; for a word of the same root, Prabha, implies brightness, shlendour, effulgence ; and is a name of the consort of the sun. See PRABHA and SURYA ; in which last article, being the name of the Hindoo Phoebus, are many particulars ex- planatory of the solar. Vishnu. Warayana, meaning moving on or abiding in the waters, is a name applied to Vishnu by his sectaries, and to other deities by theirs. (See SEcts of Hindoos.) Although Vishnu hath this agueous name and character, he does not agree with the Neptune of the West so intimately as Siva. (See Siva, TRISULA, and VARUNA.) Sri is a name or epithet 5 D 2 meaning V IS V IS meaning holy or divine, given to gods, goddesses, and men ; among them to Vishnu ; but it is not discrimi- native. Kesava is a frame of Krishna and Vishnu, said to allude to the fineness of the hair of the incarnated deity. Madhava is derived from a giant named Madhu, destroyed by Vishnu : it is a name also of Krishna, as is Murari of both. Trivikera, or Trivikrama, alluding to three stefis, taken by Vishnu in the Vamanavatara, is a designation by which he is not unfrequently called. Pitamba, or Pitamber, descriptive of a yellow coloured garment worn by Krishna, is sometimes given as a name to him and to Vishnu. See PRITHU, for some account of that name and form of the deity now under our con- sideration, and WITToBA for another. Shyamula, mean- ing black-faced, is a name applied to Parvati as well as to Vishnu, in his form of Khrishna, who is usually black or blue-faced. Syama has the like derivation. Vinka- tyeish, Vinkatramna, Viratarupa, and Yadava, are other names of Vishnu. Yama, the judge of departed souls, is sometimes called an emanation of him. The name Vishnu is said to come from the root vis, which means to fenetrate or ſervade ; and may allude to him more particularly in his form of Surya, or the sun. (See SURYA.) All these names of Vishnu, and a great many others, are discussed, as to their derivation and mystical properties, in a Sanscrit poem called “Sahasra Nama.” The name of this important mythological personage is variously pronounced in different parts of India, and variously written by Europeans: Bishen, Visnu, Vish- noo, &c. These may suffice of the names of Vishnu. Like other Hindoo gods, he has a particular abode assigned him : his is called Vaikomtha ; which see. VISHWARUPA, is the father of the two wives of Ganesa, the god of prudence and policy; called also Pollear, which see. The names of these wives were Sidi and Budhi. (See S1D1.) Vishwarupa, or Viswa- rupa, is said to be the son of Twashta, or Viswakarma. See those articles. VISIAPOUR, in Geografthy. See BEJAPou R. VIsIApour, Visaflour, or Bejañour, a country, and at a former period a considerable kingdom, of Hindoostan, bounded on the N. by Dowlatabad, on the E. by Gol- conda, on the S. by Mysore, and on the W. by the Gauts, or mountains which separate it from Concan; formerly governed by kings of the Patan race; afterwards con- quered by Aurungzebe, and now in possession of the Mahrattas. VISIBLE, VisiBILE, something that is an object of sight, or vision; or something by which the eye is af. fected, so as to produce a sensation. Vision. The school philosophers make two kinds of visibles, or visible objects; the one firoſher, or adequate, which are such as are no other way perceivable but by sight alone; the other common, which are subject to divers senses, as the sight, hearing, feeling, &c. Again, the first, or firoker object of vision, is of two kinds, viz. light and colour ; for these two are only sensi- ble by sight. The first, and primary, viz., light, they make the formal, and colour, the material object. The Cartesians think they philosophize better, when they say that light alone is the proper object of vision ; whether it flow from a luminous body through a trans- parent medium, and retains its first name, light, or whether it be reflected from opaque bodies, under a cer- tain new modification, or habitude, and exhibit their im- See SIGHT and ages; or, lastly, whether in being reflected, it is like- wise refracted, after this or that manner, and affects the eye with the appearance of colour. But, agreeable to sir Isaac Newton’s sentiments, colour alone is the proper object of sight; colour being that property of light by which the light itself is visible, and by which the images of opaque bodies are painted on the retina. Aristotle (De Anima, lib. ii.) enumerates five kinds of common visibles, which are usually received for such in the schools, viz. motion, rest, number, figure, and magnitude. Others maintain nine, as in the verses : “Sunt objecta novem visus communia: quantum, Inde figura, locus, Sequitur distantia, situs, Continuumque et discretum, motusque, quiesque.” Authors reason very variously as to these common ob- jects of vision; there are two principal opinions among the schoolmen. w The adherents to the first hold, that the common visi- bles produce proper representations of themselves, by some peculiar species, or image, by which they are for- mally perceived, independently of the proper visibles. But the second opinion prevails most, which imports, that the common visibles have not any such formal pe- culiar species to become visible by ; but that the pro- per objects are sufficient to throw themselves in this or. that place or situation, and in this or that distance, figure, magnitude, &c. by the circumstances of their convey- ance to the sensory. In effect, since these common visibles cannot be re- presented alone (for who ever saw place, distance, figure, situation, &c. of itself?), but are always conveyed along with the images of light and colour to the organ; what necessity is there to conceive any such proper images by which the common visibles should be formally per- ceived by the soul ? It is much more probable, that from the peculiar manner in which the sensitive faculty per- ceives a proper object, it is apprized of its being in this or that situation or place; in this or that figure, magni- tude, &c. . How this is effected may be conceived from what follows: I. The situation and place of visible objects are per- ceived without any intentional species of them, merely by the impulse being made from a certain place and situation, either above or below, on the right or left, be- fore or behind, by which the rays of the proper visibles are thrown upon the retina, and their impression is con- veyed to the sensory. For, since an object is seen by those rays which carry its image to the retina, and in that place to which the visible power is directed by the rays it receives, as it perceives the impulse of the rays to come from any place, &, it is abundantly admonished of the objects being in that place and situation. See Afflarent PLA ce. Philosophers, in general, had formerly taken for granted, that the place to which the eye refers any visi- ble object, seen by reflection or refraction, is that in which the visual ray meets a perpendicular from the object upon the reflecting or the refracting plane. That this is the case with respect to plane mirrors is univer- Sally acknowledged ; and some experiments with mir- rors of other forms seem to favour the same conclusion, and thereby afford reason for extending the analogy to all cases of vision. If a right line be held perpendicu- larly over a convex or concave mirror, its image seems %. to VIS I B L E. to make one line with it. The same is the case with a right line held perpendicularly within water; for the part which is within the water seems to be a continua- tion of that which is without, at least when it is viewed with no more than common attention, and in some posi- tions. But Dr. Barrow called in question this method of judging of the place of an object, and thereby opened a new field of enquiry and debate in this branch of science. This, with other optical investigations, he published in his Optical Lectures, first printed in 1674. Having, as he imagined, refuted the common hypothesis concerning the place of visible objects, he substitutes another rule, by which, he says, our judgments are actually directed in this case. According to him, we refer every point of an object to the place from which the pencils of light, that give us the image of it, issue, or from which they would have issued, if no reflecting or refracting sub- stance intervened. Pursuing this principle, Dr. Barrow proceeded to investigate the place, in which the rays, issuing from each of the points of an object, and which reach the eye after one reflection or refraction, meet ; and he found, that if the refracting surface was plane, and the refraction was made from a denser medium into a rarer, those rays would always meet in a place between the eye and a perpendicular to the point of incidence. If a convex mirror be used, the case will be the same ; but if the mirror be plane, the rays will meet in the per- pendicular, and beyond it if it be concave. He also de- termined, according to these principles, what form the image of a right line will take when it is presented in different manners to a spherical mirror, or when it is seen through a refracting medium. Dr. Barrow, however, mentions an objection against the maxim which he endeavoured to establish, concern- ing the supposed place of visible objects, and candidly owns that he was not able to give a satisfactory solution of it. The objection is this; let an object be placed beyond the focus of a convex lens, and if the eye be close to the lens, it will appear confused, but very near to its true place. If the eye be a little withdrawn, the confusion will increase, and the object will seem to come nearer; and when the eye is very near the focus, the confusion will be exceedingly great, and the object will seem to be close to the eye. But in this experiment the eye receives no rays but those that are converging ; and the point from which they issue is so far from being nearer than the object, that it is beyond it ; notwith- standing which, the object is conceived to be much nearer than it is, though no very distinct idea can be formed of its precise distance. The first person who took much notice of Dr. Bar- row's hypothesis, and the difficulty attending it, was Dr. Berkeley, who, in his Essay on a New Theory of Vision, p. 30, observes, that the circle formed upon the retina by the rays which do not come to a focus, produces the same confusion in the eye, whether they cross one ano- ther before they reach the retina, or tend to it after- wards: and therefore, that the judgment concerning distances will be the same in both the cases, without any regard to the place from which the rays originally issued; so that in this case, as, by receding from the lens, the confusion, which always accompanies the near- ness of an object, increases, the mind will judge that the object comes nearer. See Afflarent DISTANCE. M. Bouguer, an ingenious writer on Optics, in his Traite d'Optique, p. 104, adopts the general maxim of Dr. Barrow, in supposing that we refer objects to the ** place from which the pencils of rays secmingly converge at their entrance into the pupil. But when rays issue from below the surface of a vessel of water, or any other refracting medium, he finds that there are always two different places of this seeming convergence : one of them of the rays that issue from it in the same vertical circle, and, therefore, fall with different degrees of obli- quity upon the surface of the refracting medium, and another of those that fall upon the surface with the same degree of obliquity, entering the eye laterally with re- spect to one another. Sometimes, he says, one of these images is attended to by the mind, and sometimes the other ; and different images may be observed by dif- ferent persons. An object, plunged into water, affords an example, he says, of this duplicity of images. G. W. Krafft has ably supported the opinion of Dr. Barrow, that the place of any point seen by reflection from the surface of any medium, is that in which rays issuing from it, infinitely near to one another, would meet; and considering the case of a distant object, viewed in a concave mirror by an eye very near to it, when the image, according to Euclid and other writers, would be between the eye and the object, and the rule of Dr. Barrow cannot be applied; he says, that in this case, the speculum may be considered as a plane, the effect being the same, only that the image is more ob- scure. Com. Petropol. vol. xii. p. 252. 256. See Priestley’s Hist. of Light, &c. p. 89.688, &c. From the principle above illustrated, several remark- able phenomena of vision are accounted for : as, 1. That if the distance between two visible objects be an angle that is insensible, the distant bodies will appear as if contiguous: whence a continuous body being the result of several contiguous ones; if the distances be- tween several visibles subtend insensible angles, they will appear one continuous body; which gives a pretty illustration of the notion of a continuum. Hence parallel lines, and long vistas, consisting of parallel rows of trees, seem to converge more and more, the farther they are extended from the eye; because the apparent magnitudes of their perpendicular inter- vals are perpetually diminishing, while, at the same time, we mistake their distance. When two parallel rows of trees stand upon an ascent, the more remote parts appear farther off than they really are, because the line that measures the length of the vistas now appears under a greater angle than when it was horizontal ; the trees, in such a case, seeming to converge less, and sometimes, instead of converging, seeming to diverge. See PARAL- I, ELISM of Rows of Trees. The proper method of drawing the appearance of two rows of trees that shall appear parallel to the eye, is a problem that has exercised the ingenuity of several phi- losophers and mathematicians. That the apparent mag- nitude of objects decreases with the angle under which they are seen, has always been acknowledged ; and it is also acknowledged, that we learn to form a judgment both of magnitudes and distances only by custom and experience; but in the application of these maxims to the above mentioned problem, all persons, before M. Bouguer, made use of the real distance instead of the apparent one, by which only the mind can form its judg- ment. And it is manifest, that if any circumstances contribute to make the distance appear otherwise than it is in reality, the apparent magnitude of the object will be affected by it, for the same reason, that if the VIS I B L E. the magnitude be misapprehended, the idea of the dis- tance will vary. For want of attending to this distinc- tion, Tacquet pretended to demonstrate, that nothing can give the idea of two parallel lines to an eye situated at one of their extremities, but two hyperbolical curves, turned the contrary way; and M. Varignon maintained, that, in order to make a vista appear of the same width, it must be made narrower, instead of wider, as it recedes from the eye. M. Bouguer observes, that very great distances, and those that are considerably less, make nearly the same impression upon the eye. We, there- fore, imagine great distances to be less than they are, and on this account the ground plan of a vista always ap- pears to rise. The visual rays come in a determinate direction, but as we imagine they terminate sooner than they do, we necessarily conceive that the place from which they issued is elevated. Every large plane, therefore, as A B (Plate XX. Offitics, fig. 5) viewed by an eye at O, will seem to lie in such direction as A & ; and consequently lines, in or- der to appear truly parallel, on the plane A B, must be drawn so as that they would appear parallel on the plane A b, and be from thence projected to the plane A B. To determine the inclination of the apparent ground plane A b to the true ground plane A B, M. Bouguer directs us to draw upon a piece of level ground two straight lines of a sufficient length, making an angle of three or four degrees with one another. Then a person placing himself within the angle, with his back towards the angular point, must walk backwards and forwards till he can fancy the lines to be parallel. In this situa- tion, a line, drawn from the point of the angle through the place of his eye, will contain the same angle with the true ground plane which this does with the apparent ©I16. M. Bouguer also shews other more geometrical methods of determining this inclination, and says, that by these means, he has often found it to be four or five degrees, though sometimes only two, or two and a half degrees; the determination of this angle being variable, and depending upon the manner in which the ground is illuminated, and the intensity of the light, the colour of the soil, the conformation of the eye, and the part of the eye on which the object is painted. In looking towards a rising ground, the difference be- tween the apparent ground plane and the true one, he says, will be much more considerable, so that they will sometimes make an angle of 25 or 30 degrees. Ac. Par. 1755. M. 156. 