º #Uſ!!!!!!!!!!! Fift|TTTTTTº HH -º-º: º 22, sess wº; . . . . . . BCIENTº prºmºtiºn i -TU º -- bviſtſ.Tº s º § U # — É = : --- § # = * y -: R O º _i ººzºº ###: RIS PENINSUVAMAN10 - lº-Nºwº ºr . A º - §§ º F. SIRCUMSPIC: º - º 3-- *sº [...] É : 5. É- |É º- Râş - "----- E. MOMB . . . º, s- . . . . . . . . . . , . º READING is ſ - i §3 ºil . . . . *... .º - *- , sº immiſſiſtſ imº f == C ºrrºrs º ºnſtillºnſºll Jºzº Tºrº ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - º º Rºº-ºº: º I'lil]T \|Ti'i II. I Till'Iſiſſiºnlinºimitmºrniſmſ i fiſt: 3 F35 /904. *...****'. .*.*.*---, * = - -º- THE #: ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA Editor in Chief Frederick Converse Beach Editor of The Scientific American Managing Editor George Edwin Rines S I X T E E N V O L U M E. S I L L U S T R A T E D Associate and Advisory Editors Simon Newcomb, Ph.D., LL.D., D.Sc. James E. Creighton, A.B., Ph.D. Robert S. Woodward, C.E., Ph. D. David Starr Jordan, Ph.D., LL. D. Russell Sturgis, A.M., Ph.D., F.A.I.A. Edward Everett Hale, S.T.D., LL.D. Andrew C. McLaughlin, A.M. Sylvester Burnham, D.D. James H. Kirkland, Ph. D., LL.D. Smith Ely Jelliffe, A.M., Ph.D., M.D. Allan Douglas Risteen, Ph.D. John J. Wynne, S.J. George Letchworth English,A.A.A.S. For Canada George McKinnon Wrong, M.A. Charles W. Colby, M.A., Ph.D. THE AM E. RIC AN A COMPANY N E W YORK | 9 04 C H I C A G O i : & : CopyRIGHT, 1904 BY FREDERIck Converse BEACH SPECIAL NoTICE.-The signed articles in this Encyclopedia have been written especially for this work, and are fully protected by copyright as published. The unsigned articles have also been originally prepared by the various department experts, and are fully protected by copyright as issued. All rights are reserved, and privilege of publication of any portion of the Encyclopedia Americana is expressly reserved by the publishers. }. * ! `s\º& A FEW OF THE LEADING ARTICLES + IN VOLUME NINE • | Wr i t t e n a n d Sign ed by Spec i a l is t s INDIANA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JACOB PIATT DUNN Secretary, Indiana Historical Society INDIANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN - Of Clark University, Worcester, Mass. INFANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LINNAEUS ED FOR D LAFETRA, M.D. Instructor in Diseases of Children, Vanderbilt Clinic, Columbia University INJUNCTION, THEATRICAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A BRAHAM H. HUMMEL Counsel in U. S. for Société de Auteurs Français INSURANCE, CASUALTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EDw1N W. DELEON Vice-Prest. Casualty Company of America INSURANCE, LIFE, IN AMERICA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JAMES W. ALEXANDER Prest. of the Equitable Life Assurance Society INTERNATIONAL LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John BASSETT MOORE Of Columbia University, New York INVENTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FREDERICK CONVERSE BEACH Editor The Scientific American IOW.A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . Johnson BRIGHAM Librarian of the Iowa State Library IRELAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. E. BURKE Of the Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Americana JAPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARLES LEONARD-STUART Of the Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Americana JESUITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. J. CAMPBELL, S.J. JESUS CHRIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DAVID FOSTER ESTES, D.D. Prof. of New Testament Interpretation, Hamilton Theol. Sem., Colgate University JEWISH CHARITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LEE K. FRANKEL Of the United Hebrew Charities, New York . JUDAISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D. Temple Emanu-El, New York JOURNALISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARLES EMORY SMITH Editor ‘The Press,' Philadelphia KANSAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JANUs L. KINC, Kansas State Librarian KENTUCKY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WILLIAM GOODELL FROST, D.D. ** President of Berea College, Berea, Ky. LABORATORY... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ERNEST BLAKER - Asst. Prof. of Physics, Cornell University LENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. c. e. e s is e e e s e º 'º e º e e º e s a tº e s s e e o e º 'º e EDWARD BAUSCH Of the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y. LEO XIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAURICE FRANCIS EGAN, D.D. Prof. of Literature, Catholic University of America LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MELVIL DEWEY Director of the New York State Library LIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARLES S. HASTINGS Of the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE, THE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANGUS SINCLAIR Editor of the Railway Gazette LOCOMOTIVE ANI) ENGINE INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ALBA B. JOHNSON Of the Baldwin Locomotive Works à ã e OT e gw h or H hw j fi KEY TO PRONUNCIATION. far, father fate, hate at, fat air, care ado, sofa all, fall choose, church eel, we bed, end her, over: also Fr. e., as in de; eu, as in neuf; and oeu, as in boeuf, coeur; Ger. 6 (or oe), as in Ökonomie. befall, elope agent, trident off, trough gaS, get anguish, guava hat, hot Ger. ch, as in nicht, wacht what file, ice nim, it between e and i, mostly in Oriental final syllables, as, Ferid-ud-din gem, genius quaint, quite Fr. nasal m or n, as in embonpoint, Jean, temps fi Span, ſi, as in cañon (cán'yūn), piñon (pên'yön) 11g mingle, singing nk bank, ink Ö no, Open o or Ó not, on Ö corn, nor Ö atom, symbol Q book, look oi oil, soil; also Ger. eu, as in beutel ö or oo fool, rule ou or ow allow, bowsprit S satisfy, sauce sh show, sure th thick, thin th father, thither †† mute, use u or ú but, us ti pull, put ti between u and e, as in Fr. sur, Ger. Müller v of, very y (consonantal) yes, young Z pleasant, rose zh azure, pleasure ' (prime), " (secondary) accents, to indicate syllabic stress THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA ndian, Education of the. Indian educa- tion as at present conducted in the Lnited States is in no way the outcome of any deliberate plan on the part of the Federal government, but is di- rectly descended from the first attempts to teach the Indians of Virginia, and particu- larly from like beginnings in Massachusetts, where the remarkable results of John Eliot (q.v.) were achieved. Eliot's Work.- Eliot was actuated by high motives, and his simple measures were chosen with consummate wisdom. Having familiarized himself with the language, disposition, and char- acter of his Indians, he secured their confidence and respect. Those who would follow him he gathered in towns, where he taught them the liberties and responsibilities of township gov- ernment and the devices and institutions of civ- ilized life, among which the Church and the school naturally occupied places of honor. A number of “choice Indian youths” he induced to attend English schools that they might prepare themselves for missionary work among their own people. He was warmly supported by “the corporation for the propagation of the Gos- pel in foreign parts,” by the General Court of Massachusetts, and particularly by Daniel Gookins, the official superintendent of the Indi- ans in Massachusetts. Eliot began his work in I646. In 1674 there were 14 towns of “praying Indians,” whose schools and churches, in the majority of instances, were administered by educated natives, and an Indian college had been founded at Cambridge. Yet in due time this success was swept away by the fears and preju- dices which developed under the baneful influ- ences of the Indian wars. Similar successful work under the direction of John Cotton and Richard Bourne in Plymouth colony shared the same fate. Other Endeavors.- Followers of Eliot in the 18th century were John Sergeant at Stock- bridge, Mass., and Eleazer Wheelock in Connect- icut and New Hampshire. The work of Ser- geant, which involved the establishment of day schools, of a boarding-school, and an experi- mental “ºing System,” was almost ideal in con- O º 9–I ception, but ended with the deportation of his In- dians to the West. Dr. Wheelock's labors led to the establishment of an effective training school and, indirectly, to the creation of Dartmouth College “for the education and instruction of youths of the Indian tribes in this land in read- ing, writing, and all parts of learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing and christianizing the children of pagans, as well as in all liberal arts and sciences, and also of English youths and any others.” Only the last purpose was destined to achievement. Surviving Influences.— But in spite of ex- ternal failure, the spirit and much of the form of these early enterprises persisted. Their im- press is observable to-day in almost every prom- inent feature of the Indian-school organization of the United States, notably in the establish- ment of day schools in or near Indian villages as a means of domestic and industrial uplifting of Indian family and village life; of industrial boarding-Schools in territory occupied by In- dians, to introduce among the young a taste for the refinements, duties, and responsibilities of civ- ilization; of advanced training-schools in civi- lized English-speaking communities for the fuller equipment of “choice Indian youths” for full citizenship in such communities, or for mis- sionary work in the ideals, institutions, and arts of civilization among their own people. It is seen in the universal stress in all schools upon instruction in husbandry, certain trades and domestic arts; in the “outing system,” which places partially educated Indian girls and boys as paid helpers in suitable English-speaking families, and affords them instruction in the ordinary public schools; and in the importance attached to religious and ethical training. Wrong Departures.— On the other hand, it is to be deplored that a number of valuable features of the early schools have been aban- doned, and even supplanted by opposite tenden- cies — the unintelligent warfare against the Indian idiom ; the introduction of certain brutal- ities of military discipline; an equally mistaken effort to wean Indian youth from Indian asso- ciation by throwing contempt upon the Indian and by stimulating a feeling akin to hatred INDIAN of Indian family ties; and in general a policy of compulsion and repression, rather than a spirit of development and benevolent helpfulness. Serious harm came to government schools be- cause patronage entered as a factor in the ap- pointment of officers and employees. Thanks to the Indian Rights Association, the Mohonk Conference, and a number of other Societies, in 1893 civil-service rules were applied to employees of the Indian schools. History of Organization.— The successive steps in the organization of Indian schools have been as follows: After the Revolution little heed was paid to Indian education for 30 years. Only minor appropriations are recorded on the basis of treaties with a few tribes. But in the first quarter of the 19th century a religious revival directed attention to Indian education as a Chris- tian and national duty. Congress responded in 1819 with an appropriation of $10,000 in addition to certain treaty obligations. In 1820 the Presi- dent was authorized to apply this sum annually in aid of societies and individuals engaged in the education of Indians. In 1823 $80,000 was ex- pended in 2I schools maintained by missionary bodies, $12,000 having been granted by the gov- ernment. In 1825 the number of such schools had risen to 38, their entire expenditure to $202,000, of which the government, directly and indirectly, had contributed $25,000. In 1848 there were reported in operation I6 manual-training schools, 87 boarding-schools and other Schools. These schools continued to increase in number and efficiency up to 1873, under the control of missionary bodies, with scanty aid from the gov- ernment, which had established only a few small day schools directly under treaty provisions. After 1873, however, the government entered upon an era of great activity in the establish- ment of strictly government schools. In 1877 Congress appropriated for schools outside of treaty provisions, $20,000; in 1880, $75,000; in 1885, $992,800; in 1890, $1,364,568; in 1895, $2,060,695; in 1899, $2,638,390; in 1900, $2,936,- o80; 1901, $3,083,403.65; 1902, $3,251,254; 1903, $3,531,220. The expenditures have doubled within the decade, and trebled within I5 years. During the quarter century the aver- age attendance rose in more than like ratio. Increased appropriations naturally stimulated a desire on the part of the government to control expenditures. Moreover, the Consti- tution, by implication, at least, forbids the ap- propriation of public funds for denominational purposes. Conclusions unfavorable to govern- ment support of missionary schools were further strengthened by the fact that the Roman Catho- 1ic Church had gradually outstripped the Prot- estant missionary bodies and was absorbing the lion’s share of government support. In 1893 the Methodist Episcopal Church withdrew from participation in government aid, but without abandoning its schools. In 1895 this example was followed by the Presbyterians and Congrega- tionalists; in 1896 by the Friends; and in 1897 by the remaining Protestant denominations. This left only the Catholics in the field with an appropriation, and in 1901 it was withdrawn from them also. In 1894 Congress had declared its policy of abandoning all support of denom- inational schools, and this policy has gradually been followed out. The Schools of To-day.— The present Indian schools under government control are day schools, reservation boarding-Schools, non-res- ervation boarding-schools, and industrial and normal training-schools. These in IQ02 num- bered 249, with an enrollment of 24,434 pupils; 323 other pupils were maintained by contract at Hampton and in white public schools. Day Schools.-Day Schools in Indian vil- lages, or near Indian camps or settlements, are, as a rule in charge of a male teacher and his wife, or, as in the pueblos of New Mexico and in the Indian villages of Southern California, of a white woman teacher and an Indian house- Reeper. These teachers are employed for Io. months in the year; the male teacher's wife acts as housekeeper. The children spend 5 to 8 hours during the 5 days of the week under the care of these employees, and return to their homes in the evening. The instruction is of the simplest character. The children are taught to speak, read, and write English within narrow limits, to cipher, to draw, and to sing. They get some rudimentary notions of geography, of nat- ural history, and of United States history. The methods are borrowed largely from the kinder- garten and from object–teaching, and much stress is laid upon habits of cleanliness and order, mutual kindliness, and prompt obedience. The boys receive some instruction in the use of tools, in gardening, and in some instances in the care of cows. The girls are taught sew- ing, cooking, and other arts of housekeeping. In the poorer Indian communities a noon-day lunch of a few simple articles is furnished. While these day schools accomplish compara- tively little in conventional school-room work, they serve as concrete illustrations of a civilized Christian home which the Indians learn to re- spect and, in an appreciable degree, to emulate. Moreover, they reconcile the Indian with the idea of sending his children to school, and render him more willing in due time to entrust them to the care of boarding-schools, as well as more ready to appreciate and to accept the lessons of civilization. The most successful of 134 such schools in 1902, were located in Wisconsin, North Dakota, and South Dakota; the least suc- cessful, probably, among the pueblos of New Mexico, where the Indians 11ve in a state of half-civilization which they owe to their Mexi- can and Spanish antecedents, and which fully satisfies their ideals. Reservation Boarding-Schools.-There were 90 of these in 1902, averaging I25 pupils. They are in charge of a superintendent, assisted by a matron and such teachers, industrial and domes– tice helpers as the capacity and character of the school may require. In addition to regular teachers, the school is provided with a cook, a seamstress, and a laundress, whose office it is not only to supervise their respective depart- ments, but also to instruct the girls in these arts. For instruction of the boys there is a farmer, an industrial teacher, and, at larger Schools, a tailor, a shoe and harness maker, a carpenter, and a blacksmith. An experiment to provide for more methodical instruction in the use of tools, by expert manual-training teachers, failed be- cause the Indian office would not afford a salary for this position sufficient to attract competent men. In 1894 the experiment of connecting kindergartens with these schools was tried, and proved eminently successful. At the present time there are 40 kindergartens connected with looarding-schools, and the use of kindergarten INDIAN methods and material has entered the primary classes in practically all these schools with sim- ilar good results. In the kindergarten the chil- dren spend from 1% to 2 hours each half-day. In most of the other schools children spend half a day in the school-room, and the other half- day in domestic or industrial work of a char- acter suited to their age. Experience has proved that half-day instruction, at first forced upon the schools as an expedient, is commended by its good results. The aim of the school-room work is to teach reading and writing within the usual limits of primary work; arithmetic for the needs of ordi- nary daily life; rudimentary geography and United States history; drawing and singing; the laws of hygienic living; garden and orchard work; and familiarity with the simpler require- ments of agricultural and domestic industries suited to the locality. Moreover, in a few of the 1arger schools, the older boys have much oppor- tunity to acquire skill in carpentry, blackSmithing, tailoring, and shoemaking. These institutions are to the children not only school, but home and community. The institution gives them shelter, food and clothing; it accustoms them to habits of cleanliness and decency; it culti- vates their aesthetic tastes; it labors to Secure right moral attitude, and in its Sunday-school seeks to stimulate the religious life of the chil- dren. The superintendent of the reservation boarding-school is subject in his work to the control of the Indian agent, who as representa- tive of the government, administers the reserva- tion’s affairs. Inasmuch as these agents are selected on partisan grounds, usually at the Sug- gestion of local politicians, this arrangement is fraught with danger to these schools. In 1893, under civil-service regulations, there came some improvement. Still with reference to minor employees the Superintendents, and even the Indian office, were powerless, and fre- quently good superintendents were forced out of service by combinations against them among the appointees of the agent, or through the aid and influence of unscrupulous partisan inspectors or supervisors. But in 1896 all employees of the school service were placed under civil-service protection, and since that time there has been marked improvement in the conditions and work of these schools. To a certain degree these evils still persisted, however, because of the power and political bias of the agents; but of late the government has adopted the policy of replacing the agents with bonded school superintendents, 22 agencies now being under such control. There has been decided gain in the equipment, in the sanitary condition, in the general character of employees, and in the conduct of the schools. For the Indian office, relieved of attention to office- seekers and their patrons, has been enabled to pay increased attention to the schools themselves. In the reservation boarding-schools instruction continues through 40 weeks; but often some children are kept at the school throughout the year. Non - Reservation Boarding - Schools. – Of these there are 25. Seven of them are industrial training-schools, and three others are industrial and normal training-schools. The remaining I5, in their original scope of work, differed little from the reservation boarding-schools. But the superintendents of these schools are bonded and directly responsible to the Indian office. There is no intervening Indian agency, and the conse- quent sense of responsibility and self-respect in the head of the school finds its reflection in the attitude of his subordinates, as well as in that of the pupils. These schools are, as a rule, lo- cated at a distance from the Indian country, and in the vicinity of American towns which afford contact with the amenities of civilized life. Members of rhany different tribes are also brought together, and tribal antagonisms are broken down. The pupils are older than those at reservation schools, and some have had pre- vious training in day schools or reservation boarding-schools. Because far away from their Indian homes, and near to English-speaking communities, they gain a better control of Eng- lish; class-room work reaches far into the advanced grammar-school courses of study, with special stress upon language practice, arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, nature study, drawing, and civil government. In- struction in domestic and industrial arts is made effective by frequent opportunities directly to observe their practical applicability and value. The superintendents are paid from $1,200 to $1,500 per annum. Other employees are paid on the same scale as in reservation schools. The most noted and successful of these schools are located at Flandreau, S. D.; Pipestone, Minn.; Mount Pleasant, Mich. ; Fort Mojave, Ariz, ; Carson, Nev.; Perris, Cal. ; Tomah, Wis.; Wit- gº Wis.; Fort Lewis, Colo. ; and Pierre, Industrial Training-Schools. – There are schools of this class at Carlisle, Pa.; Chemawa, near Salem, Ore. ; Chilocco, Okla. ; Genoa, Neb.; Albuquerque, N. M.; Lawrence, Kan. ; (the Has- kell Institute), Grand Junction, Colo.; Sante Fe, N. M.; Phoenix, Ariz. ; Fort Shaw, Mont. The most strenuous effort is now carried on at Chilocco; organized 1884; a large plant with a capacity of over 500 pupils, and a fine farm of about 9,000 acres. In organization these schools are similar to the schools just described, but in the scope of their work and in equipment they excel in a high degree. The government in 1894 added normal departments at Carlisle, at the Haskell Institute, and at Santa Fé. The experiment proved fairly successful with Carlisle and the Haskell Institute, at Santa Fé slightly so for a time, but of late it has shown better results there. Contract Schools.— In addition to maintain- ing these strictly government schools, the In- dian office up to 1901, as before said, paid by contract for the education of many hundreds of Indian pupils distributed in Catholic mission boarding-schools, in Catholic day schools; at Lincoln Institute, Philadelphia, and at Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va. In the appropriation for that year, the aid was withdrawn from alſ but the last-named, where I2O pupils were con- tracted for. Besides these, the government since 1891 has endeavored to place Indians in white public Schools where there are many whites and few Indians, as the most rapid means of civilization. The antagonism of local or State authorities to this coeducation has made this plan a failure in some places; in others there has been Some success. Rising from 8 to 45 between 1891 and 1896, the number of such schools has gradually sunk to 16 in 1902, with IIo pupils contracted for out of 189 enrolled, and average attendance of 98. INDIAN AFFAIRS Supervision.— Direction of the Indian schools rests with the Indian office, which is under the supervision of the secretary of the interior. In the Indian office the details of the work are en- trusted to the education division, to which all reports are made, and by which all directions and orders are drafted and issued. The educa- tion division is aided in its work by the super- intendent of Indian schools and by 5 supervisors, assigned in their work to 5 districts respectively. These officials constitute a branch of the Indian- school service which occupies a very uncertain position. They have duties, but no rights. A similarly anomalous relation exists between the commissioner and the secretary of the interior with regard to all matters which the latter may wish to control directly. For this purpose the secretary has established under his direct control an Indian division, independent of the Indian office, to which all orders and directions the secretary may designate must be referred by the Indian office for approval. The power of this Indian division is further reinforced by a corps of inspectors in the field, appointed on partisan grounds, and responsible to him alone. Tech- nically the superintendent of Indian schools may appeal from the commissioner to the secretary of the interior, and the commissioner from the decision of the secretary to the President. In view, however, of the hopelessly autocratic re- 1ation that runs through the chain, that is prac- tically out of the question. Under these conditions, the fact that Indian education has prospered reflects credit upon all concerned. Schools of Indian Territory.— The schools of the so-called “five civilized tribes” of Indian Territory are not included in the above sketch. The 5 tribes in 1900 included 25,639 Cherokees, Io,321 Choctaws, 7,963 Creeks, 5,872 Chicka- saws, and I,662 Seminoles. In addition there were in the Territory 36,853 freedmen and 302,680 whites. Missionary zeal availed itself promptly of this field for its efforts. Substantial boarding- schools were erected, more particularly by the Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists. In due time, however, the Indian authorities began to make appropriations for these schools. Ulti- mately they took entire charge of them. Un- fortunately, administrative affairs were largely in the hands of whites, who, by intermarriage or bribery, had been adopted into the tribes, and there came over the schools, as well as over all other public interests, the blight of extreme partisanship and nepotism, which rapidly de- graded them in character and efficiency. In 1898 the government at Washington assumed Super- visory control over the affairs of all these tribes except the Seminoles. The conduct of the schools and orphan asylums in the 4 tribes involved was placed under the direction of a superintendent of schools in Indian Territory, appointed by the secretary of the interior. TJnder him there is for each of the tribes or nations a supervisor of schools, whose duty it is to inspect the educational institutions in his district, and to assist in their organization and conduct. The superintendent reports to the com- missioner of Indian affairs at Washington through the United States inspector for the In- dian Territory, who is his immediate superior. The initial report of this superintendent showed in the 4 tribes 24 boarding-schools, with an enroll- ment of 1,758 pupils, and an average attendance of 1,480, taught and cared for by 234 employees at an annual expense of $236,824. This does not include 363 neighborhood schools, in which more than Io,000 children are taught at an annual expense of $113,380, which, in character and equipment, show great inferiority. WILLIAM N. HAILMANN, Ex-Supt. Indian Schools. Indian Affairs. The prevalent idea that the national government has always striven to dispossess the Indians from the lands they occu- pied, or has sympathized with such efforts, is the exact reverse of the truth. From its founda- tion until now, its history presents an unbroken record of quarrels between Indians and border- ing or interdwelling white settlers, in which the government has been slowly and reluctantly pushed on to interfere; sympathizing with and justifying the Indians against its own citizens, its commissioners usually reporting in their favor, and even its generals in later days blam- ing the whites for the troubles; its courts de- ciding in their favor; attempting pacification amid local outcries against them, rebuffing ap- peals for aid, and only using its armies to re- duce the Indians and its administrative power to remove them when it was no longer politically possible to leave them in possession. Even then, it has meant to deal righteously by them; but the complexity of the problem — one may say its insolubility till the country was very strong and the Indians very weak — along with the uni- versal curse of “spoils” in the administration — has hindered success. While until 1887 there was no consistently formulated plan, there has been a sequence of government panaceas in a stead- ily descending line. First, there was to be one vast Indian reservation, large enough to give them all the hunting-room they needed, and so far from the United States that our growth would never reach to them and create more troubles; then three great reservations, to pre- vent so formidable an Indian district and inter- necine Indian wars; then a number of small ones, to segregate hopelessly hostile tribes, en- able better training into civilized existence, and protect them from depredations; lastly, no res- ervations, but severalty ownership and individ- ual citizenship. These changes of policy have been due not to fickleness or visionary causes, but to broadening experience and varying con- ditions. The policy of removing the Indians west of the Mississippi was first formulated by Jeffer- son, who in a proposed constitutional amend- ment (1803) set off the Louisiana Purchase north of the Arkansas as a pure Indian country, in which no land was to be sold to whites. This was carried out, on a much reduced Scale, in the formation of Indian Territory (q.v.) by act of 30 June 1834; by another act of same date a superintendent of Indian affairs was appointed, no one to trade or settle in the Indian country without permission from him or his agents. Previous to this the Indian matters had been under the War Department; in 1849 they were transferred to the new Department of the In- terior, of which they still form a bureau. Under the commissioner of Indian affairs are eight inspectors and a large variety of subordi- nate officials and employees. The Indian agents, though under his control, are appointed by the President, for four years, with bonds; on their INDIAN ART action depends often peace or war to great white populations, but in too many cases they have been the football of politics, and sometimes scandalously unfit for their places. The legal theory, until a recent date, was that each tribe was a nation, but not a foreign nor independent one; a “domestic dependent na- tion,” but with which, nevertheless, all inter- course was to be conducted through special commissioners appointed by the President. In 1871 Congress abolished this method of pro- cedure, and substituted immediate Congressional control, but the fiction of Indian nations re- mained; nor, indeed, could any other system well be applied so long as the Indians were recognized as national wards, and could not be made a part of the regular republican system or thrown into the current of unrestricted com- petition. It was the general plan to let the larger and better advanced ones, as the five “nations” of the Indian Territory, govern them- selves and thus develop political life, including a full judiciary system. But the smaller ones could not be thus left, even in leading-strings; and in all, the government has recognized its duty to watch over their ignorance, improvi- dence, and savage instability of will and emo- tion from either violence or cunning on the part of the whites. Traders with them must have certificates of good character and be li- censed by the Indian commissioner, and the goods they sell are subject to regulation; no one can hunt, cut timber, or pasture cattle on Indian lands without the agent's permission; intoxi- cating liquors may not be sold to them. Still more important and beneficial is the educational work, which has not only been carried on by churches, missionary societies, and private in- dividuals from early times, but has been actively forwarded by the government. The five civil- ized nations of Indian Territory had their own School System, of considerable extent; but for Others, and even for those where needed, the President was empowered in 1865 to appoint instructors of Indian children in reading, writ- ing, arithmetic, and agriculture, and in 1882 to appoint an inspector of Indian schools. (See INDIAN, EDUCATION OF THE.) From 1877, when a $20,000 appropriation was made for Indian schooling, to 1900, when over $3,000,000 was appropriated, over $35,000,000 had been thus expended by the government. It has spent since its foundation nearly $400,000,000 on the Indians, outside of the cost of wars against them; and the present expenditure is about $10,000,000 a year. In 1900 it was main- taining over 45,000 wholly by rations, and 12,500 partly, at a cost of about $1,250,000 per annum; and paying annuitants (partly from trust funds derived from sales of their lands) over $1,500,000. On 8 Feb. 1887, however, an act was passed, amended in 1890, to sweep away as soon as feasible all this system of tutelage and pauperi- zation, in the belief that abolition was best for Indians and whites alike. All reservations were to be surveyed; all Indians who wished to take up lands in severalty to a certain amount might do so — and by the act become citizens, as well as all who had previously done so under treaties and Congressional enactments, over Io,000 in number. Up to 30 Oct. 190o 6,736,514 acres had been so allotted, to 56,996 Indians; about 2,000 a year comply with the permission; and a few years will see an end of Indian tribes except as historical reminiscences. Many of these new citizens are made voters by their States: there are over 20,000 such in the United States at present. See CHEROKEE ; CHEROKEE NATION V. GEORGIA. Indian Art. In none of the fine arts ex- cept architecture have the Hindus attained much eminence. Their paintings are of very little merit, though the walls of temples, of palaces, and of the better class of private dwellings are often ornamented at great cost with pic- tures illustrating the characters and events of their mythology. More attention has been paid to sculpture than to painting, and in the tem- ples cut from the living rock great numbers of statues are contained, some single figures and others large groups. Many of these are bold and spirited in design, though the human form is not exhibited in good proportion nor with its parts well developed. Indian Architecture, however, comprehends a great variety of styles, among which we may distinguish, as the most important, the Buddhist, the Jaina, the Dravidian or Southern Indian, the Chalukyan, and the Modern Hindu or In- dian-Saracenic styles. The history of Indian architecture commences in the 3d century B.C. with the religious buildings and monuments of the Buddhists. Among the principal forms of Buddhist architecture are first, the topes, stupas, or towers built to mark some sacred spot, and the dagobas, constructions of a similar nature, containing relics of Buddha or Buddhist Saints. These buildings generally consist of a circular stone basement, varying from Io or I2 to 40 feet in height, and from 40 to I2O feet in diameter, on which rose a rounded domical struc- ture, generally of brick or small stones laid in mud, the whole edifice rising sometimes 50, Some- times Ioo feet high. Second, the rock-cut chaitya halls or churches, and the viharas or monasteries. Most of these are found in Bombay; some also in Bengal and Behar. In rock-cut buildings architectural skill is confined to the façade and the interior. Among the most notable for beauty of design are those at Ajanta, and, finest and largest of all, the great Chaitya cave at Karli, near Bombay, the date of which is probably about 8o B.C. Another interesting example is at Ellora. The Jaina style is a development or corruption of the pure Buddhist. It is charac- terized by the square or polygonal court, the twelve-pillared dome, the slenderness and ele- gance of the columns, the horizontal arch, the sikras or towers surmounting the cells contain- ing the images, and, lastly, by the peculiar group- ing of many temples together on hill-tops. Prominent examples of Jaina architecture are found at Girnar in Gujerat, and at Mount Abu. The most flourishing epoch of the Dravidian style comprises the I6th, 17th, and even 18th centuries of our era. To this late period belong the great temples at Tanjore, Tiruvalur, etc. The distinctive parts of a Dravidian temple are the vimana or temple proper, with storied pyra- midal roof; the mantapas or porches, covering the door which leads to the cell; the gopuras or gate-pyramids, in the quadrangular enclosures surrounding the vimanas; and the choultries or pillared halls, used for various purposes. The INDIAN BEAN — INDIAN MUTINY general characteristics of a Dravidian temple of the first class are the storied pyramidal tow- ers, the hall of I,000 columns, the bold cornice with double flexure, the detached shafts, the richly carved stylobate, and the large tanks with flights of stone steps. The Chalukyan style, so Inamed from a dynasty which rose in the 6th century in what is now Mysore and the Ni- zam's Territory, reached its perfection in My- sore from the IIth to the I4th century. The characteristic features are the open porch, the straight-lined, conical-shaped tower, the star- shaped temple, and the basement terrace of Stone. The Indian-Saracenic style is a general name for a number of somewhat varying styles, the result of the mixture of Saracenic principles of architecture, brought with them by the Mo- hammedan conquerors of India, and the dis- tinctive architectural features of the different lo- calities where they settled. Under the Mogul emperors in the 16th century were erected some most magnificent buildings, such as the tomb of Humayun Shah at Old Delhi; that of Akbar at Secundra ; the palaces of Shah Jehan at Agra and Delhi; and the Taj Mahal, built by the same monarch at Agra. (See AGRA.) The TMoslem architecture of India contrasts with the native Indian styles in its use of the radiating arch, in the superior simplicity and grandeur of its style — its flat ornamentation not inter- fering with the lines of true architectural con- struction. A characteristic feature also is its fine conventionalism of vegetable forms for decoration and tracery. See Moslem Architec- ture under ARCHITECTURE. Indian Bean, a catalpa (q.v.); specifically the large southern tree (Catalpa catalpa), now planted as a shade or ornamental tree all over the country on account of the beauty of its masses of spring flowers and the quaint ap- pearance in autumn of its long, bean-pod-like fruit. Indian Bible, the first Indian translation of the Bible in the New England colonies. This translation was made in 1663 by John Eliot, “The Apostle to the North American Indians.” It was in the dialect of the Naticks, a Massachusetts tribe of the Algonquins. A second revised and corrected edition was printed in 1685, only 12 copies of which are known to exist. An edition with notes by P. S. Du Poneau, and an introduction by J. Pickering, was published in Boston in 1822. When the original edition was issued, 20 copies were ordered to be sent to England. A copy of the edition of 1663, with the Epistle Dedica- tory, was sold in 1882 for $2,900. Indian Bread-root, a plant of the genus Psoralea ; the “large” was P. esculenta; the “small” P. hypogata. See BREAD-ROOT. Indian Corn. See MAIZE. Indian Fig. See PRICKLY PEAR. Indian Head, (I) the highest point of the Palisades, 550 feet; so called because it re- sembles somewhat the head of an Indian. It is in the northeastern part of New Jersey, on the Hudson and opposite Hastings. (2) The name of a village in Fayette County, Pa. (3) A small town in Maryland, on the Potomac River, below Washington, the seat of a naval station. Indian Hemp. See CANADA HEMP; APO- CYANACEAE. Indian Hippo, an American plant. Bow MAN’s Root. Indian Humped Cattle, a species of East Indian Oxen (Bos indicus), now known only in the domesticated state, distinguished by a high fatty hump on the withers, by the prevalent ashy gray color, large drooping ears, enormous dewlap and several structural peculiarities. They vary in size from those as large as a European ox to the smallness of a half-grown calf. They form the working cattle and draft animals all over India and eastward more or less locally to China. They are vener- ated by the more pious sects of Hindus, espe- cially in the persons of certain privileged bulls, called Brahma or Brahminy bulls, which wan- der about the bazaars of cities unharmed and unchecked in their depredations upon market produce. Humped cattle are known in Madagascar, and in Abyssinia, and it has been suggested that the species was originally African. The Abyssinian form is a large animal with huge horns called “galla ox” or sunga. These animals seem to thrive only in hot countries, and have never been found profitable outside of their present range. Indian Language and Literature. INDIA. Indian Mutiny. The British occupation of India had been largely aided by native troops called Sepoys, who were enrolled under British officers in the service of the East India Com- pany. At the close of Lord Dalhousie's sway in 1856, when the whole of India seemed to have been either reduced directly under British rule, or if retaining its native princes to have placed itself under British protection, the Sepoy mutiny, a contingency for which the gov- ernment ought not to have been altogether un- prepared, occurred. Previous symptoms of dis- affection had not been wanting. Mutiny had on several occasions broken out in the native army, in a way to indicate how easily through causes which Europeans, from their defective sympathy with native thought and feeling, could not anticipate, these troops might be alienated ; but, on the other hand, the general fidelity of the Sepoys merited confidence, and this feeling pre- vailed over any grounds of suspicion which might have been formed from isolated occur- rences. The Sepoys in Bengal were mostly either Mohammedans, or Hindus of the Brah- manical or military castes. The recent annex– ations had alarmed the native chiefs, while the fanatical Hindus had been deeply offended by reforms, including the successive abolition of various rites of their worship. Two European regiments had been drafted off for the Crimean war, and had not been replaced. Others had been sent to Burma, and in the beginning of 1857 fresh regiments were despatched to Persia, so that only eighteen regiments were left in a11 Northern India, of which nine were in the Panjab. In Oudh, where, from its recent annexation, disaffection was rife, there was only one British regiment, and Delhi and Allaha- bad, the two chief arsenals, were guarded by native troops. To add to these favorable cir- See See INDIAN cumstances a Hindu devotee had prophesied the termination of British rule at IOO years after the battle of Plassey. A slight incident sufficed to give point and direction to a spirit of dis- affection which so many circumstances tended to favor. At this time the Enfield rifle was introduced into the Bengal army. This rifle was loaded with a greased cartridge, the end of which required to be bitten off at the time of loading. By a natural inadvertence the authori- ties had neglected to consider how this seemingly trifling requirement might affect the easily ex- cited sensitiveness of the Hindus in regard to caste, and this insignificant circumstance re- moved the last security against a united move- ment of disloyalty among the native troops, by establishing a bond of sympathy between the Mohammedans and Hindus. A report got abroad that the cartridges were to be soaked in cow and pork fat. The prejudices of Hindus and Mohammedans were thus equally involved, and as this rumor rapidly spread, the excited imagination of the Sepoys conceived a conspiracy on the part of the government to convert them forcibly to Christianity, by compelling them to violate the laws of their own religion. When this grievance was explained it was at once removed, the manufacture of greased cartridges at Dumdum was stopped, and the men were instructed to grease them themselves with ma— terials procured at the bazaars. Suspicion once aroused, however, was not to be allayed, and easily found a new object of contention. The paper of the new cartridges was glazed, and it was again alleged that grease was used in its manufacture. The spirit of disaffection be- came too deep-rooted for any measures of con- ciliation. Conferences among the disaffected gave rise to ambitious schemes, and the original grievances became a pretext in the hands of unscrupulous leaders, whose excesses debarred them even from the plea of patriotism, to extir- pate the British power in India. On 26 Febru- ary the first overt act of mutiny took place at Berhampur, when a regiment refused to re- ceive their cartridges. Another dangerous out- break took place at Barrackpur on 29 March. The arrival of a British regiment from Burma and the disbandment of the disaffected regiments was thought to have ended the trouble, but it soon became evident that disaffection, which had only wanted an occasion, was spreading rapidly not only among the Sepoys, but among the Hindus generally. Another outbreak took place on 2 May, near Lucknow, when a regiment of cavalry were, by some oversight of the gov- ernment’s instructions, ordered to bite their cartridges. Sir Henry Lawrence succeeded by a show of force in disarming it. A more for- midable outbreak occurred about the same time at Meerut, 35 miles northeast of Delhi, when the mutineers, with the assistance of the native inhabitants, indiscriminately massacred the Euro- peans and escaped to Delhi. The advance-guard of the mutineers reached Delhi on II May, and at once entered the city, where they were as- sisted by the king's servants in massacring the Europeans. The native troops cantoned outside the city in the meantime joined the main body of the mutineers, and assisted in massacring their Furopean officers. About 50 Europeans sought refuge in the palace, and placed themselves MUTINY under the protection of the king, who had placed himself on the throne of the Moguls. These after some days were coolly murdered in an open court in presence of a general Concourse of spectators, conspicuous among whom was Mirza Mogul, the king's eldest son, who had assumed the title of commander-in-chief. The magazine at Delhi had been blown up by its defenders; but the explosion was only partial, and most of its contents fell into the hands of the mutineers. European troops were now summoned from all quarters. Several regiments were detached from an expedition which was proceeding under Lord Elgin to China, and the Persian war having been concluded, the troops engaged there were immediately recalled. When intelligence of these events reached the Panjab the mutinous spirit which prevailed among the large body of Hindustani troops there was promptly subdued by disarmament. The Sikhs, though the Panjab had been So recently annexed, continued faithful. But the revolt had spread rapidly elsewhere, and British authority was almost extinct throughout the Bengal Presidency. Everywhere the mutiny was attended with savage excesses — women were outraged, and Europeans, without distinc- tion of age or sex, barbarously murdered. Sir Hugh Wheeler, at Cawnpore, was betrayed by Nana Sahib, maharajah of Bithur, who, after offering aid, took the mutineers into his pay, and raising the Mahratta standard, besieged Cawnpore. The siege, or rather bombardment, lasted from 7–24 June, when a capitulation was agreed to, on a sworn promise of Nana Sahib to allow the garrison to retire to Allahabad. But as the embarkation was proceeding the boats were attacked by the Nana's troops, and the men indiscriminately massacred. The women and children were for the meantime made pris- oners. Sir Henry Lawrence was besieged in Lucknow, where he died on 4 July from a wound received in a sortie. Meanwhile mutineers had been converging on Delhi, and British reinforcements were hasten- ing to the besieging camp on the ridge above the city. After protracted operations and re- peated reinforcements on both sides Delhi was taken by assault, 14–20 September. Sir Henry Havelock, who had been engaged in the Per- sian campaign, had arrived in Calcutta, and immediately set out for Allahabad, to commence operations for the relief of Lucknow and Cawn- pore. While his force was victoriously advanc- ing on Cawnpore Nana Sahib, on I5 July bar- barously massacred his prisoners, consisting of 2Io women and children. Havelock was suc- ceeded in the command at Lucknow by Sir James Outram, who held it till relieved by Sir Colin Campbell, on 17 November. At first it was feared that the mutiny might extend to the Bombay and Madras presidencies, and from this cause and the occupation of the troops in Bengal the mutineers had been left unchecked in Central India. At length columns organized in these presidencies entered Central India, and were united under Sir Hugh Rose. By the operations of these commanders the brave Rani of Jhansi, who died fighting at the head of her troops, was defeated, and Tantia Topi whose military capacity had prolonged Nana Sahib's resistance, was captured and the mutiny was INDIAN finally suppressed. The war was substantially closed by June 1858, although the complete paci- fication of Oudh was not effected till the end of the year. See INDIA, EAST INDIA COMPANIES. Consult: Malleson, ‘History of the Indian Mu- tiny” (1897). Indian Ocean, that body of water which has Asia on the north, the East Indian Islands, Nicobar and the Andaman Islands, Australia and Tasmania on the east, Africa on the west, and the Antarctic continent on the south. The Cape of Good Hope, and the southern extremity of Tasmania may be considered its extreme lim- its from east to west. Its length from north to south somewhat exceeds 6,500 miles, its breadth varies from 6,000 to 4,000 miles. Its gulfs are the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Great Austra- lian Bight. Its islands are Ceylon, Madagascar, the Laccadives, Maldives, Socotra, Andamans, Nicobar, Mauritius, Bourbon, Kerguelen's Land, etc. Rocks and coral reefs render navigation dangerous. The Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawad- dy, Indus, Euphrates, Gadavari, empty into the Indian Ocean. The southeast trade-wind blows between the Ioth and 28th parallels of south latitude from April to October, after which date its limits are contracted ; south of these are the northwest winds, which prevail almost in the same latitude, in the Atlantic and Pacific. The monsoons are mainly to be found in the north, from the continent of Asia to about lat. 8° S., and from the Mozambique Channel on the west to the western shores of Australia and the sea of China. They blow for six months, changing about the equinoxes. North of the equator the northeast monsoon prevails from Oc- tober to April, the southwest from April to October; while south of that the northwest monsoon blows while the northeast is blowing on the north side, and the southeast prevails during the time of the southwest monsoon north of the equator. In the hot season, likewise, when the southeast trade-wind recedes South, the northwest monsoon flows between the equa- tor and the 12th south parallel. The hurricanes of this ocean usually range between lat. 9° and 35° S., extending from Madagascar to the Island of Timor. They usually come from the north- east, and travel southwest and south, returning again east. Their season is from December to April. According to the most recent soundings the mean depth of the Indian Ocean is 2,300 fath- oms, or somewhat greater than that of the Atlantic. The greatest depths are in the eastern part to the south of the equator, where it is estimated that there are fully 50,000 square miles with a depth of over 3,000 fathoms. Over I3,000,000 square miles lie between the depths of 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms. The area of land draining into the Indian Ocean is estimated at 6,813,600 square miles, and the rainfall on this land amounts to 4.379 cubic miles of water annually. The rivers flow- ing from the Asiatic continent are by far the most important, and they carry a vast amount of detritus into the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, these forming immense deposits of blue mud. Along the African coasts, in depths from OCEAN IOO to 1,000 fathoms, there are glauconitic sands and muds, and on these as well as other coasts, coral muds and sands, and blue and green muds in the shallower depths. In the deeper parts of the ocean, far from land, there are deposits of red clay, radiolarian-ooze, and glo- bigerina-Ooze. Toward the Antarctic continent the ocean bed is covered with a diatom-Ooze. The temperature of the surface waters varies much in different parts of the ocean, at different seasons, and under the influence of different winds. In tropical regions the temperature usu- ally varies from 70° to 80° F., and the yearly range is 7° or 8° F. Off the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Guardafui, the annual range may be from 20° to 30° F. Sudden changes of temperature are often noticed off Cape Guardafui when the wind blows off shore. The cold and deep water is thus drawn up along the coast to take the place of the warm surface water which is driven east by the wind. The temperature of the water at the bottom is very uniform and subject to little, if any, annual variation. In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea temperatures of 33.7° F. and 34.2° F. have been recorded ; these are only very slightly higher than those recorded by the Challenger in lat. 50° S. It is certain, therefore, that this deep cold water is slowly drawn into the Indian Ocean from the Antarctic to supply the place of the warm surface currents that are driven. south by the winds. The currents of the Indian Ocean are less, constant than in the other oceans, being largely controlled by the monsoons. Some characteris- tic coral atolls and islands are found toward the central part, such as the great Maldive group, the Chagos, Diego Garcia, and the Cocos. Islands. The tropical shores are generally skirted by fringing and barrier reefs. Christmas, Island is coral formation, while St. Paul's, Mau- ritius, Rodriguez, and others are of volcanic origin, and Madagascar, Ceylon, and Socotra, continental islands. The Indian Ocean was little known to the ancients. The first Europeans who explored it seem to have been the Phoenicians, who in the 7th century B.C., held the thalassocracy, or ma-. rine domination of the Mediterranean. Necho, an Egyptian monarch who flourished about 61o: B.C., is reported by Herodotus to have sent some of his vessels, manned by Phoenicians, into the Indian Ocean, then known as the Erythraean: Sea, to circumnavigate Africa. This they did, starting from the Arabian Gulf and regaining Europe by the Columns of Hercules. In the 6th century B.C. this sea was traversed by Hanno, a Phoenician admiral of Carthage. There is still extant his account of the voyage which is trans- lated into Greek under the title ‘Hanno's Voy– age of Circumnavigation.” The Greek histo- rian Arrian has given us an account of the coasting voyage of Nearchus, one of Alexander's generals, from the Indus to the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates. Hippalus, an Egyptian navigator who flour- ished about the beginning of the Christian era, was the first to observe the regular monsoons, of the Indian Ocean, and to profit by them. In the 9th century the Arabs made frequent. voyages across the Indian Ocean. In 1486 the Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope, INDIAN PAINT – INDIAN TERRITORY and in I498 Vasco da Gama reached the coasts of India by the same route. In 1521 a ship of Magellan's squadron crossed the Indian Ocean in ºpleting the first circumnavigation of the world. Indian Paint, the name of two American plants: (I) the golden seal (q.v.) or orange- root, which furnishes a yellow color; and (2) the bloodroot. (See SANGUINARIA.) Indian Paint-brush. See PAINTED CUP. Indian Physic, an American plant. Bow MAN’s ROOT. Indian Pipe, or Corpse-plant, a smooth, waxy-looking, fleshy herb (Monotropa uniflora), of the order Ericaceae, widely distributed in dark, rich woods almost throughout North America. It is said to derive some of its food from the roots of other plants, but much is obtained from decaying vegetable matter. From a matted mass of fibrous rootlets the white scaly, but not leafy, stems rise to a height of perhaps eight inches, and bear solitary, nodding, white, inodorous flowers during summer, fol- lowed by erect many-seeded fruits. Indian Red, an impure oxid of iron, used as a pigment by painters. It was originally imported from India, but is now chiefly pre- pared by roasting ferrous sulphate. The sul- phuric acid is expelled by the heat, and the red oxid of iron remains behind. It is very permanent, and the color varies from purplish to a yellowish red according to the precise de- tails of the manufacture. Indian River, an important stream in the eastern part of Florida, in Brevard and Volusia counties. It connects with the Halifax River at Titusville and extends Ioo miles southeast to the ocean at Indian Inlet. Its width varies from 300 feet to 3 miles and it is navigable for vessels drawing five feet. The Indian River is famous for the excellent oranges grown along its banks. Indian Schools, in the United States, are Schools specially established, either by private or denominational means or by the national gov- ernment, for the education of children and youth of the Indian population of this country. For particulars concerning these schools see INDIAN AFFAIRS; INDIAN, EDUCATION OF THE. Indian Shot. See CANNA. Indian Summer, the name given to a period of mild summer weather which generally occurs toward the end of autumn. The term first made its appearance in the last decade of the 18th century. During the next decade the phrase was “second summer.” This indi- cates that the spell of weather known by this name was not generally noticed much before 1800. The term Indian summer became estab- lished about 20 years after its first appearance, which was in western Pennsylvania, and spread to New England by 1798, to New York by I799, to Canada by 1821 and to England by 1830. The term is, then, not an Americanism; to write in praise of Indian summer is now a literary convention of three continents. It is by no means easy to account for the origin of the term. The principal characteristics of the season which it describes are haziness, Smokiness, and high temperature. Some ex- See planation of the origin of the term are (I) that the Indians predicted such spells of weather; (2) that the smokiness was produced by Indian fires; (3) that this was the last season of Indian attacks on the settlements of the whites; (4) that the season partook of the Indian character of deceptiveness; (5) that the name was given because one of the seasons of East India was similar in character. Horace Walpole used the term in 1778, not in reference to America, but in relation to weather in the tropics. “Squaw winter” was a name for the spell of cold weather preceding the Indian summer, and perhaps the key to the nomenclature is to be sought in this latter term. Indian Territory, an organized body of land in the southwest centre of the United States, occupied by Indian allotments and res- ervations; not a “Territory” in the official sense, as it has no common local government, head, or capital, and sends no delegates to Congress. It lies between Kansas north and Texas South, Arkansas and a corner of Missouri east, and Oklahoma (till recently its own western half) west. It is about 250 miles north to south, and from 75 to 200 east and west. Area, 31,400 square miles, 400 water. Pop. (1900) 392,060; (1903) fully 500,000. The topography of the district is not yet fully studied, as Indians do not make surveys, and till less than a decade ago the government had no motive but a scientific one for undertak- ing them. Hence the interior was nearly as little known as central Africa, and as much misunder- stood. Even yet, nearly every reference book describes the entire surface as “flat” or “gently rolling,” and mostly prairie. But the govern- ment survey authorized in 1894, when the reduc- tion to civilized conditions was undertaken, found it to be one-fourth mountainous plateau, and two thirds woodland well distributed, mainly through the east and southwest portions. The prairie section is a continuation of the Kansas. plains, and occupies most of the Cherokee dis- trict north of the Arkansas, and the Creek trian- gle between the Arkansas and Canadian, with about a fourth of the western half below the Canadian, the rest being timber land. In the extreme northeast is a rugged plateau cut by streams with a southward trend, west of which is a rolling plain with some hills. South of this the Ozark Mountain chain, entering from Arkansas, stretches from northeast to southwest across the Territory, with a gradual declension; from about 2,500 feet high near the Arkansas line, they sink to about 1,000 feet in the centre. Their more pronounced elevations are termed the Boston, Poteau, Kiamichi, Sans Bois (tree- less), Shawnee, etc. In the Chickasaw territory at the southwest, a set of low elevations from Tishomingo northwest, rising in the sharp spur called the Arbuckle Mountains, and again far- ther on in the Wichita Mountains of Oklahoma, connect the Ozarks with the outliers of the Rockies. The highest elevation in the Terri- tory is about 3,000 feet above sea-level, the low- est, 350. The timber north of the Canadian is mainly confined to a belt in the west, save for cottonwoods, elms, pecans, and a few other sorts along the streams; south of it the timber occupies much the greater portion, even in the west. The eastern half of the Territory is nearly all well wooded, the mountainous parts most INDIAN TERRITORY heavily so; the woods besides the above are oak, largely in a belt from the Arkansas to the Red called the Cross Timbers (used only for fuel and railroad ties, not for construction), with val- uable yellow pine and red cedar on the elevated grounds, and walnut in the bottoms. The drainage belongs entirely to the Arkansas and Red River systems. The former, flowing across and cutting off a northern cantle, is joined east of the centre at Webber's Falls by the long Canadian, its main affluent, which forms nearly the median line of the Territory and its north- ern boundary with Oklahoma; and is further fed from the north by the Neosho and the Verdigris joining close together, and by the Illinois near the Canadian. The latter has hardly and water- shed on the south. Nearly the whole southern half of the Territory is drained by the affluents of the Red, forming the entire boundary with Texas; the chief are the Washita in the south- west and the Kiamichi in the southeast. Geology and Minerals.- Geologically, the Territory may be divided into four sections. I. The Arbuckle-Wichita region, with an outlying granite field at Tishomingo. This contains coal measures on the north and asphalt on the south ; the former is the chief mineral product of the Territory, yielding some 3,000,000 tons a year. There are also sandstone and limestone as well as granite. 2. The Ozark system, Carboniferous and Silurian, containing zinc and lead. 3. The northern prairie, Carboniferous, with coal and indications of petroleum. 4. The southern plains cropping over from Texas, underlaid by the Cre- taceous, with artesian strata, and sand and marl above. There are known to be valuable gold and silver deposits, from which Indians have long made all their trinkets, but they have kept the places secret, to prevent an influx of miners. Fauna.- The characteristic species are tim- ber and prairie wolves, panthers and foxes, black bear, deer, prairie dogs, and some smaller game. Of birds, the wild turkey is the most important. Climate and Rainfall.— The Territory be- longs to the southern division by temperature and to the middle one by precipitation. It has a mean winter temperature of 35° to 48°, and a summer one of 77° to 82°; while the rainfall, light in the north like western Kansas, is heavy in the southeast (52 inches), and steadily decreases to the west (about 35 inches at Fort Gibson and 30 in the southwest). But hardly anywhere is it too scant for favorable agricul- tural conditions. Agriculture.—Scarcely any region of the United States has greater natural advantages, in fertile soil and plentiful water supply. With the opening of the Territory to white ownership, a vast increase in production will be effected. The word “ownership” is used advisedly: at present, to protect Indian interests, white men, except those married to Indian wives, or adopted into the tribes by the tribal legislatures, cannot hold land in fee. But as an Indian, when grant- ed land in severalty, rarely farms it himself, and even if so, the amount granted to an Indian family is often several times what the head can utilize, his first act is to lease all or most of it to some white farmer; so that a large class of Indian landlords with white tenants is growing up, doubtless to be turned into freeholders when the legal limit for Indian alienation has passed. The whites form seven-ninths of all the farmers at present; but of their 35,451 farms, only 3,475 were owned by them in 1900. These allotments to the Indians vary greatly in the different tribes, according to the appraised value of the land, which is divided among all the members. The average Choctaw farm is 320 acres, the Cherokee IOO, the Chickasaw 320, the Creek 160. The pro- ductions might easily be of the greatest variety in this warm moist region, but the conditions of tenure do not encourage tenants to diversify crops, or improve the condition of farms to re- vert to Indian owners. The great crop at pres- ent is corn, of which in 1900, 30,709,470 bushels were raised; I,486,820 of wheat, and I, Io2,200 of oats were reported. The Territory is well within the cotton belt, and 154,850 bales were shipped in 1900. The other products of note were about $1,000,000 of vegetables and fruits. Stock-raising is largely carried on ; the value of domestic animals in 1900 exceeded $40,000,000, and included IIo,687 dairy cows, 275,000 horses, mules and asses, 17,000 sheep, Io,500 grats, and 650,000 swine. Manufacturing.— The manufactures till re- cently have been mostly confined to the Indian hand-made blankets, shawls, baskets, and trink- ets. But within the decade a considerable gen- uine manufacture by whites has arisen. With only 20 establishments in 1890, there were 789 in I900; the capital had grown from $204,329 to $2,624,265, the wage-earners from 167 to 1,714, the value of products from $248,932 to $3,892,181. The one great industry, nearly a third of the total product, was flour and grist milling; next greatest, toward half a million each, were cotton- Seed oil and cake; and lumber; saddlery and harness, and car-shop work, were also noted. Railroads.-There are about 1,800 miles of railroad in the Territory. Several great lines cross it, giving the facilities for a vast busines, growth. The main lines are the Frisco System (St. L. & San F.), the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf, the Atchison, To- peka & Santa Fe, and the Ft. Smith & Western. Banks.- In 1902 there were 69 national banks, with capital of $2,779,000, deposits of $5,896,000, cash and other resources $548,000, and loans and discounts of $7,277,000. There were also 20 private banks, having capital of $203,975, deposits of $495,810, cash of $56,354, and loans and discounts of $602,676. Population.— The total population in 1890 was 180,182; in 1900, 392,060, the increase being all white. The real Indian population had prob- ably somewhat decreased, though it showed on the face a slight increase, from 51,279 to 52,500. But the word “Indian” is misleading: for legal purposes and tribal recognition, any one is an Indian who has even I-64 Indian blood in him ; and probably two-thirds of the so-called Indians are mongrels of various complexities and ele- ments. The negroes, numbering 36,853, are the former slaves of the Indians, to whom the United States after the war forced the tribes to grant citizenship and a share of the tribal lands and bounties, or their descendants. These two and the vast white population — married and adopted, leaseholders and tenant farmers, hired farm laborers, business men with permits, coal and railroad company employes, etc.—were dis- tributed among the chief districts as follows (be- sides 27 Chinese): - ostockholm -Burgor Cupid - --- O D. W. - - - - A. D - - --it-o-º: -> - - * Bethany - w 2. Chaney - - --- - - - - * -a- -worth -lon Woodward - - º - -- - ºwlsº -ar- * - - st-or º cle- --- -. Forrests -Verdi -- - - Lucerne- -Detrºit shattuck Doriº Rawdon - º Owassº D-leuan *Cooley - - - Chºt- - tiawan Freta- origley vº º º, --~~~~-ºr-i --- Viei cases I- imula providence - - Bull cººk chance- ne-ey - º ow hitmire | yrtled - Baptist westwº D Y. - - - - Delºis - - - I ----- º, - ----- Parkhill Downey.” - - - -------- º * enºme - -- -bui- - Chºcta--- - - --- - R M. Judºno - - - mulgeeſ a- O Dempsey º dell- ER MILLS -- *Grimea berlin Cathºny -Ull- - - ee outtle Bºardens l olºasady autonvilled cºun - ºr rºº - w º -st º Brooken erumkºº Mellette- power ºuterprise - Sanbol- arboro Dean -Willºw - º- - --- º - Bebees - E. º E. - - cºunt sprinº". ºuter- * Sºo- wºulºined - *Jay aimſ. Jº - º Klondike I. C. K. Elmore - - ºrad Clayton sº ºr rany de Josue ------ Pontotoo Frederick |-Diltston ------- --- Places of 5,000 and over 0MLA HOMA anter- * - 3,000 to 5,000 Muskogee * * 1,000 to 3,000 Pawnee * * 500 to 1,000 Altus - - Hewitto 100. Recº land ºnee soºr sima- - ºneller color a do A N - - - - - -Powell- l --- re. - - - º ºokhona Goodwal º- Ten- sprin- - - A-hºur - - orwood ºutuºla 8. state capitals © county seats sº - º almerica ". INDIAN TERRITORY -biarrisº, Janis Capitals of Indian Nations a Indian Reservation boundary line - T ---------L-- - --- - - *S Military *- -- ** ---- - - -T Ix º L - 98’ longitude E west E" from grº greenwich G- ----------- cklahoma and Ind-ºer, s. INDIAN TOBACCO – INDIAN TURNIP Chickasaw Nation, I24,306 whites, 9,066 negroes, 5,872 “Indians.” Cherokee Nation, 66,951 whites, 9,162 negroes, 25,639 Indians. Choctaw Nation, 79,332 whites, Io, I23 negroes, Io,32I Indians. Creek Nation, 25,187 whites, 7,520 negroes, 7,963 Indians. Seminole Nation, I,143 whites, 981 negroes, 1,662 Indians. The other reservations — Modoc, Ottawa, Peoria, Quapaw, Seneca, Shawnee, Wyandotte—had 5,762 whites and I,043 Indians. The concentra- tion of whites in the Chickasaw district has made it the industrial leader of the Territory. The towns growing up there have a peculiar status. They are “white” towns, with white men occupying the buildings they have erected, and doing business in security, without legal title, |but the ostensible owners of the ground are the Indians, and the whites only select lots “by schedule,” on the official plat, to be confirmed by future grant or purchase. The changes are so great and constant that statistics are nearly as useless as in a new mining district, but it may be said that the present chief town is Ardmore, in the Chickasaw territory. Pop. (Igoo) 5,681 ; the next is Muscogee in the Creek district, 4,254 in I900,—the handsomest town in the Territory, with a fine town building, good public schools, and four colleges of the four leading denomina- tions — Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic; South McAlester in the Choc- taw section had 3,479; Chickasha in Chickasaw, 3,209; and 17 others over I,000. The oldest white settlement is Vinita in Cherokee; the old- est in the southeast is Caddo; the best known has always been Tahlequah, for some genera- tions the capital of the Cherokee Nation. Internal Conditions and History.— The Ter- ritory was part of the Louisiana Purchase. Early in the 19th century many of the Southern Indians, their old hunting grounds invaded by the whites, removed to this virgin forest. In I832 it was fixed on by the national government as a place for the tribes whom agreements with the Southern States had bound us to deport, and in 1834 special reservations were set apart. The Five Civilized Tribes, as they are called, estab- lished governments on the civilized model, with elected legislature, council, and governor, courts and Schools and responsible financial manage- ment, and even newspapers in the Cherokee tongue, with Sequoyah’s famous alphabet. But the vast enclave of nearly 70,000 square miles in the heart of a swelling settlement could not be maintained, and the Indians from some consti- tutional blight do not grow to fill their districts. In 1866 some 5,500,000 acres were purchased of the Indians in the present Oklahoma; on 22 April 1889 over 3,000,000 acres were thrown open to settlement; on 2 May 1890 this and other territory was formed into Oklahoma. Meantime the old system in the eastern part was going to wreck, not so much from the white im- migration following the railroads which began to cross it, as from internal development which was making the primal object of the system a mockery. It was designed to protect the half- helpless Indian from white greed till he could stand on his own feet; in fact, the half-breeds and the intermarried whites were rapidly appro- priating everything to themselves, while the full- blood was “crowded out upon the mountain and unproductive land, to take care of himself as best he could” (Dawes Commission). The tribal governments were under control of these gov- ernments, and were “recklessly leasing the com- munity lands to cattlemen and coal companies” (Hinton), to railroads, oil, and lumber compa- nies, etc. The government, therefore, under the lead of ex-Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massa- chusetts, set about negotiations to break up the tribal governments, and turn the Territory into a set of ordinary civilized communities with ownership in severalty, protecting the Indian for a time by restraining his liberty of alienation. The Dawes Commission of 1893 began this work; in 1897 the United States extended its judicial power over this district; in 1898 the Curtis Act carried out the work, providing for the enrollment of citizens for allotment of lands, for laying out town sites and incorporating towns, with power to elect officers and tax them- selves for schools, etc., and giving the President a veto power over the tribal legislatures. The arrangements vary with the different tribes; the Seminoles continue their government after a fashion for the present, the Choctaws and Chickasaws with some modifications till 4 March 1906. The present government consists in reality of five federal judges, or I court of ap- peals and 5 district courts, with 20 commission- ers acting as petty courts and justices of the peace. The statutory code is in the main that of Arkansas. The educational situation has been a part of the anomalous position of all social matters. The tribes maintained schools, and admitted white children on payment of a fee; and the mission- aries have operated others. But all were very insufficient, and the tribal schools, once the best of the vicinity, have not kept their quality. The Curtis Act in 1898 for the first time provided a public-school system, with a land endowment, and power of towns to lay taxes for them. In I900 it was estimated that 50,000 white children were deprived of school advantages. Of aca- demic Schools, some claiming collegiate rank, there are good ones in each Nation; these have sent many pupils to Eastern colleges. By act of I9 May 1902, municipalities of 2,000 or more in- habitants may issue bonds up to Io per cent of their assessed valuation for school buildings, sewers, and waterworks, on a two-thirds vote and with a 20-year sinking fund. Consult: “Re- port of the Dawes Commission? (1903); Curtis Act in U. S. Statutes (1898); and article on the Indian Territory by Col. R. J. Hinton, in “Review of Reviews,” xxiii. 451 (1901). W. A. Jon Es, U. S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Indian or Wild Tobacco, one of the North American lobelias (Lobelia inflata), also called asthma-weed and gag-plant, a tall plant with small light blue flowers quite overshadowed by numerous thin, oval, or obovate dentate leaves; the plant branches as a panicle, is fubescent and the pod is inflated. Its leaves have an acrid taste, and are, as Gray says, “poisonous and a quack medicine”; they were dried by the Indians as a substitute for smoking tobacco, or to mix with it, for the sake of their nar- cotic properties. The dried flowers still have a place in materia medica. It grows in dry fields and thickets through North America. Compare KINNIKINICK. Indian Turnip. See JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. INDIAN YELLOW – INDIANA Indian Yellow, known in commerce as PUREE, a pigment of unknown origin which is exported from India, China and probably from Arabia. It comes in the shape of balls, which are outside of a brown tint, and inside of a brilliant yellow. It has the odor of urine, musk or castoreum, is soluble in water or alco- hol, and an essential element in its composition is carbonate of euranthin. It is used in India for house decoration, and is valued by artists all over the world as a dazzling pigment. Indiana (“The Hoosier State”), a north- central State of the United States (No. 19 in order of admission) bounded north by Michigan, south by Kentucky, east by Ohio, west by Illi- nois; extreme length 276 miles, extreme breadth 177 miles; area (No. 34 in U. S.) 36,350 square miles, 440 water; pop. Igoo (No. 8 in U. S.) 2,516,462, or 70.1 to the square mile. (No. II in density.) The State boundary in Lake Michi- gan is an east and west line Io miles north of the extreme southern point of the Lake. The Ohio River runs along the southern boundary, but, by a provision of the Virginia cession of Northwest Territory, Indiana extends only to low-water mark on the north bank of the Ohio. In consequence all islands in the Ohio belong to Kentucky, the Supreme Court having recently held this as to Green River Island (Indiana v. Kentucky, I36 U. S.) which, although an is- land at the time of the cession, became con- nected with the Indiana shore by alluvial de- posits, and had been governed and taxed as part of Indiana for many years. Topography.— The surface of the State is comparatively level, the highest point, in Ran- dolph County, in the centre of the eastern tier of counties, being estimated at I,285 feet above sea-level, and the lowest, at the southwest cor- ner of the State, being 313 feet above sea-level. The Ohio at the southeast corner of the State is 436 feet above sea-level, and Lake Michigan at the northwest corner is 585 feet above sea- level. From the table-land of the east central part of the State, and western Ohio, radiate low water-sheds separating the drainage basins of Indiana. The northern part of the State is quite flat, the central part slightly rolling, and the southern part rather hilly on account of the valleys cut out by water. There are no moun- tains, and no large lakes, but there are hun- dreds of small lakes, chiefly in the northern part of the State. River Systems.- The southern parts of the State are drained to the Ohio River by the Whitewater and smaller tributaries. The cen- tral part of the State — about four fifths of its area — is drained by the Wabash and its tribu- taries, the most important of which are the White, Tippecanoe, Eel, Salamonie and Missis- sinewa rivers, and Wild Cat Creek. The north- eastern corner of the State is drained by the St. Joseph's and St. Mary's rivers; these unite at Ft. Wayne to form the Maumee, which flows into Lake Erie. The extreme northern part of the State is drained by another St. Joseph's, the Calumet, and smaller streams, into Lake Michigan. A part of the northwestern, section is drained by the Kankakee and its tributaries to the Illinois River. The Wabash is navigated to a limited extent, by small boats, as high as Terre Haute, and also the lower part of White River. gable. Climate.—The climate of Indiana is mild, ranging from an average of 31° F. in the winter months to an average of 76° in sum- mer. The mean temperature is 53°. The aver- age annual rainfall is 43 inches, that in the southern part of the State being slightly in ex- cess of that in the northern part. Serious droughts and destructive storms are rare. In earlier years parts of the State were malarial, but with the clearing of the forests and the drainage of lands this condition has almost wholly disappeared. Geology- The earliest geological formation that outcrops in Indiana is the Hudson and Trenton limestone, of the Silurian Age, which appears in the southeastern corner of the State, throughout the Whitewater Valley and the ad- jacent region. West of this is a belt of Niagara limestone, which broadens at the north and ex- tends entirely across the State, covering all of a dozen counties and large parts of as many more. On the west of this, and also extending to the State line on the north, are belts of Hamil- ton limestone and sandstone of the Devonian Age. The remainder of the State — the south- western corner and a broad belt to the north reaching beyond the Wabash — is of the sub- carboniferous and carboniferous formations. The northern and central parts of the State are covered by glacial drift, which in some regions is of a depth of 400 feet. Soils, Agriculture and Forests.- The soil of the State varies in character, but for the most part is fertile. Originally the southern part of the State, and as far north as the Wabash, was covered with a very heavy growth of forest, mostly of hardwood trees. North of this were low prairies interspersed with sand ridges and dotted with hundreds of small lakes. This region is now found very productive of cucum- bers, melons and small fruits in the sandy parts. The richest lands are the alluvial valleys of the streams and the drained prairies. The forests have so far disappeared that the State is now encouraging tree planting. Agriculture is the chief industry of the State, the value of farm. products in 1899 being reported at $204,450,196. The chief agricultural products were corn, 178,967,070 bushels, wheat 34,986,280 bushels, oats 34,565,070 bushels, potatoes 6,209,080 bush- els, hay 3,470,378 tons. The value of animal products was $81,947,922, of forest products $5,235,459, of orchard products $3,166,338, of dairy products $15,739,594. The value of the poultry raised in 1899 was $8,172,993, and of the eggs produced $7,441,944. Minerals and Mining Industries.—About one fifth of the surface of Indiana is underlaid by coal, workable veins having been found in IQ counties. There are at least 7 distinct veins of workable thickness, varying from 3 to II feet. The coals of the State are of two classes — caking or bituminous, and non-caking or block coal. The latter can be burned in blast fur- naces without coking. The production in 190I was 7,019,203 tons, valued at $7,370,163, the State ranking sixth in the Union as to quantity and seventh as to value of the product. The number of people employed in coal mining was 12,968. The mineral product second, in value was petroleum, the production of which is a The remaining streams are not navi- a cº p - * *º- --- canº- ºr-in- - Pºint s -- - De P U L A K a-tºler walnut Pine - -> --- Fº N --- º - -- --- -Pinº Uolney * - - ----- ----- ºt- L O wºr- - Lºº-y --- -L a w-nº- la C - - -- w St. Francisville * * * [Indiana.] F g H it tº L. L. s. d a ----- -ºut º-º-º- º R. R. -- creen wº rtanburg- º º- º * * º º Nº * 0. | Williamstown Tss || owe-tono º RANKronº Georgetown Taylorsville Sc s. " L Statute , 24-1 inch. 0. 10. º 20 40° Kilometres, 38-1 inch. ºn 5 10 20 º 40 º 50 --- Laud. McNally-Co.'s N-11-14 Map of Indian- - -- c INDIANA comparatively new industry. In 1901 the oil product of the State was 5,749,975 barrels, valued at $4,795,312. This was largely increased – over one third — in 1902. Next in value of the mineral products of the State is building-stone, of which the chief varieties are the Oolitic lime- stone, the blue Devonian limestone, the gray Niagara limestone, and sandstone. The Oolitic, so called because composed of minute fossil shells resembling a mass of fish eggs, has be- come celebrated throughout the United States on account of its superior qualities. In 1901 In- diana was first in rank in the Union in the pro- duction of limestone for building purposes, and fifth in rank as to building-stone of all kinds, the product being valued at $3,028,145. There is also a large production of cement and lime. Good clay is abundant throughout the State, and brick and tile making are extensive indus- tries. Kaolin and glass sand are also found in quantity in several counties, and are profitably mined. Natural gas has been found, by sinking wells, throughout a large part of the State. The supply at one time reached a daily flow of 900,000,000 cubic feet. It served to draw many manufactories to the State, but the pressure is now decreasing. In many places its cessation nas been followed by a flow of petroleum. Many other minerals have been found in In- diana, but not in quantities of commercial im- portance. Manufactories.— The manufactures of In- diana are chiefly a development of the past 30 years. In the earlier period manufacturing was confined almost wholly to supplies for domestic consumption, and was chiefly conducted at the homes of the people. In 1900 there were re- ported 18,015 manufacturing establishments in the State, employing 155,956 wage-earners, and producing goods to the value of $378,120,140. The leading classes of manufactures, with the value of products in 1900 and in 1890, are as follows: I900 1890 Slaughtering and meat pack- 1119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $43,862,273| $27,913,840 Flour and grist mills. . . . . . . 30, 150,766 31,239,627 Distilleries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,738, Ioë 9,677,973 Lumber and wood manufac- tories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,47 I,902 32,725,647 Iron and steel (including foundries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,566,527 I4,285,259 Glass and glassware. . . . . . . . I4,757,883 2,995,409 Carriages and wagons, and materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 5,891,826 Io,531,683 Railroad cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,248,999 I4,362,71 I Agricultural implements. . . . . 6,415,081 5,756, I 3 I Textiles and clothing. . . . . . . 8,618,360 7,736,890 Clay products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,222,529 3, I 42,454 It is probable that this rate of increase will not be continued in the next decade, partly be- cause of the decrease of natural gas, partly be- cause of abandonment of plants under trust control, and partly for other reasons. The pro- duction of lumber in the State was almost sta- tionary in the past decade, and will probably decrease in this on account of decreasing forest supplies. Commerce and Navigation.—About one tenth of the people of Indiana (in occupations) are engaged in commerce and transportation. The navigation of the State is limited, being con- fined to the Ohio River on the south, with the lower Wabash and a small part of the White River, and Lake Michigan on the northwest. The canals of the State are practically abandoned except for water-power. The railroads furnish the chief means of transportation. Commerce is chiefly domestic, but both exportation and im- portation are steadily increasing. Fisheries.— Indiana has no fisheries of com- mercial importance, though it has waters that might be made valuable. Recently laws have been passed for the protection of fish, and some interest is being shown in their propagation. Railroads and Street Railways.- The rail- road mileage of Indiana, in 1902, was 6,651 miles, exclusive of second main and side tracks. In 1850 it was 228 miles; in 1880, 4,320. Rail- road lines extend through all but 3 counties in the State. The chief railroad centre is In- dianapolis, from which I4 lines radiate. These are connected outside of the city by a belt railway. The valuation of railroad property for taxation in 1902 was $162,797,978. There are street railways in all of the cities and larger towns, the total aggregating 168 miles. In 1899 there began an extraordinary development of electric interurban lines. By the close of Igo2 about 400 miles of these were in operation, and 500 miles were under construction, while new lines aggregating over 1,000 miles were pro- jected. These lines have made a material change in the transportation of both passengers and freight, and will apparently furnish large competition with the steam railroads. One of these lines, operating between Indianapolis and Columbus, Ohio, has added sleeping-cars to its equipment. State Finances.— The assessed valuation of the State in 190I was $1,397,981,497, from which deductions for mortgage exemption were made amounting to $35,169,250. Individuals are per- mitted to deduct bona fide mortgage indebted- ness from their schedules to the amount of $700. The total number of polls was 436,522. The State tax levy for general State government was 9 cents on $100, and 50 cents poll; for the benev- olent institutions 5 cents; for sinking fund 3 cents; for State tuition — which is distributed to the school districts for support of the common Schools — II cents and 50 cents poll; for State institutions of higher education 13% cents; mak- ing a total State levy of 29% cents and $1 poll. The reduction of the State debt was begun in I889, when it amounted to over $10,000,000. On 31 Oct. IQ02, it had been reduced to $2,887,615.12, on which the annual interest charge was $IOI,565. Banks.- In 1902 there were I37 national banks with $16,618,552 capital, $4,789,956 surplus, $71,533,942 deposits, and $7,210,780 outstanding circulation; II3 State banks with $4,884,490 capital, $915,413 surplus, and $24,240,334 de- posits; 5 savings banks, with $7,812,157 of de- posits; 37 trust companies transacting bank business, with $4,392,500 capital, $465,947 sur- plus, and $12,378,348 of deposits, and 203 private banks, which are not required to make returns by the State. Of these last named, however, 68 made returns to the comptroller of the cur- rency, showing $9,671,733 deposits. The only clearing-house organization in the State is at Indianapolis, and the volume of clearings in I902 was $270,409,456. Education.— Indiana has always given much attention to education and especially since the INDIANA adoption of the present school law in 1852. At that time there was created a public school fund, the interest on which was to be distributed to the various school districts. The principal factor in this was the profits which the State had derived from the State Bank of Indiana, amounting to about $3,500,000, to which was added $573,000 of the surplus revenue distributed by Congress in 1836, and several smaller funds. To this additions have been made by fines and other public receipts, until in 1902 the common school fund amounted to $7,978,580,68, to which is to be added the Congressional township fund, derived from the sale of school lands donated by the national government, amounting to $2,465,304.64. This total fund of $10,443,885.32 is held by the several counties, and the interest on it is applied to the support of the public schools. Added to this is a State tax of II cents on each $100, and 50 cents on each poll, the pro- ceeds of State liquor licenses and dog licenses, and local taxes assessed by local authorities. From all these sources the actual revenues raised for the public schools in 1902 amounted to $8,585,354.98. The enumeration of children of School age — 6 to 21 years — was 761,801 (of whom I5,002 were colored). A large number of these attended private schools, and the attend- ance in the public schools for the year was 423,078. The revenue was therefore in excess of $20 to each child in attendance. There were employed 16,039 teachers, and the average num- ber of days of school was, in townships I26, in towns I53, in cities 179, in the State at large I46. The number of public schoolhouses is 5,080 brick, 4,807 frame, 97 stone, and 3 log. The value of schoolhouses and grounds is $22,904,607 and of school apparatus $1,277,455. In these figures are included 704 high schools, which are a part of the public school system. There are also a large number of private schools, notably those maintained by the Roman Cath- olics and Lutherans for children of all ages, and a number of academies, seminaries, institutes, boarding-schools, military institutions, colleges, normal schools, etc., for intermediate educa- tion. There are three institutions of higher educa- tion that receive aid from the State, Indiana University at Bloomington, the State Normal School at Terre Haute, and Purdue University at Lafayette. Indiana University has an income of about $125,000 derived from a State tax levy and the interest on an endowment fund of $600,000 raised by State taxation. It had 1,285 students in 1902. The State Normal is also supported by a State levy, and the city of Terre Haute pays one half the expense of keeping the buildings in repair. It has 1,406 students. Purdue has an income of $150,000 derived from State tax levy and interest on endowments, and including $57,000 paid to it annually by the United States government as an agricultural school. It has I,180 students. Among the private institutions for higher education the more important are Wabash Col- lege (Presbyterian), University of Notre Dame and St. Meinrad's College (Roman Catholic), DePauw University (Methodist), Earlham Col- lege (Society of Friends), Franklin College (Baptist), Hanover College (Presbyterian), Northern Indiana Normal (non-sectarian), Winona Technical Institute (non-sectarian), and the University of Indianapolis. The last named was formed by the union of Butler Col-. lege (Christian) with the Medical College of Indiana, the Indiana Dental College, and the Indiana Law School, all of which are located at Indianapolis. An important branch of educational work in Indiana is the development of libraries. A fea- ture of the school system adopted in 1852 was the establishment of a free public library in each township in the State. The State expended $273,000 for books, and the system was received with great public favor, but no provision was made for maintaining or increasing the libraries, and in the pressure of the war times they were allowed very generally to fall into ruin. To some extent these have been replaced as school adjuncts by the libraries of the Young People's Reading Circle, which are found at many of the schoolhouses of the State. These libraries in I902 contained 436,151 volumes. There has also been a notable development of town and city libraries, 28 towns having accepted dona- tions from Andrew Carnegie, aggregating $660,000, agreeing to maintain libraries in the buildings thus provided. There are 25 others that are maintaining libraries in buildings pro- vided by themselves. The general supervision of library work is lodged in the Public Library Commission, which has charge of a system of traveling libraries furnished by the State. It also maintains a school for the training of librarians engaged in the work in Indiana. Churches.