2. If the eye be placed above an horizontal plane, objects, the more remote they are, the higher will they appear, till the last be seen in a level with the eye. Whence it is that the sea, to persons standing ashore, seems to rise higher and higher the farther they look. 3. If any number of objects be placed below the eye, the most remote will appear the highest; if they be above the eye, the most remote will appear the lowest. Thus the remoter parts of a horizontal walk, or long floor, will appear to ascend gradually ; whereas, the cieling of a long gallery appears to descend. " M. Bouguer observes, that when a man stands upon a level plane, it does not seem to rise sensibly, but at some distance from him : the apparent plane, therefore, has a curvature in it, the form of which is not very easy to de- termine ; so that a man standing upon a level plane of infinite extent, will imagine that he stands in the centre º of a bason. The case is the same with a person stand- ing upon the level of the sea. - 4. The upper parts of high objects appear to stoop, or incline forwards; as the front of churches, towers, &c. And statues at the tops of buildings, to appear upright, must incline, or bend backwards. See farther under the articles of REFRAction and HoRIzoN. II. The mind perceives the distance of visible objects, from the different configurations of the eye, and the man- ner in which the rays strike the eye, and in which the image is impressed on it. For the eye disposes itself differently, according to the different distances it is to see; viz. for remote objects the pupil is dilated, and the crys- talline brought nearer the retina, and the whole eye is made more globular ; on the contrary, for near objects, the pupil is contracted, the crystalline thrust forwards, and the eye lengthened. Philosophers are agreed, that we have a power of al- tering the form of our eyes, so as to make the rays of any pencil to converge at different distances from the pupil : and hence we are capable of viewing objects with almost equal distinctness, though they are placed at considerably different distances ; but with regard to the alteration that takes place in the eye, and the me- chanism by which it is produced, different accounts have been given. It was the opinion of Kepler, that the contraction of the processus ciliares changes the form of the eye, and by the elongation of it, places the crystalline at a greater distance from the retina; whereas Des Cartes imagined, that the curvature of the crystalline itself suffers an al- teration by the contraction of those ligaments. M. de la Hire maintained that, in order to view objects at different distances, there is no alteration but in the size of the pupil, or the aperture of the eye; and he made a curious experiment, which, he thought, proved his assertion. -- M. Le Roi, a member of the Royal Academy at Mont- pelier, has lately attempted to defend the opinion of M. de la Hire, which had long been exploded by all philo- sophers; and he says, that the accommodation of the eye to the view of objects, placed at different distances, by the contraction or dilatation of the pupil only, does not consist in the change of the place of the crystalline, by means of the ligamenta ciliaria, the strength of which is inadequate to the purpose. Besides, he observes, that they are not attached to the edge of the capsula, as has been supposed, but that they extend a considerable way along the interior surface of it, without any close adherence to it. He is also of opinion that these fibres are not muscular, but are only ramified vessels, which, according to all appearance, he says, answer no other purpose than that of secreting an aqueous humour, to lubricate the surface of the crystalline. That nothing is requisite but the contraction of the pupil in order to view the nearest objects with distinct- ness, is evident, he says, from experiment. For when an object is placed so near, that the eye cannot bear as great a degree of contraction as is necessary for viewing it distinctly, the same end is obtained by an artificial pupil. For if a small hole be made in a card, the near- est object may be viewed through it with the greatest ease and distinctness. That the variation of the pupil is sufficient for the purpose of viewing objects at all distances, he also thought he could demonstrate by experiment with an artificial V IS I B L E. artificial eye; for when, with a large aperture, the ima- ges of near objects were confused, and ill defined upon the retina of this instrument, they became very dis- tinct, and well defined, by contracting the aperture. Ac. Paris, 1755. M. p. 920. But the most satisfactory discussion of this subject we owe to Dr. Porterfield, who proved, by a series of expe- riments, in which an object was viewed through small słits in a thin plate of iron, at a less distance than the diameter of the pupil (which, therefore, was of no use in this case), that we are possessed of a power of chang- ing the conformation of our eyes, and of adapting them to various distances; and that this change always fol- lows a similar motion in the axes of vision, with which it has been connected by use and custom. Porterfield on the Eye, vol. i. p. 411. 415. 421. However, among those who suppose a conformation of the eye for this purpose, independent of a variation in the aperture, it is by no means agreed in what it con- sists. Some have said, that the crystalline becomes more or less convex for this purpose, by the action of certain muscular fibres which enter into its composi- tion. But Dr. Porterfield (ubi supra, p. 442.) observes that, though the crystalline, when dry, appears to con- sist of many thin concentric lamina, or scales, their dis- position is but ill qualified for changing the figure of the crystalline; or if they were so, it is not easy, he says, to prove that these fibres are muscular, and capable of con- traction. His own opinion is, that the crystalline has a motion by means of the ligamentum ciliare, by which the dis- tance between it and the retina is increased or diminish- ed, according to the different distances of objects. The structure and disposition of the ligamentum ciliare, he says, excellently qualify it for changing the situation of the crystalline, and removing it to a greater distance from the retina, when objects are too near for us; be- cause, when it contracts, it will not only draw the crys- talline forward, but also compress the vitreous humour lying behind it, so that it must press upon the crystal- line, and push it towards the retina. He adds, that the crystalline, being moved forwards must, at the same time, press the aqueous humour against the cornea; by which means that membrane, which is flexible, will be rendered more convex, and en- able us still better to see near objects distinctly. That the situation of the crystalline is made use of in conforming the eye to the distinct view of objects placed at different distances, Dr. Porterfield thinks, is very evident from what is observed concerning persons who have cataracts couched ; for the same lens is not use- ful to them for seeing all objects distinctly, but they are obliged to make use of glasses of different degrees of convexity, in proportion to the nearness of the object. To the objection of M. de la Hire, and others, among whom are the celebrated anatomist Haller and Zinn, that the ciliary ligament is not muscular, and conse- quently has no power of contraction, he observes, that they have been led into this mistake by apprehending that the colour of muscles is always red; whereas this is not the case universally, for the muscular fibres of the intestines and stomach have hardly any redness in their colour. It is also certain, he says, that the pupil con- tracts and dilates itself according as objects are more or less luminous, and yet none of the fibres which perform that action are in the least red. Ubi supra, vol. ii. p. 434. 447. 450. Dr. Jurin (Ess, on distinct, &c. Vision, p. 143.) sup- poses, that when the eye is to be suited to greater dis- tances than fifteen or sixteen inches, the ligamentum ciliare contracts, so as to draw part of the anterior sur- face of the capsula of the crystalline, into which the fi- bres of it are inserted, a little forwards and outwards, on which the water within the capsula must flow from under the middle towards the elevated part of it; and the aqueous humour must flow from above the elevated part of the capsula to the middle. In consequence of this, the whole anterior surface, within the insertion of the ciliary ligament, will be reduced to a less convexi- ty. When this contraction ceases, the capsula will re- turn to its former situation, by its own elasticity. To this hypothesis it has been objected, that unless the water within the capsula has a greater refractive power than the aqueous humour, the retiring of it from one place to another to make room for that humour, will have no effect upon the pencils of rays. Dr. Jurin, however, not attending to this circum- stance, and seeming to consider the water within the capsula as having the same refractive power with the crystalline itself, attempts to shew by calculation, that this change in the convexity of it is quite sufficient to extend the natural distance of distinct vision from fifteen inches to fourteen feet five inches, without the least mo- tion of the crystalline itself, and a very small one of the anterior surface of the capsula. M. Muschenbroeck, or rather Albinus (whose Ana- tomical Observations on the Eye he has published in his Introd, ad Phil. Nat, vol. ii. p. 759.), supposes that the change of conformation in the eye is performed by means of the zona ciliaris, in the following manner. In viewing a very near object, in consequence of which the pencils of rays tend to a focus beyond the retina, the zona ciliaris, and the anterior membrane of the capsula, as also the vitreous humour, being driven forward by the compression of the coats of the eye, push the crystalline, and make it recede from the retina. At the same time the crystalline, pushing the aqueous humour into the cornea, makes it more prominent. Perhaps, also, he says, the crystalline may be made rounder, so that, on these accounts, the pencils will come to their foci soon- er than otherwise. On the other hand, when the ob- ject is too remote for distinct vision, so that the pencils come to their foci too soon, the zona ciliaris becomes tense, and, with the anterior membrane of the capsula, pushes the crystalline farther within the vitreous hu- mour. By this pressure the crystalline becomes flatter, so that, on these several accounts, the foci of the pen- cils are carried farther. The zona ciliaris, and the an- terior membrane of the capsula, can only push the crys- talline into the vitreous humour one half of its own thickness, which he shews is not sufficient to make vi- sion distinct at a competent distance, and therefore con- cludes, that some change must take place in the form of the crystalline, as, he says, Dr. Pemberton has well demonstrated. He supposes, that the provision for suiting the eye to different distances is the same in all animals, and does not depend on the change of the sclerotica in any of them, which is hard, and incapable of being compressed. Priestly’s Hist. of Light, &c. p. 638—652. See Afflarent D1st ANcF. See also Eye. It seems to be now pretty generally allowed, that the change, by which the eye accommodates itself to diffe- rent distances, is produced by an increase of the con- vexity of the crystalline lens, arising from an internal Call SC. V IS I B L E. cause. The arguments in favour of this conclusion are of two kinds; some of them are negative, derived from the impossibility of imagining any other mode of per- forming the accommodation, without exceeding the limits of the actual dimensions of the eye, and from the examination of the eye in its different states by several tests, capable of detecting any other chan- ges if they had existed: for example, by the applica- tion of water to the cornea, which completely re- moves the effect of its convexity, without impairing the power of altering the focus, and by holding the whole eye, when turned inwards, in such a manner as to ren- der any material alteration of its length utterly impossi- ble. Other arguments are deduced from positive evi- dence of the change of form of the crystalline, furnish- ed by the particular effects of the refraction and aberra- tion which are observable in the different states of the eyes; effects which furnish a direct proof that the fi- gure of the lens must vary; its surfaces, which are nearly spherical in the quiescent form of the lens, as- suming a different determinable curvature when it is called into exertion. The objections which have been made to this conclusion are founded only on the appea- rance of a slight alteration of focal length in an eye from which the crystalline had been extracted : but the fact is neither sufficiently ascertained, nor was the apparent change at all considerable : and even if it were proved that an eye without the lens is capable of a certain small alteration, it would by no means follow that it could un- dergo a change five times or ten times as great. The motion of the optical axes serves likewise, as we have already observed, to assist us judging of the dis- tance of objects. These axes, or the directions of the rays falling on the points of most perfect vision, natural- ly meet at a great distance; that is they are nearly paral- lel to each other; and in looking at a nearer object, we make them converge towards it, wherever it may be situated, by means of the external muscles of the eye; while in perfect eyes the refractive powers are altered, at the same time, by an involuntary sympathy, so as to form a distinct image of an object at a given distance. This correspondence of the situation of the axes with the focal length is in most cases unalterable ; but some have perhaps a power of deranging it in a slight degree, and in others the adjustment is imperfect: but the eyes seem to be in most persons inseparably connected to- gether with respect to the changes that their refractive powers undergo, although it sometimes happens that those powers are originally very different in the oppo- site eyes. These motions enable us to judge pretty accurately, within certain limits, of the distance of an object; and beyond these limits, the degree of distinctness or confu- sion of the image still continues to assist the judgment. We estimate distances much less accurately with one eye than with both, since we are deprived of the assis- tance usually afforded by the relative situation of the optical axes; thus we seldom succeed at once in at- tempting to pass a finger or a hooked rod sideways through a ring, with one eye shut. Our idea of distance is usually regulated by a knowledge of the real magni- tude of an object, while we observe its angular magni- tude ; and on the other hand, a knowledge of the real or imaginary distance of the object often directs our judgment of its actual magnitude. The quantity of light intercepted by the air interposed, and the intensity of the blue tint which it occasions, are also elements of our involuntary calculation : hence, in a mist, the obscurity increases the apparent distance, and consequently the supposed magnitude of an unknown object. We natu- rally observe, in estimating a distance, the number and extent of the intervening objects; so that a distant church in a woody and hilly country appears more remote than if it were situated in a plain ; and for a similar reason, the apparent distance of an object seen at sea, is smaller than its true distance. Young’s Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy, &c. vol. i. Accordingly, in judging of the distance of a visible object, we must take into our account the angle which the object makes, with the distinct or confused repre- sentation of the object ; and the briskness or feebleness, or the rarity or spissitude of the rays. To this it is owing, 1. That objects which appear ob- scure or confused, are judged to be more remote; a principle which the painters use to make some of their figures appear farther distant than others on the same plane. Thus, supposing the eye to be accommodated to a given distance, objects at all other distances may be represented with a certain indistinctness of outline, which would accompany the images of the objects themselves on the retina : and this indistinctness is so generally ne- cessary, that its absence has the disagreeable effect call- ed hardness. The apparent magnitude of the subjects of our design, and the relative situations of the interve- ning objects, may be so imitated by the rules of geome- trical perspective as to agree perfectly with nature, and we may still further improve the representation of dis- tance by attending to the art of aerial perspective, which consists in a due observation of the loss of light, and the blueish tinge, occasioned by the interposition of a greater or less depth of air between us and the different parts of the scenery. We cannot indeed so arrange the picture, that either the focal length of the eye, or the position of the optical axes, may be such as would be required by the actual objects: but we may place the picture at such a distance, that neither of these criterions can have much power in detecting the fallacy; or, by the interposition of a large lens, we may produce nearly the same effects in the rays of light, as if they proceeded from a picture at any re- quired distance. In the panorama, which has lately been exhibited in many parts of Europe, the effects of natural scenery are very closely imitated : the deception is fa- voured by the absence of all other visible objects, and by the faintness of the light, which assists in concealing the defects of the representation, and for which the eye is usually prepared, by being long detained in the dark winding passages which lead to the place of exhibition. Young, ubi suftra. See Afflarent MAGNITUDE. 2. To this it is likewise owing, that rooms, whose walls are whitened, appear the smaller ; that fields co- vered with snow, or white flowers, shew less than when clothed with grass; that mountains covered with snow, in the night-time, appear the nearer; and that opaque bodies appear the more remote in the twilight. III. The magnitude or quantity of visible objects is known chiefly by the angle conprehended between two rays drawn from the two extremes of the object to the centre of the eye. An object appears to be as large as the angle it subtends; or bodies seen under a greater angle appear greater; and those under a less, less, &c. Hence the same thing appears now bigger, and now less, as it is less or more distant from the eye. This we call the Aſhflarent MAGNITUDE ; which see. Now, VIS I B L E. Now, to judge of the real magnitude of an object, we consider the distance ; for, since a near and remote ob- ject may appear under equal angles, the distance must necessarily be estimated ; that if it be great, and the optic angle small, the remote object may be judged great; and vice versa. The magnitude of visible objects is brought under certain laws, demonstrated by the mathematicians; as, 1. That the apparent magnitudes of a remote object are as the distances reciprocally; or rather, in a some- what less ratio. 2. That the co-tangents of half the apparent magni- tudes of the same objects, are as the distances; hence the apparent magnitude and distance being given, we have a method of determining the true magnitude ; the canon is this. As the whole sine is to the tangent of half the apparent magnitude, so is the given distance to half the real magnitude. The same canon, inverted, will, from the distance and magnitude given, determine the apparent one. 3. Objects seen under the same angle, have their magnitudes proportional to their distances. 4. The subtense A B (Plate XX. Ofitics, fig. 6.) of any arc of a circle appears of equal magnitude in all the points D C E G, though one point be vastly nearer than another; and the diameter D G appears of the same mag- nitude in all the points of the periphery of the circle. Hence some have derived a hint for the most commodi- ous form of theatres. 5. If the eye be fixed in A (fig. 7.), and the right line B C be moved in such manner, as that the extremes of it always fall on the periphery, it will always appear of the same magnitude. Hence the eye, being placed in any angle of a regular polygon, the sides will appear equal. 6. If the magnitude of an object directly opposite to the eye be equal to its distance from the eye, the whole object will be taken in by the eye, but nothing more. Whence the nearer you approach an object, the less part you see of it. IV. The figure of visible objects is estimated, chief- º from our opinion of the situation of the several parts Of It. This opinion of the situation, &c. enables the mind to apprehend an external object under this or that figure, more justly than any similitude of the images in the re- tina, with the object can ; the images being frequently elliptical, oblong, &c. when the objects they exhibit to the mind are circles, squares, &c. The laws of vision, with regard to the figures of visi- ble objects, are: 1. That if the centre of the pupil be exactly against, or in the direction of a right line, the line will appear as one point. 2. If the eye be placed in a direction of a surface, so that only one line of the perimeter can radiate on it, it will appear as a line. 3. If a body be opposed directly towards the eye, so as only one plane of the surface can radiate on it, it will appear as a surface. 4. A remote arc, viewed by an eye in the same plane, will appear as a right line. 5. A sphere, viewed at a distance, appears a circle. 6. Angular figures, at a distance, appear round. 7. If the eye look obliquely on the centre of a regular figure, or a circle, the true figure will not be seen; but the circle will appear oval, &c. See Afflarent FIGURE, Vo L. XXXVIII. V. The number of visible objects is perceived, not only by one or more images formed in the fund of the eye ; but also by such a position of those parts of the brain whence the optic nerves spring, as the mind has been used to, in attending to a certain place; and that either single or manifold. Accordingly, when either of the eyes, with the con- tiguous part of the brain, are forced out of their just pa- rallelism, with the other, v. gr. by pressing it with the finger, &c. all things appear double; but when they are in the requisite parallelism, though there be two images in the fund of the two eyes, yet the object will appear single. Again, one thing may appear double, or even manifold, not only with both eyes, but even with only one of them open ; by reason the common concourse of the cones of rays reflected from the object to the eye, either falls short of the retina, or goes much beyond it. VI. Motion and rest are seen when the images of ob- jects represented in the eye, and propagated to the brain, are either moved, or at rest ; and the mind perceives these images either moving or at rest, by comparing the moved image to another, with respect to which it changes place; or by the situation of the eye to the ob- ject being continually changed. So that motion is only perceived, by perceiving the images to be in different places and situations; nor are these changes perceived unless effected in time. So that to perceive motion, a sensible time is required. But rest is perceived by the visual faculty, from the reception of the image in the same place of the retina, and the same situation, for some sensible time. - Hence the reason, why bodies moving exceedingly fast appear at rest; thus, a live coal, swung briskly round, appears a continual circle of fire; the motion not being commensurate with visible time, but much swifter than the same ; so that, in the time the soul requires to judge of any change of situation of the image on the re- tina, or that it is moved from this place to that, the thing itself performs its whole circuit, and is in its own place again. - Laws of vision, with regard to the motion of visibles, al’e 3 g 1. That if two objects unequally distant from the eye move from it with equal velocity, the more remote one will appear the slower; or, if their celerities are pro- portionable to their distances, they will appear to move equally swift. 2. If two objects, unequally distant from the eye, move with unequal velocities in the same direction, their ap- parent velocities are in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio of their true velocities, and the reciprocal one of their distances from the eye. 3. A visible object, moving with any velocity, appears to be at rest, if the space described in the interval of one second be imperceptible at the distance of the eye.— Hence it is, that a near object, moving very slowly, as the index of a clock; or a remote one very Swiftly, as a planet; seem at rest. - 4. An object moving with any degree of velocity, will appear to rest, if the space it runs over in a second of time be to its distance from the eye, as 1 to 1400 : nay, in fact, if it be as 1 to 1300. 5. The eye proceeding straight from one place to another, a lateral object, not too far off, either on the right or left, will seem to move the contrary way : the eye, in this case, being sensible of its motion, distant ob- 5 E jects V IS V IS jects will seem to move the same way, and with the same velocity. 6. If the eye and the object move both the same way, only the eye much swifter than the object, that last will appear to go backwards. 7. If two or more objects move with the same velo- city, and a third remain at rest, the moveables will ap- pear fixed, and the quiescent in motion the contrary way. Thus, clouds moving very swiftly, their parts seem to preserve their situation, and the moon to move the contrary way. 8. If the eye be moved with a great velocity, lateral objects at rest appear to move the contrary way. Thus, to a person sitting in a coach, riding briskly through a wood, the trees seem to retire the contrary way; and to people in a ship, &c. the shores seem to recede. 9. An object moving very swiftly is not seen, unless it be very luminous. Thus, a cannon-ball is not seen, if it is viewed transversely ; but if it be viewed according to the line it describes, it may be seen, because its pic- ture continues long on the same place of the retina, which, therefore, receives a more sensible impression from the object. - 10. A live coal swung briskly round in a circle, ap- pears a continued circle of fire, because the impressions made on the retina of light being of a vibratory, and con- sequently of a lasting nature, do not presently perish, but continue till the coal performs its whole circuit, and re- turns again to its former place. 11. If a person turns swiftly round, without changing his place, all objects about him will seem to move round in a circle the contrary way; and this deception continues not only while the person himself moves round, but, which is more surprising, it also continues for some time after he ceases to move, when the eye, as well as the object, is at absolute rest. The reason why objects appear to move round the contrary way, when the eye turns round, is not so diffi- cult to explain ; for though, properly speaking, motion is not seen, as not being itself the immediate object of sight, yet by the sight we easily know when the image changes its place on the retina, and thence conclude that cither the object, or the eye, or both, are moved. But by the sight aione we can never determine how far this motion belongs to the object, how far to the eye, or how far to both. If we imagine the eye at rest, we ascribe the whole motion to the object, though it be truly at rest. If we imagine the object at rest, we ascribe the whole motion to the eye, though it belongs entirely to the object: and when the eye is in motion, though we are sensible of its motion, yet if we do not imagine that it moves so swiftly as it really does, we ascribe only a part of the motion to the eye, and the rest of it we ascribe to the object, though it be truly at rest. This last, says Dr. Porterfield, is what happens in the present case, when the eye turns round; for though we are sensible of the motion of the eye, yet we do not ap- prehend that it moves so fast as it really does; and, there- fore, the bodies about appear to move the contrary way, as is agreeable to experience. But the great difficulty still remains, viz. why, after the eye ceases to move, objects should, for some time, still appear to continue in motion, though their pictures on the retina be truly at rest, and do not at all change their place. This, Dr. Porterfield imagined, proceeds from a mis- take with respect to the eye, which, though it be abso- lutely at rest, we nevertheless conceive it as moving the contrary way to that in which it moved before ; from which mistake, with respect to the motion of the eye, the objects at rest will appear to move the same way which the eye is imagined to move; and consequently will seem to continue their motion for some time after the eye is at rest. Porterfield on the Eye, vol. ii. p. 422. 424. VisiBLE Horizon, Place, and Sflecies. stantives. VISIER, Vizier, or Visir, an officer or dignitary in the Ottoman empire, of which there are two kinds; the first called by the Turks visir azem, that is, grand visir, first created in 1370, by Amurath I., in order to ease himself of the chief and weightier affairs of the govern- Iment. The grand, or firime visir, is the prime minister of state of the whole empire, and presides at the divan, or great council. Being the lieutenant of the sultan, in whose name he governs, and from whom he holds the seal, invested with the greatest authority, and entrusted with all the power of execution, the visir may strike off the heads of persons receiving salaries who oppose the progress of the government, who throw obstacles in the way of its administration, who do not obey its orders, or do not execute them according to its pleasure; he com- mands the armies in person; he disposes of the finan- ces; he names, or causes persons to be named, to all the administrative and military employments. Nothing, in a word, is foreign to his powers, but the interpretation of the law entrusted to the ulemas. But the greater the power of the grand visir, the greater is his responsibility. He is accountable, both to the sovereign and to the people, for the acts of in- justice which he commits, for the unfortunate result of his administration, for the extortions which he does not repress; he is accountable, above all, for the unexpect- ed dearness of provisions, for too frequent fires, and for the defeats of the armies: all the misfortunes of the state are attributed to him. The sword, always sus- pended over his head, strikes him equally whether he displease the people, or disoblige the sultan. In the frequent excursions which he makes incog. in the city, for the purpose of having an eye to good order, of informing himself of the state of the articles of food, examining the weights and measures, and inspecting the conduct of agents appointed for the distribution of pro- visions, the visir, accompanied by a public executioner, and some officers disguised like himself, orders delin- quents to be apprehended and punished on the spot: he calls out, if necessary, the guard of the quarter; he di- rects the bastinado to be given to the shop, keepers who vend aliments of bad quality ; he causes him who is found with false weights to be nailed by the ear against the door of the shop ; he even punishes with death re- lapses or malversations of too serious a nature. During fires, he orders to be struck off the head of the thief caught in the very fact; but, in those cases, the law has pronounced before-hand the penalty of death. Charged to listen to the complaints of individuals, to cause jus- tice to be done to all, the visir cannot, under any pre- text, dispose legally of the life and fortune of citizens. It is not that he does not too frequently abuse his autho- rity; it is not that he does not sometimes yield to #: * |OUIS See the sub- V IS # V IS dious advice, that he does not suffer himself to be led away by motives of hatred and revenge, that the thirst of gold does not impel him to arbitrary acts; but woe be to him if his injustice be too revolting ! Whén he too frequently puts himself above the laws, the people, in their turn, trample him under foot, unless the sultan be expeditious in administering justice. Thus circum- stanced, it is extremely rare for a visir to grow old in the post which he occupies. - The title of visir is given to all the pachas with three tails. Six of these ordinary visirs, whose reputation for wisdom and intelligence was universally allowed, for- merly composed the divan or council of the grand visir. The visir asked their opinion when he thought it neces- sary. Soon after the accession of Selim to the throne, he composed this council of twelve persons the most distinguished by their office. The visir and the mufti are presidents of it; the one in his quality of lieutenant- general of the empire for temporal affairs; the other as vicar of the sultan for the interpretation and depository of the laws. The other ten members are the kiaya-bey, the reis-effendi, the tefterdar-effendi, the tehélébi-effendi, the tersana-émini, the tehiaoux-bachi, two ex-reis-effen- di, and two ex-tefterdars-effendi. See. BASHAw, BEY, KIAYA-BEY, &c. The first of those above enumerated is the lieutenant of the visir ; the second is secretary of state or high chancellor of the empire ; the third is the minister of the finances; the fourth is the receiver-general of the tax on wine, eatables, and most articles of merchandize, and the administrator of these funds, &c.; the fifth is the minister of marine ; the sixth secretary of state. Renegado Christians have been sometimes raised to the visirate ; such were Khairedain, surnamed Barba- rossa ; Ulug Ali, Cuproli, &c. VISIGAPATAM, in Geograft hy, a town of Hin- doostan, in the circar of Cicacole, on the coast. Near the town is a pagoda, dedicated to monkeys, which abound in the neighbourhood: they are fed by the priests, and regularly assemble at certain hours; 50 miles S. W. of Cicacole. N. lat. 17° 40'. E. long. 83° 3O'. VISIGNANO, a