— The principal religious denom- inations of Indiana in the order of their strength are the Methodists, Roman Catholics, Disciples or Christians, Baptists, Presbyterians, United Brethren, and Lutherans. Charitable and Penal Institutions.— The State maintains 9 charitable and 4 penal institu- tions, at an annual cost of over $1,500,000. Of the former, 4 are hospitals for the insane lo- cated respectively at Indianapolis, Logansport, Richmond and Evansville. On 31 Oct. 1902, these had 4,039 inmates. The annual cost of maintenance was $649,834,54, or $173.79 per capita. The other charitable institutions are the Institution for the Blind, Indianapolis, innates :27, per capita cost $276.40; Institution for the Deaf, Indianapolis, inmates 318, per capita cost $231.66; Soldiers and Sailors' Orphans' Home, Knightstown, inmates 603, per capita cost $174.52; Soldiers' Home, Lafayette, inmates 739, per capita cost $167.30; School for Feeble- Minded, Fort Wayne, inmates 318, per capita cost $127.05. The correctional institutions are the State Prison, Michigan City, inmates 796, per capita cost $133.32, earnings $53,395.86; Indiana Reformatory, Jeffersonville, inmates 923, per capita cost $130.68, earnings $62,350.67; Reform School for Boys, Plainfield, inmates 531, per capita cost $122.13, earnings $298.91 ; Industrial School for Girls and Women's Prison, Indian- apolis, inmates 52 women and I75 girls, per capita cost $191.55, earnings $1,436.69. At the legislative session of 1903 a law was passed for the division of the last named institution and the establishment of a new Industrial School for Girls. The State has the convict-contract-labor system, but efforts have been made to abolish it, and the legislature of Igo3 provided for a commission to investigate and report on the subject. The convict labor is all done within the prisons. The State has the indeterminate sentence system with commutation of time for INDIANA. |（11） |…） “SITO.（Iv Nºv 10 INI LV TOLIAVO CILVLS №ſ Eſtīſ TTTTTTT |-||- ：-）=（r ±= № INDIANA good behavior. In addition to the State institu- tions each county maintains a poor asylum. In these, and the Marion County asylum for the incurable insane, there were on 31 Aug. Igo2, 3,046 inmates, of whom I,975 were men and I,071 women. Of these inmates 518 were classed as insane, and 889 as feeble-minded. There are in the State 46 orphans’ homes, in which there were on 31 Oct. Igo2, 1,565 inmates, of whom I,025 were boys and 540 girls. At the same date the Board of State Charities reported 81 I orphan children maintained in private homes, without public expense. State Government.— The elective State offices are held for periods of 2 years, with eligibility restricted to 4 years in any period of 6 years, except as to the governor, lieutenant-governor, and geologist, whose terms are 4 years. No one is eligible to the office of governor or lieutenant- governor for more than 4 years in any period of 8 years. The governor's salary is $5,000, with an allowance of $1,800 for house rent. The governor’s veto power extends to all laws passed by the legislature, but the veto may be over- thrown by a majority vote in both Houses. The legislature meets once in 2 years, and may be called in special session by the governor; reg- ular sessions are limited to 60 days and special Sessions to 4o days. The Senate is composed of 50 members elected for 4 years each, and the House of Ioo members elected for 2 years each. The members receive $6 a day while in session, and $5 for each 25 miles traveled in reaching the capital and returning home. The State is re- quired to be redistricted for legislative purposes every 6 years. The present Constitution was adopted in 1851, and is very generally considered unsatisfactory, especially as to legislative repre- sentation and the location of the appointing power. It can be amended only by the majority vote of both Houses of two consecutive legisla- tures, followed by a majority vote of the elec- tors of the State. Congressional Representation.— The has 13 representatives in Congress. Population and Divisions.— The population of Indiana territory in 1800 was 5,641, but only about 2,500 of this was within the boundaries of the State. In 1810 the population of the terri- tory, with practically the same boundaries as the State, was 24,520. A territorial census taken in 1815 showed 63,897 inhabitants. After the admission of the State the census returns were as follows: 1820, 147,178; 1830, 343,031 ; 1840, 685,866; 1850, 988,416; 1860, 1,350,428; 1870, I,680,637; 1880, 1,978,3OI ; 1890, 2,192,404; 1900, 2,516,462. Of the population in 1900, I42,121 were foreign born, and 57,505 were negroes. The tendency of the negroes is to gather in the cities, more than one fourth of the entire num- ber being found at Indianapolis, and an eighth at Evansville. The State has 92 counties, whose names and county-seats are as follows: Crawford, English. Daviess, Washington. Dearborn, Lawrenceburg. Decatur, Greensburg. Tekalb, Auburn. Telaware, Muncie. Dubois, Jasper. Elkhart, Goshen. Fayette, Connersville. Floyd, New Albany. Fountain, Covington. Franklin, Brookville. State Adams, Decatur. Allen, Ft. Wayne. Bartholomew, Columbus. Benton, Fowler. Blackford, Hartford City. Boone, Lebanon. Brown, Nashville. Carroll, Delphi. Çass, Logansport. Clark, Jeffersonville. Clay, Brazil. Clinton, Frankfort. Fulton, Rochester. Gibson, Princeton. Grant, Marion. Greene, Bloomfield. Hamilton, Noblesville. Hancock, Greenfield. Harrison, Corydon. Hendricks, Danville. Henry, Newcastle. Howard, Kokomo. Huntington, }: Brownstown. asper, Rensselaer. # Portland. efferson, Madison. }º Vernon. ohnson, Franklin. Knox, Vincennes. Kosciusko, Warsaw. Lagrange, Lagrange. Lake, Crown Point. Laporte, Laporte. Lawrence, Bedford. Madison, Anderson. Marion, Indianapolis. Marshall, Plymouth. Martin, Shoals. Miami, Peru. Monroe, Bloomington. Huntington. Orange, Paoli. wen, Spencer. Parke, Rockville. Perry, Cannelton. Pike, Petersburg. Porter, Valparaiso. Posey, Mt. Vernon. Pulaski, Winamac. Putnam, Greencastle. Randolph, Winchester. Ripley, Versailles. Rush, Rushville. Scott, Scottsburg. Shelby, Shelbyville. Spencer, Rockport. Starke, Knox. Steuben, Angola. St. Joseph, South Bend. Sullivan, Sullivan. Switzerland, Vevay. Tippecanoe, Lafayette. Tipton, Tipton. - Union, Liberty. Vanderburg, Evansville. Vermilion, Newport. Vigo, Terre Haute. Wabash, Wabash. Warren, Williamsport. Warrick, Boonville. Washington, Salem. Wayne, Richmond. Wells, Bluffton. White, Monticello. Whitley, Columbia City. Montgomery, Crawfords- ville. Morgan, Martinsville. Newton, Kentland. Noble, Albion. Ohio, Rising Sun. Chief Cities.— The largest city in Indiana is the capital, Indianapolis, with a population (I900) 169,164. Next in size are Evansville (59,007), Ft. Wayne (45,115), Terre Haute (36,673), and South Bend (35.999). Each of these cities has a charter specially made for it, though under guise of a general law. These charters are of recent creation — the oldest made in 1891 — and establish advanced forms of city government. Of cities of secondary importance may be named Muncie (20,942), New Albany (20,628), Anderson (20,178), Richmond (18,226), Lafayette (18,116), Marion (17,337), Logansport (I6,204), and Elkhart (15,184). There were in all 80 cities and 330 incorporated towns in the State in 1901. History.— The first-known visits of white men to Indiana were those of Sieur de la Salle, who followed the Ohio River along its southern boundary in 1669–70, and crossed its northwest- ern corner by way of the St. Josephs-Kankakee portage in 1671. . There were no Indians living below the Wabash at that time, and probably not many in the northern part of the State, but those there were LaSalle induced to join his con- federacy against the Iroquois, and they all re- moved to the Illinois River, leaving Indiana practically uninhabited. After some years they began moving to the East, reaching Detroit by 1712, and shortly afterward located at points along the Maumee and Wabash rivers. The Delawares, who afterward lived in the central part of the State, on White River, came there about I750. It is probable that the French first placed representatives at the Indian villages near the site of Ft. Wayne, and next, about 1720, at Ouiatenon — on the north side of the Wabash just below Lafayette — and that there were stockade forts at these places, but there is noth- ing to indicate a permanent settlement at either place. The post at Vincennes was established in I73I, largely under the influence of Father De Beaubois, a Jesuit who had been stationed at Kaskaskia. Families located there soon after- ward, and it remained a permanent settlement, though there is but one land grant recorded of INDIANA date prior to 1736. The French posts were small and unimportant, and the history of the region under French and British rule presents no very striking features. In 1778 Vincennes was surrendered to representatives of Gen. George Rogers Clark, and the Wabash country was brought under American control. A recapture by the British was followed by a second taking by Clark in 1779. The region was ceded to the United States by the treaty of 1783, and was in- cluded in the Territory northwest of the Ohio River, by the ordinance of 1787. It was thus governed until 1800, when Indiana Territory was formed, including all of the Northwest Territory except Ohio. From Indiana Territory, Michigan Territory was cut off in 1805, and Illinois Terri- tory in 1809, leaving it with practically the pres- ent State boundaries. By act of Congress of I9 April 1816, Indiana was authorized to form a State government, and the State was formally admitted by act of II Dec. 1816. In the mean- time a State Constitution had been adopted on 29 June; State officials had been elected, and the State government had been actually in- augurated on 7 November. There were almost continuous Indian troubles in the Ohio Valley from 1788 to 1795, when, after Gen. Wayne's successful expedition, peace was made at Ft. Greenville. After that date the American immigration began, and there was no material trouble with Indians until the forma- tion of Tecumseh’s confederacy in 1811. The Indians were overwhelmed at the battle of Tippe- canoe (q.v.) on 7 November of that year, by the troops under Gen. Harrison, and sued for peace, lout when the war with England came on there were Indian hostilities of minor importance continuing until the close of the war in 1815. After that year there was a gradual extinction of Indian titles, the Indians being concentrated in the northern part of the State and finally re- moved west of the Mississippi. The last re- movals occurred in 1836 and 1838. The sobriquet “Hoosier,” commonly used to designate the State and its people, was first ap- plied to them about 1830. It was not coined for that purpose, as is commonly supposed, but was a slang word signifying an uncouth rustic, which was in common use in the South at that time, and is still commonly used there in that sense. The history of the State after its admission was chiefly that of peaceful development— clearing lands, opening roads, building towns and cities, and establishing industries. The most notable feature was the disastrous internal improvement enterprise on which the State en- tered in 1836. It contemplated transportation routes on 7 main lines, involving the construc- tion of I,289 miles of railroads and canals. That the routes were fairly well chosen is shown by the fact that they are now practically all oc- cupied by successful railroad lines. The chief defect was that the improvements were mostly high-line canals, and the breaks in these be- fore completion caused such great damage that the estimated cost was enormously increased. The financial panic of 1837 added to the diffi- culties, and the effects of this were aggravated by the general entering of the States on such en- terprises on borrowed capital. The total debts of the several States swelled from about $13,000,000 in 1830 to $207,894,613 in 1842. In I839 Indiana was unable to realize on the sales of her bonds, and was forced to default interest on those already issued. The canals and roads being unfinished, did not furnish the revenues anticipated. Compromises were effected by which the work done was turned over to credi- tors, but the State was left with a debt of about $10,000,000 without any property to represent it. In all, Indiana built 453 miles of canals, at a cost of $7,725,262, all of which are now aban- doned so far as transportation is concerned. But under private management, and more favor- able conditions, the transportation lines de- veloped rapidly, and in 1849 the one railroad originally contemplated was paying 8% per cent dividends on its stock. In 1860 there were 2,126 §. of railroads in successful operation in the tate. In the war with Mexico, Indiana furnished troops to the number of 4,470. Of these there were killed and wounded 183, and died of other causes 218. When the Civil War began the State occupied an important position, and its resources were utilized to the uttermost by its war , governor, Oliver . P. Morton. The State furnished 196,363 men for the War, and 784 paid for exemption, or in other words supplied 74.3 per cent of her total population capable of bear- ing arms, by the census of 1860. Only one State in the Union surpassed or equaled this record, Delaware being credited with 74.8 per cent of her military population. But of the supply credited to Delaware nearly one tenth was in money commutation for exemption, and nearly one tenth of the men in actual service were colored. On the basis of white troops furnished for 3 years or more of service, Indiana supplied 57 per cent of her military population of 1860, and on this basis was surpassed only by Kansas, which is credited with 59.4 per cent. Of the troops sent by Indiana 7,243 were killed or mortally wounded in battle, and ig,429 died of other causes, making a total death loss of over 13 per cent of all troops furnished. One feature of the War period in Indiana, and some adjoining States, was the formation of secret treasonable societies known as Knights of the Golden Circle, and later Sons of Liberty. These attracted much attention at the time, and much comment later, but in reality they were neither extensive nor dangerous. They were organized with a system of “circles within circles,” with mysterious rites and blood- curdling oaths, but the masses of the members understood that they were merely for mutual protection, and the treasonable designs were affairs of the inner circles. Among their mem- bers there were a number of government detec- tives who kept the authorities informed as to every movement, and at the final exposure the chief witness for the government was Felix Stidgers, a detective who had become so prom- inent in the order that he was made “Grand Sec- retary for Kentucky,” and knew all of the secrets of the order. As is aptly stated by Gov. Mor- ton's biographer, “No one can read the history of the secret organizations in Indiana and not feel that, widespread as they were, there was not an instant in which they were not securely with- in the grasp of the war governor.” . After the War, Indiana became peculiarly a political battle- ground. In 1868 the Republicans elected Conrad Baker governor by less than 1,000 plurality, and in 1872 the Democrats elected Thomas A. Hen: dricks to that office by the narrow plurality of 1,148, although Gen. Grant received the vote of the State for President. After 1872 neither INDIANA UNIVERSITY – INDIANAPOLIS party carried the State at two consecutive Presi- dential elections until after 1896, and neither carried it by a majority of all the votes cast, or by a plurality of as much as 20,000. One result of this close balance has been an improvement in State legislation, the Democrats leading in the legislature of 1889 which they held although they had lost the State offices and the Presiden- tial vote of the State in the preceding year. In- diana in that year adopted the Australian ballot System, being the second State in the Union to ‘do so, with some improvements that have been ‘extensively copied. Other notable reform laws are a school-book law that has made a large re- duction in the cost of books used in the com- mon Scools; a Board of State Charities law that has greatly improved the charitable and penal institutions of the State; a fee and salary law putting officials on salaries and requiring the payment of all fees into the public treasuries; a compulsory education law; laws for the en- couragement of public libraries; laws for the in- corporation of cities which provide the most modern modes of city government; laws for the reform of county and township government pro- yiding supervisory boards to which local legis- lation is entrusted and a tax law that has been 1argely effective in equalizing taxation and has been copied elsewhere. Another feature of In- diana's development that has attracted notice in 1ater years is its production of native writers of poetry and fiction. Among the former may be named Joaquin Miller, John Hay, John James Piatt and James Whitcomb Riley; among the latter Gen. Lew Wallace, Maurice Thompson, Edward Eggleston, Charles Major, Meredith Nicholson, Booth Tarkington and Annie Fellows Johnston. These with lesser lights and some writers of note in other lines form a notable group for a commonwealth whose settlement and development have occurred in little more than a century. JACOB PIATT DUNN, Secretary Indiana Historical Society. Indiana University, the State university located near Bloomington. In accordance with a provision of the State constitution, the legis- lature passed an act in 1820 providing for the establishment of a State seminary, which was opened in 1824 under the name of Indiana Seminary; in 1827, it was raised to the dig- nity of a college, and in 1838 the name was changed to Indiana University. In 1869 the university was opened to women, and has since been coeducational in all its departments. The university is the head of the public school system of Indiana, and no tuition fee is charged ; the government is by a board of trustees which reports biennially to the governor. Courses are offered in languages, science, and history, all graduates receiving the degree of A.B. The degrees of Ph.D. and A.M. are given for grad- uate work; there is also a school of law con- nected with the university which confers the degree of B.L. There is a biological experiment station on Winona Lake, under university con- trol, and a summer session is maintained. In 1902 the annual income amounted to $140,000; the number of students was 1,285. Indianapolis, Ind., capital of the State, county-seat of Marion County, the largest city in the State and the 21st in the United States; situated on the west fork of White River. It is Vol. 9–2 the centre for 16 radiating railroads, which con- nect it with Chicago, 184 miles northwest, Cleve- land, 283 miles northeast, St. Louis, 240 miles Southwest, Louisville, IIo miles South, Cincin- nati, III miles southeast, Columbus, 181 miles east, New York, 819 miles east, and other ter- mini in Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, and Indiana. Its area is 29.35 square miles. The site was selected in 1820 as the location of the capital by a legislative commission, and its name was adopted by the legislature in session at Corydon, 6 Jan. 1821. The first plat included a square mile, which was laid out with broad rectangular streets and avenues radiating from a central circle. The character of the plan was undoubtedly influenced by l'Enfant, the designer of the city of Washington, D. C., for one of the surveyors who made the town plat had aided in the work at the national capital. While the additions to the city have not been developed upon the same broad lines, most of them have been treated liberally and the city is noted for its wide streets, well paved and beautifully shaded. The city is very level, nearly all of its area being 700 to 800 feet above sea-level. There are 439.6 miles of platted streets, of which 92 miles are paved, 44 miles with asphalt, 27 miles with brick, 17 miles with wooden blocks, and 4 miles with macadam. The chief business streets are Wash- ington Street, which is a section of the Old National road projected and partly completed to run from Baltimore to St. Louis; Market, Mary- land, and Georgia streets, all running east and west; Meridian, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Illinois streets, running north and South, and Massachusetts, Indiana, Virginia, and Kentucky avenues, which are diagonals, radiating from the circular Monument Place. This central circle contains the State's monument to its soldiers and sailors, perhaps the most successful of the in- numerable monuments erected by towns, cities, societies, and States in commemoration of the nation’s defenders, and is generally regarded as one of the greatest in the world from an artistic point of view. The finest residence streets are Delaware, Meridian, and Pennsylvania. Several other residence districts are particularly well de- signed and cared for, such as Woodruff Place — a residence park, with esplanades, fountains, statues, etc., - which has a town government of its own, though completely surrounded by the city; Morton Place, and Meridian Heights. Public Service.—The first water supply and the first sewer system were constructed in 1870 to 1875, and but little else was done in the way of comprehensive public improvements until after the adoption of the present efficient cluarter in 1891. Prior to that year the city government had been by mayor and council. Public-spirited citizens who recognized the impossibility of com- prehensive public improvements, through the Commercial Club and Board of Trade agitated the adoption of the new charter, which separated the legislative and administrative functions of the city government, making the mayor and his appointees fully responsible for the latter. The first Board of Public Works devised a broad system of improvement, including sewerage, paving and street cleaning, which was supple- mented in 1895 by a Park Commission. Under these two boards the progress in the establish- ment of municipal public works adding to the beauty and convenience of the city has been rapid. As a step preliminary to the era of im- INDIANAPOLIS provement which began in 1890 a paving ex- position was held for the purpose of educating the people of the city regarding paving materials and methods. It was the first ever held in Amer- ica and attracted attention throughout the coun- try. Official delegations were sent to it from many cities. Prior to 1890 less than two miles of pavements had been laid. The amounts expended since the adoption of the new charter in 1891, in- cluding the year 1902, are as follows: for pave- ments of asphalt, $2,726,668.01 ; brick, $1,0II,- 2I4.39; wooden block, $969,652.82; macadam, $154,522.91 ; gravel, $757, II2.50; for alley im- provements, $46,655.26; for cement walks, $879,- 6IO.2I ; for brick walks, $65,995.4I ; making a to- tal for paving of $6,611,431.5I. During the same period the expenditure for construction of Ios miles of Sewers added to the 23 miles previously in use was $1,828,878.67, and for bridges $240,485.32. The grand total for the 12 years shows $8,680,795.50 expended in these departments of public improvements. The waterworks owned by the Indianapolis Water Company have de- veloped with the city. The system of pumping by direct pressure is used, and a system of filter beds to purify the water taken from White River Some miles above the city has been installed. The Company has 226 miles of water mains and re- ceives from the city about $85,000 a year for public water and fire protection service. Electric lights are in general use. The city pays about $II5,000 a year for about 1,350 electric arcs for street lighting and about $7,000 for about 400 gas and vapor lights. The police department contains I75 men and costs $150,000 a year. The police court, city clerk, city dispensary, and central station are housed in a handsome build- ing of recent construction. The fire department has IOO horses, 9 steam fire-engines, 20 hose wagons, I water tower, I aerial, and 4 service trucks, 4 chemical engines, and I75 men, and is housed in 22 stations. It costs the city $175,000 a year. There are 50 miles of underground con- duits used by the telephone, telegraph and elec- tric light and power companies, and I25 miles of electric street railway lines, owned by the Indianapolis Street Railway Company. The city is the most prominent centre of interurban railway traffic in the United States. Ten systems are in operation or in active construction, and others are early probabilities The city has re- cently made a contract with the Indianapolis Terminal and Traction Company, lessee of the city lines, under which a great terminal station and belt lines for the passenger and freight traffic of the interurban lines are under con- struction, the whole making a model system. Parks and Cemeteries.—The public park sys- tem includes 9 parks of nearly 1,200 acres area. Riverside Park, purchased in 1898, contains 950 acres along White River, Garfield Park IO8 acres, and Brookside Park 80 acres. Since the establishment of the park commission in 1895 $300,000 has been spent in purchasing new parks and $400,000 in improving them. There are several small parks scattered about the city, such as Military Park, I4 acres; University and St. Clair Squares, each 4 acres; Spades Place, 8 acres; Indianola Place, 2 acres; Highland Square, and combinations of park, boulevard, and residences as Elmwood, Fletcher, Morton, and other places, of which the largest is Wood- ruff Place, above noted. The city street railway company maintains two parks a short distance outside the city limits. The first cemetery of the city, Greenlawn, has not been used as such for many years and is kept in park form by the Board of Park Commissioners. Crown Hill cemetery, one of the notable cemeteries of the country, embraces over 540 acres. There are also Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Jewish cemeteries. Buildings.- The Indiana State House, costing $2,000,000, and built of Indian Oolitic Stone, is perhaps the most notable building. With its grounds it occupies two large blocks. The county building was completed in 1878 at a cost approximating $1,750,000. The new Federal building, containing the post-office, custom-house, and United States courts, is under construction at a cost of $2,400,000. Other municipal build- ings of note are the police building, the public library, containing also the offices of the public schools, and some of the new public School build- ings. Tomlinson Hall, a bequest by Dr. J Tomlinson, is a public building, its lower story being used as a market. The Indianapolis Art Association is considering plans for an art museum and school. Among the prominent bus- iness buildings ornamenting the city, Special mention may be made in the order of their con- struction of the Commercial Club, Majestic, Law, Stevenson and Newton Claypool buildings and Claypool Hotel. The Columbia Club building is an important feature of one quadrant of Monument Place, which surrounds the Indiana State Soldiers and Sailors' monument. This massive shaft is the central and most notable decorative feature of the city. It is 285 feet high, including the bronze statue, and its base is ornamented with symbolic groups of statuary and reliefs in stone and bronze. It was designed by Bruno Schmitz and cost over $500,000. Four epochs in the history of the State are commem- orated by the statues of George Rogers Clark, William Henry Harrison, James Whitcomb, and Oliver P. Morton, which are grouped about its base. The width of Washington street, I2O feet, and of the streets of the original plat, 80 and 90 feet, give space for the best possible display of architectural features. Transportation.— Indianapolis is the centre of trade for the State. With the completion of the Indianapolis Southern Railway every county in the State except three, which are on the Ohio River, can be reached by railroad in less than one day's travel. Consolidations have placed most of the railroads in two systems. One of these, the Pennsylvania lines west of Pittsburg, now operates the Madison and Jeffersonville lines, which reached the city in 1847, and the Vincennes line, completed in 1868; the In- diana Central to Columbus and the East, com- pleted in 1853, and the Terre Haute and Rich- mond, later the Vandalia, completed in 1852, and now reaching St. Louis; also a line to Chicago, partly over the Lake Erie and Western. The other, the Big Four system, operates the Belle- fontaine road to Cleveland, completed in 1852; the Indianapolis and Cincinnati, which reached the city in 1850; the Indianapolis and Lafayette, of 1852, now reaching Chicago; the Indianapolis, Bloomington and Western to Peoria, finished in 1870, its eastern extension to Springfield, Q., completed about 15 years later; the Indianapolis and St. Louis, completed in 1876. Through trains are also run to Benton Harbor, Mich., and to Louisville, over branches of these lines. The INDIANAPOLIS Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railroad Com- pany operates the Cincinnati and Indianapolis Junction road, completed in 1868, and the In- dianapolis, Decatur and Springfield road to Springfield, Ill. The Indianapolis, Cincinnati and Louisville operates a line to Chicago, which was completed about 1880. The Lake Erie and Western Railroad Company operates the old Peru and Indianapolis road, completed in 1854, and reaches Michigan City, Toledo and Peoria. The construction of the system of interurban electric roads began about 1890 with the Broad Ripple line, now a suburban city line. The next to be constructed was the Indianapolis and Greenwood line in 1900, now reaching Columbus, Ind. It was quickly followed by the Indianapolis and Eastern, which now connects with lines to Columbus, Ohio, and other Eastern points. The Union Traction Company entered the city with a line from its centre in Anderson in 1901 and completed a new line north to Tipton and other points in 1903. The Indianapolis, Shelbyville and Southeastern is another line completed in I90I. Lines entering the city in 1903 are the Indianapolis and Martinsville, the Indianapolis and Plainfield, and the Indianapolis and North- western, reaching Crawfordsville and Lafayette. The Indianapolis and Cincinnati is under con- struction in 1903 to Rushville, and contracts have been let for the Indianapolis and Southern rail- road. The steam railroads are served within the city by the Union Railway Company owning the Union passenger station and the belt railway for facilitating the transfer of freight. The inter- urban electric roads will in like manner be served by the Indianapolis Terminal and Traction Com- pany owning a large terminal station and belt lines for passenger and freight business. Manufactures.— During the brief natural gas era in Indiana, Indianapolis benefited largely by the cheap fuel. Since the failure of the gas supply the superior shipping facilities of the city and relatively cheap coal fuel have attracted many more manufactories, and more than I60 industries are carried on in about 2,000 estab- lishments. According to the United States cen- sus of 190o there was invested in 191o establish- ments capital amounting to $36,828, II4, employ- ing 27,478 persons, including proprietors, and turning out products valued at $68,607,579. Among the most important industries are Slaughtering and meat packing, whose product was $18,781,442 in the census year from 7 estab- lishments; iron work of all sorts, $6,727,990; flouring and grist mill products, $3,820,373; car- riages and wagons and material therefor, $2,812,498; furniture factory product, $1,685,827; saws, $1,587,827; malt liquors, $1,770,939; print- ing and publishing books and newspapers, $2,924,385; clothing, $2,190,050, half of it factory product; lumber and lumber-mill products, $1,588,797. Finances and Banking.— The assessed valua- tion of the city in 1870 was $24,656,460. In 1891 at the beginning of the era of public improve- ments it was $93,595,930, and in 1902 it had in- creased to $132,927,210. The tax rate for State, county, township, city, and school purposes was $2.08 in IQ02. The bonded debt is $2,421,000. The city's expenses are about $1,200,000 a year. The post-office receipts are $635,000. The cus- tom-house receipts are $165,000, and the valua- tion of imports $350,000. There are 14 banks and trust companies, including seven national banks. The aggregate capital of the national banks is about $4,300,000, their surplus about $1,900,000, and deposits over $18,000,000. The six trust companies have a capital of $2,900,000 and individual deposits of about $7,500,000. The trust companies and private banks carry Savings accounts. There are about 90 building, loan and savings associations in various stages of progress and liquidation. Churches.— Indianapolis is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with an auxiliary bishop and of an Episcopal bishop. Including missions there are I2 Roman Catholic churches in the city, 47 Methodist, 16 Presbyterian, 7 Episcopal, 34 Baptist, Io Congregational, 7 Lutheran, I5 Christian, 3 German Evangelical, 3 Evangelical Association, 3 Friends, 2 United Presbyterian, 5 German Reformed, one each of II other de- nominations. There are 4 Hebrew congrega- t1OnS. Charities.— In the city there are I5 hospitals, State, county, college, church, charitable, and private, 4 homes for the aged, 6 industrial schools and orphan asylums, 4 homes for women and girls, 16 organized charitable and relief SO- cieties, and several such institutions as the Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A., Friendly Inn, Bureau of Justice, Humane Society, Day Nursery. The township trustee is a source of official relief. The charities of the city are most efficiently administered, as a result of co-operation between organizations largely brought about through the efforts of Rev. Oscar C. McCullouch. In 1894 a plan of relief for the unemployed, whereby over 5,000 people were provided with the neces- saries of life throughout winter without pauper- izing influences resulting, became widely known as the “Indianapolis Plan of Relief.” It gave opportunity to worthy poor to earn credit at a market for food, fuel and clothing. The plan was devised and carried out on behalf of the people of the city by a Commercial Club com- mittee composed of Hugh H. Hanna, Col. Eli Lilly, and William Fortune. Education.— There are 6o public school buildings, including 2 high schools, one giving manual training, in which about 700 teachers are employed, with a total enrollment of about 35,000 pupils; 22 Catholic schools, 2 Lutheran schools, 5 private schools and academies, be- sides the schools in connection with institu- tions. The University of Indianapolis is an or- ganization formed in 1896 to unite several in- stitutions of the city, including Butler College, first incorporated in 1850 as the Department of Liberal Arts; the Medical College of Indiana, organized in 1869; the Indiana Dental College, organized in 1878, and the Indiana Law School. There are in all five medical schools, two dental colleges, a law school, and 21 business, music and other special schools. The United States Arsenal grounds in the city were purchased in I902 for a technical institute. Free kinder- gartens are operated under the Free Kindergar- ten Association, and 23 kindergartens and a nor- mal school are maintained largely from public funds, besides a number of private kindergartens. The Art Association of Indianapolis maintains the John Herron Art Institute, including art gallery, school, and museum. The Propylaeum is a building erected by an association com- posed exclusively of women. Libraries.—The most notable libraries are the public library with about IOO,000 volumes, under INDIANOLA — INDIANS the control of the board of school commission- ers, and the State library with about 35,000 volumes. The State law library with 40,000 volumes, and agricultural and horticultural li- braries in the State House, and the county library and bar association's library in the court-house may be noted. There are seven branches of the public library, including the newly erected Bona Thompson library of Butler College and many small special libraries of schools and associations. Newspapers and Literature.— In 1903 the city had 9 daily papers, 23 weeklies, 38 month- lies, and 5 with other periods of issue. The list of trade and class papers published in the city is particularly notable. Indianapolis is the home of many writers whose names are familiar to the public, and it has in recent years become an important western book-publishing centre. Organizations.— The development of the city has been markedly influenced by organized work in various directions. There are a great number of literary, art, and musical societies, and largely as a result of this activity there is a high standard of cultivation in such matters. This has had a notable influence in establishing in the social life of the city a standard of merit rather than determining the standing of the individual on questions of lineage or wealth. There are many social clubs, among the most notable being the University, Country, Contem- porary, and Woodruff Clubs, the Deutsche Haus, the Männerchor, and the Elks, while the Columbia, Marion, and Indiana Clubs are polit- ical organizations, established in comfortable homes. The Columbia Club building, located on the Circle, is one of the finest club-houses in the United States. The Commercial Club, with a membership of over I,000, which owns as its home an eight-story office building, was a dominant force in the new era of progress and development which started in 1890, and devotes itself to the welfare of the city. The Board of Trade, an older organization with a membership of about 500, has also been active in this direc- tion. Organizations of various kinds, commer- cial, trade, fraternal, social, literary, art, mu- sical, and miscellaneous, number over 500. Government.— The administrative depart- Iment is in the hands of a mayor, elected bien- Inially, and of boards appointed by him. The council consists of I5 members elected one from each ward, and 6 members elected at large, with a two-years’ term of office. The city clerk and police judge are also elected biennially. The mayor's appointees are the city comptroller, attorney, civil engineer, boards of public works, 3 members of public health and charities, 3 members of public safety, and of commissioners of public parks 4 members. The school system is in charge of a board of 5 school commission- ers elected at special elections held for that pur- pose only. Population.— Beginning with two or three families in 1819 or 1820, Indianapolis has shown a steady and rapid growth, having a population of 1,085 in 1830; 2,698 in 1840; 8,091 in 1850; 18,61 I in 1860; 48,244 in 1870; 75,056 in 1880; IoS,436 in 1890; and 169,164 in 1900. Since the 1ast census the increase in population has been still more rapid. The growth of the city has been almost exactly parallel with that of Buffalo, but 20 years behind, and the parallelism prom- ises to continue. In 1890 Indianapolis was 26th in population, and in 1900 it was 21st in the United States. History.— The first settler, George Pogue, arrived in March of 1819 or 1820. The legis- lature of Indiana, meeting at Corydon, by com- mittee selected, in 1820, the site for a State cap- ital, and named it Indianapolis, 6 Jan. I821. Another committee laid out the plat. Lots were slowly sold for several years, and the govern- ment was actually removed to the new capital in 1824, the first session of the legislature being held there in 1825. The first State House, mod- eled after the Parthenon, was completed in 1835. A town government was instituted in 1832 under three trustees, a town council was established in 1838, and a city government under mayor and council in 1847. The present metropolitan form of government, with the mayor as the responsi- ble administrative officer and the council as the legislative branch, was adopted in 1891. A vol- unteer fire department was formed in 1826, which had much help from the State when the capitol building was completed. The first fire chief was appointed in 1853, and the department was changed to a corps of paid men in 1859. The police department was first established in I854. The new town began to support a news- paper in January 1822, and a church in 1823. The first railroad reached the city in 1847, and several others were completed in the next four years. Their effect upon the town is seen in the large increase in population. The State cap- ital was the centre of great activity during the War, and there was great expansion in business and manufactures as well as increase in popu- lation, most of which was retained. The city did its full share in raising regiments for the War, and is said to have expended a million dollars in contributions, bounties, and war ex- penses. Camp Morton, on its outskirts, was first a camp for training soldiers, and later for prisoners of war. The free school system now cited as a model by educational experts, was be- gun in 1853 with the accumulations of several . years of special taxation spent in buildings and . grounds. The Citizens’ Street Railway charter was granted 18 Jan. I864. The slaughtering and packing business, now so large a factor in the city's trade, began its great expansion in the same year. Public improvements were but few in number until the adoption of the new char- ter in 1891. Indianapolis has numbered among her prom- inent citizens Benjamin Harrison, Thomas A. Hendricks, and others high in the affairs of the national government. WILLIAM FORTUNE, Prest. Municipal Engineering Co., Indianapolis. Indiano'la, Iowa, city and county-seat of Warren County, 18 miles south of Des Moines, on the Chicago, B. & Q. and the Chicago R. I. & P. R.R.'s. There is a large and increasing trade here in grain, butter, eggs, fruit, live stock and garden products. Here is the seat of the Simpson Methodist Episcopal College, founded in 1867. The electric light plant is owned by the city. Pop. (1890) 2,254; (1900) 3,261. Indians, American. Columbus, when he discovered America, believed he had reached a part of Asia, or of India, and in a letter of February 1493 wrote of “the Indians (in Span- ish, Indios) I have with me.” Thus the abo- rigines of the New World came to be called “Indians” (French Indiens, German Indianer, INDIANS etc.), or, to avoid confusion with the natives of India, “American Indians,” for which rather cumbrous term the word “Amerinds,” suscep- tible of many modifications by means of prefix and suffix, and easily adaptable to the exigencies of modern European and other civilized lan- guages, has been suggested by an eminent Amer- ican lexicographer and is used more or less by a number of anthropologists and other writers. The word “American,” originally applied to the Indians, is still somewhat in use, and Dr. D. G. Brinton styled his comprehensive sketch pub- lished in 1891, “The American Race”; but its employment to designate the white population of the continent seems to bar its ethnological application to the aborigines without some qual- ifying term. By some writers the Indians are called the “Red Race,” and, more popularly, “Redskins” (in French Peaux-Rouges, in Ger- man Rothäute), or “Redmen,” terms of no exact somatic significance. A few American, and many European, ethnologists continue to sepa- rate the peoples who created the civilizations of Mexico, Central America, Peru, etc., from the Indians, while others exclude the Eskimo, and others, again, the “Mound-Builders.” But so- Imatic, cultural, and linguistic evidence justifies the conclusions of Powell and Brinton in using the term “American Indians” to include not only the aborigines now existing, or known to have existed since the discovery, but also all the pre-Columbian peoples of America concern- ing whom we have little data, the most di- vergent are no more than sub-varieties of Amer- ican man. This unity is the great ethnic phenomenon of American aboriginal history. The study of Indian languages, archaeological remains, arts, and industries, games, social and religious institutions, mythology and folk-lore indicates a general psychic unity, while the so- matic diversities do not transcend those observ- able in the other great races of mankind. Whether one investigates, as McGee has so ad- mirably done, the Seri of the Gulf of California, who represent about the lowest type of savage culture on the North American continent, or the Mayas of Yucatan, whose approach to a phonetic system of writing touches the high- water mark of Amerindian achievement, one receives the same impression: that it is a ques- tion not of very recent civilized or semi-bar- baric intruders from Asia or from Europe, but of a race (whatever their remoter origins may be) who have dwelt for ages in an American environment, which has shaped them into the peoples met with by the whites at the time of the Columbian discovery. The limited effect of the “discovery” of the Norsemen may be held to discount any “discoveries” by Europeans be- fore them; while, on the other hand, the Ameri- can-Asiatic contact revealed by the investiga- tions of the Jesup North Pacific expedition is as much American as Asiatic, and the “Bering Sea” culture is a local phenomenon no more fundamentally indigenous to the Old World than to the New. The arguments in favor of a trans-Pacific Malayo-Polynesian influence upon primitive America are no stronger than those that can be adduced to support the con- trary opinion. The culture of the KMound- Builders” does not in any way transcend the possibilities of what the American Indian was and is yet capable of, nor is it necessary to assume the presence of foreign culture-elements to explain the civilizations, of Mexico, Yucatan, Colombia, and Peru. Since very primitive times America has been essentially the “ethnic island” of Brinton, Keane, and other investi- gators. The impress of America has been upon the aborigines so long that physically, socially, linguistically they have been “Americanized” in so marked a fashion that their right to be con- sidered one of the “races” of mankind is not to be dismissed without cause. To group them merely as a branch of the Mongolian, or, again, of the Malay “race,” is to obscure many points of great importance in the prehistory, of Amer- ica or to ignore them altogether. The Ameri: can Indian is in too many respects a modified (and anciently so) variety of mankind to be thought of as expressing in any serious degree the type of the Mongolian or the Malay. Language and Culture.