town of Istria; 11 miles N. of Rovigno. VISINA, a town of Istria; 42 miles S. E. of Umago. VISION, VISIo, the act of seeing, or perceiving ex- ternal objects by the organ of sight. - Vision is well defined to be a sensation, by which, from a certain motion of the optic nerve, made in the bottom of the eye by the rays of light emitted or re- flected from objects, and hence conveyed to the common sensory in the brain, the mind perceives the luminous object, its quantity, quality, figure, &c. The phenomena of vision, the causes of it, and the manner in which it is effected, make one of the greatest and most important articles in the whole system of natu- ral knowledge. Indeed, a great part of the physical, mathematical, and anatomical discoveries and improve- ments of the moderns, terminate here, and only tend to set the business of vision in a clearer light. Hitherto refer what sir Isaac Newton and others have discovered of the nature of light and colours; the laws of inflection, reflection, and refraction of the rays, the structure of the eye, particularly the retina and optic Inerves, &c. - - It is not necessary we should here give a minute de- tail of the process of vision from its first principles; the greatest part is already delivered under the respective articles. The eye, the organ of vision, we have de- scribed under the article EYE ; and its several parts, tunics, humours, &c. under their proper heads, Cox NEA, CRYSTALLINE, &c. The immediate and principal organ of vision, viz. the retina, according to some, and the choroides, according to others, are also distinctly considered ; as also the structure of the optic nerve, which conveys the impres- sion to the brain ; and the texture and disposition of the brain itself, which receives them, and represents them to the soul. See RETINA, CHoRoi DES, OPTIC Verves, BRAIN, SENSORY, &c. By means of this arrangement of the various refract- ing substances, many peculiar advantages are procured, The surface of the cornea, only, if it had been more convex, could not have collected the lateral rays of a direct pencil to a perfect focus, without a different cur- vature near its edges ; and then the oblique pencils would have been subjected to greater aberration, nor could they have been made to converge to any focus on the retina. A second refraction performs both these of. fices much more completely, and has also the advantage of admitting a greater quantity of light. If also the sur- faces of the crystalline lens, thus interposed, had been abrupt, there would have been a reflection at each, and an apparent haziness would have interfered with the dis- tinct view of every luminous object; but this inconve- nience is avoided by the gradual increase of density in approaching the centre, which also makes the crystalline equivalent to a much more refractive substance of equal magnitude ; while, at the same time, the smaller density of the lateral parts prevents the usual aberration of spherical surfaces, occasioned by the too great refraction of the lateral rays of direct pencils, and causes also the focus of each oblique pencil to fall either accurately, or very nearly, on the concave surface of the retina, through- Out itS. extent. Again, the nature of light, which is the medium or vehicle by which objects are carried to the eye, is laid down at large under the articles LIGHT and Colours; and the chief preperties thereof concerned in vision, un- der REFLECTION, REFRACTION, &c.; and also many of its circumslances under RAY, MEDIUM., &c. What re- mains for this article, therefore, is only to give a gene- ral idea of the whole process, in which all the several parts are concerned. *- VISION, different Offiinions or Systems of. The Plato- nists and Stoics held vision to be effected by the emission of rays out of the eyes; conceiving that there was a sort of light thus darted out; which, with the light of the external air, taking, as it were, hold of the objects, rendered them visible; and thus returning back again to the eye, altered and new modified by the contact of the object, made an impression on the pupil, which gave the sensation of the object. The reasons by which they maintain their opinions are derived, 1. From the brightness and lustre of the eye. 2. From our seeing a remote cloud, without see- ing one with which we are encompassed (the rays being supposed too brisk and penetrating to be stopped by the near cloud, but growing languid at a greater distance, are returned to the eye). 3. From our not seeing an object laid on the pupil. 4. From the eye’s being weary with seeing; i. e. by emitting great quantities of rays. And lastly, from animals which see in the night, as cats, lions, moles, owls, and some men. 5 E 2 Our V I S I O N. Our own countryman, Roger Bacon, distinguished as he was in a variety of respects, does not hesitate to as- sent to the opinion that visual rays proceed from the eye; giving this reason for it, that every thing in nature is qualified to discharge its proper functions by its own powers, in the same manner as the sun, and other celes- tial bodies. Opus Majus, p. 289. The Epicureans held vision to be performed by the emanation of corporeal species, or images from objects; or a sort of atomical effluvia continually flying off from the intimate parts of objects to the eye. Their chief reasons are, 1. That the objects must ne- cessarily be united to the visive faculty; and since it is not united by itself, it must be so by some species that represents it, and that is continually flowing from bodies. 2. That it frequently happens, that old men see remote objects better than near ones; the distance making the species thinner, and more commensurate to the debility of their organ. - The Peripatetics hold, with Epicurus, that vision is performed by the receptionof species; but they differ from him in the circumstances: for they will have the species (which they call intentionales) to be incorporeal. It is true, Aristotle’s doctrine of vision, delivered in his chapter “De Aspectu,” amounts to no more than this; that objects must move some intermediate body, that by this they may move the organ of sight. To which he adds, in another place, that when we perceive bodies, it is their species, not their matter, that we per- ceive ; as a seal makes an impression on wax, without the wax’s retaining any thing of the seal. But this vague and obscure account the Peripatetics have thought fit to improve. Accordingly, what their master called sfiedies, the disciples understanding of real proper species, assert, that every visible objectexpresses a perfect image of itself, in the air contiguous to it; and this image another, somewhat less in the next air; and the third, another, &c. till the last image arrives at the erystalline, which they hold for the chief organ of sight, or that which immediately moves the soul. These im- ages they call intentional species. tº The modern philosophers, as the Cartesians and New- tonians, give a better account of vision. They all agree, that it is performed by rays of light reflected from the several points of objects received in at the pupil, refract- ed and collected in their passage, through the coats and humours, to the retina; and thus striking, or making an impression, on so many points thereof; which impression is conveyed, by the correspondent capillaments of the optic nerve, to the brain, &c. * Baptista Porta’s experiments with the camera obscu- ra, about the middle of the 16th century, convinced him, that vision is performed by the intermission of something into the eye, and not by visual rays, proceeding from the eye, as had been the general opinion before his time; and he was the first who fully satisfied himself and others upon this subject, though several philosophers still ad- hered to the old opinion. - As for the Peripatetic series or chain of images, it is a mere chimaera ; and Aristotle’s meaning is better un- derstood without than with them. In effect, setting these aside, the Aristotelian, Cartesian, and Newtonian doctrines of vision are very consistent; for sir Isaac Newton imagines, that vision is performed chiefly by the vibrations of a fine medium, which penetrates all bodies excited in the bottom of the eye by the rays of light, and propagated through the capillaments of the optic nerves, to the sensorium. And Descartes maintains, that the sun pressing the materia subtilis, with which the world is filled every way, the vibrations and pulses of this mat- ter reflected from objects are communicated to the eye, and thence to the Sensory ; so that the action or vibra- tion of a medium is equally supposed in all. VISION, Modern Theory of. In order to vision, we are certain, it is required, that the rays of light be thrown from the visible objects to the eye. What be- falls them in the eye will be conceived from what fol- lows. Suppose, e. gr. Z, the eye, and A B C the object (Plate XX. Ofitics, fig. 8); now, though every point of an object be a radiant point, that is, though there be rays reflected from every point of the object to every point of the circumambient space, each carrying with it its respective colour, (which we falsely imagine to be those of the object,) yet, as only those rays which pass through the pupil of the eye affect the sense, we shall here con- sider none else but these. And again, though there be a great number of rays passing from one radiant point, as B, through the pupil; yet we shall only consider the action of a few of them, as B D, B E, B F. Now, then, the ray B D, falling perpendicularly on the surface E D F, will pass out of the air into the aqueous humour, without any refraction, and proceed right to H, where, falling perpendicularly on the sur- face of the crystalline humour, it will go on, without any refraction, to M ; where, again falling perpendicu- larly on the surface of the vitreous humour, it will pro- ceed straight to the point O, in the fund or bottom of the eye. Again, the ray B E, passing obliquely out of the air upon the surface of the watery humour E D F, will be refracted, and approach towards the perpendicular E P; and thus, proceeding to the point G, in the surface of the crystalline, it will be there refracted still nearer to the perpendicular. So also E G, falling obliquely out of air into an harder body, will be refracted towards the perpendicular G R, and, falling on the point L of the surface of the vitreous humour, it will still be brought nearer to M. Lastly, G L, falling obliquely out of a denser, upon the surface of a rarer body L. M. N, will be refracted, and recede from the perpendicular LT; in receding from which, it is evident, it approaches towards the ray B D O, and may be so refracted, as to meet the other in O. In like manner, the ray B F, being refracted in B, will turn to I, and thence to N, and thence to the others in O. But the rays between B E and B F, being some- what less refracted, will not meet precisely in the same point O. Thus will the radiant point B affect the fund of the eye, in the same manner as if the pupil had no breadth, or as if the radiant itself had only emitted one single ray, such as were equal in power to all those between B E and B F In like manner, the rays proceeding from the point A; will be so refracted in passing through the humours of the eye, as to meet near the point X; and the rays from any intermediate point between A and B, will nearly meet in some other point in the fund of the eye between X and O. Upon the whole, it may be asserted universally, that every point of an object affects one point in the fund of the eye; and, on the contrary, that every point in the fund V I S I O N. fund of the eye only receives rays from one point of the object. Though this is not to be understood with the utmost rigour. Now, if the object recede from the eye, in such man- ner as that the radiant point B does not decline from the line B D ; the rays which would proceed from B, not enough divaricated, would be so refracted in passing the three surfaces, as that they would meet before they reached the point O; on the contrary, if the object should be brought nearer the eye, the rays passing from the point to the pupil, being too much divaricated, would be refracted so, as not to meet till beyond the point O : nay, the object may be so near, that the rays proceeding from any point may be so divaricated, as that they shall never meet at all. In all which cases, there would be no point of the object but would move a pretty large portion of the fund of the eye; and thus the action of each point would be confounded with that of the contiguous one. And this would commonly be the case, but that nature has provided against it! either by contriving the eye so that its bulk may be lengthened, or shortened, as objects may be more or less distant; or, as others will have it, so as that the crystalline may be made more convex, or more flat; or, according to others, so as that the dis- tance between the crystalline and the retina may be lengthened or shortened. The first expedient has been thought by some to be the most probable; on the footing of which, when we direct our eyes to an object so remote, as that it cannot be distinctly viewed by the eye in its accustomed figure, the eye is drawn back into a flatter figure, by the con- traction of four muscles ; by which means the retina, becoming nearer the crystalline humour, receives the rays sooner; and, on the other hand, when we view an object too near, the eye, being compressed by the two oblique muscles, is rendered more globular; by which means the retina, being set farther off from the crystal- line, does not receive the rays of any point before they meet. See VISIBLE Those who maintain the opinion now stated farther allege, that this access and recess of the crystalline is so necessary to vision, that whereas, in some birds, the coats of the eye are of such a bony consistence, that muscles would not have been able to contract and distend them; nature has taken other means, by binding the crystalline down to the retina, with a kind of blackish threads not found in the eyes of other animals. Nor must it be omitted, that of the three refractions above- mentioned, the first is wanting in fishes ; and that, to remedy this, their crystalline is not lenticular, as in other animals, but globular. Lastly, since the eyes of old people are generally worn flatter than thosc of young ones, so that the rays from any point fall on the retina before they become collected into one, they must ex- hibit the object somewhat confusedly; nor can such eyes see any but remote objects distinctly. In others, whose eyes are too globular, the case is just the reverse. See PRESBYTA and Myops. From what has been shewn, that every point of an ob- ject moves only one point of the bottom of the eye; and, on the contrary, that every point in the fund of the eye only receives rays from one point of the object, it is easy to conceive, that the whole object moves a certain part of the retina; that in this part there is a distinct and vivid collection of all the rays received in at the pupil; and that as each ray carries its proper colour along with it, there are as many points painted in the fund of the eye as there were points visible in the object. Thus is there a species, or picture, on the retina, exactly like the object: all the difference between them is, that a body is here represented by a surface, a surface fre- quently by a line, and a line by a point; that the image is inverted, the right-hand answering to the left of the object, &c. and that it is exceedingly small; and still the more so, as the object is more remote. What we have shewn, under other articles, of the na- ture of light and colours, readily accounts for this paint- ing of the object on the retina. The matter of fact is proved by an easy experiment, long since tried by Des Cartes, thus : the windows of a chamber being shut, and light only admitted at one little aperture ; to that aperture apply the eye of some animal newly killed, having first dexterously pulled off the membranes that cover the bottom of the vitreous humour, viz. the hind part of the sclerotica, choroides, and even part of the retina; then will the images of all the objects, without doors, be seen distinctly painted on any white body, as on an egg-shell, that the eye is laid upon. And the same thing is better shewn by an artificial eye, or a ca- mera obscura. The images of objects, then, are represented on the retina; which is only an expansion of the fine capilla- ments of the optic nerve, and from which the optic nerve is continued into the brain. Now, any motion or vibration, impressed on one extreme of the nerve, will be propagated to the other : hence the impulse of the several rays, sent from the several points of the object, will be propagated as they are on the retina, (i. e. in their proper colours, &c. or in particular vibrations, or manners of pressure, corresponding thereto,) to the place where those capillaments are interwoven into the substance of the brain. And thus is vision brought to the common case of sensation. For such, we know, is the law of the union between the soul and body, that certain preceptions of the first do necessarily follow certain motions of the last ; but the different parts of the object do separately move different parts of the fund of the eye; and those motions are propagated to the sensory : it follows, therefore, that there must arise so many distinct sensations at the same time. See SENSATION. Hence, 1. We easily conceive, that the perception, or image, in the mind, must be the clearer, and more vi- vid, the more rays the eye receives from the object ; and consequently, the largeness of the pupil will have Some share in the clearness of vision. 2. Considering only one radiant point of an object, we may say, that that point would move the sense more •wº e o lz I -- **t lºo gº ea º ºra ºf M * * * 1- c. r. v. Weakiy, GF be seen ſhore obscurely, £5 mote ; because the rays coming from any point, like all qualities propagated in orbem, are always diverging ; and therefore the more remote, the fewer of them will be received in at the pupil. Bnt the pupil dilating it- self more, as the object is more remote, takes in more rays than it would otherwise do. 3. The distinctness of vision is somewhat concerned in the size of the image exhibited in the fund of the eye. For there should be, at least, as many extremes of capillaments, or fibres of the optic nerve, in the space that image possesses, as there are particles in the ob- ject that send rays into the pupil; otherwise every par- ticle will not move its separate capillament; and if the rays, from two points fall on the same capillament, it Will be the same as if only one point had fallen there; SiúC£ e sº * + scº nºt r is c, sº a . J. Q. 1 º 4 & 1 \,. A \º 1 W. " * V IS I O N. since the same capillament cannot be differently moved at the same time. And hence it is, that the images of very remote objects being very small, they appear con- fused, several points of the image affecting each capil- lament ; and hence, also, if the object be of different colours, several particles affecting the same capillament at the same time, only the brightest and most lucid will be perceived. Thus, a field, furnished with a good number of white flowers, among a much greater quan- tity of green grass, &c. at a distance, appears all white. See Distinct Vision, infra. Our seeing of objects single, though with two eyes, in each of which is a separate image, or picture ; and our seeing of them erect, whereas the picture is really inverted, are two great phenomena in vision ; which we have considered under the article SEEING. For the manner of seeing and judging of the distance and magnitude of objects, see VISIBLE, MAGNITUDE, &c. VISION, in Oñtics. The laws of vision, brought un- der mathematical demonstrations, make the subject of Offitics, (which see,) taken in the greatest latitude of that word : for, annong the writers of mathematics, op- tics is generally taken, in a more restrained significa- tion, for the doctrine of direct vision; catoptrics, for the doctrine of reflected vision ; and dioptrics, for that of refracted vision. VISION, Direct or Simfile, is that performed by means of direct rays; that is, of rays passing directly, or in right lines, from the radiant point of the eye. Such is that explained in the preceding article, VISION. VISION, Reflected, is that performed by rays reflect- ed from specula, or mirrors. The laws of this kind of vision, see under REFLECTION, and MIRRoR. VISION, Réfracted, is that performed by means of rays refracted, or turned out of their way, by passing through mediums of different density; as air and water, and chiefly through glasses and lenses. The laws of this, see under the article REFRAcTIon. Vision, JArch of. See ARCH. Vision, Distinct, denotes that by which an object is seen distinctly. An object is said to be seen distinctly, when its outlines appear clear and well defined, and the several parts of it, if not too small, are plainly distin- guishable, so that we can easily compare them one with another, in respect to their figure, size, and colour. In order to such distinct vision, it has hitherto been commonly thought, that all the rays of a pencil, flowing from a physical point of an object, must be exactly uni- ted in a physical, or, at least, in a sensible point of the retina. But it seems certain, from the experiments mentioned by Dr. Jurin, that such an exact union of rays is not always necessary to distinct vision. Hence the doctor divides distinct vision into two spe- cies, viz. into vision fierfectly distinct, or fierfect vision, and vision imperfectly distinct ; which he calls simply by the name of distinct vision. The former is that in which the rays of each pencil are collected into a single physical, or sensible point of the retina ; the other spe- cies is that in which those rays occupy some larger space upon the retina, yet so as the object is distinctly per- ceived. A Perfect vision in a given eye, and a given disposition of that eye, depends only upon the distance of the ob- ject; it has no dependence upon the magnitude of e the object; but distinct vision, in a given eye, and a given disposition of the eye, depends upon the distance and cessity for dilating it, to take in more light. magnitude of the object jointly. There appearing, there- fore, a real difference between fierfect vision, and what we call distinct vision, the learned doctor has enquired very particularly into the reason why an object may be seen distinctly without perfect vision. He shews that objects may be seen with sufficient dis- tinctness, though the pencils of rays issuing from the points of them do not unite precisely in the same point on the retina ; but that since, in this case, pencils from every point, either meet before they reach the retina, or tend to meet beyond it, the light that comes from them must cover a circular spot upon it, and will, therefore, paint the image larger than perfect vision would repre- sent it. Whence it follows, that every object, placed either too near, or too remote for perfect vision, will ap- pear larger than it is by a penumbra of light, caused by the circular spaces, which are illuminated by pencils of rays proceeding from the extremities of the object. All the varieties occasioned by this circumstance he traces with great accuracy, and he applies his observations up- on it to the explanation of many phenomena in vision. See Circle of DISSIPATIon. - Dr. Jurin observes, that when objects are large, they will appear tolerably distinct at a much less distance than small objects, because the penumbrae will not in- terfere so much ; and on this account, a large print may be read much nearer to the eye than a small one. In this case the former will appear only ill defined, but suffi- ciently distinct, when the latter is quite indistinct, the penumbra of one letter interfering with that of another, and thereby making marks altogether unlike any that are in the book. The dispersed light of these penum- brae, he says, is of different densities; and Mr. Robins, in his Remarks on Dr. Jurin, p. 279, observes, that the whole circle made by the confused image of any print, will be proportioned to the diameter of the pupil of the eye, which limits the whole pencil. The smallest distance of perfect vision, or that in which the rays of a single pencil are collected into a physical point on the retina in the generality of eyes, Dr. Jurin, from a number of observations, states at five, six, or se- ven inches. The greatest distance of distinct and per- fect vision he found to be more difficult to determine ; but by considering the proportion of all the parts of the eye, and the refractive power of each, together with the interval that may be discerned between two stars, the distance of which is known, he fixes it, in some cases, at fourteen feet five inches, though Dr. Porterfield had confined it to twenty-seven inches only, with respect to his own eye. When vision is indistinct, Dr. Jurin thinks that there are two methods of rendering it distinct. One is for the eye to apply the same power, by which it conforms itself to the view of objects placed at different distances, so as to obtain perfect vision ; and the other is the contrac- tion of the pupil by the lesser muscular ring of the uvea, which is chiefly made use of in a strong light, and which will sometimes render the other means alto- gether unnecessary. In a weak light, he says, the pu- pil is so far from contracting, that there is rather a ne- But upon this Dr. Whytt (Ess. on vital and involuntary Motions, p. 133.) observes, that in the same, or a less degree of light, the pupil will be contracted, in order to view a nearer or a smaller object. For other observations on this subject, see Jurin’s Ess. on distinct and indistinct Vision, at the end of Dr. Smith's Optics; and Robins's Remarks V IS V IS Remarks on Dr. Jurin, in his Math. Tracts. vol. ii. p. 278, &c. Vision, Field of. See FIELD. VISION, among Divines, is used for an appearance, which God occasionally sent to his prophets and saints; either by way of dream or in reality. Such were the visions of Ezekiel, Amos, &c. the vision of St. Paul, lifted up to the third heaven, &c.; of Joseph, by which he was assured of the purity of the Virgin, &c. Some have represented our blessed Lord’s temptation in the wilderness, Matt. v. 1, &c. as a vision. Mr. Far- mer, in particular, considers it as a divine vision, repre- senting the trials he was to endure, and designed to pre- pare him for encountering and vanquishing them. See TEMPTATION. Many among the Romish saints have pretended to visions: as St. Theresa, St. Bridget, St. Catharine de Sienna, &c. Hence the word has come into disrepute, and become a common name for all chimeras, or spectres, which either our folly or fear possesses us with : and hence, a person that frames to himself wild romantic notions is called a visionary. Quevedo's Visions are descrip- tions of what passed in the imagination of that author. VISION, Beatific, denotes the act by which the angels and blessed spirits see God in Paradise. VISIR, VISIER, or Vizier. See VISIER. VISITATION, VisitATIo, an act of jurisdiction, by which a superior or proper officer visits some cor- poration, college, church, or other public or private house, to see that their respective laws and regulations be duly observed. Among us, the bishop of each diocese is obliged to hold a visitation every third year, and the archdeacon the other two years; to see that the discipline be well observed, the people well instructed, and to take care that neither the church, nor the pastors of it, receive any detriment. For the first 600 years after Christ, the bishops in their own persons visited all the parishes within their respective dioceses every year; but since the law and practice of triennial visitations have been established, the bishop is not only not obliged by law to visit annually, but he is restrained from it. The business of parochial visitation, in order to in- spect and take account of the fabrics and mansions, or- naments and utensils, vestments and books of the church, peculiarly belongs to the archdeacon. In all visitations of parochial churches made by bishops and archdeacons, the law hath provided, that the charge of them shall be defrayed by the procurations then due, and payable by the inferior clergy; in which custom, as to the quantum, shall prevail. These procurations are due to the person visiting of common right; and although originally due by reason of visitation only, yet the same may be due without actual visitation. They are suable only in the spiritual court, and are merely an ecclesiastical duty; and they may be levied by sequestration, or rather eccle- siastical process. Free chapels and donatives (unless such donative hath received the augmentation of queen Anne’s bounty) are exempt from the visitation of the ordinary, and of course pay no procurations; the first being visitable only by commission from the king, and the second by commission from the donor. And there are also other churches and chapels exempted, which belonged to the monasteries; which by 25 Hen. VIII, c. 21. were made visitable by the king, or by commis- sion under the great seal. Anciently the regarder’s office was expressed to be the visitation of manners. See REGARDER. The lawyers, hold it a branch of the king's preroga- tive, to visit the universities; to enquire into the statutes, and the observation of them ; to expel delinquents, &c. But some of the colleges disallow this privilege, and plead themselves, by royal charters, exempt from all civil and royal visitations. *. With regard to all ecclesiastical corporations, the or- dinary is their visitor, so constituted by the canon law, and thence derived to us. The pope formerly, and now the king, as supreme ordinary, is the visitor of the arch- bishop or metropolitan : the metropolitan has the charge and coercion of all his suffragan bishops; and the bi- shops in their several dioceses are in ecclesiastical mat- ters the visitors of all deans and chapters, of all parsons and vicars, and of all other spiritual corporations. With respect to all lay corporations, the founder, his heirs or assigns, are the visitors, whether the foundation be civil or eleemosynary; for in a lay corporation the ordinary neither can nor ought to visit. In general, the king be- ing the sole founder of all civil corporations, and the endower the perficient founder of all eleemosynary ones, the right of visitation of the former results to the king, and of the latter to the patron or endower. The king being constituted by law the visitor of all civil corpora- tions, the law has also appointed the place in which he shall exercise this jurisdiction; which is the court of king’s bench, where, and where only, all misbehaviours of this kind of corporations are enquired into and re- dressed, and all their controversies decided. Accord- ingly this is the meaning of lawyers, when they say that these civil corporations are liable to no visitation ; viz. that the law having by immemorial usage appointed them to be visited and inspected by the king their founder, in his majesty’s court of king’s bench; accord- ing to the rules of common law they ought not to be visited elsewhere, or by any other authority. As to eleemosynary corporations, by the dotation the founder and his heirs are of common right the legal visitors, to see that property is rightly employed, which might otherwise have descended to the visitor himself: but if the founder has appointed and assigned any other person to be visitor, then his assignee so appointed is invested with all the founder's power, in exclusion of his heir. Eleemosynary corporations are chiefly hospi- tals, or colleges in the university. With regard to hos- pitals, it has long been held, that if the hospital be spi- ritual, the bishop shali visit; but if lay, the patron.