—The ethnic isola- tion of the American race has already been noticed. The apparent independence of the cul- ture-centres of North and South America is another interesting fact. With the exception of a few possible traces of the presence of tribes of Arawak lineage in ancient Florida and the spread of art-motifs of the Caribbean type over a portion of the adjacent Gulf region, no direct evidence of the influence of South Amer– ica upon North American culture is forthcom- ing. The independent origin of Mexican and Peruvian civilizations seems certain, and con- vincing proofs of the community of origin of Peruvian and Chibchan and even of Mexican and Mayan are lacking. The possibility of inter-cultural relations having once existed is, however, not to be denied. The Pacific coast, from the Gulf of California to the Argentine and Chile, has been a nursery of culture just as the Mediterranean area was for the Eurafrican peoples. There has been a Mexico and a “greater Mexico,” a Peru and a “greater Peru,” while the Mayas and the Chibchas have also had their extensive spheres of influence. To the Pueblo culture north of Mexico corre- sponds the Calchaqui culture south of Peru. On the northern borders of Mexico still lie the Savage Seri and Yaqui, and the culture- areas of Colombia and Peru have also their primitive frontagers, and this was so in the time of the ancient Montezumas and the Incas. This juxtaposition of civilization and savagery is one of the characteristic facts of American ethnology, as it was once likewise of the history of the Mediterranean area in the Old World. In both areas we meet with a large number of peoples who rose above savagery, but, for some reason or other, failed to develop high stages of culture. That the more material evidences of civilization should be so confined to the Pacific coast is, to some writers, a significant fact sug- gestive of Asiatic relations; but the intellectual power of such Atlantic peoples as the Iroquois and some of the Muskhogean tribes of North America, and the moderate but distinct progress made by a few of the Brazilian tribes of the Atlantic area relieve us from any such theory, environment, and historical incident in America quite sufficing to account for the phenomena in- volved. (See ETHNOLOGY.) Certain other re- Semblances and contrasts in the various aspects of aboriginal culture in America merit attention here. At the extreme north of the continent, one stock, the Eskimo, with closely related forms of speech, kindred mythology, and folk- INDIANS lore, similar customs and social institutions, etc., extends in a narrow line from east to west, even overflowing into Asia, while at the ex- treme south (much less extensive) the Fue- gians, numbering altogether less than Io,000, are divided into three distinct linguistic stocks (Yahgans, Onas, Alikulufs). Eastern and northern North America, and the corresponding regions in South America, are areas of wide dis- tributions of single stocks. of America, as compared with the Atlantic, is a place where, in diverse spots, languages seem to pullulate. This region (including the narrow limits of Mexico and Central America) con- tained probably more independent tongues than all the rest of the continent. Indeed, within the present bounds of the State of California alone 22 such tongues, are found, with several others in Nevada, and in Prof. Cyrus Thomas' list of the stocks of Mexico and Central America, made in IQO2, nearly 30 are recognized. The multiplicity of languages in primitive America has called forth explanatory theories of various sorts, among them Horatio Hale's suggestion of the origin of linguistic diversity through the spontaneous language activity of the child. As Gatschet has noted, the very ex- istence of such a multitude of tongues all over America is proof that neither in ancient nor in later times has this continent been the scene, on a vast scale, of the suppression and exter- Imination of peoples one by the other, which Thave been characteristic features of Old World history. In spite of the common belief to the contrary, mutual destruction was probably never so rife as when the coming of the white man introduced new means of warfare, and, crowding the natives for subsistence, led them to attack each other more effectively. The re- cent studies of Dixon and Kroeber in California have strengthened the view of a certain par- allelism of language and culture. That some culture-elements, however, have spread from tribe to tribe is shown by the dis- tribution of certain inventions discussed by Mason, the northward movement of such plants as maize, the use of tobacco, the transmission of many themes and incidents of myths and 1egends (as demonstrated by Boas), the modes of occurrence of certain art-forms, etc. Inter- minglings of culture of a more or less local, though often of an extensive, character, have taken place in the Bering Sea area, in the Co- lumbia River region, in the habitat of the Pu- eblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, in the southeastern part of the United States, in the Isthmian region of Central America, in Ecuador, in the Pampean country of the Ar- gentine, etc., larger and more significant inter- mixtures have, perhaps, taken place in earlier times in Mexico, the Mayan country, Colombia, and Peru. A number of the borrowed culture- elements may be explained as the result of trade and commerce, by means of which useful or artistic objects, food, plants, etc., were easily conveyed long distances under primitive condi- tions. The widespread custom of adoption would also account for not a few instances of alien culture-grafts. So, too, with the exogamic marriage, when the women are culture-bearers. Where language-mixture has taken place it is more or less easily detectable in most American Indian stocks and tongues. When families of the same stock possess, in the one case (Algon- The Pacific coast kian) dialects which differ as much as Micmac and Blackfoot, in the other (Iroquoian) as much as Cherokee and Mohawk, we are justified in looking for culture-differences as well in such widely separated peoples. Doubtless the results of careful somatological, sociological, and other investigations of the various tribes of American aborigines will furnish us ultimately with diverse ways of classifying them. At pres– ent, however, the most serviceable classifica- tion is a linguistic one, the result of the labors of Major J. W. Powell and the Bureau of American Ethnology, supplemented by the work of Dr. D. G. Brinton. Linguistic Stocks.- The Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology has issued the Powell map showing the extent of the 58 linguistic stocks north of the Mexican boundary line; that is, of families or forms of speech, so independent of one another as to be catalogued as distinct stocks; apparently no more closely related than the Aryan and the Semitic families of the Old World. For South America no such au- thoritative map is extant. The exact number of such linguistic stocks in America has not yet been determined with certainty, but the follow- ing list probably represents the best view of the matter to-day: 1. Adaizan (Louisiana) 3I. 2. Algonkian (northeast North America) Chumashan (Califor- 1112 32. Churoyan (Colombia- 3. Alikulu fan (Tierra del Venezuela) Puego) 33. Coahuiltecan (Mexico- 4. Andaquian (Colom- Texas, mouth of bia) Rio Grande) 5. A r a u a n (northwest 34. Coconucan (S. Colom- Brazil) ia) 6. Araucanian or Aucan 35. Copehan (California) (Chile) 36. Costanoan (Califor- 7. Arawakan (Central nia) and N. E. South 37. Cunan (Isthmus of America) * Panama) 8. Atacameñan (S. Boli- 38. Doraskean or Chan- guinan (P an a m a ‘V13. 9. Athapascan (N. W. and Nicaragua) Canada, etc.) . Eski N Io. Attacapan (Louisi. ** º of º ana) America) 11. Aymaran (S. Peru, N. 40. Esselenian (Califor- olivia nia I 2. Bºgoan (S. Colom- 41. Guahiban (Venezuela) I 3. Bºgº d) New- 42. Gºunian (Venezu- Olin Oil 311 14. Betoyan (Colombia- 43. *śras...}. Venezuela) livia) 3. 15. Caddoan . (Texas) 44. Huavean (Isthmus of 16. Calchaquian or Çata- Tehuantepec.) jººnan (N. Boli- 45. Iroquoian . (Ontario- 17. Canichanan or Cani- Erie region, , with offshoot in S. E. sianan (N. Bolivia) United States) 18. Carajan (S. Brazil) tº a * 46. Itonaman (Bolivia) I9. Cº. E. South 47. Jiºn (Peru, Ecua- * Of 20. Cayubaban (N. Boli- 48. Kalapooian (Oregon) ar. Chºuan (N. E. Ar. 49, Sarākawan Texas) gentine) 5.o. Kechuan or Quechuan 22. Chetimachan (Louisi- (Peru) 3. Ila 51. Keresan (New Mex- 23. Chiapanecan (Central ico, Pueblos) merica 52. Kiowan . (Nebraska- 24. Chibchan (Colombia Wyoming) and Isthmian re. 53. Kitunahan (S. , E. gion) §";n ) Columbia, e g Hing- e 3.10. 25 chºuan (Washing 54. Koloschan (Alaska) 26. Chimarikan (Califor- 55. Kulanapan (Califor- 1113. Fusan (Oregon) Laman (Peru) ncan (Central America Lulean (Gran Chaco) Lutuamian (Oregon) Mainan (Ecuador, N. Brazil) Illa. 27. Chinantecan (Oaxaca, 56. Mexico) º 57. 28. Chinookan (Washing- 58. ton) 29. Chiquitan (N. Bolivia) 59. 36. Chocoan (N. W. Co- 60. lombia and Isth- 61. mus) W. 's NV10 INI I XIO IN ™IIII, IO GION VOI GIYIVNS VIIII, |（~ ſ №.） _ №， ſae |- INDIANS 62. Mariposan (Califor- 96. Skittagetan (Q. Char- nia) lotte Is.) 63. Matacoan (Gr a n 97. Subtiaban (Nicaragua) Chaco) 98. Tacanan (Bolivia) 64. Matagalpan (Nicara- 99. Takilman (Oregon) gua Ioo. Tañoan (New Mexico, 65. Mayan (Yucatan, Chi- Pueblos) a p as, Guatemala, IoI. Tapuyan (S. Central etC. Brazil) 66. Mocoan (Colombia) I oz. Tarascan (Michoacan, 67. Moquelumnian (Cali- Mexico) fornia) Ios. Tequistlatecan (Oaxa- 68. Mosateñan (Bolivia) ca, Mexico 69. Moviman (Bolivia) Ioa. Ticunan (N. W. Bra- 70. Muskhogean (S. E. zil) United States) Io 5. Timotean (Venezuela) 7.I. Natchezan (Louisiana) . Timuquanan (Florida) 72. Unan (Tierra del 1 oz. Tonikan (Louisiana- Fuego) Mississippi) 73. Otomian (C ent r a 1 IoS. Tonkawan (N. W. Mexico) Texas) 74. Otomacan . . (Venezue- Io9. Totonacan . (Ver a la-Colombia) Cruz, Mexico) 75. Palaihnihan (Califor- I Io. Tsimshian (British Co- ia) lumbia) 76. Paniquitan (Colombia) 1 II. Tsonekan (Patagonia) 77. Panoan (Peru) 1 12. Tupian (E. entral 78. Payaguan (G r a n Brazil) º Chaco) I 13. Uchean (Georgia) 79. Payan (Honduras) I 14. Ulvan (Nicaragua) 80. Peban (Peru) I 15. Waiilatpuan (Oregon) 81. Piman (S. Arizona, N. 1 16. Wakashan , or Kwa- W. Mexico) kiutl-Nootka (Brit- 82. Piaroan (Colombia- ish Columbia) Venezuela) 117. Washoan (Nevada- 83. Puinavan (Colombia- California) & Venezuela) 1 18. Weitspekan (Califor- 84. Pujunan (California) nia 85. Puquinan (Peru) 1 19. Wishoskan (Califor- 86. Quoratean (Califor- nia) nia) 12o. Xicaquean (Honduras) 87. Salivan (Colombia- 121. Xincan (Guatemala) Venezuela) 122. Vahganan (Tierra del 88. Salinan (California) Fuego) 89. Salishan (British Co- 123. Yakonan (Qregon) lumbia, etc., to the 124. Yanan (California) south) 125. Yaruran (Venezuela) 90. Samucuan (S. Boli- 126. Yukian (California). via) 127. Yuman (Lower Cali- 91. Sastean (California) fornia, Arizona) 92. Serian (N. W. Mex- 128. Yucan (Peru), ... . ico 129. Yurucarean (Bolivia) 93. Shahaptian (Oregon- 130. Zaparoan (N. W. Bra- Idaho zi 94. Shoshonean or Uto- 131. Zapotecan (S. E. Mex- Aztecan 1CO 95. Siouan (Carolinas and 132. Zoquean (S. E. Mex- ico) Missouri Valle y . Zuñian (New Mexico) Of the stocks enumerated, 51 belong to South America and 56 to North America north of Mexico. The status of investigation is such that the number assigned to South America is approximate only, and may ultimately be con- siderably increased or reduced. Some stocks, like the Adaizan, Beothukan (exterminated by whites), Chetimachan, and a few of the minor stocks in South America, are extinct or nearly so. A goodly number — including, for example, many of the stocks on the northwest Pacific coast, the Texas-Louisiana country, parts of Cen- tral America and the Pacific region of South America — were or are of limited area; others, like the Eskimoan, Athapascan, Algonkian, Siouan, Shoshonean, Arawakan, Cariban, Tup- ian, etc., are noteworthy by reason of the extent of their domain. Some, like the Kootenay, con- sist of practically a single language, while others, like the Algonkian, Siouan, Athapascan, Sali- shan, Aztecan, Mayan, Arawakan, Tupian, Cari- ban, etc., have developed numerous dialects, sometimes only remotely resembling the mother- tongue. Doubtless, with the perfection of lin- guistic research, some changes will be made in the list of stocks, or perhaps a method of groups may be devised in which stocks showing certain resemblances other than those of a lexical na- ture may be classed together. The studies of Dixon and Kroeber indicate the possibility of this for the numerous Californian stocks, and a similar result may be predicted for certain other regions of the continent. As said, all the American Indian stocks are far from being of the same significance, many of them having hardly any historical importance. A few words about some of the most typical and most im- portant must suffice here. North American Stocks.— The Eskimoan stock is noteworthy by reason of being the first of all the aboriginal peoples of America to be visited by representatives of European culture, the Norsemen in the Ioth century, etc. It is also the only primitive people who, unaided by civil- ized races, occupy a portion of both hemispheres, for the Eskimo stretch from Labrador to a considerable distance within the borders of northeastern Asia. They illustrate the victory of man over a difficult environment, for they are a merry and sociable people in spite of the inclement and depressing character of their arctic surroundings. They have also a marked sense of humor, as the institution of the nith- Song, or settlement of disputes by public judgment of the comparative merits of the two parties in competitive singing, would indicate, the themes of the singing being the dispute and sarcasm at the expense of the opponent. The Eskimo are also very skilful carvers and engravers of ivory, their spirited drawings of animals, etc., resembling in marked fashion the similar art-products of prehistoric man of the French river-drift, a likeness which has induced Some authorities (Dawkins, De Mortillet) to assume a racial connection between these two peoples. Mason has recently suggested that these drawings owe a good deal to the contact with Europeans (introduction of iron tools, etc.), but Boas considers that their close resem- blance to the bark and rock pictographs of the Indians forbids the conclusion that these draw- ings are of other than native origin. The unity of language, and (to a considerable degree) of custom, mythology, etc., among the various Eskimo tribes is remarkable when one remem- bers the extent of their distribution. The use of the Eskimo dog with the sledge, the kayak, the harpoon, the snow-house (iglu), and the invention of many mechanical devices, show them to be gifted with native intelligence. The Athapascan stock is notable for the contrasts in culture and diversities of culture- capacity presented by its members. Some of the Athapascan peoples of northwestern Canada and Alaska are among the lowest types of American man, and a few of them have hardly yet come to knowledge of the white man, the advent of the fur-trader being, according to J. M. Bell, a matter of the last two or three years in part of their domain. To this stock belong also the Apaches, once the terror of the civilization of the Southwest, whose depredations, in earlier times, disturbed the peace of the native civilization of Old Mexico. It is fair to say, however, of them that individual Apaches (Dr. Montezuma, for example) shows good capacity for adopting the chief elements of white American culture. Several small tribes of Athapascans are scat- tered through Washington, Oregon, and Cali- fornia, the most noteworthy being the Hupa, on Trinity River, the “Romans of California.) as they have been called. The Navaho, who INDIANS have assimilated to a considerable extent the cul- ture of the whites, were good agriculturists be- fore the coming of the Spaniards, from whom they adopted the sheep, a fact which modified their environment and their response to it. The contrast between the rude tribes of the “Bar- ren Grounds” of Canada and the Navaho of New Mexico and Arizona is, as Horatio Hale pointed out, one of the most remarkable in- stances of culture-change by process of environ- mental variation on record. The recent loan- word Klondike comes from an Athapascan dialect. The Algonkian stock, members of which were found from Labrador to South Carolina, and from the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi northwesterly to the foot of the Rocky Moun- tains and the borders of the domain of the Athapascans, are of interest for many reasons. The great area over which they are spread has brought members of this stock into contact with many other Indian peoples, the Naskopi, Crees, and northern Ojibwa with the Eskimo ; the Micmacs with the Eskimo and Beothuk; the Ojibwa and related tribes of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania, the Lenapé of New Jersey, the Nanticokes, Powhatans, etc., of Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas with the Iroquois (who, both north and south, form an enclave in the Algonkian territory); the western Ojibwa, etc., with the Siouan tribes in the upper Mississippi region, and in the South- ern Mississippi country the Illinois and kindred peoples with the Caddoan and other stocks; the Blackfoot in the extreme northwest of the Algonkian area with the Athapascan Sarcees and the Kootenay. The aberrant Cheyennes and Arapaho (recently studied by Kroeber) belong to the Algonkian stock. Another evidence of the importance of this stock is the fact that many other stocks and tribes are known to us by names of Algonkian origin: Eskimo, Athapas- can, Siouan, and possibly also Iroquoian and Muskhogean; Chipwyan, Assiniboin, Mohawk, etc. Of all the Indian stocks of North America none have made a greater impression upon the whites (French and English) than the Algon- kian. This is seen when we remember that Pow- hatan and Pocahontas, King Philip, Pontiac, Tecumseh, Black Hawk, etc., the Indians who Thave appealed most to our historians, novelists, and dramatists, have all been of Algonkian lineage. This stock has also contributed to the vocabulary of spoken and written American- English some 140 words, of which many are hardly felt to be of Indian origin: Carcajou, Caribou, Caucus, Chipmunk, Hickory, Hominy, Manito, Maskinonge, Menhaden, Moccasin, Moose, Mugwump, Opossum, Pappoose, Pem- mican, Persimmon, Powwow, Pung, Raccoon, Sachem, Skunk, Squash, Squaw, Tammany, Ter- rapin, Toboggan, Tomahawk, Totem, Tump, Tuxedo, etc. A people who have contributed to such a cosmopolitan tongue as English import- ant words like Caucus, Mugwump, Tammany, and Totem, deserve more than passing mention, Our civilization owes to them also more material things than these-tobogganning and lacrosse, canoeing (in large measure) and numerous de- vices of agricultural and domestic industry adopted by the early colonists from the aborig- ines. From the Algonkian Indians the whites also learned how to make maple sugar and maple syrup. (See AMERICANS.) The Iroquoian stocks are famous through the confederacy of the “Five (afterward Six) Nations” and the great “League of the Iroquois” (so sympathetically studied by Morgan). Their physical characteristics at the time of the war of 1861–5 were such that they exceeded the recruits of all other races (white included) in points of excellences demanded by military requirements. The high position occupied by woman among the Iro- quois lifts them above many of their Amerin- dian kindred. The story of the Iroquoian statesman of the I6th century, Hiawatha, and his founding of the League that was to end all war and unite all the nations in one lasting bond of peace is a historical fact, which Longfellow’s confusion of the Iroquoian patriot with the Algonkian demi-god Manabozho can- not altogether obscure. In political and social organization the Iroquoian tribes attained a po- sition that was largely sui generis. The tale of their long struggle to preserve their independ- ence against the whites will be found in Mor- gan and Parkman, while the Jesuit Relations contain their reaction to the efforts of the missionaries to convert them to the Christian faith, as well as the account of the fratricidal strife resulting in the extermination of the Hurons. The fame of the Iroquoian tribes (for example, Mohawks) as fierce warriors has caused the general public to neglect them in other respects. Through the researches of Ho- ratio Hale and others it has been shown that the Cherokee of the Carolinas (recently so well investigated by Mooney) belong to the Iroquoian stock, together with several minor tribes in the south Atlantic region. This stock has produced a number of eminent men: Hiawatha (q.v.), Red Jacket (q.v.), Joseph Brant, and Dr. Oron- hyatekha (q.v.), the present head of the Inde- pendent Order of Foresters; J. N. B. Hewitt, of the Bureau of American Ethnology at Washing- ton, is also of Iroquoian blood. Sequoia, the half-blood Cherokee, who invented the alphabet now in use by his people, deserves mention here likewise. As compared with the prominent part played by them in the French-English and co- lonial wars, and in the Revolutionary War, War of 1812, etc., the Iroquoian people left little impression upon the culture and the speech of the English in America, the words from their language which have crept into our own have been originally place-names: Chautauqua, Cones- toga (horse), Saratoga (trunk), etc. To the French of Canada they have given a few more words. In the place-names of the region about lakes Ontario and Erie (Ontario, Niagara, Erie, Cataraqui, Oswego, Cayuga, Seneca, Onondaga, Tuscarora, Oneida, Ticonderoga, Tonawanda, Genesee, Ohio, etc.) the Iroquoian peoples are generously remembered, while their Cherokee kinsmen in the south have likewise left their impress upon the topographical nomenclature of the country. In both New York and Ontario, where considerable numbers of Iroquois still live, with no immediate danger of dying out, but particularly in the latter province on the Grand River Reserve, the pagan and Christian- ized Iroquois have existed side by side in the same community for so long a time as to make this phenomenon, the interesting details of which have been pointed out by David Boyle, of great value to sociologists. AMERICAN INDIANS. INDIANS The Muskhogean stock (Choctaws, Chick- asaws, Creeks, Seminoles, etc.) as their subse- quent career in the “Civilized Nations” of the Indian Territory with the Cherokee has shown, are among the most gifted intellectually of the aborigines of America. Gatschet notes as char- acteristic of this stock: Their color-symbolism for peace and war, their totemic system, the use of the “black drink,” the doctrine of the “Mas- ter of Life,” sun-worship, mound-building (some regard this stock as having been one of the so- called “Mound-Builders”), the ceremony of the busk, etc. This stock has had many intertribal wars, and the Creeks and particularly the Semi- noles of Florida are famous for their contests with the whites. The Siouan stock (Crows, Mandans, Assini- boins, Hidatsa, Sioux, Winnebagos, Omaha, Tu- telos, Catawbas, Biloxi, etc.) are noteworthy by reason of their migration from the Atlantic slope in the region of the Carolinas to the trans- Mississippian and Missouri country, where their culture was conditioned by the presence of the buffalo and the adoption (from the whites) of the horse. Their wars with the surround- ing tribes, particularly the Algonkian, and their subsequent numerous collisions with the whites (Minnesota massacre of 1862, the troubles in which Sitting Bull figured, etc.), are matter of history. The use of buffalo-skins made it pos- sible for some of the Sioux tribes to develop pictography to a high degree. The researches of wen Dorsey and Miss Alice Fletcher have shown the Omaha in particular to be gifted with a religio-social consciousness of a marked char- acter, reflected in their name-giving and the cer– emonies associated with the passage from child- hood to manhood, in which individuality is much emphasized. That their capacity for producing men of ability is not confined to those of the primitive type (Sitting Bull) is indicated by the way in which individual members of this stock (Dr. Eastman, La Flesche, the collabora- tor of Dorsey, etc.) have responded to the stim- uli of modern culture. The Dakotan federation is well remembered by the names of the twin States of the Northwest; Minnesota, Nebraska, etc., are terms of Siouan origin; while the minor place-nomenclature of the northwestern States contains a multitude of names from the same SOL11 Ce. The Shahaptian stock is noteworthy on account of the Nez Percés and the famous chief Joseph (still living), one of the most re- markable Indians of any age, whose “retreat” in 1877 has been compared to the celebrated march of the Ten Thousand of old. The “Pueblos” Indians, as they are called from their village life, have risen in New Mexico and Arizona above the stage of Savagery into a state of semi-civilization, representing the tri- umph of man over the adverse conditions of the desert and the inroads of fierce enemies of the lowest culture. Their relations to the so- called “Cliff-Dwellers” has been the subject of some ethnological speculation. (See PUEBLOs.) The diversity of culture among the Pueblos is not as great as that of speech. Besides the Mo- qui or Hopi, who belong to the Shoshonian stock, there are found in the Pueblos group three other distinct linguistic stocks,— Keresan, Ta- fioan and Zuñian. The Pueblos culture has ap- parently been developed independently in several local centres, and the studies of Bandelier, Hodge, Fewkes, Cushing, etc., have thrown much light on the origins and interrelations of stages of cul- ture largely the reflex of environment. The Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan stock offers the most wonderful contrasts in its members of any Amerindian stock. Linguistic and other evidence appears to justify the conclusion that not only certain peoples of the Sonoran coun- try (Cahitas, Coras, Tepehuanas, etc), some of whom achieved a sort of half-civilization in con- tact with their more cultured neighbors, but the Bannacks, Shoshones, and Utes (even the wretched “Root-diggers”) are kith and kin with the ancient Aztecs upon whose civilization Cor- tes intruded, and the tribes of Nahuatl lineage who carried that culture more or less from central Mexico to beyond Lake Nicaragua. The change from the low type represented by the Utes to the high type of the old Mexicans may have been due in large measure to environment. Intermediate stages are represented by some of the Sonoran tribes. The Mexican or Aztec branch of this stock has furnished to English and other civilized languages a number of in- teresting and valuable words: Arolotl, choco- late, coyote, cacao, tomato, ocelot, chilli, copal, chinampa, jalap, etc. The Moqui group of the ºlos Indians belong also to the Shoshonean Stock. The Mayan stock (Cakchiquels, Huastecs, Tzotzils, Kekchis, Quiché, Tzendals, Mayas, etc.), creators of the civilization destroyed by the Spaniards in Central America, left, besides graven monuments in large numbers, other evi- dences of their having invented a system of “writing,” which is the nearest approach by any of the aboriginal peoples of America to a pho- netic method of record, the solution of the Mayan hieroglyphics is perhaps the question of American archaeology. Their calendar-system, nagualism in religion, and the important role of woman in religious and social functions, de- serve especial notice. The recent explorations of the Peabody Museum (Cambridge) have re- sulted in many new discoveries. Central and South American Stocks.- The Chibchan stock, whose culture varied from that of the savage Aroacos of the mountains of Sta. Marta to the civilization of the country about Bogota represent a rise from barbarism inde- pendent of that to the south in Peru, etc. There is some reason to believe that the “gold-culture” of the Chiriqui country and allied remains in the same region to the borders of Nicaragua may be due to the Chibchan stock,-- the Talamanca, Guaymi, and a few other dialects of Costa Rica, etc., show affinities with Chibchan tongues. Their use and working of gold were of a high order, but neither in architecture nor in pictography could they compare with the Peruvians, the Mexicans, and the Mayas. They had a char- acteristic hero-legend of Bochica, and a tale of the great flood. The shrine of Lake Guatavita was a famous religious resort. Some of the famous “El Dorados” were in their territory. The Quechuan Stock, which is best known through the civilization of the Incas, superim- posed upon an older, widespread culture, rep- resents but one phase of higher human activity in the Peruvian area. The extension of Que- chuan language especially von Tschudi and Brin- ton agree in attributing not to the military achievements of this people, which antedated the INDIANS coming of the Spaniards by only a few cen- turies, but to intellectual and culture influences millenniums old. The marks of their language can be traced from near the equator on the north to the Pampean tribes on the South. Common in the Peruvian area seem to have been a highly developed agriculture (stimulated, as in the southwestern United States, by the ne- cessity for irrigation and artificial treatment of the soil), - maize, tobacco, potatoes, cotton, etc., the breeding of the 11ama and the paco, the making of pottery (useful and artistic), metal- working of a fine and ingenious sort, stone archi- tecture more massive and imposing than artis- tically beautiful, or of the highest order as regards decorative art. The Inca form of gov- ernment was never probably so far removed from the system common to most of the Amer- ican stocks as some writers have believed. The Incasic conquest has caused the Peruvians to be styled the “Romans of America,” but the analogy is misleading. Beyond the use of pic- ture-writing and the employment of the quipu (knotted colored strings) for purposes of record, the Peruvians had not advanced, and the semi- phonetic system, like that of the Mayas, was not developed by them. Ancestor-worship and sun- worship (state religion) were professed by the Peruvians, but the most far-sighted of their thinkers touched almost upon monotheism. The hero-god of the Peruvians was the sea-born Vir- acocha, about whom centred a rich and imag- inative mythology. The mixture of races in the production of ancient Peruvian culture is indicated by the diversity of cranial type among the skulls from the old burial grounds and mummy-caves. North of the Quechuas, on the coast about Trujillo, were the Yunca-Chimus, etc., whose civilization is represented by the ruins of Gran Chimu and other remains in the valley of Trujillo, which preceded the period of Inca domination. Southeast of the Que- chuan culture was that of the Aymaras on the Andean table-lands. To them are usually as- signed the ruins of Tiahuanaco, near Lake Titi- caca, which in their completeness were probably the most imposing structures raised by the hand of aboriginal man in America, in architecture they differ in several notable ways from the buildings of Inca origin. Dr. Uhle has very recently sought to show the “succession of cul- tures” at Pachacamac, Trujillo, and their rela- tions to that of Tiahuanaco. The Peruvian tongues have furnished modern English, etc., many words: guano, condor, alpaca, pampa, paco, llama, coca, quinine, jerked (beef), vicuña, etc. In the northern part of the Argentine Re- public (Province of Jujuy, etc.) the architectural and archaeological remains brought to light by recent investigators (Ambrosetti in particular) indicate the presence of a “civilization,”—vil- lage life in a desert environment, offering strik- ing analogies with the culture of the Pueblos Indians of Arizona and New Mexico. This Cal- chaqui culture is evidently much more than the mere reflex of Quechuan-Aymaran conquest which it was formerly considered to be. Its origin and growth, however, remain to be clearly demonstrated. The Araucanian stock, whose language has been studied by Lenz, are famous for their long resistance to the Spanish arms (the story of the “conquest” has been written in the last few years by Guevara), part of which gave rise to De Ercilla's epic of “La Araucana.” To the Araucanian stock belong tribes on both sides of the Chilean Andes and a number of the nomadic peoples of the Pampas, where they seem to be intruders rather than aborigines. Chilean Spanish has borrowed many expressive terms from Araucanian. The Patagonians, Tzonek, or Tehuelche, famous since the time of Pigafetta as “giants” (many of them exceed six feet and some are said to reach seven). To them belongs the “Setebos” of Shakespeare’s ‘Tempest.” The Tapuyan stock of Brazil is looked upon by some authorities as the oldest people of the continent — some would affiliate with them the Fuegians, in this respect — representing a race once inhabiting a great part of South America. The man of the caves of Lagoa Santa and the man of the remarkable sambaquis or shell-heaps of the Brazilian coast are by many authorities considered to have related to the Tapuyans. Characteristic modern Tapuyans are the Boto- cudos, so called from the labret they wear in the lower lip. According to Ehrenreich, some of these ancient men of Brazil show affinities with prehistoric man of eastern Europe. The Tupian stock (or Tupi-Guaranis, as they are also called), whose language was much used by the missionaries for general intercourse with the natives and is the basis of the ligoa geral, or “common language” of the region of the Amazons, were perhaps the highest in culture of the Brazilian tribes, having the elements of agriculture, village life, pottery (well developed and rather artistic), urn-burial, etc., but nothing beyond the Stone Age. Intermixture with both whites and negroes has taken place in the Tupi area, and the rich and imaginative tales of animals, etc., belonging to Tupi mythology have thus been given a wider extension, while negro and white influences have made themselves felt, both on the language and the literature of these people. According to Hartt, the Tupi language has influenced the Portuguese of Brazil quite as much as has the latter the former. Tupi- Guarani speech has furnished to the various European tongues a considerable number of words — to English, ipecacuanha, jaguar, tapioca, tapir, toucan, etc. The Cariban stock were long famous for their cannibalism (the word cannibal is a corruption of one of their ethnic names), real and attribu- tive, and their skill in making and using canoes. The shaman, or medicine-man, had great power among them, and they practised the curious and remarkable custom of the couvade. Rock-in- scriptions and pile-dwellings are found in their territory. Some of them have been reduced to sad straits by the contact of the whites, but some of the Venezuelan tribes of this stock are still good, typical representatives of the Ameri- can Indian. The Arawakan stock, through its representa- tives (the Bahamian Lucayans, the natives of Haiti, Porto Rico, Cuba, etc.), was the first of the aboriginal peoples of the New World (exclusive of Greenland and Labrador) to come into contact with the white race, and likewise the first to come under its devastating influence. Many of the tribes of this stock were of a mild and gentle disposition, good agriculturalists, pottery-makers, workers in stone, wood and gold, and excellent canoe-men (the word canoe comes from an Arawak dialect). They were ‘SNVICINI KWAAG ITO GHAL JO ONI LIHAA ANJOLCI， INDIANS users of cotton, and to them we owe the first Indian invention adopted by the whites (ham- mock, both name and thing are Arawak). From the Arawaks, too, the Spaniards first learned the use of tobacco. Like the Caribs they practised the couvade. The name of the stock is said to mean “flour-eaters,” on account of their use of cassava, which has also passed over to the white. The Arawak and Carib stocks have furnished to English and to the other civilized languages of Europe a large number of important words, the exact ethnic distribution of which is not easy to determine with exactness: Agouti, anotto (and French roucouyenne), barbecue, cacique, caiman, cannibal, canoe, cassava, colibri, hammock, hurricane, iguana, macaw, maize, manati, potato, tobacco, etc. And with these names has gone the use of many of the things indicated and made known for the first time to Europeans. The debt of the Spanish and Portu- guese settlers of South America and the West Indies is in these respects very great, for, nat- urally new fruits, plants, trees, etc., and many of their products came to be known by their aboriginal names or by corruptions of them. Thus a number of “balms” and “balsams” and other medicinal products retain in the pharma- copoeia names of American Indian Origin — copaiba, tolu, etc. Timber-trees, ornamental and dye-woods, have also largely kept their native appellations throughout Central and South America — the list would run into the hundreds. Large also is the catalogue of birds and other animals bearing Indian names. Original Habitats.- The question of the original habitats of the important aboriginal stocks is one of the most interesting in American ethnology and archaeology. The researches of Rink and Boas in particular seem to have demonstrated that the primitive home of the Eskimo was in the region west of Hudson Bay, whence they spread northward and west- ward to Alaska, etc., and eastward (north and south) to the Arctic islands, Greenland and Lab- rador. See ESKIMOs. The earliest habitat of the Athapascans was in northwestern Canada, to the westward of the home of the Eskimo. From there they migrated over the lake country, across the Rockies to the southward, leaving colonies along the Pacific to northern California, and sending out, through Arizona and New Mexico to the borders of the Nahuatl territory, the important branches of the Apaches and Navaho — the raids of the Apaches often reaching far into Mexico. The original habitat of the Algonkian stock was, as Brinton and Hale have assumed, “some- where north of the St. Lawrence and east of Lake Ontario,” while that of the Iroquoian lay “between the lower St. Lawrence and Hudson Bay.” The final result of the migrations and wars of these two stocks was to leave the Iroquois of the Ontario-Erie country entirely surrounded by Algonkian tribes. From their primitive home the Algonkian sent out numerous branches west, south, southwest, etc., making the extent of territory covered by them very large, and bringing them into immediate contact with many other Indian tribes and with the white settlers over a vast area. The Iroquois (in the Cherokee and the kindred tribes of the South) had branches, which were so separated from their northern kin as to be long taken for Inon-Iroquoian peoples. The Muskhogean stock, according to Gat- schet, have been from time immemorial inhabi- tants of the country between the Appalachian Mountains, the Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Mississippi. The scene of their earliest development was in the neighborhood of the Mississippi, or possibly even beyond it. The chief migrations of the Caddoan (Paw- nee) peoples have taken place in historical times northward and southward from the Platte River, from which region they expelled in part the Siouan tribes, etc. If their own traditions are reliable, their primitive home lay farther to the south, on the Red River of Louisiana. The primitive home of the Siouan stock (char- acteristic Plains Indians since the introduction of the horse) was eastward in the region of the Carolinas. This fact has been revealed by the study of the Tutelo and Catawba languages belonging to this eastern area, and by inspection of the traditions of the various Siouan tribes. The main bodies of Siouan migrants followed the Ohio and the Missouri far to the north and west; the Mandans, Assiniboins, etc., reaching to within the borders of Canada. Other minor bodies traveled to the southwest, their repre- sentatives still existing in the Biloxi, etc., of southeastern Mississippi. The Siouan tribes seem to have followed the buffalo in its retreat westward, and their migration from the Caro- linas is of considerable sociological interest. At one time their trans-Mississippian habitat in- cluded practically all the territory between the Arkansas and the Saskatchewan from the great river to mid-Montana, with the Winnebagoes jutting out on Lake Michigan. Their forays and trade-excursions led some of them from time to time across the Rocky Mountains — the present writer, in 1891, met a friendly party of them far within the Kootenay territory. The original habitat of the Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan stock, which embraces the Ute, the Sonoran, and the Aztecan (Nahuatl) peoples, and has representatives from the north of Idaho to the Isthmus of Panama, was probably some- where in the northwestern section of the United States. The primitive home of the Shoshonean section was “somewhere between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes,” and the tradi- tions of the other two branches bring them from the far north, as compared with their present Southern abode. The Mayan stock, creators of the civiliza- tion of Central America, according to their own traditions, came from somewhere to the north, the position of the Huastecan branch of this stock north of Vera Cruz suggests that the Mayan emigrants from the home-land skirted along the Gulf of Mexico from some region con- siderably to the north. The Arawakan stock (including the natives of the Bahamas and the Antilles, except the intrusive Caribs) had an extension in South America comparable only to that of the Algon- kians and Athapascans in the northern half of the continent, from the high Paraguay to the Goajiran peninsula in Venezuela, and in its greatest expansion from the Xingū to the Amazon and Orinoco. Its primitive habitat was in some part of the Brazilian interior, probably between the Xingū and the Paraguay, the gen- eral trend of their migrations having been north- ward. The Cariban stock, another very exten- sive people, who at the time of the Colombian INDIANS discovery were to be found in the smaller West Indian islands, and the northern part of the con- tinent from the Essiquibo in Guiana to about the Isthmus of Panama, came originally, as the presence of the Carib Bakairi on the Xingu indicates, from the high interior of Brazil, at the sources of the Xingú and Tapajos. The Tupian stock were widely extended at the time of the discovery along the Atlantic coast region from the La Plata to the Amazon, with branches scattered along the Paraguay and the Madeira to the foot of the Andes. Their primitive home, Brinton, with reason, assumes to have been in the central highland country to the east of Bolivia. The general direction of the earliest migrations of this stock was there- fore southward (down the Paraguay to the Atlantic), after which the Tupi branch followed the coast to the Amazon. The Tapuyan stock, who once occupied the region between the Xingū and the Atlantic coast (from the latter they have been driven by the Tupis), are probably the oldest human residents of part of this area, their tenure of the seacoast reaching far back into prehistoric times. The Chibchan stock, to which was due the civilization of the Bogota region of Colombia, had their original habitat in the Andean high- lands of central or southern Colombia, whence they wandered northwest into the Isthmus of Panama and northeastward up the Magdalena. The Quechuan stock, authors of the most remarkable of South American civilizations, according to their own traditions spread from vtry small beginnings in the country about Lake Titicaca ; but von Tschudi and Brinton, for linguistic reasons chiefly, find the primi- tive home of this people to have been in the extreme northwest of their characteristic area. The Aymara stock, which some author- ities consider to have been a branch of, or per- haps an older member of the Quechuan, had its original habitat to the southeast of the latter. The relation of the Aymaran stock to that which produced the Calchaqui civilization of the northern Argentine is not clear. Language and Writing.