— This right of lay patrons was indeed abridged by 2 Hen. V. cap. I. which ordained, that the ordinary should visit all hospitals founded by subjects: though the king’s right was reserved, to visit by his commissioners such as were of royal foundation. But the subject’s right was in part restored by stat, 14 Eliz. cap. 5. which di- rects the bishop to visit such hospitals only, when no visitor is appointed by the founders of them ; and all the hospitals founded by virtue of the stat. 39 Eliz. c. 5. are to be visited by such persons as shall be nominated by the respective founders. But still, if the founder ap- points nobody, the bishop of the diocese must visit. Colleges in the universities were formerly considered by the popish clergy, under whose directions they were, as ecclesiastical, or at least as clerical, corpora- tuons ; V IS V IS tions; and therefore the right of visitation was claimed by the ordinary of the diocese. In some of our col- leges, where no special visitor is appointed, the bishop of that diocese, in which Oxford was formerly comprised, has immemorially exercised visitorial authority; which can be ascribed to nothing else but his supposed title as ordinary to visit this, among other ecclesiastical foun- dations. And it is not impossible, that the number of colleges in Cambridge which are visited by the bishop of Ely, may in part be derived from the same original. But whatever might be formerly the opinion of the cler- gy, it is now held as established common law, that col- leges are lay corporations, though sometimes totally composed of ecclesiastical persons; and that the right of visitation does not arise from any principles of the canon law, but of necessity was created by the common law. In a disputed case it was held by lord chief jus- tice Holt, that by the common law the office of the visi- tor is to judge according to the statues of the college, and to expel and deprive upon just occasions, and to hear all appeals of course; and that from him, and him only, the party grieved ought to have redress; the founder having reposed in him so entire a confidence, that he will administer justice impartially, that his determina- tions are fixed, and examinable in no other court what- SO eV el". To this leading case all subsequent determinations have been conformable. But where the visitor is under a temporary disability, then the court of king’s bench will interpose ; to prevent a defect of justice. Also it is said, that if a founder of an eleemosynary foundation appoints a visitor, and limits his jurisdiction by rules and statutes, if the visitorin his sentence exceeds those rules, an action lies against him ; but otherwise, where he mistakes in a thing within his power. Blackst. Comm. book i. - Among the Romanists, the general of each religious or- der is obliged to visit the several monasteries of his order. In abbeys, that are chiefs of their orders, there are particular officers, called visitors; who are dispatched into all the houses and congregations depending on them, to see that the regular discipline is observed. In Spain there is a visitor, and inquisitor-general. The visitation of the cloister belongs to the ordinary. VISITATION, in a moral and religious sense, is also applied to the afflictions that befall mankind ; as coming from the hand of God, to try or prove them. In which sense, the plague, among us, is frequently called the visitation. Visit ATION of the Virgin Mary, is a feast instituted in memory of the visit paid by the Virgin to Elizabeth, first established by Bonaventure, general of the order of St. Francis, by a decree of the general chapter, compre- hending the churches of his own order, held at Pisa in 1263; and afterwards extended to the whole church, by pope Urban IV. in the year 1379, and ordained to be kept on the 2d of July. VISITATION is likewise an order of monks founded by Francis de Sales and his mother Chantalia. VISITORS. See VISITATION, supra. VISITORs of the Inquisition. See INQUIs Ition. VISITZ, in Geografthy, a town of Austria; 4 miles S. E. of Bavarian Waidhoven. VISIVE, Visiv Us, in the School Philosofthy, a term applied to the power of seeing. See VISION. Authors are exceedingly divided about the place where the visive faculty resides: some will have it in the reti- na; others, in the choroides; others, in the optic nerve; others, as sir Isaac Newton, in the place where the optic nerves meet, before they come to the brain; and others, in the brain itself. VISKAIA, in Geografhy, a fort of Russia, in the go- vernment of Upha; 64 miles W.S.W. of Tcheliabinsk. VISKAIA, Ust, a fort of Russia, in the government of Upha, near the Tobol; 88 miles S.E. of Tcheliabinsk. VISM EA, in Botany, received its name from the younger Linnatus, who erroneously called it Wisnea, in honour of Mr. De Visme, a merchant at Lisbon. Will- denow retains the latter orthography; Schreber, better instructed, uses the former. This name, though not rumbling with consonants, like some with which our science is encumbered, is nevertheless most irreconcile- able to Latin pronunciation ; nor ought such to be ad- mitted, but when supported by the highest possible pre- tensions, which in this case are not conspicuous. The worthy Masson, personally informed on the subject, used vehemently to exclaim against the above name, and the French botanists have preferred its barbarous synonym Mocamera, by which the shrub in question is known in the Canary islands. Mr. De Visme, it seems, was a mere amateur; but as he endeavoured to diffuse a taste for plants among the Portuguese, who were pre- viously little disposed to any such elegancies, or to any thing useful or praiseworthy in their stead, we cannot but think him full as deserving of commemoration as many of our own horticulturists, who do but follow a fashion, and therefore are not entitled to literary honours, in a science which they perhaps “ignorantly worship.” If they study its principles, they rank as botanists, and render eminent services to those who have not the means of promoting the same pursuit in the same way.—Linn. Suppl. 36. Schreb. Gen. 327. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 926. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Lamarck Dict. v. 4, 208. (Mo- canera ; Juss. 318.)—Class and order, Dodecandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Calycanthema, Linn. Onagraº, Juss. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth half superior, of five lanceo- late, recurved, permanent leaves, the three outermost hairy. Cor. Petals five, equal, elliptical, undivided, spreading, longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments twelve, inserted into the receptacle of the flower, erect, thread-shaped, shorter than the petals; anthers erect, quadrangular, each tipped with a bristle. Pist. Germen half inferior, hairy, taper-pointed ; styles three, thread- shaped, smooth ; stigmas simple. Peric. Nut ovate, pointed, smooth, of two or three cells, half inferior, coated, or covered, above half way up, with what might be called the tube of a monophyllous calyx, and sur- rounded with its converging segments. Seeds solitary. Ess. Ch. Calyx half inferior, of five leaves. Petals five. Stigmas simple. Nut of two or three cells, coated below. Seeds solitary. 1. V. Mocamera. Linn. Suppl. 251. Willd, n. 1– Gathered by Mr. Masson, in the mountainous woods of the Canary islands. A small shrub, with a round, rug- ged, or somewhat warty, stem. Leaves alternate, erect, on short stalks, coriaceous, elliptical, veiny, serrated, very smooth. Flower-stalks axillary, solitary, drooping, scarcely longer than the footstalks, naked, each bearing one small yellow flower. After impregnation the stalks become erect, the calyz closes and thickens, its three outer segments turning brown and hairy. This, the only known species, is a stranger to our gardens. VISNAGA, V, I S V IS VISNAGA, Matth. Valgr. v. 1. 477. t. 479. Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 84, a herbaceous plant of the south of Europe, is the Daucus Visnaga of Linn. Sp. Pl. 348. Gaertner, t. 21, establishes it as a genus by itself. Des- fontaines, and the author of this article, in Prodr. Fl. . Graec. Sibth. v. l. 186, have referred the plant to Am- mi. There is some reason to believe it the yºyºyºlov of Dioscorides. See GINGIDIUM. VISNAVITRA, in Biography. See Viswa MITRA. VISNE, VISNETUM, in Law, a neighbouring place, or a place near at hand. See VENUE. VISNEA, in Botany, Linn. Suppl. 36. $f E.A. VISNIZA, in Geography, a town of European Tur- key, in Moldavia; 30 miles N. of Suczava. VISO, EL, a town of Spain, in New Castile ; 25 miles S. S. E. of Civdad Real. Viso, a mountain of France, in the department of the Stura, supposed to be one of the highest parts of the Alps. Wºo Marso, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra; 13 miles W. N. W. of Scalea. VISOKICH, a town of Russia, in the government of Irkutsk, on the Lena; 8 miles N. N. W. of Orlenga. VISON, a town of France, in the department of the Tanaro; 3 miles E. S. E. of Acqui. VISONTIUM, in Ancient Geografthy, a town of His- pania Citerior, belonging to the Pelendones. Ptol.— Also, a town of Higher Pannonia, of the number of those which were remote from the Danube. VISP, in Geography, a town of the Vallais, and chief place of a dixain, or tything ; 22 miles E. of Sion. VISPE, or USPE, in Ancient Geografthy, a town be- longing to the Saracens, in the vicinity of the Bospho- rus of Thrace; and not far from the river Pania. Ta- citus says that it was strongly fortified. The Romans besieged it and were repulsed. When they after- wards attacked the place by escalade, the inhabitants sent a deputation to petition for the life of free persons, with an offer of 10,000 slaves. The besiegers rejected these conditions, and revolting at the cruelty of massa- creing persons who voluntary surrendered themselves. and imprisoning so great a number of persons, they re- curred to the right of war, which exhibits a horrible cxample of the ferocity of the Romans. They gave the signal for escalade, but afterwards entcred into trea- ty. In consequence of this event, which was attended with the destruction of Vispe, no record of it remains. VISPELLIONES, among the Romans, were slaves who could not be manumitted. VISRAVA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo Plutus, who is more commonly called Kuvera ; which see. See also V AISRAVA, another mode of pronoun- cing this name, which is likewise given to the father of Kuvera and of his half-brother Ravena. (See RAve- NA.) These two last named half-brothers are also called Pauiastya, or Pulastya. Visrava, or Vaisrava, is sometimes named Viswastava and Visravana. VISRUTI, one of the three daughters of Swayam- bhuva, a personage of importance in their fabulous le- gends. Some notice of him occurs under his name in this work. VISSE, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the marquisate of Ancona ; 15 miles S. of Camerino. Voſ., XXXVIII. Sec VIS- VISSEGRAD, a town of Bosnia; 40 miles S. E. of Bosnaserai. VISSEGRAD. See VICEGRAD. VISSEHOVEDE, a town of Germany, in the coun- ty of Verden; 19 miles E. of Verden. UIST, North, one of the islands of the Hebrides, in the shire of Inverness, Scotland, is of a very irregu- lar shape, and extends in length about twenty miles, and from twelve to eighteen in breadth. The word Uist is said to be taken from the Scandinavian word vist, which signifies west, and was given by the Danes, when in possession of these countries, on account of its westerly situation The western part of the coast, which is washed by the Atlantic, is inaccessible to ves- sels, or even to fishing-boats, except in the calmest weather, on account of rocks and shoals. On the east- ern coast are several inlets of the sea, which form safe and commodious harbours. Of these, the best is loch Maddie, which affords good anchorage for vessels of any burden. Along the coast round these harbours the ground is barren, hilly, and almost uninhabited. The western and northern parts of the island, almost the only cultivated parts, are low and level for about a mile and a half from the sea, when the surface becomes moory, with hills of small height covered with black heath. It has mostly a sandy soil, which, as it ap- proaches the moorlands, is a thin black loam, on a gra- velly, or on a free-stone bottom. In favourable sum- mers, the cultivated parts yield luxuriant crops of oats and barley; but as there are no trees to afford shelter during the inclemency of winter, the appearance is then greatly changed, and verdure is scarcely to be seen ; so that the cattle, in these seasons, are fed part- ly on straw, and partly on sea-weed thrown up by storms. The number of cows kept on the island is about 2000, of which 300 are annually exported; the number of horses is about 1600. Agriculture is in a low state; and the implements of husbandry, with a few exceptions, are the same kind that were used a century past. Here are numerous fresh-water lakes, abounding with excellent trout, and frequented by in- numerable flocks of aquatic fowls. Kelp is manufactu- red to a considerable extent, the annual produce being about 1200 tons; of which the greater part belongs to lord Macdonald, the sole proprietor of the island, from which he derives a yearly rent of 2 tool. sterling, be- sides the profits of the kelp. A parochial school is es- tablished here, from which one scholar is annually sent to the university. The parish of North Uist com- prehends several adjacentisles. In the year 1811, the population was estimated at 3773. Here are the re- mains of several Danish forts: and also of some Druidi- cal temples, which are described by Dr. Smith, in his History of the Druids.-Beauties of Scotland, vol. v. Invernesshire, 1808. Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806. Carlisle’s Topographical Dictionary of Scotland, 1813. UIST, South, another of the Hebrides islands, also included in the shire of Inverness, is in length about 30 miles, and the greatest breadth may be estimated from seven to nine miles; affording an area of about 40,000 acres, capable of cultivation. Towards the west and north-west, where it is bounded, by the ocean, the soil is light and sandy, and most part rendered useless by the severity of the storms; further inland is a series of lakes, which abound with a variety of fish ; and to 5 F the V IS V IS the east are high and rugged mountains, covered with heath and a partial degree of verdure, which afford pasturage in the summer and autumn months for black cattle, horses, sheep, and goats; but the grain produced on the island does not serve the in- habitants more than nine months in the year. About 7000 sheep are generally kept here, and about 3000 cows; but the greatest source of emolument (as well as in North Uist) is the manufacture of kelp, to the amount of 1100 tons annually : its first introduction into these islands was in the year 1750, by a Mr. Macleod, who brought it from Ireland, where it had been carried on for several years. The parish of South Uist, which includes some small contiguous isles, contained, in the year 1811, a population of 4825; being more than doubled since the year 1755, notwithstanding numerous emigrations.—Beauties of Scotland, vol. v. Invernesshire, 1808. Carlisle’s To- pographical Dictionary of Scotland, 1813. Gazet- teer of Scotland, 1806. VISTAMENTE, in the Italian Music, is used to give notice to play or sing quick, briskly, &c. VISTE, in Botany, a name given by some authors to the common white mountain coralloides: it is the Lapland name for the same plant; the rein-deer and many other creatures feeding on it, when all other vegetables are destroyed. VISTER, in Geography, a town of European Tur- key, in Bulgaria; 44 miles S.W. of Ismail. VISTNOU, VISTNUM, or Vishnu, in the Modern History of Mythology, a name given in the theology of the Brahmins, to one of the three great gods of the first class, which are the objects of worship to the in- habitants of Hindoostan : the other two are Brahma and Ruddirem. According to the Vedam, these three gods were created by the Supreme Being, to be his ministers in nature. Brahma is represented as the creator, Vistnou as the preserver, and Ruddiren as the destroyer of beings. However, there are some sects which main- tain, that Vistnou is superior to Brahma, and that he gave him existence. Vistnou, it is said, distributed mankind into three classes, the rich, the poor, and those of middle state; and created many worlds, inha- bited by spirits destined for the preservation of other beings. Vistnou is most respected in the kingdom of Carnata, Brahma in the Mogul empire, and Ruddiren in Malabar. Un. Hist. vol. vi. 8vo. See VISHNU. VISTRITZA, in Geography, a river of European Turkey, which runs into the Vistriza, 16 miles E.S.E. of Edessa, in Macedonia. VISTRIZA, a river of European Turkey, in Ma- cedonia, which runs into the Varder, 25 miles N.W. of Saloniki. VISTULA, a river which rises in the south-east part of Silesia, on the borders of Poland, passes by Cracow, Sandomirz, Zawichost, Warsaw, Wladislaw, Thorn, Culm, &c. and runs into the Baltic, at Dantzic. VISUAL, something belonging to the sight, or Seeing. VISUAL Angle. See ANGLE. VISUAL Lime. See LINE. VISUAL Point, in Pershective, is a point, in the hori- zontal line, in which all the ocular rays unite. See PoinT. Thus, a person standing in a straight long gallery, and looking forwards; the sides, floor, and cieling, seem to meet, and touch one another in a point, or COmmon Centre. VISUAL Rays, are lines of light, imagined to come from the object to the eye. See RAY. All the observations of astronomers and geometers are performed by means of the visual rays, received in at the sights, or pinnulae, or albidades. VISUM. See HABERE facias visum. VISURGIS, the Weser, in Ancient Geography, a very considerable river of Germany; it made a separa- tion between the Romans and Cherusci, according to Pliny, and became celebrated by the defeat of the Roman army on its banks, according to Velleius Pa- terculus. f VISWADEVA, a sacrifice or oblation offered by pious Hindoos to all their gods collectively. The word means all the gods. “One oblation to the as- sembled gods, thence named Viswadeva, is ordained both for evening and morning.” Inst. of Menu, iii. 121. (See MENU.) Of other sacrifices of the Hin- doos, see SRADHA. VISWAJENNI, in Mythology, a name of the Hin- doo goddess Parvati ; which see. It means all-fro- lific, and is applied to her in her character of Prakriti, or nature. See PRAKRITI. VISWAKARMA, is a personage of considerable importance, and his name frequently occurs in Hindoo books. Sir W. Jones (As. Res. vol. i.) thinks Viswa- karma to be the Vulcan of the Greeks and Romans; being, like Vulcan, the forger of arms for the gods; and inventor of the Agniastra, or fiery shaft, used in the wars between them and the Daityas, or Titans. He is deemed the architect of the universe, and chief en- gineer of the gods. He revealed the fourth Upaveda in various treatises on sixty-four mechanical arts, for the improvement of such as exercise them; and he is the inspector of all manual labours and mechanical arts. See VEDA. It is fabled that Viswakarma was employed by Krish- na to build for him the city of Dwarka, in Guzerat; and it is not unusual for any very magnificent or stu- pendous work of antiquity to be attributed to him : the excavations, at Ellora, for instance. (See ELLoRA.) Between Viswakarma and the Pandus, the labour and honour of the excavations at