— Although the lan- guages of the American aborigines con- stitute so many independent families of speech, the votabularies of which are entirely divergent one from another, nearly all (if not all) of them possess centain general grammatical characteristics which justify us in classing them together as one great group of human tongues. Brinton enumerates as points of resemblance: Development of pronominal forms, fondness for generic particles and for verbs over nouns, and incorporation,-the in- clusion of subject or object (or both) in the verb, etc. Most American Indian tongues may be called “holophrastic,” from the practice of compressing a whole “sentence” into a “word,” the length of which is sometimes very remark- able. As an example may be cited the Micmac Algonkian) ydileoolemäktāwepokwóse, “I am walking about carrying a beautiful black um- brella over my head.” This word, according to Rand, is derived from pokwósón, “an um- brella”; mäktāwāe, “I am black”; wolāe, “I am beautiful”; yāleā, “I walk about.” From the Kootenay language may be cited : Nātltlámkinē, “he carries the head in his hand” (n, verbal particle; dtl, “to carry”; tidim, composition form of daktläm, “head”; kin, “to do anything with the hand”; iné, verbal); hiniipaanāpiné, “thout Seest me” (him, “thou,” (subject pronoun); impqa, “to see”; ap, “me” (object pronoun); iná, ver- bal). As typical incorporative languages the Iro- quoian and Eskimo may serve. All the incorpo- rative forms of speech in America do not, how- ever, proceed upon identical lines; and some that do incorporate, like Kootenay and Eskimo, often have one or more cases. According to Dixon and Kroeber many Californian languages do not possess the feature of incorporation at all (such are, for example, Maidu, Pomo, Yuki, etc.). As types of incorporating languages less complete than Iroquoian we have Kootenay, Siouan, Aztecan. Some of the Central and South Amer- ican tongues seem also to have little incorpora- tion. Otomi and Maya appear to be evolving in somewhat the same direction as modern Eng- lish, away from incorporation and grammatical plethora. Many of the Amerindian tongues are both prefix and suffix languages; others prefer prefixes, others, again, suffixes. Some possess, and some do not, a plural form for nouns; a dual; gender-distinction in pronouns; a high development of demonstratives; reduplication; syntactical cases, etc. A few possess gram- matical gender and some exhibit differences in the words used by men and women. In the matter of phonetics the languages of the Ameri- can aborigines are remarkably divergent, some being extremely harsh, guttural and consonantic, others equally smooth, soft, and vocalic. The absence of certain consonant sounds and the equivalence of certain vowels and consonants characterize some forms of American speech. Euphonic changes are of major or minor im- portance. Sentence-construction differs greatly in various tongues. The position of the ad- jective is not always the same. The Haida language has even a distinction like that between our shall and will. Careful investigation of the many Indian languages, as yet studied imper- fectly, if at all, may reveal other interesting linguistic phenomena. How much has been written about and in some of the languages of primitive America may be seen from the bibliographies of Pilling ! Our knowledge of them varits from a brief vocabulary of the Esselenian to the exhaustive dictionary of Yahgan compiled by Bridges. The native liter- ature runs from the unrecorded tales of the northernmost Athapascans to the poetry of the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians, some of which has been handed down from pre-Columbian times. The only actually phonetic (syllabic) alphabet now in use among the Indians (except the syllabaries introduced by missionaries among the Athapascans, Crees, etc.) is post-Columbian, — the invention of a half-blood Cherokee. A sort of alphabet has, however, sprung up more recently among the Winnebagos. The develop- ment of picture-writing varied very much among the numerous tribes, as may be seen from Mallery's classic study of the subject. Some— times, as is the case with the Kootenays, ability to draw does not seem to have been accom- panied by exuberant pictography. The Walum Olum of the Delawares, the “calendars” of the Kiowa, Sioux, Pima, etc., are special develop- ments of primitive records, the highest form of which is seen in the manuscripts (“books”) of the Aztecs and Mayas of a religio-historical character. The pictographic records of the Ojibwa “medicine men” have been studied by INDIANS Hoffman, and the rite-literature of the Chero- kee by James Mooney. The native literature of primitive America has been the subject of special monographs by Dr. D. G. Brinton. The Span- ish-American countries have furnished several writers and investigators of Indian descent. Religion.— The mythology and religion of the American Indians have received particular treat- ment at the hands of Müller, Brinton, Powell, etc. Perhaps the most general myth of importance is that of the divine hero, teacher, and civilizer, who after accomplishing his labors, leaves the earth, promising to return at some future time. This myth is found in Mexico (Quetzalcoatl), Yucatan (Kukulkan), Colombia (Bochica), northeast North America (Manabozho, Glus- kap, etc.) Somewhat analogous is the myth of the twin reformers of the primitive world among the Pueblo Indians, Navahos, etc. The Iroquoian stock have the myth of the contest of the good and the bad mind. The Algonkians have a myth-cycle of the rabbit, the tribes of the northwest Pacific coast one of the raven and thunder-bird, the Rocky Mountain peoples one of the coyote, the Brazilian Indians one of the jaguar, etc. Some of the tribes are very rich in animal myths and, as Mr. Mooney asserts, the characteristic tales of “an “Uncle Remus’ nature” found among the Cherokee and other peoples have not, as many suppose, been bor- rowed from the negroes of the South. Even the famous “tar-baby” tales have their independent Amerindian analogues. Flood-legends are wide- spread in America and vary from the simple, locally colored stories of rude Athapascans to the elaborate conceptions of the civilized peoples of Mexico, Central America, etc. The cardinal points and the number four have developed with many tribes a rich symbolism, with which the chief colors are often connected. The “medicine men” of the Ojibwa, the Cherokee, the Apache, have been investigated by Hoffman, Mooney, and Bourke, and a large amount of accurate and authentic information concerning shamanism among the Amerindian peoples has been accumulated. The power of the “medicine man” varies much from tribe to tribe, with some he is a personage of little or no importance; with others he is the controlling influence in secular as well as in religious affairs. The acme of such influence is found among some of the tribes of Guiana and Brazil. These “medicine men” had often their secret societies and “lodges” into which chosen neophytes were admitted with appropriate ceremonies. They Thad also, with many tribes, the control of the rites to which the youth were subjected at the time of puberty, with others they performed such marriage ceremony as existed. Besides these shamans, there were “prophets” and reli- gious reformers, especially since contact with the whites. The widespread “Ghost Dance,” in its more recent outbreaks, has been studied in detail by Mooney. Worthy of note is also the “new religion” of the Iroquois, and the “Shaker” religion of the Indians of Puget Sound. The investigations among the Pawnee by Miss Fletcher and G. A. Dorsey have demonstrated the existence of a relatively high form of primi- tive religion in a rather unexpected quarter, their worship of the morning star in connection with agriculture was, however, at one time accompanied by human sacrifice. The mortuary rites of the American Indians, corresponding to diverse ideas of the soul and its future in the other world, varied from simple neglect of the corpse to what is represented in material form by some of the mounds of the Mississippi Valley and the stone tombs of Peru. The mortuary customs of the aborigines of North America have been made the subject of a special mono- graph by Dr. Yarrow, and the doctrine of “animism” among the South American peoples has been treated at length by Koch....The con- templation of the totem (properly Ojibwa odo- dema),—tribal or family mark,+ of certain Algonkian tribes has given rise to theories of “totemism,” concerning which there is much dispute in the world of science. “Fetishism,” as exemplified in the Zuñis, has been investi- gated with some detail by Cushing. Cannibalism (the word cannibal is the corrupted form of a South American tribal name) has been rarer in America than is generally believed. Outside of its occurrence through necessity in ways known to civilized peoples, it was chiefly partial and ceremonial. Epicurean cannibalism flour- ished along the coast of South America and on some of the Caribbean islands; ritual cannibal- ism among certain tribes of the northwest Pa- cific coast, in ancient Mexico, etc. The almost extinct Tonkaways of Texas have the reputation of being the “last of the cannibals,” while the Attacapas owe their name to this practice attributed to them by their neighbors. In the legends of the Cree and Ojibwa tribes of the Algonkian stock, a cannibal giant (wendigo) figures, and a horror of human flesh eating is expressed at the present time, whatever may have been the case in the past. From the con- dition of human bones and other remains in the shell-heaps of various parts of the coast, some authorities have come to the conclusion that cannibalism did exist in prehistoric ages among some of the Indian tribes. Religious ideas approximating to monotheism are attributed by some chroniclers and investigators to some of the more enlightened aboriginal rulers of Mexico and Peru. In these regions of the con- tinent, as also in Central America, architecture and the arts of commemoration and record were at the service of religion. See MYTHOLOGY. Amusements.- The games of the American aborigines, some of which, like lacrosse, have passed over to their conquerors, are of socio- logical and religious significance in many in- stances. Stewart Culin has made a special study of the games of the North American Indians, and rejects the theory favored by Tylor and others, that many of them (for example, Mexican patolli), are imports from Asia. The games of the civilized Aztecs seem to be but “higher developments of those of the wilder tribes,” and those of the Eskimo are modifications of games found among other aboriginal peoples of Amer- ica. Among characteristic Amerindian games may be mentioned: The gambling game with sticks, the hoop-and-pole game, the ball-race of the southwestern United States, the ball-games of eastern North America, the woman's game of double ball, foot-races, the snow-snake, etc. Culin holds that back of every game lurks “a ceremony in which the game was once a signifi- cant part.” The variations in games do not follow linguistic lines. One centre whence games have radiated and where some of their oldest forms are still to be found, is in the southwestern United States, from which their migrations can INDIANS be traced north, northeast, east, and south. In- teresting modifications arise from conditions of environment. Arts and Inventions.— The arts and inven- tions of the American Indians correspond to the extent and variety of their environment. The mass of the inhabitants of the continent at the time of its discovery were hunters and fishers, or agriculturalists of the Stone Age, most of whom had some knowledge of pottery-making. The house followed the lines of climate and culture, from the snow iglu of the Eskimo and the rude wickiup of the Utes to communal houses of the Mohegans, the Iroquian “long- house,” phalansteries of the Pueblan and Central American areas, and the stone dwellings of a more or less pretentious sort of the civilized peoples of Mexico, Central America, and Peru. The cavate lodges and cliff-dwellings of Arizona and New Mexico, the wooden (sometimes un- derground) houses of the northwest Pacific coast, the skin-tents of the plains tribes and the wigwams of the Algonkians, the earth-lodges of the Mandans, etc., correspond to environmental stimuli. A like variation may be seen in the cradles of the American aborigines, studied by Mason, and in their means of transport on the water, kayaks, “bull-boats,” woodskins and balsas, dug-outs, canoes of pine and birch bark, large and small, and of all varieties of design and finish. In North America the Algonkians and Iroquois, and in South America the Indians of the great Brazilian water-ways, have made themselves celebrated for their skill in naviga- tion. So too has the Eskimo with his kayak and the Peruvian with his balsa. The Algonkian Etchemins are literally “the canoe-men.” The seagoing canoes of the fishing tribes of the coast of Alaska and British Columbia also de- serve mention. On land some of the American Indian tribes have used the dog (Eskimo in particular) and the sled (the Algonkian tobog- gan, adopted by the whites for amusement pur- poses, is a special form), while in Peru the llama has been employed for ages for “packing,” but not for draft purposes. The use of the horse and the modifications of primitive culture thereby induced in the Indians of the plains of the Missouri-Mississippi valley, the llanos of Venezuela, the pampas of the Argentine, etc., are, of course, post-Columbian. So, too, the influence of sheep culture upon the Navaho and their primitive industries, and of the cow among certain South American tribes. The only ani- mals domesticated by the Indians whose use amounted to a considerable factor in their social and religious life were the dog and the llama, the latter in Peru and Bolivia only. The other half-domesticated animals and birds are of little importance as culture elements. The domesti- cated dogs of pre-Columbian America represent several diverse species of Canidaº. The absence of such domesticated animals as the cow, the horse, the sheep, etc., in pre-Columbian America accounts for certain limitations of its culture as compared with that of the Old World. Pets, however, bird and beast, were very common, especially in Brazil and Guiana. The disappear- ance of the wild buffalo and other animals of the chase, since the coming of the whites, has been fateful for some tribes, the contact with the latter as represented by the various “fur companies,” etc., has caused many changes in the life of the aborigines, seldom for the better. As Mason has pointed out, the Amerindian traps and other devices for the capture of wild animals indicate intellectual skill and marvelous. adaptation to the habits and actions of these creatures. The Eskimo harpoon and its appur- tenances, the simple and composite bow, the arrow-poisons of some North American and many South American peoples, the manufactures of obsidian and jade in ancient Mexico, cotton weaving and dyeing in the more southern re- gions, maguey-paper making in , Mexico and Central America, stone carving (from Mexico to the Argentine), feather-work (in the South- ern United States, Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America), gold working (in the Isthmian region, Colombia, etc.), the hammocks of the Venezuelan tribes, the fish-poisoning devices of many peoples of South America in particular, the fine pottery of many regions of the continent, the quipus or knotted record- strings of the ancient Peruvians, the primitive drum-telephone of certain Brazilian Indians, the blow-gun (southeast United States and South America), cassava preparation (northern South America), the bolas of the Pampean tribes, etc., represent the diversity of invention and manu- facturing skill among the American aborigines. The lamp of the Eskimo and some of the Indian tribes of northwestern North America is sui generis (its importance has been emphasized by Hough). Methods of computing time, Season, etc., vary from the slanting stick of the Algon- kian Naskopi to the elaborate calendar systems of Mexico and Central America. Of musical instruments, the drum, the flute, the pan-pipe, and the “musical bow” were known to the American Indians. Songs and dances to the accompaniment of these were in vogue. Prac- tically all stages of primitive culture were to be found in pre-Columbian America, if we may judge from the tribes now surviving, from the savage Seris to the ancient Mexicans, Mayas, and Peruvians. Moreover, within the bounds of the same linguistic stock, as noted above, there may be found tribes representing a high and a low stage of development; as for example, the Aztecs and the Utes of the Shoshonean stock, the Dogribs and the Navahos of the Athapascan, etc. Some tribes were pre-eminently fishers, others hunters. Many excelled in both, like the Eskimo and some of the peoples of the north- west Pacific coast. Some sort of agriculture was widespread in America — the cultivation of corn, beans, varieties of pumpkin and Squash, etc., was known all over eastern North America, and the regions of the southwest, etc.; and typical tropical and semi-tropical and other plants and fruits (potato, tomato, maize, pine- apple, tobacco, varieties of cotton, manioc, sweet-potato, cacao, coca, etc.) were cultivated in the more southern regions of Mexico, Cen- tral and South America. The spread of tobacco and maize in North America and of certain other plants in Central and South America indi- cates agricultural receptiveness on the part of the many tribes concerned. The capacity of the American Indians generally for agriculture has been underrated probably, as both the desert-born cultivation of the Pueblos Indians and the tropic- ally stimulated cultivation of the Indians of South America indicate. The arid regions of the Peruvian coast offer another example of considerably developed agriculture. In America the utilization of the gifts of earth varied from STONY INDIANS WEARING RICH OTTER AND ERMINE TROPHIES. INDIANS the seed picking and root digging of the Utes to the market gardens and chinampas of ancient Mexico. How the necessities of agriculture can shape a religious system may be seen from the rites and ceremonies of the Pueblos Indians, the cult of “mother corn,” etc. With some tribes tobacco was more or less of a sacred plant, also tht mescal. * Position of Woman.— The relation of women to agriculture gave them a higher standing with certain tribes than would otherwise have been the case. With the Iroquois the position of women was very high and to them was allotted a consid- erable share in the government, peace negotia- tions, etc., and female chiefs were by no means unknown, women were the “mothers of the na- tion.” Among the Mayan peoples of Central America woman's position was also high. Many of the priests were women, and they were also commonly the leaders of their tribes in rebellion against the Spaniards — the most famous was Maria Candelaria, “the American Joan of Arc,” who led the insurgent Tzendals in the 18th cen- tury. In ancient Mexico and Peru the position of woman was perhaps not quite So high. Among some tribes the position of woman was very low, and her sexual peculiarities added to the disesteem in which she was held, as for example, among the Tacanan Araunas of BO- livia. The Athapascan tribes vary much in their treatment of woman,— with some she is little better than a slave or servant, while with at least one Alaskan people of this stock female chiefs existed at times. The “purification” of wonen at the period of their menses, and the segregation of girls at the time of puberty, were accompanied with many rites and ceremonies among various tribes from the rude Athapascans to the civilized Aztecs. The curious custom of the couvade (imitative child-bed on the part of the husband) prevailed among many Vene- zuelan, Guianian, and Brazilian peoples. The relations between environment and the share of the sexes in culture has been investigated by Mason; according to whom the zenith of virile Amerindian art is reached in Peru, while in Colombia we find woman as farmer, weaver, and potter. In the Oregon-California region one art, basket-making, reaches its acme of develop- ment in the hands of woman. A large female influence in religion is noticeable among the Pueblos Indians. Among some tribes, for ex- ample, the Hurons, the weregild for killing a woman was greater than that for a man. Some sort of matriarchal system, with maternal de- scent, prevailed very commonly in pre-Columbian America; among certain of the Koloschan In- dians, for example, a man was considered to be in no sense related to his father, his sole parent being the mother. Besides this extreme form, numerous other varieties occur among the tribes now existing, the system in vogue among the Iroquois, etc., being more complicated and adapted to social needs. The systems of mar- riage known to the American Indians varied from the absence of any particular rite or cere- mony to selection of the wife by the old women of the tribe, as among the Hurons, or the uniting of the couple by the “medicine men.” Some of the tribes of the Brazilian forests, ranking very low in culture, are strictly monogamous; while peoples of higher civilization, like the Chibchans, Mexicans, Peruvians, etc., were polygamous or concubinative, or both. Marriage by purchase was found over a large area of America; but here as in other parts of the globe, the “money” received was often rather a com- pensation to the parents for the loss of their daughter than a real sale of her to a suitor. Divorce, in many forms, is known to the primi- tive Americans, both by mere word of the hus- band and according to set forms and rites. Con- sanguineous marriages were strictly avoided by many tribes; but among a few, such as some of the lowest Athapascans, incest was not con- demned. In the matter of the sex-relations, as in many other fields, the American Indians exhibit almost all possible phases from the mono- gamic chastity of some of the lowest peoples to the unnatural indulgences of the Peruvians. Runaway matches and marriages for love, in spite of the contrary opinion entertained by some authorities, have been by no means uncommon throughout the continent. Suicide on account of unsuccessful wooing by both sexes is also not at all rare. Some peoples, too, have developed love-songs of a romantic order, for example, the Jaraveys of the Quechuas. Government.— The systems of government of the American Indians and their tribal organi- zations range from the simple democracy of the Kootenays and some of the Brazilian Indians to the elaborate state institutions of the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians, which in several re- spects resembled the corresponding institutions of mediaeval Europe or the ancient classic world. The power of the chief, however, seems every- where to have had limitations, and some tribes distinguished the permanent peace chief and the temporary war-chief. Chiefs were generally elected, either from the body of the tribe or from certain specified families. “Totemism” and secret societies are not found to any extent, if at all, among certain tribes (the Kootenay, for example); while with many of the peoples of the northwest Pacific coast they are perhaps the chief feature of aboriginal society, as Boas has recently shown. Property rights are represented in many stages, from the semi-anarchic Eskimo to the Aztecs of Old Mexico and other peoples of Central and South America. Slavery existed among many tribes, and on the northwest Pacific coast a sort of traffic in human chattels had arisen. See SLAVERY. Trade and Commerce.— Within the spheres of the culture-centres of Mexico, Central Amer- ica, Peru, etc., trade and commerce were well developed. The Columbia River region was the scene of a less developed trade; while the south- eastern United States, the region of the Great Lakes and country west and south of them, had also their important distributing points. The region of Bering Strait was likewise an Asiatic- American commercial centre. Education.— With the lower tribes generally, such education as was imparted to the children was given by the father to the boys and by the mother to the girls. Peoples like the Iroquois, the Siouan Omahas, etc., used the instruction of tales, legends, and proverbs. The ancient Aztecs and some of the other semi-civilized peoples of Mexico and Central America had schools for boys and others for girls, in which the duties proper to each sex were taught under the super- vision of the priests. Physical Characteristics- The physical char- acteristics of the aborigines of America mingle uniformity with diversity. The skin color, popu- INDIANS larly styled “red” or “copper,” is designated by Mantegazza, “burnt coffee,” and by Brinton “brown of various shades, with an undertone of red.” This but varies from rather dark to rather light. Among the lighter tribes have been reckoned the Koloschan Tlinkit, the Bo- livian Yurucari, etc., and among the darker the Charmas of the Gran Chaco, the Bolivian Cani- sianas, and a few other tribes of South and Central America. The hair is generally termed “black,” but, as Brinton notes, there is in it “a faint under-color of red,” which shows up more in childhood and seems much more prominent with certain tribes than with others. Red hair is known among American Indians, but in some cases (certain South American tribes, for example), , its occurrence may be due to infusion of white blood. The eyes of the Indi- ans are, with rare exceptions, dark brown. The stature varies from rather low to rather high, represented on the one hand by some of the shorter Brazilian, tribes and on the other by the Patagonian “giants.” Among the peoples presenting many individuals of tall stature, may be mentioned the Yumas and Pimas, some of the Muskhogean tribes, some of the Crees, Ojibwa and eastern Algonkians, Pawnees, Iro- quois, Siouans, Huaveans, Ramas, some of the Cariban tribes, Yurucari, Cayubabas, Guaycu- ruans, Patagonians, etc. So far as is known no dwarfish people comparable to the dwarf races of the Old World existed in America, although the skeletons from certain Peruvian tombs prove the existence of a dwarfish element in the general population; and the stature of many individuals among certain Brazilian tribes is so low as to induce some authorities, with Kollmann, to predicate the former existence of a dwarf race. In the relations of trunk and limbs and in the relation of one limb to another many variations Occur among the Indians, due to occupation (canoeing, etc., and, since the advent of the whites, horse-riding). In primitive America all the chief forms of skull (often with artificial flattening, etc.) are found. Among the dolicho- cephalic (long-headed) peoples are the Eskimo and Iroquois generally, some of the Muskhogean tribes, Otomis, Aymaras (partly), Tapuyas, and Tupis (largely), etc. Of the brachycephalic (broad-headed) may be mentioned the Araucan- ians, Caribs, Arawaks, Patagonians, Mayas, many of the tribes of the Pacific coast region of North America, etc. The civilized peoples of Mexico, Central America, and Peru appear to have been Of stature below the average and of varied skull form tending to brachycephalic, indicating mix- tures of types. In the Columbia River region type-mingling is indicated also by both stature and skull-form. The Peruvian region is an- Other centre of race-mixture, as evidenced by skull-form. The oldest skulls discovered in prehistoric burial-places or in geological situ are not distinct from the American types, the 1atest found, the “Lansing skull,” is quite In- dian. The skull capacity of the Indian is below that of the white in general, but many excep- tions occur. The brains of the less cultured Indian peoples (Fuegians, Eskimo), show no decided anatomical inferiority to those of civilized Europeans. Great varieties of build and set of body are found among the American Indians, from the half-starved Fuegians to the well-fed and corpulent Iroquois. Small feet and hands are very common. Among many tribes in various parts of the continent handsome men and women of considerable beauty are to be found. In the case of women an admixture of white blood often enhances their beauty. Race-Fusion.— The intermingling of the American Indians with the intruding white race has been much greater than is generally believed. The extent of this fusion of races varies from certain parts of North America with their classic Pocahontas examples to Uruguay, in South America, where 90 per cent of the population are said to be of mixed blood. The Eskimo of Greenland have intermarried with the whites (Danish fathers, native mothers), so that ex- cept in the parts remote from settlements no pure-blood Eskimo exists; and the same is true of a good deal of Labrador, where the contact has been with fishermen of English descent. The Micmac, Abnaki, and related Algonkian tribes of Maine, New Brunswick, etc., have a large admixture of white blood (French fathers, native mothers), and all over Canada and the northwestern United States in the early days of colonization and exploration the French trad- ers, trappers, voyageurs, and coureurs des bois mingled freely with the native women, particu- larly those of the various Algonkian peoples of the Great Lakes and the West. The Hudson's Bay Company, by introducing employees of Eng- lish and Scotch descent into the Canadian North- west, made possible other métis, of which those of Scotch descent on the father's side are said to be healthy and sturdy specimens of humanity, with more than ordinary capacities. As indi- cated by the present condition of the Iroquois on the reservations in Quebec, Ontario, and New York, some infusion of white blood has taken place from very early times. Here the com- bination of white mother (often an adopted captive) and native father is more common than is usual in race-mixture. The Cherokee had an admixture of white blood in ante-Revolu- tionary days, to which Mooney attributes much of their culture—achievement since that time. In Mexico, Central America, and South America generally, as Talcott Williams has very re- cently noted, the half-breed element is very large indeed, for the native population was never exterminated by the whites as some histories still teach. Of the 40,000,000 inhabitants of South America it has been estimated that less than IO,OOO,OOO can lay any claim to pure white blood. There is reason to believe that the future of some of the South American countries will be as much in the hands of the Indians as in those of the whites. In Mexico, parts of Central America, Colombia, Peru, and Chile, the strain of Indian blood represents able and intellectual aboriginal peoples. In certain parts of South America, and, sporadically in northeastern North America, intermingling of Indians and negroes has occurred, giving rise to the so-called Ca- fusos, etc., of Brazil, and a few other small groups. The mixture of white-Indian-negro is also found here and there. In some of the Spanish-American countries there is a special vocabulary to designate the numerous degrees of Anátissage. In the Canadian Northwest the half- breeds have taken a prominent part in the de- velopment of the country (one noted métis, Nor- quay, was premier of the province of Manitoba), and they are likewise noteworthy in the annals of the northwestern United States. In Mexico and Central America, not alone the métis but INDIANS the Indians themselves have produced celebrated men. Juarez, the liberator of Mexico, a really great man, was a full-blood Zapotec, and Presi- dent Barrios of Guatemala a Cakchiquel (Mayan stock). Treatment by Whites.— The ill treatment of the American Indian by the whites has often been such as to stamp with eternal dishonor the conquering race. Massacres, broken treaties, land-robbing, commercial Swindles, etc., mark the path of advancing “civilization,” — English, Dutch, French, Portuguese, and Spanish have all been guilty at some time or other. The English in Newfoundland, the Americans in the West, the Castilians in northern Mexico and Yucatan, have exterminated or sought to exterminate whole tribes. We must, however, believe that the accounts of the early chroniclers concern- ing the “millions” of Indians slaughtered by the Spaniards, were the customary exaggerations of those who sing the victor's deeds. Peru and Mexico, for example, would not contain so many Indians to-day were those stories literally true. Against the centuries of dishonor in the treat- ment of the Indians by the whites, we may place the efforts of missionaries of all faiths, from the good Las Casas in New Spain to Duncan of Metlakahtla. The Jesuits among the Iroquois and Algonkians in North America, the Mora- vians among the Eskimo and some of the Al- gonkians and Iroquois, have all done good work, which only the incapacity or worse of govern- 1mental authorities has made null. The missions in California and the “reductions” in various parts of South America (Paraguay in particu- lar) might have succeeded in keeping the Indians gentle and loyal sons of the Church had the good fathers been forever in charge, but the oncome of the more strenuous life of the whites doomed them to helplessness. The story of the Paraguayan experiment is one of the most in- teresting in the annals of mankind, but also one of the most disheartening. Against such fail- ures a few bright spots may be set, — the Fue- gian mission, for example; but even there all is not well. Signs of a better treatment of the Indians still within the borders of the United States are not wanting, and it is to be hoped that the present educational fads with which white children are being experimented upon will be kept far from the Indian schools. Influence on Civiligation.—The contributions of the aborigines of America to the world’s stock of civilizing factors and influences are much more numerous and of greater importance than is generally thought. Besides the innumer- able place-names in all parts of America of In- dian origin, the Algonkian, Peruvian, Brazilian, West Indian, Guianian, Venezuelan, and Mexi- can words in English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese (whence many of them have spread into all the civilized languages of the world) are able remembrancers of the conquered race. The literature of the Spanish-American countries and of Brazil has been more or less affected by the stimuli of native theme and treatment. Many of the old dances and folk-customs still survive even where Christianity has been at least out- wardly accepted and have sometimes been adopted by the descendants of the European colonists. The ‘Hiawatha’ of Longfellow, and the tales and dramas based upon the deeds, adventures and romantic episodes in the lives of King Philip, Pocahontºs Pontiac, Tecumseh, etc., to ol. 9–- ? say nothing of the novels of Cooper and his suc- cessors, indicate that the Aryan mind of the Anglo-Saxon order has found treasure in the Amerindian soil. In Mexico and other parts of Spanish America the cathedrals and other religious edifices, by intention or by happy chance, often occupy sites sacred ages before the Columbian discovery to pagan deities, – so the new religion gathers strength from the old, and the dislocation of faith so common in Protestant countries is avoided to a very large extent. Of more material things, we owe largely to the Indian the paths over which our highways and our railroads run, while many of our cities and towns have only sprung up on the old camp- sites of our predecessors. The great importance of some of these “Indian ways” in the history of the United States has been pointed out by Hul- bert. The Indians’ knowledge of the great water-ways of the country, of portages and trails through forest and over mountain, has made possible colonization and settlement otherwise utterly out of the question. Indian hunters and fishers, scouts, guides, canoe-men, carriers and packers, in all sections of the American con- tinent, have been indispensable to the progress of white civilization. Nor have Indian slaves and servants been few or without social signifi- cance in some quarters; while French, Spanish, and English have at times availed themselves of the services of Indian warriors, – the Iro- quois enlisted for the North and some of the Cherokee for the South in the Civil War, and then the government has sometimes set one tribe off against another. In Canada and part of the northwest of the United States, where com- mingling of the races has taken place, the civi- lization of the land owes even more to the half- breed, voyageur, coureur des bois, etc., than to the Indian himself. (See CANADA.) Throughout the continent — more especially, however, in parts of South America — devices for hunting and fishing and appliances in wood- craft, primitive agriculture, etc., were trans- ferred to the European colonists during the period of settlement, and many of them are still in active use. Fish-poisoning by narcotics, the use of the blow-gun for killing birds and Small animals without damaging the skin, methods of stalking beasts of the chase, certain traps and snares, etc., belong here. In connection with agriculture we have menhaden-manure, guano, etc., the planting of corn and beans or pumpkins together, the burning over of land before tillage, etc. But it is upon the food-supply of the world that the American Indian has exerted the great- est influence. Potatoes (common and sweet, both), maize, and the tomato, now in use by all the civilized world, were first cultivated by him and taken over by the whites after the dis- covery. Cacao, vanilla, jalap, the kidney bean, several varieties of squash and pumpkin, manioc, Jerusalem artichoke, coca, agave, quinoa, per- simmon, and perhaps also the peanut, came to us from the Indians. Maple-sugar and maple- syrup, pemmican, jerked beef, etc., are from a like source. Tobacco, the great narcotic, was one of the first gifts of America to the Old World. Of drinks the American Indian has given us Paraguayan maté, “Labrador tea,” and several other like concoctions, chocolate, Mexican pulque, and a considerable number of other intoxicating beverages from South America. INDIANS Many medicines and medicinal plants were made known to the whites by the Indians, and in the era of settlement and colonization the “Indian doctor” (male and female) was not unimportant, — New England, for example, had its “Joe Pye,” after whom the “Joe Pye weed’) (Eupatórium purpureum) is named. The Cali- fornian Indians have furnished perhaps the three most important contributions of recent years to the American pharmacopoeia. South America, besides numerous locally known remedies, etc., has furnished the world-famous quinine, and ipecacuanha, while the drugs cocáine and curari must ultimately be credited to the aborigines of America. Many dye-stuffs and dye-woods were first given to the civilized world by the Indians, both for domestic use and for employment in the larger world of aesthetic manufacture. These dyes range from the poke of northeast North America for dyeing basketry to the famous roucou or anotto of Venezuela, used, among Other purposes, for staining cheese. Pottery and Other household utensils of Indian manufacture are used throughout Spanish America. The hammock of the Arawak Indians belongs now to all civilized peoples. All that india rubber means, civilization owes to the Indian. Both in Small things and in great the American aborigines, through their gifts to the white race, will long be remembered, even if, as some au- thorities (upon imperfect evidence) believe, they are rapidly passing away. On this point One may cite the remark of Deniker that Hum- boldt in 1825 estimated the total population of America at I.3,000,000 whites, 6,000,000 half- breeds, 6,000,000 negroes, and 9,000,000 Indians, while a computation made in 1895–7 reck- oned 80,000,000 whites, 37,000,000 half-breeds, IO,OOO,OOO negroes and Io,000,000 Indians. There might be mentioned here also the “Chinook Jargon” of the Columbia River region, the “Ligoa Geral” of Brazil, and the minor jargons and trade languages of other sections of the continent, which prove how the Indian has compelled the white man, more or less, to use his language in some form or other for the pur- poses of friendly or commercial intercourse. Antiquity of Man in America.-The ques- tion of the antiquity of the American Indian culture is difficult to settle satisfactorily. Time must be allowed for the divergence of the original stock into the numerous (more numer- ous in pre-Columbian eras) tribes and peoples inhabiting America at the time of its discovery, -— time for the production of the Eskimo and the Iroquois, the Carib and the Patagonian. Time, again, must be allowed for the develop- ment of the Aztec from the primitive Shoshon- ean, the Mayan from the rude stock of that peo- ple, the Chibchan from the savage Bolivian, the Peruvian from the ancient barbarian of equa- torial America. Then the civilizations of Mex- ico, Central America, and South America as such probably took ages to rise and flourish. Town and village life, with all its social and religious implications, the differing architectural monuments of the various centres of American civilization, etc., did not spring up in a day, any more than did the culture of mediaeval Europe. The domestication of the dog, the llama, etc., the change of maize, tobacco, the Squash, the tomato, the potato, the pineapple, etc., from wild to cultivated plants, require a long lapse of time. Moreover, it is now known that American Indian languages do not now change and have not in the past changed at the fast rate once assigned to them by philologists. So, while one may not believe that America was the original habitat of the human race, he may be certain that very many millenniums have elapsed since the “Red Man” began his career as the autochthone of the New World. There seems every reason to believe that at the close of the Glacial Age man had spread over a considerable portion of both North and South America, and was contemporary with European man of an early epoch. To calculate man's residence in the American environment by years is impossible on present evidence. Dr. Stoll assures us that the linguistic phenomena met with in the Mayan dialects alone require thousands of years for their evolution, and some of the results deduced from the Mayan hieroglyphs by certain investi- gators imply the existence of civilization of the Central American order for very many mil- lenniums. Perhaps it is fair to say that man has been in America at least 25,000 years and not more than 200,000, and that the civilizations of Mexico, Central America, and South America were probably as long-lived as those of Rome, Greece, etc. They were also in many respects just as typical of human attempt and achieve- ment, for the American Indian was a man as we are 111611. Bibliography.— Abbot, “Primitive Industry? (1881); ‘American Anthropologist? . (1888– Igo3); ‘American Antiquarian’ (1878–1903); ‘Annual Reports Bureau of American Ethnol- ogy” (1879–1903); ‘Annual Reports Smithsonian Institution and United States National Museum’; Bancroft, ‘The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America? (1882); Bastian, “Die Culturländer des alten Amerikas? (1878); Brinton, “Myths of the New World? (1900), (American Hero-Myths? (1882), ‘Essays of an Americanist? . . (1890), ‘The American Race’ (1891); Brühl, “Die Culturvèlker Alt Ameri- kas? (1887); Catlin, ‘Illustrations of the Man- ners, Customs and Condition of the North American Indians? (1866); ‘Congrès Interna- tional des Américanistes? (1902); ‘Contribu- tions to North American Ethnology” (Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1877–93); De Nadaillac, ‘Prehistoric America? (1885); Deniker, ‘Races of Man? (1900); D'Orbigny, “L’Homme américain? (1839); Drake, ‘Indians of North America? (1880); Ehrenreich, ‘Urbe- wohner Brasiliens’ (1897); ‘Friederici, ‘In- dianer und Anglo-Amerikaner” (1900); Im Thurn, ‘Among the Indians of Guiana” (1883); ‘Journal of American Folk-lore? (1888–1903); Keane, (Ethnology” (1896); ‘Library of Amer- ican . Aboriginal Literature? (1880–90); von Martius, ‘Beiträge zur Ethnographie ... und Sprachenkunde Amerikas zumal Brasiliens? (1867); “Memoirs and Bulletins of the American Museum of Natural History? (N. Y.); Morgan, (Houses and House Life of the American Aborigines? (1881, Vol. IV. of Centr. Amer. Ethn.), “League of the Iroquois? (1902); Müller, ‘Amerikanische Urreligionen? (1867); Papers of the Archaeological Institute of America, American Series (1890 —); Payne, ‘History of the New World? (1900); Pilling, (Proof Sheets of a Bibliography of the Languages of the North American Indians? (1885) — and subsequent special bibliographies — Algonquian, Athapascan, Chinookan, Eskimo, INDICTMENT – INDIGO Iroquoian, Muskhogean, Salishan, Siouan, Wakashan ; ‘Publications of the Field Mu- seum’; Ratzel, ‘History of Mankind” (1898); “Relations des Pères Jésuites (1902); ‘Reports of Ontario Archaeological Museum’; ‘Reports of Committee of British Association on North- western Tribes of Canada? ; ‘Reports and Mem- oirs of Peabody Museum”; Von den Steinen, “Durch Zentral-Brasilien? (1886); (Unter den Naturvèlkern Zentral-Brasiliens’ (1894); Schmidt, “Die Vorgeschichte Nord-Amerikas? (1894); Thomas, ‘American Archaeology? (1898); Tooker, ‘Algonquian Series” (1901); Winsor, ‘Aboriginal America? (1884–9). The ‘Publications of the Bureau of Amer- ican Ethnology,” embracing original mon- ographs by eminent specialists, are a lasting monument to the founder of the Bureau, the late Maj. J. W. Powell, to whom all students of the aborigines of the New World owe a debt of deepest gratitude. Among workers not con- nected with the Bureau, the death of D. G. Brinton in 1899 removed perhaps the most gifted and representative Americanist. ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. Indictment, in-dit’mént, a formal charge made before a legal tribunal against an ac- cused person. The essential requisites of a valid indictment are, first, that the indictment be presented to some court having jurisdiction of the offense stated therein; second, that it appear to have been found by the grand jury of the proper county or district; third, that the indictment be found a true bill, and signed by the foreman of the grand jury; fourth, that it be framed with sufficient certainty; for this purpose the charge must contain a certain de- Scription of the crime or misdemeanor of which the defendant is accused, and a statement of the facts by which it is constituted, so as to identify the accusation; fifth, the indictment must be in the English language, but if any document in a foreign language, as a libel, be necessarily introduced, it should be set out in the original tongue, and then translated show- ing its application, 6 Term. I62. The formal requisites of an indictment are, first, that the venue, which at common law should always be laid in the county where the offense has been committed, although the charge be in the na- ture transitory, as a battery. The venue is stated in the margin thus: “City and County Of , to wit.” Second, the presentment, which must be in the present tense, and is ordinarily expressed in the following formula: “the grand inquest of the State of , inquiring for the city and county aforesaid, upon their oaths and affirmations present.” Third, the name and ad- dition of the defendant; but in case an error has been made in this respect, it is cured by the plea of the defendant. Fourth, the names of third persons, when they must be necessarily mentioned in the indictment, should be stated with certainty to a common intent, so as suffi- ciently to inform the defendant who are his accusers. When, however, the names of third persons cannot be ascertained, it is sufficient in some cases, to state “a certain person or persons to the jurors aforesaid unknown.” Fifth, the time when the offense was committed should, in general, be stated to be on a specific year and day. In some offenses, as in perjury, the day must be precisely stated, but although it is necessary that a day certain should be laid in the indictment, yet in general, the prosecutor may give evidence of an offense committed on any other day previous to the finding of the indictment. Sixth, the offense should be prop- erly described. This is done by stating the sub- stantial circumstances necessary to show the nature of the crime, and next the formal alle- gations and terms of art required. As to the substantial circumstances: the whole of the facts of the case necessary to make it appear judicially to the court that the indictors have gone upon sufficient premises, should be set forth ; but there should be no unnecessary mat- ter, nor anything which on its face makes the indictment repugnant, inconsistent, or absurd. According to the rules of pleading in crim- inal actions at common law there are certain terms of art used, so appropriated by the law to express the precise idea which it entertains of the offense, that no other terms, however synonymous they may seem, are capable of filling the same office; such, for example, as traitorously in treason; feloniously in felony; burglariously in burglary; maim in mayhem, etc. In New York, and in nearly all of the States which have adopted the code system, the com- mon law rules of pleading in criminal actions have either been greatly relaxed or entirely abolished. Many of the statutes of the sub- ject are similar to the New York statute, Code Crim. Pro. § 273, which in substance provides that all common law rules of pleading are abolished, and the forms of pleading prescribed by the code shall be substituted, and § 275 of the same code provides that all an indictment must contain is, the title of the section, specifying the name of the court to which the indictment is presented, and the names of the parties, and a plain and concise statement of the act consti- tuting the crime, without unnecessary repetition. It is also provided in § 283 of the New York Code Crim. Pro. that words used in a statute to define a crime need not be strictly pursued in the indictment; but other words conveying the same meaning may be used. Indigestion. See DYSPEPSIA. In'digo, the name of a genus of plants, and of the blue coloring matter obtained from them. The indigo plants are tall herbs of the pea family, forming the genus Indigofera, of which there are several color-yielding species in various warm parts of the world. The one yielding the indigo of commerce, and formerly extensively cultivated, is I. tinctorium, which is native to India, grows five feet high, and has bipinnate leaves. The coloring matter most abounds in the leaves, and especially as the time of flowering occurs, and that is the time when the crop is gathered by cutting down the plant, and making immediate use of the green stems and foliage, or by drying them for sub- sequent treatment. This coloring matter is a chemical substance called indicam, the glucoside of indoxyl, which is converted by oxidation into indigo. Until the discovery of the sea- route to India the only blue vegetable dye avail- able in Europe was that derived from the woad (q.v.), which was limited and costly; this dye-substance was therefore regarded as one INDIGO-BIRD – INDO-CHINA of the most valuable of new commodities and a large capital was soon embarked in its culti- vation in India, Ceylon, China, and other re- gions, where a profitable industry continued until after the middle of the 19th century. The indigo was obtained by macerating the leaves and stems in vats for several hours. Fermen- tation arises and the water becomes clear yel- low. It is then run off into a lower basin, where it is subjected to incessant agitation and gradually turns green, whereupon the indigo begins to form in flakes and settle. The resid- uum is then thoroughly boiled, filtered through linen, molded into small cakes and dried. The best quality comes from Bengal and eastern India. Indigo plantations were made with more '91 less success in Brazil, Central America, and Mexico; and one of the foremost inducements held out to settlers in the southern colonies, from Maryland to Louisiana, was the proba. bility of its successful cultivation there. The experiments never yielded results of much im- portance, partly because crops of tobacco, cot- ton, and food-stuffs were more profitable. Since the discovery of cheap methods of forming blue dyes from coal-tar the cultivation of indigo has declined greatly, but still supplies a steady de- mand from cloth-dyers who wish an imperish- able blue of certain tints. The wild indigo of the United States is any of several species of a closely related genus Baptisia, which flourishes especially in the Southern States. The best known is the yel- low-flowered false indigo (B. tinctoria), or in- digo brown, from which country people obtain a blue dye, and a domestic medicine. “e Indigo Dyeing.— Before it can be employed in dyeing, the indigo must be brought into solu- tion ; and as indigo itself is insoluble, it must be first transformed into a soluble substance, so that, it can penetrate the pores of the cloth, where it is subsequently again restored to the form of indigo. To bring the indigo into solu- tion, it is ground up to a soft paste with water, after which it is thrown into vats along with ferrous sulphate, slacked lime, and water. The ferrous sulphate reacts with the lime to form calcium sulphate and ferrous oxid, the latter being immediately oxidized at the expense of part of the oxygen of the indigo, which in its turn is reduced to a substance called indigo- white. This dissolves in the presence of excess of lime, and the fabric to be dyed is dipped into the vat after the liquid in it is clear. On removing the fabric the indigo-white which has penetrated its pores is reoxidized by the air to indigo blue; and by repeating this treat- ment a shade of blue of any desired depth may be obtained. The dyed fabric is finally passed through dilute acid to remove any adhering lime or ferric oxid. Indigo appears to exist in the plant in the form of a glucoside known as “indican,” which has the formula Cs2He:N.O.A., and to be developed from this glucoside in the course of the fermentation by the action of a special bacillus, which closely resembles the bacillus of pneumonia. Indigo is now made artificially, the total production of synthetic indigo being probably about one fourth of the world’s consumption. Although artificial indigo- blue appears to have the same chemical formula (C18H16N2O2) as the natural product, and to be identical with it in every way, it is more expensive than the natural product at the pres- ent time. If it could be made more cheaply, it would work as great a revolution in dyeing as did the introduction of alizarin in the place of madder. (See CoAL TAR COLORS, and the references there given.) Indigo-bird, a numerous and beautiful North American finch (Passerina cyanea), the male of which is dark greenish blue, while the female is grayish brown. They are migratory, but in summer spread over most of the United States, placing their neat nest and unspotted bluish eggs in garden bushes as well as in wild thickets. The male has one of the brightest and most persistent songs of any American bird; and he is easily habituated to captivity. Indigo-Snake. The gopher-snake (q.v.). In 'direct Damages, claims for damages not directly inflicted by the illegal act com- plained of, but by other causes themselves due to that act. The great historical case is that of the United States claim for many hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of loss, resulting from Great Britain's bad faith or carelessness in letting the Alabama (q.v., and ALABAMA CLAIMs) escape from her ports to prey on our commerce. It was alleged that aside from the actual loss to our shipping and cargoes, we had been damaged to a far greater extent by the resultant effects, chiefly of three sorts: (1) The prolongation of the Civil War due to the en- couragement given to the South and the straitening of the North. (2) The destruction of commercial lines and relations, which took long to recover after the War. (3) The raising of the rates of Imarine insurance. As these claims exceeded the cost of a war plus the in- demnity we should have exacted if victorious, Great Britain refused to consider them ; and the commission threw them out altogether as con- trary to international law. In’dium, the name given to a metal dis- covered by spectroscopic analysis in 1863. The zinc-blende of Freiburg was found by Reich and Richter, after a process of purification, to yield a substance the spectrum of which was different from all known spectra. They hence inferred the existence of a new element. This element has been isolated, but only in small quantities. It is of a silver white color, soft, and marks paper like lead ; its specific gravity is 7,421 at I6.8°. The lead indium is related to cadmium and zinc, both of which occur associated with it in nature. The spectrum of indium exhibits two characteristic lines, one violet a and an- other blue line 6 ; besides these two fainter blue lines are visible if the burner in which the metal is volatilized be fed with hydrogen instead of coal gas. Individ'ualism is the name often applied to social systems founded on principles opposed to the essential principle of socialism, or to that theory of society which is opposed to state interference in industrial and economic and other relations. In its extreme form it is identical with one phase of anarchism. The word is also applied to social theories involving other and deeper views of individual rights than the mere non-interference referred to above. Indo-China, the southeastern peninsula of Asia, formerly known as Farther India, including INDO-EUROPEANS – INDULGENCE Anam, Burma, Cambodia, Cochin-China, French Indo-China, Tongking (qq.v.), and other dis- trictS. Indo-Europe'ans, the Aryan race (q.v.). For accounts of the Indo-European languages See ARYAN ; INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES. Indo-German'ic Languages, the languages which are ancient and modern varieties of one primeval form of speech, anciently spoken in Central Asia. These languages are sometimes called the Indo-Celtic languages, the Japhetic languages, or more commonly, the Aryan lan- guages. There are three forms of human speech, the monosyllabic, or isolating languages, such as the Chinese, whose words are unchangeable roots, each of which stands separately and is modified by the juxtaposition of other mono- syllabic roots; the agglutinating languages, such as the South African, the Japanese, and the American Indian, in which, instead of being isolated, the roots are placed in close association, so as to agglutinate or agglomerate into one word. Some Eskimo words are as long as the longest compound epithet of Aristophanes. The third group are the inflectional languages. The Indo-Germanic languages are inflectional. In these the roots of all words are not necessarily modified, but they may be modified, in order to express certain relations, and the roots are also added to by suffixes and prefixes. The Indo-Germanic languages do not extend over so wide an area as the monosyllabic languages, but are spoken by the most civilized and intel- lectual peoples of the world. The Indic branches are the ancient Hindu languages, the principal of which is Sanskrit, and the modern Hindu languages. The Iranic or Persian branch in- cludes, Zend, Old Persian, Armenian, Parsee, modern Persian and the dialect spoken by the mountaineers to the northwest of India. The great Hellenic branch was spoken anciently by the inhabitants of Greece, of the west coast of Asia Minor, of the islands of the AEgean, as well as of the south and southwestern coasts of Italy. It is spoken in a modified form in Greece and the Greek islands of to-day. Par- allel to the Hellenic is the Italic branch, which includes the primitive Italic languages, Oscan, Etruscan, Umbrian, and Latin, as well as the classic Latin of Virgil and Cicero, which settled into the Italian of Dante and, on being extended over western Europe, grew through many modi- fications into French, Provençal, Italian, Span- ish, Portuguese and Roumanian. Distinct from this branch was the Celtic, which survives to-day in the Welsh and Gaelic dialects. The Teutonic tongues include the Gothic of Ulfilas (4th cen- tury A.D.) the Norse languages, the Low German and the High German group. The Sclavonic lan- guages are spoken in Russia and Poland and include the Lithuanian and the Old Prussian. There are several other Indo-Germanic tongues and dialects which philologists have not been able to classify; such are the Etruscan in Europe and certain languages of Asia Minor. Compare: Schleicher, ‘Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen? (1871); Corrsen, ‘Ueber Aussprache, Vocalis- mus, und Betonung der lateinischen Sprache” ; and most important Brugmann and Delbrück, ‘Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen” (1897 et seq.). Indra, in'drä, a Hindu deity, originally representing the sky or heavens, and worshipped in the Vedic period as the supreme god, though he afterward assumed a subordinate place in the Pantheon. He is commonly represented with four arms and hands riding on an elephant. In’dris, one of the tailless lemurs of Mad- agascar, of which several genera (Indris, Avahis, and Propithecus) compose the sub-family In- drisina. These lemurs contrast with others (see LEMUR) by the large size of the hind as com- pared with the fore limbs; and the shortness of the ears and tail, the latter in Indris being merely rudimentary. They are arboreal in gen- eral habits, and when on the ground walk on the hind legs, holding the fore feet above the head as a balance. The indri (Indris brevi- caudata) is the largest of the lemurs (two feet long) and has sometimes been trained to chase birds like a dog. It goes about in large com- panies; and its nocturnal ghostly habits and Sad howling have caused it to be regarded with mingled fear and veneration by a large part of the population of Madagascar. The avahi (Avahis laniger) is the only representative of its genus, is much smaller, and has a tail 15 inches long. The third genus (Propithecus) contains the lemurs termed sifakas, which are diurnal, gentle in disposition, have prettily col- ored silky coats and are mainly vegetarian. They dwell in the tree-tops, leaping great dis- tances from branch to branch by help of a partial parachute; and go about in large com- panies. These, too, are regarded as sacred by many perSonS. Induction, in logic (q.v.), that process by which we rise from a particular to a general truth. In induction individual are not only raised into general truths, but these latter into still higher generalities. The term strictly under- stood implies the proving of general propositions. In following this method we proceed from the known to the unknown, and obtain a conclusion much wider than the premises. Thus a person easily arrives by induction at the conclusion that fire burns wood, and when any piece of wood whatever is presented to him he will have no hesitation in saying that fire will burn it. As it is impossible that all particulars can be observed, there is always a certain risk of error, and the inductive method must be worked with extreme caution. Induction Coil. See ELECTRICITY. Indul'gence, a theological term which means in the Roman Catholic Church “a remis- sion of the temporal punishment which is still due to sin after sacramental absolution.” It does not mean a remission of the guilt of sin, nor of the eternal punishment of sin, nor does it mean permission to commit sin. Indulgences “may be given by the Pope throughout the Church; by primates, metropolitans, and bishops ruling a diocese, within the limits of their jurisdiction.” The Council of Trent (1563) condemned those who deny that the Church has power to grant indulgences or who assert that indulgences are useless. This same Council lays down the principle (Sess. xx. cap. 9) that in- dulgences must be given everywhere gratis. The difficulties which arose in the I6th century over the so-called “sale of the indulgences” were INDULGENCE — INDUSTRIAL CORPORATIONS not caused by disbelief in the doctrine but by a revolt against the misuse and abuse of indul- gences. See LUTHER ; TETZEL. Consult: ‘Cate- chism of the Council of Trent? ; O'Brien, ‘Ad- vanced Catechism? ; Darras, ‘Church History’; Bellarmine, ‘De indulg. et jublaºo libri duo’; Wetzer and Welte, ‘Ablass.” Indulgence, Declaration of, the proclama- tion issued in 1687 by James II. of England by which he sought to relieve his subjects from observing laws opposed to their consciences. As the persons then suffering most from the laws were Roman Catholics, and as the laws would leave them free to worship according to their consciences, the proclamation was opposed by many king's subjects. Seven bishops of the Church of England refused to order their clergy to read the king's proclamation. Charles II. issued two similar indulgences in 1662 and 1672, both of which were unpopular with the people outside the Roman Catholic Church. The dis- senters in England and Scotland, who might be benefited by the proclamation, refused to share toleration with the Roman Catholics. In’dus (Sanskrit, Sindhu), the chief stream of the northwest of India, and one of the great rivers of the world. It has a length of about I,900 miles, and drains an area of more than 360,000 square miles. It rises in Tibet on the north of the Himalaya Mountains, nearly IOO miles northwest from the sources of the upper Brahmaputra (q.v.), on the north side of the mountain mass of Kailās, I8,000 feet above sea-level. In the upper part of its course it takes a northwesterly direction along the northern foot of the main Himalayan range, enters the Kashmir territories, passes through Ladak, below the capital of which, Leh, it receives the Zanskar, farther on the Dras, after which it enters Baltistan. Here it receives, on the right, the Gilgit, from a glacier of the Karakoram, the largest tributary that joins it in the Himalayan regions, and takes the name of Indus or Sind. About Ioo miles below this it takes a sudden bend toward the southwest, and after a course of about 180 miles more in this direction it leaves the loftier regions. At the British fortress of Attock in the Panjab — where it is crossed by a great railway bridge carrying the line to Peshawar — it is joined by the Kabul from Afghanistan, and here, 950 feet above the level of the sea, it is nearly 800 feet wide and from 30 to 60 feet deep according to the season. For the rest of its course (about 900 miles) it continues its southwesterly direction till it enters the Indian Ocean. At Kalabagh, IIo miles below Attock, it has a breadth of over I,400 feet. Arriving in the low-lying country, its waters become charged with mud, and in the rainy season, and by the melting of the snow in the mountains, it overflows its banks. Near Mithankot it receives on the east the Panjnad, or united stream of the Five Rivers of the Panjab. Below the confluence it has a width of over 1,900 yards when the water is low. In Sind it gives off several extensive arms or canals, which are of great value for irrigation; and below Hyderabad it divides into a number of shifting mouths or estuaries, the most nav- igable of which is at present the Yatho mouth. The delta, formed by the enormous amount of alluvium brought down by the river, has a coast-line of about 130 miles, and the point or head of it at Tatta is 70 miles from the Sea. The tide rises to this distance. The Indus loses much water from passing through dry and desert regions, and much is also drawn off for irrigation; accordingly it brings down much less water to the sea than the Ganges. Vessels draw- ing more than seven feet of water cannot gen- erally enter any of its mouths; but steamers of light draft ascend from Hyderabad to Multan. A railway ascends the valley of the Indus from the important port of Karachi to Peshawar. Industrial Commission, a non-partisan body authorized by Congress on 18 June 1898, to investigate the subjects of “immigration, labor, agriculture, manufactures, and business” in the United States, with the utmost fairness to both capital and labor, and report to Congress with suggested legislation, as a basis not only for national law and administration, but for uni- formity of State laws. It was empowered to administer oaths in order to obtain sworn testi- mony, and send for persons and papers, as well as (by a supplementary act) to purchase relevant literature up to $1,500 a year. The members were to be five Senators appointed by its presi- dent, five Representatives appointed by the Speaker, and nine private gentlemen appointed by the President and Senate, fairly representing different industries and branches of national life. Originally appointed for two years, the term was extended to 15 Dec. 1901, and then to 15 Feb. 1902, the last report being dated the Ioth. The actual work was done by the private members, who employed 27 experts on the various lines, and examined nearly 700 witnesses; making a report in 19 volumes, of the highest value from the unmatched thoroughness and authoritativeness of the view on every side of our industrial system brought out, and the com- petence of the witnesses, who represented all grades, from heads of trusts to presidents of colleges, and from lawyers to heads of trade unions, leaving no field untouched. The com- mission also digested a vast amount of facts from judicial decisions and official documents. The private commissioners were A. L. Harris, S. N. D. North (successor Albert H. Clarke), Ellison A. Smyth (successor D. A. Tompkins), J. M. Farquhar, E. D. Conger, T. W. Phillips, C. J. Harris, M. D. Ratchford (successor C. H. Litchman), J. L. Kennedy. The experts were on warehouse and grain inspection laws, immi- gration (two, statistics and labor questions), agriculture (four, distribution, labor, speculation, and taxation), labor organizations, prison labor (two), railroad labor, Asiatic labor, strikes, and arbitration, trusts, transportation (two), railroad legislation, taxation of corporations (two), do- mestic service, pure-food legislation, mining industries, mining labor legislation, tobacco in- dustries, mechanical progress, besides advisory counsel and expert indexing. Indus’trial Corporations in the United States, include the large number of trusts, or industrial combinations formed between 1800 and 1903. As the individual or private business firm gradually gave way to the limited partner- ship, so the limited partnership in turn prac- tically yielded to the general corporate form of doing business, especially in respect to INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION – INERTIA manufacturing which followed the general ten- dency of business toward consolidation. This was a natural result of the rapid growth of capital, which consolidated for its own benefit. In this development some of the earlier and larger trusts undoubtedly played a very prom- inent part, creating a precedent, setting an example, as it were, notably the Standard Oil trust and the Sugar trust, both of which have been in corporate form for some years. They were the pioneers in consolidation of manu- facturing interests, but compared with the more recent United States Steel Corporation, with its capital of more than a billion dollars, they are but pigmies. The great majority of these combinations have capitalizations in excess of $5,000,000 each, while only a very few are capi- talized at less than $1,000,000. Many of these manufacturing combinations practically control a very large proportion of the entire business of the country in their particular lines and are even extending that control to other countries. The most notable feature in the increase in the industrial growth of the United States from 1883 to 1903 is in the iron and steel industry, in which the production is nearly six times greater than it was at the beginning of that period. The total quantity of pig iron and steel produced in 1882 was 5,360,015 tons. In 1892 the quantity was 14,084,581 tons, and in 1902 it had increased to 31,255,595 tons. The increase in the production of pig iron in 1892 over 1882 was 98.99 per cent; and in 1902 over 1892 it was 49.18 per cent. The increase in the annual pro- duction of steel, however, was much greater in proportion. In 1892 it was 183.38 per cent great- er than in 1882, and in 1902 it was I74.34 per cent greater than in 1892. Among the advan- tages of the corporate form over individual ownership which so largely tend to the advan- tage of consolidations of capital and the Sup- plying of the demand for greater facilities for its employment in industrial fields is the fact that, while stockholders die, the corporation can go on forever. The ownership of these corpo- rations is divided among hundred of thousands of individual stockholders, who are liable only for the amount of their stock, and which can be transferred without affecting the corporation or its liability and without any trouble. The num- ber of stockholders of four of the largest cor- porations, for instance — namely, the United States Steel Corporation, the American Sugar Refining Company, the Amalgamated Copper Company and the Standard Oil Company— number about Ioo,000 persons. The census of 190o gave the following sta- ; of industrial corporations (first table be- OW ) : In 1902 these figures had materially in- creased, there being 213 industrial combinations or trusts with a capital of $6,639,019,304, but even these figures are far from the estimates made in 1903 by Moody (Manual of Corporate Securities) who places the total capital at $9,- Ooo,000,000, and who states that the railroad consolidations would increase this to $15,000,- OOO,OOO. The United States Steel Corporation, the largest of the trusts, and its competition are marvelous examples of the “combination” plan of capital. The following are the figures for 1902 (see second table below): Industrial Education. See ART EDUCATION. Inebri’ety. See ALCOHOLISM. Iner’tia, a term introduced by Kepler to sig- nify that property of matter in virtue of which it is “inert,” so that when a body is at rest, or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line, it preserves its state of rest or of uniform rec- tilinear motion, unless some agency external to the body acts upon it in such a way as to modify that state. We gain our first conception of in- ertia by the attempts that we make to move bodies that are at rest, or to stop those that are in motion. Even if they are suspended freely, so that frictional forces are negligible, we find that their state of rest or motion cannot be Nº. ºf INDUSTRIES No. of plants Capital issued * - - controlled Stocks Bonds 40 Iron and steel companies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 $763,806,295 $20,614, ooo 2 I Food and allied products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 277,618.300 I 2,725,900 I 4 Chemical products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 278,357,295 9,294,000 I I Metals other than iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II 3 2O3,505,600 8,565,000 28 Liquors and beverages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 I93,30 I, I 58 55,529, I 42 6 Vehicles (land) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 189,580,000 I 0,300,000 4 Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 I I97,184,628 . . . . . . . . . 8 Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 IO9,5I 4, I 75 36,944, ooo 5 Leather . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IoS I84,OI 5,200 I 3,805, ooo 7 Paper and printing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I IQ 130,006,500 42,461,217 I 5 Clay, glass and stone, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 63,896,858 5,567,500 8 Lumber, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 39,534,400 275,000 I6 Miscellaneous industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 238,367,700 332,000 183 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,203 $2,268,788, Io9 $216,412,759 Capital Capital SUMMARY Authorized Outstanding United States Steel Corporation proper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1,404,000,ooo $1,319,560,000 Underlying securities of 26 controlled properties. . . . . . . Securities of 3 companies controlled in the interest of the United States Steel Corporation Securities of 4 companies operated in harmony with United States Steel Corporation ...Grand total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... :: . ... . . . . . . . . . . Securities of 32 of larger competitors of United States Steel Corporation. . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e º is tº tº a tº - tº e º 'º - º ºs º e s e e s p s e s a s a e º e o e e s e s e s e s e º e s - - - - e. e. e. e. e s s a e s = e º s e º 'º e s s s a 90,435,656 68,478,656 I 3 I,250,000 86,661, ooo I 39,250,000 I 18,686,200 $1,605,949,856 385,740, Ioo $1,752,371,856 452, I 64,600 INFALLIBILITY – INFANCY modified without the exercise of a certain amount of muscular force; and by abstracting Our Own personality in the case, we gradually come to the conception of inertia as a physical property inherent in all bodies. Inertia has been popularly described as a “passive resist- ance” to change of motion ; but this expression is objectionable because it is entirely inaccurate. Freely suspended bodies (that is, bodies that are free from frictional forces,) cannot be said to “resist” forces that are applied to them. On the contrary, they yield instantly to the smallest force; but a small force, when exerted upon a given body, for a given length of time, does not produce as great a change of motion as would be produced by a large force acting upon the same body for the same length of time. The conception of inertia shades insensibly into that of “mass”; the mass of a given body being pro- portional (by definition) to the velocity that is communicated to the body by a force of standard intensity, acting upon it for a standard length of time. (See MAss; MATTER; MoLEc- ULAR THEORY.) Infallibility, exemption from the possi- bility of error. The word is used as applied to arguments, statements, reasoning, or the forma- tion of judgments, and does not include impec- cability, or exemption from the error of sin. The infallibility of the Church as believed by Roman Catholics means that “the Church can neither deceive nor be deceived in matters of faith and morals”; and she is limited to the definition of truths already contained in Scrip- ture and tradition. The seat of infallibility rests in the Pope as successor of Saint Peter (Matt. xv. 18), and in the bishops in communion with the See of Rome, whether dispersed or united in a General Council (q.v.). In the acts of the Vatican Council, held in Rome in 1870, the following is the text defining the nature of the infallibility of the Pope: “The Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ear cathedra, that is to say, when in the exercise of his office of pastor and teacher of all Christians; he, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority defines that a doctrine on faith and morals is to be held by the whole Church, by the assistance of God promised to him in the person of blessed Peter, has that infallibility with which it was the will of our Divine Redeemer that His Church should be furnished in defining a doctrine on faith or morals, and that therefore these definitions of the Roman Pontiff, of themselves and not through the consent of the Church, are irre- formable.” The Greek Church, the Church of England, and the Protestant Episcopal Church which is its representative and in communiori with it in the United States, believe that infalli- bility resides in the universal Church in accord- ance with Christ's promise of the Spirit that should guide His followers unto all truth. Con- sult: Allies, ‘See of Saint Peter?; Ballerine, ‘De Primatu”; “De Potestate Summ. Pontif.” In’famy and Infamous Crimes, in common law the first means disqualification from giving legal evidence as a result of having committed the second, the theory being that a person cap- able of such crimes is incapable of speaking the truth. Both in Great Britain and generally in the United States this disqualification has been abolished by statute, and previous convictions for crime have been considered to affect a person's credibility without impairing his legal capacity to give evidence. Infamous crimes are strictly those which entailed infamous punish- ments. The fifth amendment to the Federal Constitution speaks of “capital or otherwise in- famous crime” and we read in 2 Dane, Abridge- ment, 569, 57o: “Punishments clearly infamous are death, gallows, pillory, branding, whipping, confinement to hard labor and cropping.” In- famous punishments include imprisonment in State prison, or penitentiary with or without hard labor, and crimes which entail such pun- ishments are undoubtedly to be considered in- famous crimes, in the sense implied in the fifth amendment to the Constitution. Infancy. The term infancy is used vari- ously by different writers to include a shorter or longer period of the earliest stage of human existence. By most writers it is limited to the first I2 or 14 months, extending to the time when the baby begins to walk and to talk, and so is synonymous with a “babe in arms”; many medical authors would make it include the whole period of the first dentition, or up to about two and a half years. The characteristics of the period are utter helplessness, rapid growth of body, gradual development of muscu- lar functions and great impressibility of the nervous system. In mankind this helplessness is more marked and the period of dependence is longer than in any other of the higher ani- mals. It has been pointed out by John Fiske that the present elevation of man above other animals is due largely if not entirely to this lengthened period of plasticity, to his pro- longed immaturity. Man is born with only a few of the lowest vegetative capacities fully de- veloped, such as digestion, respiration, and cir- culation; the muscular and nervous functions are latent and only gradually develop ; while the higher functions of the mind go on evolving until the fifth decade of life. A long infancy or period of immaturity means a great capacity for development. Birth and Heredity.— The infant comes into the world with a fixed sum total of vital force, along with certain hereditary tendencies in development toward health and, perhaps, toward disease. These hereditary tendencies are all modified by the physical, social, intellectual and moral status of the child’s family and surround- ings: in a word, they are vastly influenced by the child's environment. Heredity was for- merly regarded as the most important factor in the child’s life; but heredity is really only one of three great factors, the others being the nutrition of the child, and his physical, intellectual and moral environment. During the plastic years of infancy, childhood and adolescence, a bad heredity can frequently be overcome by proper management: on the other hand, the capital of a good heredity can be squandered. Nature always tends toward the normal or healthy, so that there is always the possibility for a bad heredity to be obliterated if only the natural tendency is assisted. More then depends on the nutrition and environment of the infant than upon its heredity. Nutrition: Breast-Feeding.—The best method of nourishing the infant is nature's way — to have it nursed by the mother. But for various INFANCY reasons this is often impossible. Modern life — and especially city life — has in some way ren- dered a large proportion of women incapable of producing breast milk for their offspring. And the number of these mothers who desire to nurse their infants but cannot is increasing each year. Again, in not a few instances, the infant does not thrive upon the breast-milk, even though it may be abundant. In both these classes of cases some form of artificial or sub- stitute feeding is a necessity. Good wet nurses are so difficult to procure in the United States that artificial feeding is generally preferable unless the baby is premature or feeble and failing: then the services of a wet nurse may be needed to save the infant’s life. Artificial or Substitute Feeding.— The best available substitute for human milk is an adaptation of fresh, clean unadulterated cow's milk. The milk should be diluted and other- wise modified to suit the infant’s feeble digestive powers, and it should be given preferably, with- out being scalded or sterilized. In summer, or when there is any doubt as to the freshness of the milk, the cleanliness of the dairy or the careful handling of the milk, “Pasteurization,” or heating the food to a temperature of I55° F. is advisable. Details as to milk modification and Pasteurization can be found in any book on “Infant Feeding.” Ready-made infant foods,- the canned or bottled proprietary foods — do not contain the right ingredients for properly nour- ishing the infant, and their prolonged exclusive use is nearly always followed by some form of malnutrition — especially scurvy and rickets. These proprietary foods contain large propor- tions of sugar or starch, and so make fat babies, but such infants are generally pale, have feeble powers of resistance, and are prone to succumb to disease of the lungs or of the digestive tract. When the prepared infant foods are used as additions to milk they are less objectionable, and may at times be of advantage. , Weight and Development.— The infant that has been properly nourished before birth and is born at full term weighs on the average about 7% pounds — boys being somewhat heavier than girls. During the first few days, while the nour- ishment from the mother is insufficient, the baby regularly loses from six to eight ounces; but it soon begins to gain, and if the nutrition is normal and the infant remains well, there will be a steady increase in weight throughout the first two years. The gain during the first year is more regular, however, as well as more rapid than that during the second year. Dur- ing the first three months the increase in weight each week is about half a pound: from the third to the sixth month the weekly gain is somewhat less, from four to six ounces: from the sixth to the ninth month about four ounces, and after the ninth month a little more, usually a weekly increase in weight of from four to six or even eight ounces. By the end of the fifth month the baby that has been perfectly well and is being properly nourished should have doubled its birth-weight and weigh about 15 pounds: at the end of the I5th month it should weigh three times its weight at birth. In many instances the baby will treble its original weight by the end of the first year; but 21 pounds may be considered the average weight for the end of the 12th month. Infants that were very large at birth do not increase so rapidly; while Small or premature babies are apt to make a gain that is greater in proportion to their original weight. “Hand-fed” or “bottle” babies should weigh on the average about the same as breast-fed babies, provided that they have had no disturbance of their digestion; the food must, however, have been perfectly adapted to the infant, and this is often a very difficult problem. Height and Other Measurements.- At birth the length of the average baby is about 20 inches; during the first six months there is an increase of four to six inches, and during the second six months from three to four inches more; by the end of the second year the height is 32% inches, a growth of over a foot since birth. By the end of the third year the stature is one half of the adult height. The head grows very rapidly during infancy and early childhood. The circumference of the head at birth is from I3 to I4% inches; by the end of the sixth month it is I6% or 17 inches; at the end of the first year 18 inches, and at the end of the second year it is IQ inches. By seven or eight years the circumference of the head almost equals the adult size of 2I inches. This is visible evidence that during the first months and years of life the brain is increasing in volume more rapidly than any other organ in the body, the head or brain-box expanding to conform to the enlarging brain. The soft spot or “fontanel” usually closes between the I5th and the 20th months. The chest is smaller than the head at birth (13 inches), but its cir- cumference increases rapidly, so that at 18 months that of the chest and the head are equal. After this the chest grows steadily but gradu- ally until puberty, when there is a very rapid increase for four or five years. Aside from the regular increase in weight and measure- ment, the healthy infant shows other signs of well-being. The baby’s flesh is firm, and the skin is satiny and elastic: the color is pink, and the body and extremities are well rounded. Very fat babies are not necessarily stronger or healthier than those that weigh less: as has already been noted they are apt to be pale, flabby and of weak resistance to disease. The healthy baby is happy and playful when awake, and sleeps from I6 to 20 hours out of the 24- longer the younger the baby. It is desirable that the growing child have a nap during the day up to the time when kindergarten work is begun; with nervous or poorly nourished chil- dren the practice should be continued until the seventh or eighth year. Muscular and Mental Development.— These begin with the entrance of the infant into the world, but are slow in unfolding. At first the grosser movements performed by the muscles working over the larger joints, next more com- plex movements, and during later childhood and early adolescence the finer movements requiring nice adjustment and delicate co-ordination. Hence it is that occupations or accomplishments requiring great manual dexterity, such as violin or piano-playing, should be taken up early- “before the hand gets stiff,” as the phrase iS. The first movements are those of the legs, arms, INFANCY and neck: they are not purposeful but merely reflex. By the sixth week the infant can hold up its head, when the back is supported, but very unsteadily until about three months old. At some time in the third or fourth month the infant makes its first voluntary movement, grasping at Some object in the range of vision. Within a month or two later the baby can co-ordinate the muscles of the eyes, arm and hand sufficiently to take firm hold. Sitting alone is an accomplishment of the seventh or eighth month, and creeping also begins at about this time, if the baby is ever to creep at all. During the eighth or ninth month the baby begins to stand, having made the attempt for many weeks before; at ten or eleven months the infant can stand alone, and shortly after the twelfth month the first tottering steps are taken. It is some months before the baby is secure upon the feet, the maintenance of the equilibrium requiring nice control of many groups of muscles. Healthy infants differ greatly as to the time when they can walk alone, Some walking at as early as ten months, while Others may not walk until eighteen months. Very fat babies walk late but, in some instances, an excess of caution seems to be a factor. If a child is far behind in performing any of these muscular functions, a physician should be con- sulted so that careful examination may be made for signs of rickets or of disease of the brain or of the spinal cord. Development of Special Senses.— For the first few days the newly-born infant avoids the light, and for many weeks cannot endure a direct bright light. Perception of light soon develops, the color first attracting attention being red. Clear perception of objects comes during the fifth month. Hearing is in abeyance for several days, a baby at birth being prac- tically deaf; but after a week or ten days this function begins, and later hearing becomes very acute, the infant being able to recognize the mother's voice or a footstep at about three months. Loud sounds cause the baby actual pain, so severe are their impressions on the delicate auditory apparatus. The sense of touch (contact) is early developed, especially in the tongue and lips; but sensitiveness to pain is very dull during infancy. Heat and cold are recognized from an early period, the variation of a few degrees in the temperature of the food causing the baby to refuse it. Taste and smell also are present at birth, taste being very discriminating. Development of Speech.— Speech is very closely related to the higher functions of the brain, and is therefore the last of the simple functions to develop. Usually a baby begins to say “Mamma” and “Papa,” with clear know- ledge of the meaning, toward the end of the first year. Next names of objects and persons are learned and soon two words are put to- gether. Then verbs are used, and about the end of the second year little sentences are made. Pronouns are regularly the last of all the parts of speech to be used. During the third year speech develops very rapidly, the baby bringing out some new term or expression almost daily. There are great variations in the time when children begin to talk; and for this there are many reasons. Girls generally talk earlier than boys by two or three months: babies that asso- ciate in the nursery with other children talk earlier than only children. If, however, a young child reaches the age of two years without attempting to talk, mental backwardness or organic brain disease is apt to be the cause. Tongue-tie is seldom the cause of backwardness in talking, although it does produce imperfect articulation. Dentition — Teething.