Ellora, Elephanta, Karly, &c. are shared. Sce ELEPHANTA, KARLY, and PANDU. Viswakarma is the reputed son of Bhuvana, and a daughter of his is sometimes mentioned, named Bar- hismati; but their names seldom occur. A son of the divine artist is named Vishwaruña (which see,) father of the wives of Ganesa, or Pollear. Under our article TARA is a ridiculous, but characteristic legend of Vis- wakarma having, like most of the other Hindoo deities, begotten an ape Twashta is another name of this di- vine architect, and also of the sun. See TwAsHTA. VISWAMITRA, in Biography, is the name of a very celebrated and sanctified personage in the theolo- gical legends of the Hindoos. His age is anterior to authentic research, since his name occurs frequently in the Veda, the Hindoo scriptures, which is professed to have been written thousands of years ago. (See VEDA.) He was the Rishi, (see RISHI,) or saint, to and by whom was revealed the hymn in which is contained the holiest verse of the Veda, called the adorable, the ineffable, Gayatri. (Of this see under O’M.) His grandson, named Yajnyawalcya, is the reputed author of a code or institutes V IT V IT or institutes of law that is still in use. It is arranged in three chapters, containing 1023 couplets. The com- mentaries on it are very voluminous. The name of Viswamitra, which means universal friend, or friend to all, occurs very frequently in Sanscrit writings; and in- deed not unfrequently in this dictionary. His self-in- flicted austerities, and persevering devotions, are the theme of frequent praise. Under the article MENAKA, the Upsara, “ of fascinating symmetry of form,” as she is described in the Ramayana, it is noticed how the rigid mortifications of the ascetic were interrupted ; and their reward averted by the wiles of that damsel employed by Indra. Under RAMAYANA and UPSARA will be found some account of the work, and of the semi-divine, saint-seducing beauties, severally so called. See also HNDRA and RHEMBA, the name of the Venus Marina of the Hindoos, and queen of beauty and of beauties. Viswamitra, though not of Brahma, was the guru, or spiritual preceptor of the great Rama; and is the author of much of the moral precept scatter- ed through that curious work the Ramayana; which details the exploits, among much other matter, of its divine hero. (See RAM.A.) In the Ramayana, Viswa- mitra is often called “ son of Kasheka;” and occasion- ally a person named Gadhi, is called his father. The interesting Sakoontala, introduced to the English rea- der by sir W. Jones’s translation of the Hindoo drama of that title, is spoken of as his daughter. Though not a Brahman by birth, he is said to have become one through his devotion. 4. Under our article SURABH1 an anecdote is given of Viswamitra, which, with that alluded to above, tends to shew that he was tainted with the vice of avarice as well as lust. In our article TAREKA he appears as the tutor of his obedient pupil Rama. VISWASWARA, a name of the Hindoo god Siva; which see. It means lord of all ; and is probably given to him by the sects who exclusively, or especially wor- ship him, of whom see under SECTs of Hindoos. The name does not often occur. In one of the Puranas is this verse. “The Vedas and Sastras all testify that Viswaswara is the first of Devas (or gods,) Kashi (Benares) the first of cities, Ganga (the Ganges) the first of rivers, and Charity the first of virtues.” VITA, LIFE. See LIFE. VITA, Cui in. See CUI. VITAE, Aqua. See Aqua. VI, E, Arbor, in Anatomy, the appearance produced by a particular section of the cerebellum. See BRAIN. VITAE, Arbor. See TREE of Life. VITAE, Lignum. See GUAIACUM. VITA Longa, a name given by some botanical authors to the fifter Æthiofticum, or Æthiopian pepper. VITACA, in Ancient Geografi.hy, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Caesariensis. Ptol. VITAL, VITALIS, in Anatomy, something that minis- ters principally to the constituting or maintaining of life in the bodies of animals. Thus, the heart, lungs, and brain, are called vital parts. See VIs. VITAL Air, in Agriculture, Vegetable Economy, &c. pure air or oxygen, which is one of the constituent parts of atmospherical air, and of great use in the germina- tion of grain and seeds, and the vegetation and growth of plants, as well as the respiration of animals. But though it is necessary to these and some other functions of vegetables, it is remarked by the writer of a late work on agricultural chemistry, that its great impor- tance in nature is in its relation to the last, or the econo- my of animals. It is stated that atmospheric air taken into the lungs of animals, or passed in solution in water through the gills of fishes, loses vital air or oxygen; and that for the vital air or oxygen that is lost, about an equal volume of carbonic acid appears. That the action of the atmosphere on plants differs at different periods of their growth, and varies with the various stages of the developement and decay of their organs, as is evi- dent in the progress of their vegetation and decline. As if a healthy seed be moistened and exposed to the air at a temperature not below 45°, it soon germinates or sprouts; and shoots or sends forth a plume which rises upwards, and a radicle that descends. If the air be confined, it is found that in this process the vital air or oxygen of it, or a part of it, is absorbed. As to the other parts, the azote remains unaltered, and no carbonic acid is taken away from it; on the contrary, some is added. Grain and seeds are incapable of germinating or sprouting, except when vital air or oxygen is present. In the exhausted receiver of the air-pump, in pure azote, and in pure carbonic acid, when moistened they swell, but do not vegetate ; and if kept in these gases, lose their living powers, and undergo putrefaction. If a grain or seed be examined before germination, it will be found more or lºss insipid, or at least not sweet; but after germination, or the act of sprouting, it is al- ways sweet. Its coagulated mucilage, or starch, is converted into sugar in that process; a substance dif- ficult of solution is thus changed into one easily soluble; and the sugar carried through the cells or vessels of the cotyledons of the grain or seeds, is the nourish- ment of the infant plant. It is noticed that the absorption of vital air or oxygen by the grain or seed in germination, or the operation of sprouting, has been compared to its absorption in pro- ducing the evolution of foetal life in the egg; but that this analogy is only remote. All animals, from the most complete to the least perfect classes, re- quire, it is said, a supply of vital air or oxygen for their production and evolution. From the moment the heart begins to pulsate until it ceases to beat, the aeration of the blood, or the supply of this sort of air, is constant, and the function of respiration invariable ; carbonic acid is given offin the process, but the chemi- cal change produced in the blood is unknown ; nor is there any reason to suppose the formation of any sub- stance similar to sugar. In the production of a plant from a grain or seed, some reservoir of nourishment is need- ed before the root can supply sap for it; and this re- servoir is the cotyledon, in which it is stored up in an insoluble form, and protected if necessary during the winter, and rendered soluble by agents which are con- stantly present on the surface. The change of starch into sugar, connected with the absorption of vital air or oxygen, may rather, it is supposed, be compared to a process of fermentation, than to that of respiration; it is a change effected upon an organized matter, and can be artificially imitated; and in most of the chemical changes that take place when vegetable compounds are exposed to air, oxygen or vital air is absorbed, and carbonic acid formed or evolved. Much advantage may be taken of this in the sowing of different kinds 5 F 2 of grain VITAL. of grain and seeds, and in the tillage cultivation of dif- ferent sorts of land, as well as in different other practi. ces and processes; the former not being done too deeply in any case, nor the latter too lightly in stiff tenacious Soils. See TILLAGE. * When the roots and leaves of the infant plant are formed, the cells and tubes throughout its structure become, it is said, filled with fluid, which is usually supplied from the soil of the land, and the function of nourishment is performed by the action of its or- gans upon the external elements. The constituent parts of the air are subservient to this process; but, as might be expected, they act differently under different circumstances, it is thought. When a growing plant, the roots of which are supplied with a proper nourish- ment, is exposed in the presence of Solar light to a given quantity of atmospherical air, containing its due proportion of carbonic acid, the carbonic acid after a certain time is destroyed, and a certain quantity of vital air or oxygen is found in its place. If new quantities of carbonic acid gas be supplied, the same result oc- curs; so that carbon is added to plants from the air by the process of vegetation in sun-shine; and vital air or oxygen is added to the atmosphere, as proved by the experiments of Priestley, Ingenhousz, and many others more lately. The absorption of carbonic acid gas, and the production of vital air or oxygen, are performed by the leaf; and leaves recently separated from the tree or plant effect the change, when confined in portions of air containing carbonic acid; and absorb the same acid, and produce vital air or oxygen, even when im- mersed in water holding carbonic acid in solution. It is supposed that this acid is probably absorbed by the fluids in the cells of the green or parenchymatous part of the leaf; and that it is from this part that vital air or oxygen gas is produced during the presence of light. M. Sennebier, it is said, found that the leaf, from which the epidermis was stripped off, continued to produce vital air or oxygen when placed in water containing carbonic acid gas, and that the globules of air rose from the denuded parenchyma; and it is shewn, by the experiments of the same writer as well as those of Woodhouse, that the leaves most abundant in parenchymatous parts produced most vital air or Oxygen in water impregnated with carbonic acid. Some few plants, it is said, will vegetate in an artifi- cial atmosphere, consisting principally of carbonic acid; and many will grow for some time in air con- taining from one-half to one-third ; but they are not so healthy as when supplied with smaller quantities of this elastic substance. Plants exposed to light have been found to produce vital air or oxygen gas in an elastic medium, and in water containing no carbonic acid gas; but in quantities much smaller than when that acid gas was present. In the dark, no vital air or oxygen gas is produced by plants, whatever be the elastic medium to which they are exposed; and no carbonic acid absorbed. In most cases, on the con- trary, vital air or oxygen gas, if it be present, is ab- Sorbed, and carbonic acid gas is produced. In the changes that take place in the composition of the or- ganized parts, it is supposed probable that saccharine compounds are principally formed during the absence of light : gum, woody fibre, oils, and resins during its presence; and that the evolution of carbonic acid gas, or its formation during the night, may be ne- cessary to give greater solubility to certain com- pounds in the plant. It was once suspected that all the carbonic acid gas produced by plants in the night or in shade, might be owing to the decay of some part of the leaf, or epidermis; but the late experi- ments of Mr. D. Ellis are opposed to this notion; and it was found that a perfectly healthy plant of celery, placed in a given portion of air for a few hours only, occasioned a production of carbohic acid gas, and an absorption of vital air or oxygen. It has been supposed by some, it is said, that plants exposed in the free atmosphere to the vicissitudes of Sun-shine and shade, light and darkness, consume more vital air or oxygen than they produce, and that their permanent agency upon air is similar to that of ani- mals; and this opinion is countenanced by the inquiries on vegetation of the writer just noticed. But the whole of the experiments brought forward in favour of this notion, and particularly those of this writer, have, it is said, been made under unfavourable circumstances to the acuracy of result. The plants have been confined and supplied with food in an unnatural manner; and the influence of light upon them has been very much di- minished by the nature of the media through which it passed. Plants confined in limited portions of atmo- spheric air soon become diseased; their leaves decay, and by their decomposition they rapidly destroy the vital air or oxygen of the air. In some of the early experiments of Priestly, before he was acquainted with the agency of light upon leaves, air, it is said, that had supported combustion and respiration, was found purifi- ed by the growth of plants when they were exposed in it for successive days and nights, and his trials are the more unexceptionable, it is thought, as the plants, in many of them, grew in their natural states; and shoots, or branches from them, only were introduced through water into the confined atmosphere. And some further researches on this subject made by the able writer of the work on agricultural chemistry noticed above, fur- nish facts which confirm the popular opinion, that when the leaves of vegetables perform their healthy functions, they tend to purify the atmosphere in the common va- riations of weather, and changes from light to darkness. In germination, and at the time of the decay of the leaf, vital air or oxygen must, it is said, be absorbed; but when it is considered how large a part of the surface of the earth is clothed with perennial grasses, and that half of the globe is always exposed to the solar light, it appears by far the most probable opinion, that more vital air or oxygen is produced than consumed during the process of vegetation; and that it is this circum- tance which is the principal cause of the uniformity of the constitution of the atmosphere. Animals produce no vital air or oxygen gas during the exercise of any of their functions, and they are constantly consuming it; but the extent of the animal, compared to that of the vegetable kingdom, is, it is said, very small, and the quantity of carbonic acid gas produced in respiration, and in various processes of combustion and fermentation, bears a proportion extremely minute to the whole vol- ume of the atmosphere : if every plant during the pro- gress of its life makes a very small addition of vital air or oxygen to the common air, and occasions a very small consumption of carbonic acid, the effect may, it is supposed, be conceived adequate to the wants of na- ture º It is supposed that it may occur as an objection to these views, that if the leaves of plants purify the º: phere, V IT V IT phere, towards the end of autumn, and through the winter and early spring, the air in our climates must become impure, the vital air or oxygen in it diminish, and the carbonic acid gas increase, which is not the case : but there is a very satisfactory answer, it is said, to this objection; the different parts of the atmosphere are constantly mixed together by winds, which, when they are strong, move at the rate of from sixty to a hundred miles in an hour. In our winter, the South- west gales convey air, which has been purified by the vast forests and savannas of South America, and which, passing over the ocean, arrives in an uncontaminated state. The storms and tempests which often occur at the beginning and towards the middle of our winter, and which generally blow from the same quarter of the globe, have a salutary influence. By constant agitation and motion, the equilibrium of the constituent parts of the atmosphere is preserved ; it is fitted for the purposes of life : and those events, which the supersti- tious formerly referred to the wrath of heaven, or the agency of evil spirits, and in which they saw only disorder and confusion, are, it is said, demonstrated by science, to be ministrations of divine intelligence, and connected with the order and harmony of our system. The close analogy which some have supposed to cxist between the absorption of vital air or oxygen, and the formation of carbonic acid gas in germination, and in the respiration of the foetus, has been already contended against; and similar arguments will, it is said, apply against the pursuit of this analogy, between the functions of the leaves of the adult plant, and those of the lungs of the adult animal; several of which are in- geniously stated : and it is concluded, that the functions of the leaf must vary according to the composition of the sap passing through it; and according to the nature of the products which are formed from it. When sugar is to be produced, as in early spring at the time of the developement of the buds and flowers, it is probable that less vital air or oxygen will be given off, than at the time of the ripening