— The first teeth appear about the sixth or seventh month, but a per- fectly healthy baby may have no teeth until Io or II months old, or on the other hand may cut the first tooth at four months. The regular order is as follows: lower central incisors, upper central incisors, upper lateral incisors, lower lateral incisors — each pair coming at intervals of three to six weeks: at about the fourteenth month the front double teeth (an- terior molars) appear in the two jaws, and four or five months later the canines, known popu- larly as the “eye and stomach teeth.” Finally, the last four molars appear sometime between the twenty-fourth and the thirtieth month, and these complete the twenty teeth of the first dentition. Teething babies are apt to be fret- ful, they have a reduced resistance against dis- ease, and they are prone to slight disturbances of digestion. To attribute most of the ills of infancy to the process of teething is a great mistake; usually some other and better cause for the disturbance can be found if the baby is carefully examined. During the time when the successive pairs of teeth are coming through the gums, the usual food should be largely diluted, so as to prevent any serious indigestion. Fever.— Sudden high temperature is readily produced in young children by slight causes, inasmuch as the heat-regulating centre in the brain is but poorly developed. Again, the tem- perature in disease is erratic, and is apt to be higher than in adults suffering from the same ailment. Only persistent high temperature need cause anxiety. £3. Convulsions.—A characteristic of infancy is the easy excitability of the motor side of the nervous system. Hence convulsions or spasms are much more frequent and less serious than in adults. The immediate cause of the motor explosion may be an overloaded stomach, fright or mental excitement, or the fever of an on- coming disease. Severe earache, intestinal worms or a paroxysm of whooping cough may also serve as an exciting cause. Underlying or predisposing causes are a nervous heredity, malnutrition, or rickets; or there may be organic disease of the brain or the kidneys. The spasm usually begins with a turning of the eyes to one side and twitchings or grimaces of the face: there may be frothing at the mouth ; then the arms and legs are rapidly contracted and relaxed ; later the body stiffens out, the breathing becomes noisy and labored, the face, — especially the lips — becomes livid. Shortly afterward the body relaxes, the breathing becomes easy, and spasm ceases for the time being — having lasted anywhere from five to thirty minutes. Until the physician arrives certain simple measures are of value. The in- fant should be undressed, wholly or partially, and put into a warm bath (not warmer than Ios” F.) to which a handful of mustard flour INFANT – INFANTA has been added, and the baby should be rubbed all over while in the tub for about five minutes. Then remove from the bath and lay between blankets, putting a warm bottle at the feet and an ice cap or cold compress on the head. If the baby can swallow, a full dose of castor oil should be given. Most convulsions are due to the presence of decomposing food-remains in the alimentary tract, and the spasms usually cease when the stomach and bowels have been thoroughly evacuated. LINNAEUS EDFORD LAFáTRA, M.D., Instructor in Diseases of Children, Vanderbilt Clinic, Columbia University. In’fant, in law. By the common law per- sons come to majority at the age of 21 years, until which time they are called in law infants, but by common usage in the United States the word minor prevails. Infants cannot, in general, bind themselves by contracts, as they are sup- posed not to have sufficient discretion and ability for this purpose. But this is their privilege, and their contracts are accordingly held in general not to be void, but only voidable at their election; and they may elect to avoid their contracts during their minority, except such as they may have entered into for necessaries suited to their condition in life, but they cannot confirm them so as to be bound by them until their majority. Infants may possess property, but it must be under the management and control of a guardian. They have not the right of citizens as to voting, and discharging other political functions. But in regard to crimes and punishments, and trespasses and private wrongs, their conduct is regulated by the same laws as that of the other members of the community, in case of their being of sufficient age and dis- cretion to understand their duties and obliga- tions. And for this purpose no general limit can be assigned, as some children are much more intelligent than others of the same age; and it will again depend, in some degree, upon the nature of the offense committed, or the wrong done, whether a child of any given age can be considered legally guilty of it, since some offenses and wrongs can be more easily under- stood to be such than others. The law, in gen- eral, has a tender regard to youth, and does not permit them to be convicted and punished for offenses and trespasses unless it appears clearly that they have sufficient knowledge and dis- cretion to distinguish them to be such. There are exceptions to the incapacities of minors as to contracting, and these exceptions are made for their benefit. Thus an infant not sufficiently furnished with necessary clothes, food, or in- struction, by his parent or guardian, and not being under the immediate superintendence of the parent or guardian, may make a valid con- tract, in respect to those subjects, and such contract may be enforced against him. Infants require the consent of parents or guardians to marry. The jurisdiction in respect to infants is generally vested in either probate or orphans’ courts. These courts appoint guardians to take charge of the property of infants, and, in case of the decease of the father, to take charge of their persons; but during the life of the father he has the guardianship and control of the persons of his children until they are 21 years of age. Blackstone thus defines infant: “Infants have various privileges, and various disabilities; but their very disabilities are privileges, in order to Secure them from hurting themselves by their own improvident acts. An infant cannot be sued but under the protection, and joining the name of his guardian, for he is to defend him against all attacks as well by law as otherwise; but he may sue either by his guardian, or by his prochein amy, or alone for wages in the county courts. In criminal cases an infant of the age of I4 years may be capitally punished, but under the age of 7 he cannot. The period between 7 and I4 is subject to much uncertainty; for the infant shall, generally speaking, be judged prima facie innocent; yet if he was doli capaw, and could discern between good and evil at the time of the offense committed, he may be con- victed, and undergo judgment and execution of death, though he has not attained to years of puberty or discretion.” Infant Jesus, Daughters of the Congrega- tion of the, is an order in the Roman Catholic Church. It owes its origin to Anna Maroni, a native of Lucca, who having come to Rome entirely destitute, succeeded by her industry in securing a competency. In more advanced years, her charitable feelings prompted her to establish an institution where poor girls should be instructed in such work as would enable them to earn a livelihood. The clergy approved of her plan, and afforded her much assistance, and it was finally established as a regular insti- tution, and in 1673 Pope Clement X, acknow- ledged the existence of the Society, gave it by- laws, and endowed it with sundry privileges, under the appellation of “Daughters of the Infant Jesus.” The number of the “Daughters” allotted to each convent was fixed at 33, in commemoration of the number of years Jesus lived upon earth. The novitiate lasts three years; the sisters make vows of poverty, chas- tity and obedience. Such as may wish to leave the convent are allowed to do so before taking the vows, but, in that case, they are to leave to the convent all they brought to it at their admission. Prayers and fasts are strictly en- forced. The regular habit of the order consists of a wide, dark brown dress, and a white hood. Infanta, ćn-fan'tā, Philippines, a former Spanish commandancia of the island of Luzon, consisting of a narrow strip of territory on the Pacific coast with Nueva Ecija on the north and Tayabas on the south. In 1902 it was made a sub-province of Tayabas, “the inhabitants to enjoy the same rights and privileges as if the said territory had been originally incorporated in the province of Tayabas.” The surface is very rough and mountainous and the construc- tion of roads impossible except at heavy cost; several trails lead over the mountains to the central provinces. The forests are valuable, among the trees most important to commerce is the balate, which produces the balate gum. The agricultural methods are most primitive; the chief crops are rice, cocoanut, chocolate and coffee; the most important industry is the manufacture of nipa wine; there was formerly a large manufacture of cocoanut oil in Infanta, but this industry was paralyzed by the hurricane of 1882. Pop. Io,800. INFANTICIDE — INFANTRY Infant'icide, the murder of a child born alive, is a crime of frequent occurrence. The main cause of the crime is shame, induced by a dread of the social disgrace attaching to mothers of illegitimate children; though in many in- stances infanticide has been the result of vio- lence produced by puerperal insanity. The morbid disposition to kill the newly born has also been observed in certain of the lower ani- mals. The sanctity of human life, from its beginning to its close, is a maxim of modern civilization, and the law treats as a murderer whoever wilfully terminates it at any stage. According to the law of England every woman who employs means to procure criminal abortion is guilty of felony, and liable to penal servitude for life, or not less than three years; and severe penalties are inflicted on those who aid women to procure miscarriage. The conceal- ment of birth is a misdemeanor, and may be punished with imprisonment for two years. In the United States, when a child’s death is occa- sioned by an illegal act, such act is considered either murder or manslaughter according to the circumstances. The crime, however, is rarely punished, and in large cities many cases occur each year which are never reported to the authorities. Infanticide was prevalent in Greece and Rome. In modern times many barbarous peo- ples are guilty of wholesale child-murder. Among some of the Pacific Islanders and aborig- inal Australians there is a great destruction of infant life. The Hindus used to destroy female children without compunction. In China in- fanticide is said to be very common. Infantry (“the juveniles,” probably at first the knights’ pages), foot soldiery, as distin- guished at once from cavalry and artillery. In all ages this has naturally formed the numerical bulk of armies, but its tactical importance has varied greatly with circumstances. The name cannot be given to the mere unorganized fight- ers of barbarian m&lées; it implies some or- ganization, and at least the rudiments of tactics. The first large armies were the Egyptian and Assyrian, continued by the Persian: the social system was aristocratic, and the large plains ideal for the utility of cavalry; hence the in- fantry was rather an auxiliary, to complete a rout after the mounted lords and the chariots had broken the ranks, than the main fighting body. The first development of infantry as the chief reliance was naturally in the small Greek states, whose independence rested on their citi- zen soldiery, and whose rough territory made cavalry evolutions difficult. Cavalry was there- fore used mainly to guard flanks and to skir- mish ; the Spartans for a long time would not use it at all. The infantry was divided into classes according to armor; hoplites (with heavy defensive armor, long spear and dagger), psiloi and peltasts (very little armor, light barbed javelins to throw), and gymnetes (sharpshoot- ers, light-armored and with slings or bows). The battle formation was the famous phalanx, whose One basic principle was the value of mass and momentum, and which was irresistible either for attack or defense against barbarians who lacked firmness in the ranks. It was com- monly a rectangular block eight ranks deep, so that only the first two or three could use their spears at the same time, the rear ranks serving only for instant reinforcement and for impact; the men were from 18 inches to 6 feet apart, according to conditions of defense or attack; the phalanx had usually 2,000 to 4,000 men, but sometimes as high as Io,000 or more. Some- times the formation was the triangular wedge. The first great improvement was by Epaminon- das, who made the ranks 50 deep, and by the enormous impact crushed the Spartan phalanx at Leuctra. This was the Napoleonic principle of concentration at the critical point, most of the Spartan army being allies with no heart in the fighting, and kept at bay by a few skirmishers. Nevertheless, the step was backward except for immediate necessities, as it increased the main vice of the phalanx — its immobility, which made it break up dangerously on bad ground, and gave little power to change front or execute flanking movements. In later tactics the larger ones were subdivided into companies of I2O with a distance equal to the front, forming an approach to the legion; and the latter was copied also in the formation by lines, increasing rapidity of movement and flexibility on difficult ground, as well as power of extension and so of flanking. The Macedonian sarissa or long pike doubled the number of ranks which could thrust at Once over each other’s shoulders. But the whole system went down before the Roman legion, which essentially maintained its position till the Empire too went down. It consisted normally of 1,200 each of hastati (spearmen), principes (veterans), and velites (light troops), 600 pilani (veteran reserves), and 300 equites or cavalry. It was divided into three lines and 30 maniples or companies, and combined Solidity with ease of maneuvering. In the Middle Ages, till the general use of gunpowder, the feudal system insured the degra- dation of the infantry, as it depended on the fighting power of the knight, and consequently lavished all the care and expense on perfecting his armament. But even without this, the same result would have come, for without good field artillery, and with only bows and arrows at their best, the heavily armed man was invulnerable, as the Spanish conquests in the New World amply prove. Hence the logical result was the extension of defensive armor till some new missile force came in. But the cost of this was so great — a full suit of steel armor cost about $2,000 — that only the richer even of the knights could afford them, no king could raise money to equip a standing army, and the aristocracy would combine to refuse him money for such a pur- pose; and the rank and file were scattered and slaughtered in face of a charge of a small num- ber of mailed knights. The defeat of the French knights by the English bowmen was that of a disorderly and insubordinate mob, by a splendid archery which slew their horses and pierced the cheaper armor. But gunpowder at once changed the whole situation. A serf with a $10 hackbut could stand out of reach and kill a knight with his costly armor; and a sovereign could collect and arm a great force of these and use them to put down his unruly vassals. Hence armored knights and horses began to decrease, and standing bodies of foot soldiery with firearms to increase. The change in battle array was cor- respondent: theretofore, even the ablest com- manders had maintained the great depth of Io ranks, traditional from classic times. Gustavus INFECTION Adolphus reduced this to six, deploying to three under fire; while Tilly and Wallenstein and the Other imperial commanders kept to the old phalanx formation. Breitenfeld (1631) and Lützen (1632) were won by this and Gustavus' light artillery. The introduction of the bayonet about 1650 led to a reduction to four ranks. But the greatest single improvement was due to Leopold of Dessau early in the 18th century: he instituted the chief reforms usually credited to Frederick the Great, and formed the armies with which Frederick won his victories. He reduced the ranks to three, making it possible for all to fire, trained them to maneuver with great precision, and wrote the drill-book which is still the basis of all European and American manu- als. Frederick's infantry organization, in regi- ments of two or three battalions, each 500 to 600 strong, was copied by all the other nations; and the general principle of open order, made necessary from the destructiveness of artillery On close masses of men, and possible by the con- fidence in each other bred by civilization, is still retained. Broadly, the difference between ancient and modern infantry is that between mass and mobility. For obvious reasons — cheapness of main- tenance, universal availability of men untrained in horsemanship, ability to march and maneuver on all sorts of ground, less liability to be crip- pled by loss of the animals, etc.— all modern armies consist mainly of infantry; and the nom- inal horse troops are most often dragoons, or soldiers mounted merely for quickness of move- ment, but who fight on foot. The quantities of other arms, as cavalry, artillery, engineer corps, etc., are based on the infantry numbers. The proportions vary in different armies and in dif- ferent functions of the same army, according to nature of service: more or less cavalry and ar- tillery being used according to need of concen- tration, or action in dispersed bodies. Forces like the United States Western troops a genera- tion ago, for instance, in Small Squads on de- tached duty, would have different proportions from a great Continental army in the midst of a campaign. While there is no one system of infantry tactics which can be universally ap- plied, the same cause which has made the change just spoken of has thus far continued to act with steadily increasing force. Artillery continues to grow in power and in range; the danger-line grows ever farther from the enemy; it is nearly impossible, and would be murder- ously losing, to charge in close column across the 2,000 yards which is now the average range. The system adopted is called “extended order,” which means a considerable space between the men, and Small bodies acting separately in a charge; each making a rush for some cover not so far off that they will be blown in reaching it, or will be decimated in the attempt. A certain relation between companies and regiments is kept up, to avoid destruction in detail and enable combined action, but precise parade alignment is not attempted. This involves not only the mutual confidence of civilized men, but some of the independent judgment of those who have not had initiative crushed out of them by red tape: the greatest of modern tacticians and com- manders have expressed a preference for intel- lectual quality over mere numbers, even in the rank and file. In the United States, the ex- *. tended order was first introduced in the Revolu- tion. For the organization of the line in this coun- try, see ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. In addi- tion to this, a few facts may be given: The gen- eral orders of 19 May 1877 fixed the strength of the infantry at 9,575 men, in 25 regiments. The pay ranges from $3,500 a year for the colonel to $13 a month for the private. The appoint- ments are made from the United States Military Academy, from the ranks after two years' Serv- ice and severe examinations, or from civil life if there are no eligibles in the others. The arms are the Krag-Jorgensen and the new Springfield magazine rifle, with knife-bayonet. The equipment is knapsack, haversack with im- plements for meals, canteen, blanket wrapped in piece of shelter tent, and waist-belt with car- tridges. Infection, the introduction of disease- producing micro-organisms in the body. Infec- tion may result in a number of different ways. Micro-organisms may be introduced by means of direct injury. When a person falls and cuts the hand, the bacteria of pus-production or of tetanus may be so introduced, and blood- poisoning or tetanus may develop. Many infec- tions come by means of the intestinal tract. Thus typhoid is commonly obtained from milk or drinking-water. The intestinal worms, tape- worm, roundworm, are contracted in this man- ner, and a number of other parasites, particularly the trichina, may come from infected food taken into the alimentary canal. Infection may also occur by means of the air-passages. The bacillus of tuberculosis is most often taken into the body in this way, and finding suitable soil, it causes the development of the dread disease. The bubonic plague is frequently contracted through the disease-germ entering the air- passages. At the present time it is deemed not unlikely that a number of infectious dis- eases, notably influenza, diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, whooping-cough, are contracted through the respiratory tract by infection with the ex- citing cause. Occasionally direct contact seems necessary for infection, as in gonorrhoea and syphilis. In malaria, and probably in yellow fever, the active agent that causes the disease is introduced into the body by the bite of an insect, the mosquito. In malaria one particular genus (Anopheles) serves as an intermediate host in the developmental history of the para- site, in a manner analogous to the history of the development of a number of the intestinal worms. It is not unlikely that a large number of diseases may be disseminated by the bites of insects of one kind or another. In all the infectious diseases the element of a real, live, and active contagion should never be overlooked. Infectious diseases do not spring out of nothing. There must be some sort of contact in order that a person become infected. A most impor- tant part of the treatment of all infectious diseases is the protection of other people by proper care of all one's own excretions during sickness. The doctrine so frequently taught by some that sickness is ignorance is an important half-truth. But for the ignorance of people con- cerning the proper care of those afflicted with infectious diseases with reference to the pro- tection of others, measles, diphtheria, scarlet INFIDEL – INFINITE fever, whooping-cough, typhoid fever, consump- tion, and a number of other maladies would be entirely eradicated from civilized communities. In’fidel, in modern parlance, one who de- liberately rejects the Christian faith after obtaining knowledge of it. In former times a man might be an infidel who had never heard of Christianity. Infidelis in ecclesiastical lan- guage means “unbelieving,” and is applied to unevangelized heathen as well as doubters and apostates. Thus in the Roman Catholic Church a bishop in partibus infidelium merely means a bishop whose diocese is set in heathen countries. In’finite, a term in metaphysics, which means a reality which has no limit or boundary, in time or space. The idea of the infinite is as old as the Ionian philosophy, when Anaximander (6IO B.C.) declared that the one in the many, the basis of being in Nature, was to &repov, the infinite. The reality of infinitude has been the source of much controversy, and the tendency of many modern philos- Ophers is to deny it. “An infinite number,” says Bosanquet, “would be a number which is no particular number, for every particular num- ber is finite. It follows from this that infinite jumber is unreal.” On the other hand F. H. Bradley states the contrary, in the clearest terms, “We may be asked whether Nature is finite, or infinite. if Nature is infinite, we have the absurdity of a something which exists; and still does not exist. For actual existence is, ob- viously, all finite. But, on the other hand, if Nature is finite, then Nature must have an end, and this again is impossible. For a limit of extension must be relative to an extension beyond. And to fall back on empty space will not help us at all. For this (itself a mere absurdity) repeats the dilemma in an aggra- vated form. But we cannot escape the conclu- sion that Nature is infinite. And this will be true not of our physical system alone, but of every other extended world that can possibly exist. tº Every physical world is, essen- tially and necessarily, infinite.” It seems as if Aristotle had a clearer and more logical view of infinity, to direupov than many modern Positivists, such as Bosanquet. He says, \ettrera, oùv Švyáuet eival to iteupov. He means of course, that, with regard to finite human intelligence, the infinite remains un- realized, although logically it could be realized, and of course, when we speak of infinite time, or infinite creative change in nature, we speak of something which potentially exists, but is only gradually becoming actual. Infinity is also applied to the divisibility of matter. This is termed “infinite fission.” If an atom is divided into two parts, and each of these is again divided into two parts, the mind cannot conceive of any individual fragment re- Sulting from this division as incapable of being divided. Professor Royce of Harvard has undertaken the task of vindicating the concept of the actual Infinite against the charge of self-contradiction. He is controverting Mr. F. H. Bradley of Ox- ford, who while he admits “we cannot escape the conclusion that Nature is infinite,” expresses also his belief that such an assertion is a contradic- tion in terms. Professor Royce accomplishes this vindication by proving the following theses: . I. The true Infinite, both in multitude and in organization, although in one sense endless, and so incapable in that sense of being com: pletely grasped, is in another, and precise Sense, Something perfectly determinate. "Nor is it a mere monotonous repetition of the same, over and over. Each of its determinations has indi- viduality, uniqueness, and novelty about its own nature. 2. This determinateness is a character which, indeed, includes and involves the endlessness of an infinite series; but the mere endlessness of the series is not its primary character, but simply a negatively stated result of the self- representative character of the whole system. 3. The endlessness of the series means that by no merely successive process of counting, in God or in man, is its wholeness ever ex- hausted. . 4. In consequence, the whole endless series, in so far as it is a reality, must be present, as a determinate order, but also all at once, to the absolute experience. It is the process of suc- cessive counting, as such, that remains, to the end, incomplete, so as to imply that its own pos- sibilities are not yet realized. Hence, the re- Current processes of thought reveal eternal truth about the infinite constitution of real Be- ing, their everlastingly pursued Other; but themselves, as mere processes in time—they are not that Other. The true Other is, therefore, that self-representative system of which they are at Once portions, imitations and expressions. 5. The Reality is such a self-represented and infinite system. And herein lies the basis of its very union, within itself of the one and the many. For the one purpose of self-representa- tion demands an infinite multiplicity to express it; while no multiplicity is reducible to unity except through processes involving self-repre- sentation. 6. Nevertheless, the Real is exclusive as well as inclusive. On the side of its thought the Absolute does conceive a barely possible in- finity, other than the real infinity, a possible world, whose characters, as universal characters, are present to the Absolute, and are known by virtue of the fact the Absolute thinks. This brings metaphysics face to face with the notion of a Supreme Being, who is infinite or absolute. With the mystics God is infinite love, joy and wisdom to his human children. The Hindus taught that God was the infinite universe, the Other, the reality. “That (that is, the Universe) art thou,” was their dictum. Christianity teaches that “God is of infinite power, wisdom and goodness,” of which qualities the best of men have but a finite endowment. The term “infinite” was introduced into geome- try by Kepler in his ‘Nova Stereometria Dol- iorum; accessit Stereometriae Archimedeae Sup- plementum.” Thus he considered a circle as formed by an “infinite” number of triangles, hav- ing their vertices at the centre, and their bases at the circumference. A cone, likewise, he taught, was composed of an “infinite” number of pyramids, having their vertices at the vertex, and standing on an “infinite” number of triangular bases, bounded by the circular base of the cone. In this sense infinite means incommensurable, not to be expressed by a finite mathematical formula. Consult: Bradley, “Appearance and INFINITIVE — INFLAMMATION Reality”; Royce, ‘The World and the Individ: ual’; Bosanquet, “Logic’’; Couturat, “L’Infini mathematique.” Infinitive, the indefinite mode in which the verb is represented without a subject. As the verb expresses an action, or a state, it gen- erally belongs to a subject whose action or State is expressed; but if we wish to express the mere idea of this action or state we use the in- finitive, which, therefore, in many languages is employed without further chance as a substan- tive — for instance, in Greek and German — only preceded by the neuter article; but as the verb expresses an action or state under certain con- ditions of time, the infinitive can also express the action or state in the present, past, or future, though these conditions are not expressed in all languages by peculiar forms. Some languages have not even a peculiar form for the infinitive, and must express it by some grammatical con- trivance, as is the case in English, where it is denoted by to prefixed to the general uninflected form of the verb, as to love = Latin amare; to have loved = Latin amavisse. The infinitive may be regarded as the point of transition from a verb to a substantive, and is often used as the subject of a proposition. Like a noun, also, it is often used as an object, as I love to ride. Infin'ity, and the Infinitesimal. See INFI- NITE. Inflammation, a term long used to indicate the phenomena that follow mechanical, chemical, or physical injuries to living tissues. These changes have been described for centuries as rubor (redness), calor (heat), dolor (pain), and tumor (swelling), which are the phenomena particularly seen on surface inflammations. At the present time the idea is becoming fixed that inflammation is a conservative process, the phe- nomena attending nature's effort to rid the tis- sue of harmful substances. In the normal pro- cess of repair of an injury there are changes which closely resemble the milder types of in- flammation; but when to a mechanical, chemical, or physical injury there is added a growth of micro-organisms, the reply on the part of the body-cells differs from the ordinary repair of injury. The changes witnessed depend upon the strength and kind of invading micro-organ- ism and the particular tissue invaded. The first change is hyperatinia, a suffusion of the part with blood from capillary dilatation; following this the liquid part of the blood, the serum, is poured out into the tissues and offers its resisting pow- ers to the poisonous substance. If these meas- ures be insufficient, the white blood-cells called phagocytes congregate in the tissues, destroying the invading organisms, by actually consuming them and neutralizing their toxic products. During this struggle there is more or less death of the cells, called “degeneration”; large masses “slough”; the remnants of the cells and the phagocytes killed form the thick fluid called pus. When an inflammation goes on to the formation of pus, it is spoken of as purulent or suppura- tive. Certain poisons cause a peculiar reaction on the part of the tissues, characterized by the formation of new tissue that is unable to carry on the function of the part. This tissue is the same as the connective tissues, and the pro- cess is called productive inflamination. The poisons that continue to act for a long time are particularly apt to cause this reaction, and the inflammation is called chronic because of its permanency. Catarrhal inflammations are these same processes when they occur in mucous mem- branes; the appearance of these catarrhs, how- ever, is different, owing to the peculiar struc- ture of mucous membrane and to the fact of the epithelial covering offering excellent re- sistance to invasion. When death of cells Oc- curs they can readily be cast off. Croupous inflammation is the term used to describe those in which there is considerable destruction of the superficial layers of the mucous membrane, which, with the fibrin of the blood, forms a coating or “false membrane” on the surface. Granulation tissue (q.v.) is the name applied to the tissue formed during the repair of an in- jury. Names are given to certain types of in- flammation having a characteristic appearance to the naked eye, but microscopically there is noth- ing absolutely distinctive in these except their arrangement. Particular examples of these are tubercular and syphilitic inflammations. The majority of the diseases of the body that we recognize as entities are due to inflammation in some tissue or organ, but the picture depends on the various changes in the functions of differ- ent parts of the body. The kind and virulence of the generated poison, together with the re- action on the part of the body-tissues, makes the complete picture that we seek to recog- nize. The treatment of inflammation is, in large part, the practice of medicine and surgery. Ef- forts to help the tissues combat against invasion are made with more success as knowledge is gathered of the peculiar invading forces and the natural modes of defense. It is not that we wish to combat the inflammation per se, but rather to make it unnecessary by helping it to a successful issue. The actual destruction of the bacteria by drugs introduced into the body is of little use, for they would be apt to cause as much destruction of the body-cells as of the invading cells; but their toxines, which cause the actual damage, we are learning to neutral- ize by the administration of artificially prepared antitoxins, and by placing the body and its spe- cial tissues under the most favorable conditions for developing its natural forces of resistance. In exposed parts of the body, where anti- septics may be applied, the toxic germs may be killed, and various measures that change the blood-supply may be advantageous. Where death of tissue takes place, nature may require help in its removal. It has long been the rule to evacuate pus wherever it is formed, unless its escape from the tissues is easy. The treatment of chronic inflammation is en- tirely different, as this is a process where actual structure is changed beyond repair in many in- stances. The all-important question is whether the tissue can carry on its proper functions; for if it can, the body need not suffer. The inflam- matory process is arrested in its progress by the removal of the irritating cause, by improving the blood-supply of the part and the vitality of the body generally. These constitute the measures in general applied for the cure of chronic in- flammations, it being understood that the en- deavor is to place the tissues in such a condi- tion that they may carry on their functions for the good of the whole organism; and the failure of these measures shows either that they are at INFLEXION – INFLUENZA fault or that the tissue-change has gone too far. Inflammation of any part is indicated by adding the suffix “itis” to the name of the organ or tis- sue. See BRONCHITIS, COLITIS, LARYNGITIS, MENINGITIS ; etc. DUDLEY D. ROBERTS, M.D., Brooklyn, N. Y. Inflexion (Latin, infleario, a bending), that process in grammar which modifies words when placed in relation to other words in a sentence. Pronominal and predicative roots are combined to form one word in the Semitic and Aryan tongues, which are therefore called inflexional, a process impossible in monosyllabic languages like the Chinese or in languages of the agglu- tinate order like those of the Turanian family. In grammar, cases, numbers, persons, tenses, etc., are known as inflexions, and in many in- stances the original affixes can be readily recog- nized. The Semitic and Aryan families of lan- guages, which admit of phonetic corruption both in the root and the terminations, are called or- ganic or amalgamating languages. The pro- nominal termination varies according to the person or number. Thus the Sanskrit mi, si, ti, the endings of the three persons singular of the present of the verb, are perhaps from the per- Sonal pronouns ma, sva, ta, and the persons of the plural indicate the plural number by the form of the pronominal affixes. The plural of masculine and feminine Greek and Latin nouns of the third declension is probably a contrac- tion of the duplication of sa, the pronoun of the third person. The verbs i, to go, as and fu, to be, supply the inflexions of certain tenses of the verb, there being also a pronominal termination varying according to the person. In English the common auxiliary verbs am, do, have, shall, will, may, can, asserting respectively existence, action, possession, obligation, volition, liberty, power, assume the function of inflexions, and are themselves inflected to denote past time. In French the same inflexional law exists, the con- nection between the auxiliary and the root being closer than in English. Aimer-ai, I have to love, that is, I shall love, is compounded of the infinitive aimer, to love, and ai, I have, the first perSon present indicative of avoir. The same is the case in Italian and Spanish. Inflores'cence, Infructescence, botanical terms referring , respectively to methods of flowering and fruit-bearing. The flowering shoot, says Strasburger, frequently bears only a single flower, which may then be either axillary or terminal. In many cases, however, the meta- morphosis of the generative region, which results in the production of flowers, has led to the formation of a special system of fertile shoots termed an inflorescence or, after the fruit is formed, an infructescence. (See FLowers; FRUIT.) Such inflorescences are wanting or ill developed among the Gymnosperms, while in the Angiosperms they are often well differentiated, constituting unities of a higher order. The modifications exhibited by the fertile shoots of such an inflorescence are due, partly to a differ- ençe in their mode of branching, partly to the reduction or the metamorphosis of their leaves. These changes are the result of an adaption to pollination, in the endeavor to aggregate the flowers and at the same time render them more conspicuous by the reduction of the foliage. leaves. Sometimes the whole system of fertile shoots is converted into an attractive apparatus, as in the Araceae, where the axis and the sub- tending leaf of the inflorescence have assumed the function, usually exercised by the perianth, of enticing insects. Viewed from a purely mor- phological standpoint, two types of inflorescences may be distinguished, the Botryose (racemose, monopodial) and the Cymose (sympodial). Influenza, la grippe; an epidemic catarrhal fever, now believed to be due to a very minute bacillus that can be found in the various Secre- tions. Epidemics of this disease have been traced back as far as the beginning of the I6th century, and since 1741 many such epidemics spreading over portions of Europe have been described. There are so many different types of the disease, and so many parts of the body may be distinctly attacked by it that it some- what baffles close definition. The epidemics vary much in severity as well as in type. During the last decade it has become almost constantly present over portions of the United States, in some years being much worse than in others. So great is the variation of its symptomatol- Ogy that no standard description can be given, and the types are classified according to promi- nent features. After one to four days of in- cubation, the disease usually sets in abruptly with chilliness or true rigor; this is followed by a fever (which may be constantly low or may run very high), headache and general aching, and a degree of prostration out of proportion to any discoverable cause. The respiratory form is characterized by inflammation of the nasal, the pharyngeal, the laryngeal, the tracheal, and the bronchial membranes. Starting in the nasal mucous membrane, the inflammation is apt to involve the other membranes in the order given. It is quite common for the lungs to show small spots of bronchopneumonia. There is frequently nothing to distinguish such an influenza from similar acute catarrhs of the respiratory passages except the known presence of an epidemic and the disproportionate prostration. The gastro- intestinal form is characterized by nausea, vom- iting, abdominal pain and profuse watery dis- charge, with prostration sometimes amounting to collapse. The typhoid form is characterized by the sudden development of rather high fever (with or without severe aches and pains), gen- eral apathy, or even a low muttering delirium. The fever runs from a few days to two weeks, and may very closely resemble typhoid. The nervous form is characterized by severe pains throughout the entire body, prostration, moder- ate fever, but no definite affection of any part Or Organ. The meningeal form is characterized by headache, fear of light, pain and stiffness of the muscles of the back of the neck. Complications and extension of the inflam- mation to other parts are common. Pneumonia complicating influenza is rather apt to be very severe, and in some epidemics the mortality rises very high. Pleurisy is quite common. Great disturbance of the heart’s action is seen in some cases, and the poison may actually attack the lining membrane of its chambers. Less com- monly there is inflammation of the eye, ear, brain, liver, intestine, or kidneys. The skin is sometimes affected, showing a general blushing rash, herpes (small painful itchy blisters), or bloody patches. A very common sequel is great INFORMER – INFUSORIA nervous depression, either an inability to make bodily or mental exertion or “low Spirits,” even amounting to true melancholia. Unless influenza is epidemic, differential diagnosis may be very difficult, but hasty refuge in a diagnosis of “grippe” is far too common ; in doubtful cases search should be made for the specific bacillus and considerable reliance placed on the presence or absence of the characteristic Symptom, ex- treme weakness. For the disease there is no specific treatment; the infecting organism must continue to grow until the natural defenses of the body overcome it; as yet no means has been discovered of kill- ing the bacillus in the body or overcoming its poisons by an antitoxin. Careful isolation of the affected individual will prevent the spread of the disease to other members of the family, and much can be done for the patient’s relief. Useful measures consist in securing thorough action of the bowels, keeping up the nutrition by simple, easily digested foods, and the admin- istration of drugs such as phenacetin, acetanilid, caffeine, and bromides to relieve the distressing pains or nervous tension. The nervous exhaus- tion which is apt to follow is best treated by a period of mental rest, nourishing diet, and little or no bodily exertion. DUDLEY D. Roberts, M.D., Brooklyn, N. Y. Infor’mer, a person who sues for a penalty against those who have infringed any law or penal statute. To encourage the apprehending of certain felons, guilty of offenses not so much criminal as bordering on criminality, many Eng- lish statutes, from 1692 downward, granted re- wards to such as should prosecute to conviction. The penalty in whole or in part inflicted in the case of a successful conviction, and immunity from certain troublesome parish offices, were the inducements held out to informers. In many cases this practice has been resorted to in modern statutes. In the United States one who informs the government of the whereabouts of smuggled goods, counterfeit money, etc., is rewarded by a fee of ten per cent of the net value of the con- fiscated goods. In criminal law an informer is said to turn state's evidence (q.v.). Infu'sion, in pharmacy, an aqueous solu- tion of a medicinal substance obtained by treat- ing with water, usually without the aid of boiling. The water may be either hot or cold, varying with the object to be obtained. According to the directions of the United States Pharmaco- poeia, infusions are generally prepared by pour- ing boiling water upon the drug and macerating in a tightly closed vessel until the liquid cools. The active principles are in this manner ex- tracted more rapidly and, as a rule, in much larger portions than if the solution is colder. Heat is not advisable if the active principles are volatile. If an infusion is desired of a greater degree of concentration than that obtained by the process of maceration, it is frequently pre- pared by percolation, in which operation the drug is sliced or broken up into small fragments, packed in a percolator, and the water, either hot or cold, is passed through. Infusions are sometimes made with the aid of other liquids than water, but this is the exception rather than the rule. Infusions do not keep well, and there- fore they shºuld be made extemporaneously and O1. 