of the seed, when starch, or gums, or oils, are formed; and the process of ripening the seed usually takes place when the agency of the Solar light is most intense. When the acid juices of fruits become saccharine in the natural process of vege- tation, more vital air or oxygen, there is every reason to believe, it is said, must be given off, or newly com- bined, than at other times; for all the vegetable acids contain more vital air or oxygen than sugar. It appears probable, it is said, that in some cases, in which oily and resinous bodies are formed in vegetation, water may be decomposed, its vital air or oxygen set free, and its hydrogen absorbed. When the leaves of some plants, and particularly such as produce volatile oils, arc ex- poscq in water saturated with vital air or oxygen gas, this air or oxygen is given off in the solar light; but the quantity is very small, and always limited ; and the writer has not been able to ascertain with certainty, whether the vegetative powers of the leaf were concern- cd in the operation, though it seems probable. In all cases in which buds are formed, or shoots thrown forth from roots, vital air or oxygen appears to be uniformly absorbed, as in the germination or sprouting of grain and seeds. This was satisfactorily shown by trial with the potato, which, when placed in proper circum- stances, soon threw forth a shoot, which, when half an inch long, had nearly absorbed a cubical inch of vital air or oxygen, and formed about three-fourths of a cu- bical inch of carbonic acid. There was a sweet taste in the juices of the shoot, when separated from the root; and the absorption of vital air or oxygen, and the pro- duction of carbonic acid, were probably, it is thought, connected with the conversion of a portion of starch into sugar. As frozen roots of this kind become sweet when thawed, vital air or oxygen may probably, it is supposed, be absorbed in this operation, and if so, the change may be prevented by thawing them out of the contact of air ; as under water lately in the boiling state. See AIR, &c. These and different other statements that may be seen in the work noticed above, shew the great impor- tance of vital air or oxygen in the ways that have been mentioned in the beginning of this article, as well as in the economy of vegetables, and for other purposes. VITAL Functions, or Actions, are those operations of the vital parts by which life is affected ; so as that it cannot subsist without them. Such are the musculous action of the heart, the se- cretory action in the cerebellum, the respiratory action of the lungs; and the circulation of the blood and spirits through the arteries, veins, and nerves. See FUNCTION and ACTION. - VITAL Principle, or Substance, denotes a kind of agent or instrument, supposed by Dr. Grew to be em- ployed under the direction and in subordination to the will of the Creator, in the production of plants, ani- mals, &c. This principle corresponds to the plastic nature of Dr. Cudworth. The supposed existence of these prin- ciples produced a dispute between M. Bayle and M. Le Clerc, which the former conceived to favour atheism, though he allows that neither Dr. Cudworth nor Dr. Grew were aware of the consequence; but the latter maintains, that the plastic or vital natures, admitted by these writers, cannot in the least favour the atheists, be- cause they are only instruments in the hand of God, and have no efficacy but what they receive from him, who directs and rules all their actions. Of this dispute Dr. Warburton observes, that Cudworth’s plastic life of nature is fully overthrown by Bayle, whose superiority in the controversy with Le Clerc is clear and indisputa- ble. See Grew’s Cosmologia Sacra, fol. 1701. p. 31, &c.; and Cudworth’s Life, prefixed to Birch’s edition of the Intellectual System, vol. i. p. 15, &c. VI tal. Shirits are the finest and most volatile parts of the blood. See SPIRITs. VITALBA, in Botany, a name given by some at:- thors to the viorna, or fraveller's joy. See VIoRNA. VITALIA, a name given by some authors to the cardic medicines. - VITALIANUS, in Biography, pope, was born at Segnia, in Campania, and elevated to the pontificate A.D. 657, on the death of Eugenius. When, according to custom, he sent legates to Constantinople, with his confession of faith, to be presented to the emperor Constans and his son Constantine, the Monothelite doc- trine was fashionable at the imperial court, and, there- fore, the pope was very guarded in his communication. In 663 Constans entered Italy, and advanced towards Rome; and,though he was treated with great respect by Vitalian and his clergy, he was not thus prevented from robbing the churches of all the treasure to which he could have access. In 667, Wighard, archbishop- elect of Canterbury, was sent to Rome to receive or- dination from the pope ; but as Wighard died of the plague V IT V IT plague in that capital, the pope, notwithstanding the compliment that was paid him by the British kings, took this opportunity of extending the prerogative of the papacy, and of nominating one Theodore, a monk, to supply the place of the deceased prelate. Vitalian, in some other instances, manifested his zeal for the interest and influence of the Romish church, and the authority of its visible head; but after a pontificate of 143 years, he died in 672. His zeal procured for him a place among the canonized pontiffs. Some letters written by him on ecclesiastical affairs are still extant. Dupin. Bower. VITALIS, in Botany, a name given by some au- thors to the common telephium, called the English orpine, and live-long, from its quality of living and flourishing a long time after it is taken from the I'OOt. VITCHEGDA, in Geography, a river of Russia, which rises in the province of Ustiug, and runs into the Dwina, near Sol Vitchegodsk. VITE, TIMOTEo DELLA, DA URBINo, in Biografthy, was born at Urbino in 1470. After having some time studied the art of painting at Bologna, under Francesco Francia, he returned, when about 26 years old, to his native country ; and thence went to Rome, to his countryman and relation Raffaelle. He there engaged himself to assist that renowned artist, and prepared for him the Sibyls in the church of La Pace, and was per- mitted by his master to retain the cartoons. He did not remain long at Rome, but returned to Urbino ; and there, in conjunction with Girolamo Genga, executed several large works for the cathedral, and other public places. He brought to Rome a style which was dry and la- boured, as of the preceding century, as may be seen in his Madonnas at the palace Bonaventura, in the Capitol at Urbino, and at Pesaro in the Discovery of the Cross. Under Raffaelle he improved his style, and acquired much of his grace, attitudes, and colour; though he always remained a timid inventor, and had a certain weakness of pencil, and was more exact than grand. The Conception at the Osservanti in Urbino, and the Noli me Tangere in the church of S. Angelo at Cagli, are perhaps the best remains of Timoteo. He died in 1524, aged 54. VITEGRA, in Geography, a river of Russia, which runs into lake Onezskoi, near the town of Vitegra.— Also, a town of Russia, in the government of Olenetz, at the south end of lake Onezskoi ; 88 miles E. of Olonetz. N. lat. 60° 55'. E. long. 35° 44'. VITELLIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Latium, in the country of the Ægui; it took its name from the family of Vitellius. VITELLIA Via, one of the roads of Italy, which led from the Janiculum to the Sea. VITELLIANI, in Antiquity, a kind of tablet or pocket-book, in which people anciently used to write down their ingenious, humorous, and even wanton fancies and impertinences; the same with what, in English, we may call a trifle-book. See Martial, lib. xiv. epig. 8. Some will have them to take their name from vitellus, a yolk of an egg; because the leaves were rubbed with it. Others derive the name from one Vitellius, their inventor. VITELLIO, or VITELLo, in Biography, a Polish mathematician, flourished about the end of the 13th century, as we may infer from the dedication of his work on Optics to the pope's penitentiary, William de Morbeta, who lived about the year 1296. His work, though now of little value, was probably in estimation at the early period in which it was written, as it con- tained a collection of materials furnished by Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy, and Alhazen. It was published together with that of Alhazen under the following title : “Opticae Thesaurus, Alhazeni Arabis Libri VII. nunc primum editi. Item Vitellonis, Thuringo-poloni, Libri X. omnes instaurati, Figuris illustrati et aucti, adjectis etiam in Alhazenum Commentariis, A. Fre- derico Risnero,” Basiliae, 1572. fol. Montucla Hist. Math. VITELLIUS, AULUs, Roman emperor; was born A. D. 16, and resided in his youth at Capreac, the infa- mous abode of Tiberius. To Caligula he recom- mended himself by his skill as a charioteer ; and by his passion for play, to Claudius, who made him consul A. D. 48. He likewise presided at the games, in which Nero exposed himself as a musician. At this time Vitellius disgraced himself by his servility and meanness; but in the post of governor of Africa, he ob- tained some credit. At length, however, he was re- duced to indigence by his licentiousness, and was thus led to practice fraud, with regard to the offerings and ornaments of the temples, by substituting base metal for real silver and gold. On the accession of Galba to the empire, A. D. 68, Vitellius was appointed to the command of the legions in Lower Germany ; Galba assigning as a reason for this preferment, that a man addicted to gluttony was not to be feared. The Ger- man legions were much disaffected to Gaiba ; but Vitellius had contrived to recommend himself to favour. When the day (viz. January 1st) arrived, on wiich the troops were required to renew their oath of fidelity to their emperors, those commanded by Vitellius per- formed the ceremony reluctantly, and with ill will ; but in the army of Upper Germany, two legions openly re- nounced allegiance to Galba. When this event was communicated to the Lower army, Valens, one of the general officers, came to Cologne, and saluted Vitelius as emperor, who was also recognized under this appel- lation in other provinces of the empire. At Rome, however, Otho was invested with the imperial dignity, on the murder of Galba; and the two competitors began with negociation, and proceeded to attempts against each other’s life. When Otho put an end to his own life, after the defeat of his troops, Vitellius was recognized without opposition at Rome, in April, A. D. 69. One of the first acts, after receiving the news of his accession, was that of conferring knighthood on a vile freedman, named Asiaticus. Although he treated the general officers of Otho's party with a clemericy that did him honour, he incurred reproach by the exe- cution of several of the inferior officers, and by ordering the death of Dolabella, on a false accusation. How- ever, stupid insensibility was his predominate foible, rather than a revengeful spirit; and this was the effect of his insatiable and shameful gluttony. His extrava- gance in indulging his appetite for costly dishes, cover- ed with all the varieties which he could procure, had no bounds. He is said to have consecrated a silver dish, which on account of its size he called the buckler of Minerva, and to have filled it solely with the livers of a small and delicate fish, the brains of peacocks and pheasants, the tongues of flamingoes, and the roes of lampreys V IT v IT lampreys. The expences of his table, during eight months of his reign, have been estimated at five mil- lions sterling; but Tacitus states this sum as the cost of all his profusions. On his way to Rome, he visited the field of battle on which Otho had been defeated; and when he saw it strewed with dead and mangled bodies, he did not mani- fest the least emotion; and when some of his attendants complained of the stench arising from the uninterred carcases, he had the fool-hardiness to utter this obser- vation, “A dead enemy smells well, especially a dead citizen.” He entered Rome with great pomp, at the head of troops that massacred a number of the populace who went out to meet him, and pronounced a panegyric on himself, which was applauded by the servile crowd. He afterwards affected popularity, but his character was so devoid of every virtue, that no act he performed could be thought of any value. “Every evil which Rome had suffered under the worst emperors seemed to be its destiny in the reign of Vitellius.” But a de- liverance was preparing for the seemingly devoted city, The Eastern army was approaching, and Vespasian was proclaimed emperor. Vitellius was roused from his lethargy, but it was too late ; and after the defection of some of his troops, and the defeat of others, he again sunk into his stupifying luxury. Despairing of redress, he determined to abdicate; and with this view negoci- ated with Flavius Sabinus, brother of Vespasian, who was prefect of Rome. The populace, however, whose compassion was excited by the mournful habit and dis- tressing circumstances in which he left the palace, ob- liged him to return. Upon this the city-guards at- tacked Sabinus, who had sought refuge for himself and his adherents in the Capitol. The partisans of Vitellius, yielding to the impulse that had been excited, stormed this sacred place, and in the tumult the temple of Jupi- ter Capitolinus was consumed by fire. Sabinas was seized, and carried before Vitellius, who wanted to save him ; but he was massacred in the most ignominious manner. These outrages were in a little while dread- fully revenged. The victorious army approached the city; and the Vitellian soldiers, well apprized that no mercy awaited them, made a desperate resistance; so that Rome, in the midst of the licentious festivities of the Saturnalia celebrated at this time, was a scene of slaughter and blood. Vitellius took no part in this business, but withdrew to the house of his wife on mount Aventine; from hence he removed again to the palace, and was at length found in the porter’s lodge, intreating in the most abject manner that his life might be spared. But all his intreaties were ineffectual. With his hands tied behind him, and a cord about his neck, he was dragged like a common criminal in the midst of insults of every kind. Having escaped the murderous aim of a German soldier, he was at length taken to the Gemonian stairs, down which the body of Sabinus had been thrown, and being despatched in a barbarous manner, his head was cut off, and stuck upon a spear, to be carried through the city, and his trunk was thrown into the Tiber. Thus he closed a short and ignominious reign in the 55th year of his age, A. D. 69. Suetonius. Tacitus. Crevier. Gen. Biog. VITEPSK, in Geografthy, a town of Russia, in the government of Polotsk, on the Duna, taken from Poland in the year 1654; 56 miles E. S. E. of Polotsk. N. lat. 55° 15'. E. long. 30° 50' VITERBO, a town of the Popedom, and capital of the Patrimonio, given by the empress Matilda to the pope ; in memory of which donation, an inscription, on stone, is put up on the town-house. This city lies in a beautiful and fertile valley, is large, the streets, for the greater part, broad and well paved, the houses good, but thinly peopled, the number of the inhabitants being scarcely 15,000, though that of the churches, convents, and hospitals, is not less than 69. The bishop is im- mediately under the pope. Four popes lie interred in the cathedral. Not far from the city is a warm mine- ral spring; 34 miles N. N. W. of Rome. N. lat. 42° 25'. E. long. 12° 6'. VITES, in Botany, the seventy-second natural order in Jussieu's system, the twefth of his thirteenth class, is so called from Vitis, one of its genera. For the characters of this class, see GERANIA. The order, which consists of Cissus and Vitis only, is thus defined. Calyx of one leaf, (superior,) short, nearly entire. Petals definite, four, five, or six, broad at the base. Stamens equal in number to the petals, and opposite thereto, with distinct filaments, inserted into the disk, or receptacle of the flower. Germen simple; style one, or none; stigma simple. Berry of one or many cells, with one seed, or several, in a determinate number, whose surface is unequal, and which are inserted into the bottom of the cells. Corculum descending, its lobes straight, destitute of albumen. Stem shrubby, or rarely arboreous, trailing, knotty. Leaves alternate, with stiftulas. The tendrils, or flower-stalks, are oppo- site to the leaves. These plants are akin to Aquilicia (Leea) and Melia in the broad base of their petals, sometimes in their leaves and inflorescence. On the other hand, some of the shrubby Gerania (Pelargonia) betray an affinity in habit to the Vites, and like them are occasionally acid in the taste of their herbage. VITESSA, or VITTEssa, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo Kuvera, regent of wealth. See KUVERA. VITETZ, in Geography, a town of Bosnia; 14 miles S. of Serajo, END OF VOLUME XXXVIII, | GAN 38 8134 ±= O= F MI | ſeasino V |||| 390.15068 UN |