9–4 in Small quantities. In household medicine, in- fusions are very widely employed. These may be made at home or made by the pharmacist. It is essential to remember that if they are made in hot weather in large quantities they must be sterilized. Infusion of saline solution into the blood- vessels is a very important procedure in medi- cine. It is employed largely in the treatment of shock, and in severe hemorrhage, especially following operations or childbirth. The solu- tion that is used is known as a normal Salt- Solution, and consists of about one teaspoonful of common salt to a pint of water. This solu- tion should be boiled carefully for one half to three quarters of an hour, the amount of evapo- rating water being made up as the boiling pro- ceeds, and after being made it should be kept in large bottles provided with cotton plugs for stoppers. In severe cases of hemorrhage, in- fusion has often saved life, as it provides a body of fluid on which the heart and blood-vessels can act. The salt-solution is usually introduced into one of the large veins of the arm at a temperature of one to two degrees above that of the body-temperature. See BLOOD ; TRANSFU- SION. Infuso'ria, Protozoa of the classes Flagel- lata and Ciliata, originally so-called from abounding in organic infusions. While the term is now restricted to the ciliate protozoans, it often includes the flagellate protozoans as well. The latter are represented by the monads. These are exceedingly minute round or pear-shaped animals, which move by one or two lash-like processes called flagella. They contain a nucleus and contractile vesicles. Some of them are fixed by a stalk, and are provided with a collar, as in Codosiga, out of which the flagellum projects. One of the simplest monads (Heteromita) is obtained by placing a cod's head in water at a temperature of about 70° F. In a few days the water will swarm with these monads. The young germs will live in boiling water, but perish at a temperature of from 212° to 268° F., while the adults are destroyed at I42° F. In the ciliate infusoria the body is more or less flattened and covered with cilia (Para- Amecium, etc.). They have on the under side of the body a slightly defined mouth (or cytostome), which is permanently open, and the food is swept into it by the action of the cilia around it. The mouth leads into a funnel-shaped throat or cytopharynx, which ends in the protoplasm of the body. The food-particles swept into this throat and pressed into the protoplasm form a small enlargement which finally sinks farther in forming the “food vacuole,” which, by the flow of the protoplasm, is carried about the body, while the digestible portions are ab- Sorbed and the waste matter is cast out at a fixed point, a sort of vent (cytopyge). The fresh-water forms have contractile vesicles, and in certain species the animal possesses so-called stinging rods (tricho cysts), which are very minute and are placed vertically to the surface of the cortex; by some students they are sup- posed to be tactile rather than stinging struc tures. What correspond to the muscular fibres of the higher animals, cause the quick convulsive movements observed in these creatures. Two important Organs are present in all ciliate in- INGALLS – INGERSOLL fusoria, that is the nuclei. The larger nucleus (macronucleus) is an oval, rod-like or spiral body, which appears to control the processes of feeding and motion. The other nucleus (micro- nucleus) is much smaller and is concerned with reproduction. Reproduction occurs usually by self-division, and more rarely the infusorians contract into a ball and divide into spores, which grow to become adults. The periods of fission are at times interrupted by the process of conjugation, which only differs from sexual reproduction in the fact that two individual infusorians meet and fuse together and then Separate, the result being a process of fertiliza- tion which leads to a complete new formation of the nucleus, and thus to a new organization of the animal. (For a more detailed account see Hertwig-Kingsley's ‘Zoology? 1903). The more specialized infusoria are Stentor and Vorticella. The former is large enough to be seen without a lens. It is purplish, and under the microscope shows itself to be a beautiful creature. . . It is trumpet-shaped, with a spiral tract of thicker cilia around the mouth-end. The most highly organized Infusoria are the bell- animalcules (carchesium, etc.), which are com- pound bell-shaped forms, forming colonies with forked branched stalks. The nucleus is sausage- shaped, and near it is the micronucleus. They form a white mass like mold on the stems and leaves of aquatic plants. Some of the infusoria are parasitic in the digestive and circulatory Organs of the higher animals. Many of the Species art cosmopolitan; this is due to their great vitality, since they may dry up, and their bodies float about in the air in wind currents, and thus conveyed over the earth, reviving again when falling into the water. Consult: Stein, ‘Organismus der Infusions-Thiere? (1859–83); Saville Kent, ‘Manual of the In- fusoria” (1880–2); M. Hartog, (Protozoa) (Vol. I., Cambridge Natural History, 1903); Ray Lankester, ‘Treatise on Zoology” (1902); Hertwig-Kingsley, ‘Zoology” (1903). In'galls, John James, American lawyer: b. Middleton, Mass., 29 Dec. 1833; d. Las Vegas, New Mexico 16 Aug. 1900. He was graduated from Williams College in 1855, and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1857. In 1858 he moved to Kansas and established a law practice there. He was secretary of the territorial council in 1860, and of the State senate in 1861, and in I862 was elected a member of the senate. In 1873 he became a member of the United States Senate, and was re-elected in 1879 and 1885. He was always a strong supporter of the Re- publican policy, and gained a wide reputation as a public speaker. He was president pro tem. of the Senate from 1887–91. In 1891 he was again a candidate for senator, but was defeated by the Farmers’ Alliance. From that time till his death he devoted himself chiefly to lecturing and writing. Ingalls, Rufus, American soldier: b. Den- mark, Maine, 23 Aug. 1820; d. 15 Jan. 1893. He was graduated from West Point in 1843, fought in the Mexican War and in the Civil War, serv- ing with distinction in the Army of the Potomac. He became quartermaster-general of the United States army in 1882 and was retired in 1883. Ingelow, in'jé-1ö, Jean, English poet and novelist: b. Boston, Lincolnshire, 1820; d. Ken- (1875); sington, London, 20 July 1897. Her first pub- lished work appeared anonymously in 1850 under the title ‘Rhyming Chronicle of Incidents and Feelings.” It was followed by “Allerton and Dreux; or the War of Opinion’ (1851), a story, and ‘Tales of Orris’ (1860) ; but not till the publication of “Poems,” in 1863, did Miss Ingelow become famous. This volume won the enthusiastic praise of critics and the instant ap- proval of the public, and passed through 23. editions. The most widely appreciated poems in it are ‘The High Tide on the Coast of Lin- colnshire? ; ‘Songs of Seven?; ‘Divided”; and ‘Supper at the Mill.” Later volumes were: ‘Studies for Stories? (1864); ‘Stories told to a Child” (1865); “A Story of Doom, and Other Poems? (1867); ‘Mopsa the Fairy” (1869);. “Off the Skelligs? (1872), her first long story; ‘The Little Wonder Horn? (1872), a new series of stories told to a child; ‘Fated to be Free? ‘Sarah de Berenger? (1880); ‘Don John? (1881); and ‘John Jerome’ (1886). A third volume of verse, “Monitions of the Un- seen” was published in 1885. Her works have been even more popular in America than in her native country. Ingersoll, ing'gér sūl, Charles Jared, American statesman, lawyer, and author: Son of Jared Ingersoll (q.v.); b. Philadelphia 3 Oct. 1782; d. there 14 May 1862. After finishing his collegiate course he studied law, was admitted to practice, traveled in Europe, and became at- tached to the American embassy to France. In 1812 he was elected to Congress, taking his seat in May 1813. In 1815 he was appointed United States district attorney for Pennsylvania, an office which he held until 1829. Shortly after he was elected to the legislature of Penn- sylvania. He was a member of Congress I84I-7 as representative of one of the districts of which the county of Philadelphia was then composed. He was the author of the poems ‘Chiomara? (1800), and “Julian? (1831); and of ‘Inchiquin — the Jesuit's Letters on American Literature and Politics? (1810); ‘Historical Sketch of the Second War between the United States and Great Britain? (1845–52); etc. Con- sult Meigs, ‘Charles Jared Ingersoll” (1896). Ingersoll, Ernest, American naturalist: b. Monroe, Mich., 13 March 1852. He studied at Oberlin College and in the Lawrence Scientific School and Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University, where he was a pupil of Agassiz, and in 1874 and 1877 was connected as naturalist with the Hayden survey. He was also an expert on the United States fish com- mission, and later became known as a popular writer and lecturer on scientific subjects. In 1901 he was lecturer in zoology at the University of Chicago. Among his works are: ‘Nests and Eggs of North American Birds? (1880–1); ‘Oyster Industries of the United States (1881); ‘Knocking 'Round the Rockies’ (1883); ‘Coun- try Cousins? (1884); ‘The Crest of the Con- tinent” (1884); ‘Down East Latch-Strings? (1887); ‘Wild Neighbors” (1897); ‘The Book of the Ocean? (1898); ‘Nature’s Calendar? (1900); and ‘Wild Life of Orchard and Field? (1902); and also ‘The Ice Queen,” and several other popular juvenile tales. n Ingersoll, Jared, American lawyer: b. Connecticut 1749; d. Philadelphia 21 Oct. 1822. Having been graduated at Yale College in 1766, INGERSOLL – INGRAHAM he went to London, was entered of the Middle Temple, and passed five years in the study of law. The American Revolution breaking out while he was still in London, he espoused the cause of the colonies, although the Son of a loyalist. He went from London to Paris, where he remained for 18 months, making the acquaint- ance of Franklin. Returning home, he took up his residence in Philadelphia, where he won almost immediately a prominent position as a lawyer. In 1787 he was chosen one of the representatives of Pennsylvania in the conven- tion which framed the United States Constitu- tion. Twice attorney-general of the State, he was United States district attorney for Penn- Sylvania, and was in 1812 the federal candidate for Vice-President of the United States. Ingersoll, Robert Green, American lawyer, lecturer and author: b. Dresden, N. Y., II Aug. 1833; d. Dobb's Ferry, N. Y., 21 July 1899. He received a common school education and was admitted to the bar in 1854. He soon became prominent in the courts and in Democratic poli- tics. In the Civil War he recruited the IIth Illinois cavalry and entered the army as its colonel. On 29 Nov. 1862, while trying with a force of 600 men to intercept a Confederate raiding party he was captured by a force of IO,000 men, but was soon paroled and given command of a camp in St. Louis. He soon after- ward resigned. After the war he became a Republican, and was made attorney-general of Illinois in 1866. He was a delegate to the Re- publican National Convention in 1876 and placed in nomination for President, James G. Blaine, whom he termed “the plumed knight.” His nominating speech gave him national reputation as an orator, and he afterward lectured fre- quently. He was an agnostic, and in his lec- tures attacked the Bible and the beliefs of the Christian religion. He was prominent in poli- tics for several years, and had he not given such frequent expression to his agnostic views he would doubtless have been honored with high offices. He took up his permanent residence in New York city in 1882 and practised law there till his death. His most famous lectures include ‘Some Mistakes of Moses? ; ‘The Family’; ‘The Liberty of Man, Woman, and Child’; ‘The Gods”; and “Ghosts.” His publi- cations include ‘Lectures Complete? (1886); ‘Prose, Poems and Selections’ (1888); and ‘Great Speeches” (1887); ‘Mistakes of Moses? (1879). A complete collection of his works was published in 1900. Ingersoll, Canada, town in Oxford County, Ont., on the Thames River and the Grand Trunk railroad, 19 miles northeast of London. It has newspapers, banks, a number of churches, and varied industries. Lumber and grain are among its larger exports, and it has manufactures of iron products, machinery, agri- cultural implements, woolen goods, woodenware, and cheese. Pop. (1901) 4,572. Ingham, Charles Cromwell, American painter: b. Dublin, Ireland, 1797; d. New York Io Dec. 1863. He was a pupil of William Cun- ning at the Dublin Academy, came to New York in 1817, was there a founder of the Na- tional Academy of Design (1826), and its vice- president in 1845–50. He became well known as a portrait artist, and De Witt Clinton, G. C. Verplanck, and Lafayette were among his sub- jects. His further works include: ‘Day Dreams’ ; ‘The White Plume”; “The Death of Cleopatra.” Inglis, ing'1z, Charles, American Anglican bishop : b. New York 1734; d. Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1816. He was ordained priest in Eng-. land, and in 1765 became assistant minister at Trinity Church, New York. A stout loyal- ist, he refused to omit from the service the prayer for the king and royal family, and upon the occupation of New York by Washington retired for a time to Long Island. In 1777 he was chosen to the rectorship of Trinity, and in 1783, at the evacuation of New York by the British, went to Halifax in the emigration of the United Empire loyalists. He was conse- crated in I787 bishop of Nova Scotia (with jurisdiction over the other North American provinces), and was the first missionary bishop of the Church of England. He published ser– mons and pamphlets. In'got, a small bar of metal formed by casting it in molds. The term is chiefly ap- plied to the bars of gold and silver intended for coining. Ingraham, ing'gra-am, Duncan Nathaniel, American naval officer: b. Charleston, S. C., 6 Dec. 1802; d. there 16 Oct. 1891. He entered the navy as midshipman in 1812, and became a captain in 1855. While in command of the sloop of war St. Louis he arrived at Smyrna 22 June 1853, and was informed that Martin Koszta, Hungarian by birth, but entitled to the protec- tion of the United States, was a prisoner on board the Austrian brig of war Hussar, then lying near the St. Louis. Ingraham went on board the Hussar, had an interview with Koszta, and learned that he had resided a year and II months in New York, where he took the usual oath of allegiance to the United States in July 1852, and was in possession of a legalized copy of a declaration of his intention to become an American citizen ; that he had come to Smyrna from New York on business; that on the afternoon of 21 June he was seized by a party of armed Greeks, employed by the Austrian consul-general, carried on board the Hussar, where he was held in close confine- ment. Ingraham accordingly, on 2 July, at 8 A.M., demanded of the Austrian commander the release of Koszta by 4 P.M., declaring that he would otherwise take him by force. At II o'clock the Austrian consul-general proposed to deliver Koszta into the hands of the French consul, to be held by him subject to the dis- position of the consuls of the United States and Austria, and not to be delivered without their joint order. As this proposition gave sufficient assurance of the personal safety of Koszta Ingraham accepted it, and the Hun- garian was set at liberty. The conduct of In- graham was fully approved by the government, and Congress by joint resolution, 4 Aug. 1854, requested the President to present a medal to him for his conduct on this occasion. In 1860 he resigned from the United States navy, en- tered the Confederate service and became a commodore. . . Ingraham, Joseph Holt, American novel- ist: b. Portland, Maine, 1809; d. Holly Springs, Miss., December 1866. After brief experience INGRAHAM – INHERITANCE TAX of mercantile life he became teacher in Wash- ington College, Natchez, Miss., and in 1836 pub- lished his first book, ‘The South-West, by a Yankee.” Thenceforth he produced in rapid succession “Lafitte”; “Burton, or the Sieges’; ‘Captain Kyd’; ‘The Dancing Feather”; and other romances of Small literary merit, some of which attained a large circulation. He sub- sequently entered the Episcopal ministry and was rector of a parish and of St. Thomas's Hall, an academy for boys, in Holly Springs, Miss. He still continued to write, publishing ‘Prince of the House of David’ (1855) and the ‘Pillar of Fire? (1859); ‘The Throne of David,” which were widely popular, but nearly worthless from a literary point of view. Ingraham, Prentiss, American soldier and author: b. Adams County, Miss., 22 Dec. 1843. He was educated at Jefferson College (Miss.), also studied medicine at the Mobile Medical College, entered the army of the Confederate States in 1861, fought later with Juarez in Mexico, with the Austrian army in the war with Prussia, and in the ten-years' war for independence in Cuba. Subsequently he en- tered a literary career, and published a great quantity of fiction, including: “Without Heart? (1878); ‘Zuleikah” (1887); ‘Red Rovers on Blue Waters’ (1890); ‘The Vagabond? (1891); and ‘The Wandering Jew of the Sea? (1891). g In’gram, John Kells, English educator and author: b. County Donegal, Ireland, 7 July 1823. He was educated at Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, and was appointed professor of oratory and English literature there in 1852, Regius professor of Greek in 1866, and libra- rian in 1879. At one time he was vice-provost of the college, and also held the presidency of the Royal Irish Academy. His ‘History of Political Economy,” originally printed in the 9th edition of the ‘Encyclopaedia Britannica,” was separately published in 1888 and widely translated. He further wrote: ‘A History of Slavery and Serfdom? (1895); ‘Sonnets and other Poems? (1900); ‘Human Nature and Morals according to Auguste Comte” (1901), and other works. Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste, zhöh dó-mé-nēk Ö-güst àng-r, French historical painter: b. Montauban I5 Sept. 1781 ; d. Paris 14 Jan. 1814. Placed in the school of David he made such rapid progress that at 20 he had gained in two successive years the first and second prizes of the Academy of Fine Arts, In 1806 he departed for Italy, where he passed nearly 20 years, abandoning, under the influ- ence of a close study of Raphael and the old masters, the dry, classic style acquired from David. His works are numerous, and comprise generally serious historical and classical sub- jects; in the great exhibition of 1855 at Paris an entire salon was appropriated to them. Many are in the Louvre, on the ceiling of one of the apartments of which is painted his ‘Apotheosis of Homer.” He painted the por- traits of many distinguished personages, from Napoleon I. downward. The art of Ingres is adjudged to hold a middle place between the classic and the romantic schools. . Inhalation, in medicine, a mode of apply- ing remedies directly to the respiratory tract. Either steam alone, steam charged with drug- vapors, or drugs finely subdivided in sprays, are breathed into the air-passages as deeply as possible. This method of medication is useful only in relieving inflammations of the upper air-passages and possibly the trachea and larger bronchi. The air in the smaller bronchi is not changed by breathing, but by the diffu- Sion of gases, so that substances in aérial sus- pension are deposited on the surface before reaching the smaller divisions of the bronchial tubes. Steam does not penetrate far, but is cooled, and deposits moisture as far as the trachea. The old-fashioned croup-kettle and many devices for carrying out the same idea are used for the first stages of laryngitis. Many substances, such as tincture of benzoin, etc., are added to the boiling water, but render it no more efficacious. Instead of conducting the steam directly to the mouth and nose by a funnel or tube, it may be well to place the pa- tient in a simply enclosed tent, formed of bed- clothes, and to allow the steam to charge the confined air. This method is particularly ad- visable for infants and older children. . Inher'itance, in law, a perpetual or contin- uing right to an estate invested in a person and his heirs. There are nine “canons of inher- itance”; three may be quoted: (1) That in- heritance shall, in the first place, descend to the issue of the last purchaser in infinitum; (2) That the male issue shall be admitted before the female; (3) That where two or more of the male sex are in equal degree of consanguin- ity to the purchaser, the eldest only shall in- herit, but the females all together. Inheritance Tax, an assessment laid upon those made heirs of property, either by distri- bution or descent. is confined to collateral heirs, when it is called collateral inheritance tax. The raising of pub- lic funds in this way has been sanctioned by legislation from the beginning of Roman law, and in England and other countries is a large and steady source of revenue, although such taxes have been stigmatized by certain econo- mists as “death duties.” During the Civil War taxes of this kind were made part of the in- ternal revenue system of the United States, but abolished soon after the struggle ended. The rate and method of assessment vary in different countries, and in different States of the Union. The English inheritance tax ranges from a I to a Io per cent assessment, in accordance with the amount of the inheritance and the degree of relationship of heirs. In the United States lineal, collateral and succession inheritance taxes have been instituted in several States, as a source of domestic revenue. In Connecticut the assessment on inherited property is 5 per cent on all sums and values above $1,000. In Delaware the assessment ranges from I to 5 per cent, according to the amount of property left, and the degree of relationship. In Illinois, I per cent on values over $20,000 to lineal de- scendants; 2 per cent to 5 per cent on all amounts to collateral relations. In Maryland, 2% per cent on all legacies and successions. In New York, I per cent on all property over the amount of $10,000 to lineal heirs, 5 per cent on all amounts over $500 to collateral relatives. In Ohio, 5 per cent on all values over $500. In Sometimes this assessment . . INIA – INJUNCTION Virginia, 5 per cent in every case. Several States leave untaxed the property descending or distributed to the lineal descendants, and place assessments of varying percentage on the amount or value of the legacy which falls to collateral heirs. These are California, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, Tennes- see, West Virginia. Inheritance laws have in the United States occasioned much discussion and litigation, but their justice and utility have been testified to by experience and the decision of the law courts. The leading economists of the present and the other periods have seen the Sci- entific propriety, even necessity, of such legal provisions, and have noted the uniformity with which they deal with all classes of the financial community. In’ia, a genus of toothed cetaceans similar to dolphins, but placed on structural grounds in the allied family Platanistidae, with the fresh- water dolphins of the Ganges and the La Plata. The single species (I. groffrensis) is called bouto and tucuxi, and is found in some of the upper tributaries of the Amazon, and in the lakes near the Cordilleras. It measures about eight feet in length, has a long cylindrical snout with stiff hairs, and a very slight dorsal fin. It feeds chiefly on fish, and is hunted for the sake of its oil. Injunction, a writ issued by a court of equity, bidding, or forbidding, a person or per- sons to do a certain thing. The injunction orig- inated in Roman law, and was anciently known as an interdict, a name it still bears in Scottish practice. It was introduced as a remedy for some of the abuses of common law, and as a preventive, when evasion of common law pro- visions seemed possible. It is to-day one of the most potent of the legal remedies of an equitable character which stand on the statute books. There are three main divisions in the pur- poses for which a writ of injunction is issued. A writ may be prohibitive, protective, or restorative. In the first place it may forbid the commission of certain acts of a civil nature which are charged with injustice. Second, it may be so framed as to protect such civil rights of an individual or a corporation as seem to be threatened. Third, it may order the restitu- tion or restoration of such rights as have un- lawfully been taken away from an individual or a corporation. These characters of the writ have been clearly expounded by Blackstone, as follows: “This writ may be had to stay proceedings at law, whatever stage they may have reached; to restrain alienations of property pendente lite, and tenants for life and others having limited interest from committing waste. It may be granted to restrain the negotiation of bills of exchange, the sailing of a ship, the transfer of stock, or the alienation of a specific chattel, to prohibit assignees from making a dividend, to prevent parties from removing out of the juris- diction, or from marrying, or having any inter- course, which the court disapproves of, with a ward. The infringement of a copyright or a patent frequently calls for the exercise of this beneficial process; which may also be had to restrain the fraudulent use of trade marks, or of the names, labels, or other indiciae of the makers or vendors of goods and merchandise, and in a large class of cases, far too numerous to be mentioned here.” - The first two kinds of injunction are most commonly used, and a familiar example of the prohibitory writ is that which orders the abate- ment of a nuisance. A railroad which lays tracks without first gaining the right of way may be compelled by injunction to remove them, By such a writ patent rights, copyrights and trade marks are secured from infringement, or proceedings in a court of law are stayed. . Some— times a court of equity issues an injunction pro- hibiting litigants within its own jurisdiction from prosecuting a suit in another jurisdiction; for example, a United States court may restrain creditors for suing in State courts for the en- forcement of their claims against a bankrupt, and reserve the disposition of his estate to its own jurisdiction. A court of equity only issues a writ of injunction when a remedy of law ap- pears inadequate to give the wronged party the complete relief to which he is entitled. Thus in recent cases the courts have issued writs for- bidding labor agitators and others from induc- ing or coercing workingmen, in such a way as to bring on a strike to the injury and damage of employers, who might thus be induced to sacrifice their rights in order to escape ruin or irreparable loss. An injunction in the United States may be preliminary or perpetual. A preliminary writ is sometimes styled interlocutory, as it is issued pendente lite. The preliminary writ may be made perpetual, if, after arguments made and heard, the court decides that the grounds ad- vanced for the continuance are valid, and have been so proved by evidence. Failure to obey an injunction is punishable as a contempt of court (q.v.) Consult Beach, ‘Treatise on the Law of Injunctions? (1895). Injunction, Government by. See GoverN- MENT BY INJUNCTION. Injunction, Theatrical, a term applied to a mandate issued by a court of equity, to com- pel or prevent the performance of some act for which money damages would not properly com- pensate the injured party. Relief by injunction in matters pertaining to theatricals is probably more frequently sought than in any other busi- ness or profession, and precedents in law estab- lished in this class of cases has become of considerable importance. At first, courts of this country and England refused to grant injunctions against actors for the purpose of compelling them to perform their contracts, a learned justice saying: “The Court could not regard as law the old adage that ‘a bird that can sing and will not sing must be made to sing.’” But latterly, when the service of an actor became recognized and it was made to clearly appear that an actor or singer, by intelli- gence, education and other artistic accomplish- ments and talents, was of extreme importance to one who had invested money in the production of a play or opera, it was held that a court of equity would by injunction enforce a covenant in a contract. But this has simply gone to the extent of compelling a fulfilment of the con- tract, or forcing the artist to remain idle during its term. The services of every actor will not be enjoined. He must actually possess some exceptional merit, so that his services may be INK termed special, unique and extraordinary, and it must be shown they cannot be fulfilled by any other person without injury to the employer. In the case of Lumley v. Wagner, the courts of England enjoined Johanna Wagner, a prom- inent prima donna of the early 50's from appear- ing at Covent Garden Opera House, London, in violation of her contract with Lumley; and then for the first time the British courts asserted their authority over contracts of actors, and granted an injunction forbidding her rendering professional services for any but her original employer. In the United States, the Federal courts recognized the right of a manager to have the exclusive services of his employee, and in McCall v. Braham an injunction was granted which prevented Lillian Russell from violating her Contract. In the State courts, the case of Augustin Daly v. Fanny Morant Smith (49 How. Pr. I50), Superior Court Justice Freed- man also appreciated the fact that the ancient rule had been abrogated and the modern one compelling actors to live up to their agreements, as other individuals, was there enforced. The contract must unquestionably be fair. The rights of both parties to it must be equal. In Other words, if the contract gives the manager the right to terminate it by giving notice before the expiration of the contract, a like right of termination must also be given the actor; and as stated before, the actor's services must be special, unique and extraordinary. In this latter connection, it seems uncertain where to draw the line. In the case of Carter v. Ferguson the court refused to grant an injunction to Mrs. Leslie Carter against William J. Ferguson, an actor, saying that his services were not so special and unique as to warrant a court of equity's interference. In Charles Hoyt v. Loie Fuller, the court granted an injunction against the dancer, holding that a serpentine dance in the performance of which she became famous, warranted the court's interference by injunction. In George Edwardes, the London manager, v. Cissie Fitzgerald, the New York Supreme Court granted an injunction against Miss Fitzgerald, on the theory that a certain wink of her eye used in a play was of special merit, and a draw- ing card. In Harris v. Sparks, an injunction was granted against John Sparks, the Irish comedian, the ground being that his portrayal of an Irish character was special, unique and extraordinary. While in the still later case of Shubert Brothers v. Aimee Angeles, imitations given by the performer were considered SO Spe- cial, unique and extraordinary as to warrant the granting of an injunction. Each case, however, must be determined by its own peculiar circum- stances. In the most recent case — Harrison Grey Fiske v. Tyrone Power— the court refused to grant an injunction against Tyrone Power, although his ability as an actor was exploited in the newspapers; on the ground that his services were not so special, unique and extra- ordinary, as to justify an injunction. But in guarding the rights of an actor, the courts will see that no advantage has been taken of him by the manager, and that the manager for whom He is to perform is of such financial responsi- bility as to insure the salary of the actor. In the case of Rice v. D'Arville, Edward E. Rice, the theatrical manager, sought to restrain Camille D'Arville from performing for others; but on the defense that Rice was insolvent and indebted to her on a previous contract, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, then of the Massachu- setts Supreme Court, would not compel her to perform for Rice. Injunctions in the theatrical profession are Inot confined to actors and actresses, but are Often invoked to prevent the piracy of a play or the use of a name. Where a play, or a scene from a play, has been copyrighted, the Federal courts alone have jurisdiction of the matter, and will by injunction prevent anybody from per- forming or producing it as their own. When there has been no copyright the common law protects the work, so well as its title; and the use of a similar name, or a name which is apt to deceive the public into the belief that it is the one already used by an author, will likewise be enjoined. A recent instance is the case of Charles Frohman v. Arthur Fraser, where the use of the title “Sherlock Holmes” was enjoined, this name having been adapted by William Gil- lette as the title of a play, notwithstanding the name had been used by A. Conan Doyle as the title of his novel. In that case the court held that Mr. Gillette having first used the name in connection with a theatrical production was en- titled to all emoluments arising from it. Not- withstanding the numerous attempts to avoid the principles of law applicable to this class of cases, it matters not whether it is the actor who is involved or the theatrical manager, the Amer- ican courts are humane, equitable, just and careful, and invariably zealously guard the inter- ests of those engaged in the theatrical profession, so well as those engaged in any commercial business. ABRAHAM H. Hu MMEL, Counsel in U. S. for Société de Auteurs Fran– çais. Ink, a fluid used for writing or printing. All ordinary writing-inks owe their properties to the presence of gallate or tannate of iron held in suspension by means of gum. Gallnuts con- tain gallotannic acid, which gives a black precipi- tate with persalts of iron; they also contain pectose, which converts gallotannic acid, when exposed to the air, into gallic acid. This latter acid colors ferric salts a much deeper black than the former acid. The essential points in the preparation of a good writing-ink are there- fore the presence of an iron salt, the infusion of gallnuts and gum, and the allowing the mix- ture to remain for some time exposed to the air. All other substances which are added to ordinary ink as coloring matters in the place of gallnuts only impair its quality. Black Ink.- The following is one method for preparing black writing-ink: I.2 pounds of bruised nut-galls are boiled for three hours in a cylindrical copper with 9 gallons of water, the water lost by evaporation being replaced from time to time; after all solid matter has set- tled to the bottom the clear liquid is drawn Off and mixed with a mucilage prepared by dis- Solving 5 pounds of gum senegal in a little hot water and filtering ; a solution of 5 pounds of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) in water is then added, and the whole liquid allowed to stand until it begins to get black, when it is drawn off into bottles. It is preferable to bot- INKBERRY – INLAYING tle the ink before the iron is entirely converted into ferric gallate, so that, when used for writ- ing, the particles of the ink may penetrate into the paper, and the iron salts there undergo a further oxidation and combination with the gallic acid. Another means of retarding the oxidation of the iron salts is to add a small quantity of an acid (generally sulphuric), which is perhaps neutralized by the bases present in the paper, thus allowing complete oxidation of the iron, and consequently complete blackening of the ink, to take place only after characters have been traced with it upon paper. As ink is liable to become moldy it is customary to add a small quantity of such substances as essen- tial oils, carbolic acid, crushed cloves, or some- times corrosive sublimate, in order to prevent this result. Red Inks.- One part of good carmine is dis- solved in I2O parts of caustic ammonia, and I/3 parts of gum-arabic are added. A cheaper ink may be prepared by drenching I2 parts of pul- verized cochineal along with 4 parts of ammon- ium carbonate with 32 parts of hot water, then digesting and pouring off the clear liquid. Red ink may also be prepared by boiling Brazil wood in water, adding alum or cream of tartar, and thickening with gum or sugar. Blue Inks.- The best blue ink is prepared by dissolving 30 parts of pure Prussian blue in 4 parts of oxalic acid dissolved in I,000 parts of Water. Yellow and Green Inks.- The former ink may be made with decoction of saffron, the latter with indigo-carmine mixed with picric acid. Sympathetic Inks were formerly used in secret correspondence, but they have now ceased to be thus employed as none of them will with- stand the action of a strong heat. The charac- ters written by these inks do not become visible until they are treated with some other solution or exposed to the action of heat. If a solution of gallnuts be used, the writing only appears when washed with a dilute ferrous-sulphate solution. If the letters be formed by means of a dilute solution of potassium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate of potash), the writing is made visible by wetting the paper with ferrous- sulphate solution. A solution of cobalt chloride affords an ink which is colorless or very nearly So when cold, but becomes green (owing to the dehydration of the cobalt salt) when heated. Indian Ink, a practically indelible writing-ink of which there are two principal kinds — one prepared in Italy, Turkey, and Asia from cer- tain cuttlefishes, the other in China by mixing fine lampblack with glue or size and a little camphor. The former when submitted to the action of an alkali becomes brown sepia. Printer's Ink may be prepared as follows: Linseed-oil, after being clarified from fatty mat- ters, is boiled over the open fire, with the addi- tion of a certain amount of yellow soap, which prevents smearing and gives a clearness to the impression of the ink. The required drying agents are also added while the oil is being heated, borate of manganese being frequently used for the purpose. When the oil has as- sumed somewhat of the character of a varnish, a quantity of lampblack, amounting to about 16 per cent of the weight of the oil, is added and stirred up with the oil. The lampblack is best prepared by the careful combustion of naphtha. If it be wished to obtain, colored printing-inks, this may be done by adding the necessary pig- ments to the oil while it is being heated. Ver- milion is used to give a red color, ultramarine for blues, and lead chromate for yellows. For copperplate printing and lithographing a thicker ink is used, which is mixed with a denser black than that used for ordinary print- ing ink. The following are the necessary quali- fications of a good printing-ink: I. It must distribute freely and work sharp and clean. 2. It must not adhere too tenaciously to the types. 3. It must dry immediately on the paper, but not dry at all on the rollers. 4. It must be proof against the effects of time and chemical reagents. Ink"berry, or Winterberry, a shrub (Ilex glabra) of the holly family which grows upon the Atlantic coast of the United States. It is a fine evergreen, two to four feet high. Its stems are slender and flexible, and its leaves, about an inch in length, are lanceolate in form, of leathery texture, and present a shining upper surface. It bears small, very black berries. Formerly its bark and leaves were used medic- inally, especially in fevers. For bouquets and decorative purposes it is much valued, and finds a ready market in large Eastern cities. Inkerman, ink-Ér-mân", Russia, a village on the site of a ruined town in the Crimea, at the head of the harbor of Sebastopol, 35 miles by rail southwest of Simferopol. It gives its name to the sanguinary battle fought on the heights overlooking the town, on 5 Nov. 1854, when the Russians unexpectedly attacking the British camp were repulsed with great slaughter, losing in killed 3,000 and in wounded 6,000, the loss of British and French allies being 850 killed and 3,500 wounded. Inlay'ing is the art of ornamenting flat surfaces of one substance by inserting into them pieces of some other substance. Various kinds of metal or wood, or pearl, ivory, etc., are employed in this process, which is now ap- plied chiefly to the production of ornamental articles of furniture. When wood of one color is inlaid with others of different colors, as in ornamental devices in flooring, it is generally called marquetry, the various pieces of wood being usually disposed in regular geometrical figures. The art of inlaying iron or steel with other metals, as gold or silver, is called damas- cening. Buhl and reisner work, once highly prized, have lost much of their celebrity. The former took its name from Buhl, an Italian resident in Paris in the reign of Louis XIV., and the latter was designated after Reisner, a German who not long after settled in the same city. Buhl for the most part inlaid brass on tortoise-shell, Reisner a dark wood on a tulip- wood ground. The usual instrument for cut- ting out veneers for inlaying is a fine saw, mounted in a bow or arched handle, and worked in short quick movements. Three or four veneers are sometimes cut simultaneously in this way. Inlaying with stone, in which the Florentines have long excelled, is called pietra dura, and differs from mosaic in having the holes not cut through the ground, which is commonly of black marble, but only to a regulated depth. INMAN – INNESS The best work of this kind is now produced at St. Petersburg, the art being stimulated by en- couragement from the Russian government. An Indian variety of inlaying, in which the inlaid metal occupies more of the surface than that which forms the ground, is called Kuftgari; and in another variety, Tutenague or Bederywork, small pieces of silver are hammered into spaces previously cut in the ground, which consist of one part of copper to four of pewter, and is thus both hard and easily cut. See MosAIC. In’man, Henry, American artist: b. Utica, N. Y., 20 Oct. I801 ; d. New York 17 Jan. I846. From early boyhood he manifested a taste for art, and in 1814 Jarvis, the portrait painter, offered to receive him as a pupil, and he was bound an apprentice for seven years. Upon the conclusion of his apprenticeship he devoted him- self to portrait painting. Among his most char- acteristic portraits are those of Chief Justice Marshall and Bishop White. He painted also landscape, genre, and history. In 1844 he visited England, where he was the guest of Words- worth, whose portrait he painted, and at whose suggestion he executed his ‘Rydal Water,” near the poet's residence. During his residence in England he also painted portraits of Dr. Chalmers, Lord Chancellor Cottenham, and Macaulay. Inn, a river of Europe which issues from a lake at the foot of the Rhaetian Alps, flows northeast through the deep and narrow valley of the Engadine, in the Swiss canton of the Grisons, enters the Tyrol at Martinsbruck, passes Innsbruck, Hall, and Kuffstein, and shortly after enters Bavaria. At Mühldorf it turns east till it receives the Salza, where it begins to form the boundary between Austria and Bavaria, and joins the right bank of the Danube at Passau, after a course of over 300 miles. Inn and Innkeeper. In Great Britain inns are houses where travelers are furnished, for the profit of the provider, with everything they have occasion for while on their journey, and may be set up without license by any person, provided he refrains from selling excisable liquors, which of course require a license. Hotels, public-houses, taverns, victualing-houses, and coffee-houses are all inns when the keepers of them make it their business to furnish trav- elers with food and lodging; otherwise they are not. In the United States there are no inns, but hotels in cities and taverns in rural districts. See HoTELS IN AMERICA; TAVERN.S. Innate Ideas, certain notions or concep- tions declared by many philosophers to be given to the mind of man when he first receives con- scious being. Their existence has been much disputed by philosophers. The term innate, as applied to ideas, was first used by Descartes. As his definition failed in precision, the doctrine of Descartes was assailed by Hobbes and Locke. As afterward more strictly stated by himself, his views were as follows: An innate idea is not one that presents itself always to our thought, for there could be no such idea ; but we have within ourselves the faculty of producing it. He has nowhere given an enumeration of the ideas that he considers innate, though he at- taches particular importance to that of infinity, which he makes the foundation of his proofs for the existence of God. What the followers of Descartes designate innate ideas, those of Cousin term universal, necessary and absolute. Some of the greatest names in European philoso- phy are associated with the discussion of this theory, or of cognate theories, as Clarke, New- ton, Malebranche, Kant, etc. Innes, in'és, Alexander Taylor, Scottish jurist: b. Tain, Ross and Cromarty, Scotland, 18 Dec. 1833. He was educated at Edinburgh University, was admitted to the Scottish bar in 1870, appointed advocate-depute in Scotland in 1881, and served under later Liberal govern- ments. Among his works are: ‘The Law of Creeds in Scotland” (1867); ‘Church and State: A Historical Handbook? (1890); ‘Studies in Scottish History” (1892); a life of Knox in the ‘Famous Scots” series (1896); ‘The Trial of Jesus Christ” (1899); and “The Law of Creeds” (I902). Inness, George, American painter: b. Newburg, N. Y., I May 1825; d. Bridge of Allan, Scotland, 3 Aug. 1894. His art educa- tion began in boyhood and when 16 years of age he learned map engraving. He first at- tempted nature sketching in 1843, when he showed such promise that he was admitted into the studio of Regis Gignoux, New York; but soon opened a studio for himself and through the liberality of a patron was enabled to visit Europe. After spending I5 months in Italy and one year (1850) in France he finally made his home at Eagleswood, near Perth Amboy, N. J He is looked upon as the first among Amer- ican landscape painters, and was not only a clever and imaginative interpreter of the scen– ery among which he lived, but a man of intel- lect, a thoughtful yet bold theorist on art subjects and an incisive critic. He had a keen appreciation of American scenery, and the sky and atmosphere of the eastern States were sympathetically portrayed with an earnestness that recalls the sentiment of the Fontainebleau- Barbizon school. His early paintings are dis- tinguished by conscientious care for detail, vivid perception of color, and the panoramic breadth of a bold and unconventional originality. After 1878 his style had ripened, and his technique grew simpler and less highly elaborated. He was willing to sacrifice all cleverness of touch in handling detail for the sake of portraying the emotion, or transitory effect of light and cloud in a landscape, the perturbation of storm or wind, the pageant of sunset, or the magic calm of a moonlight scene. In such productions his command of color was very remarkable. His pictures are much prized by connoisseurs, and when offered for sale command high prices. Five of them are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Among the finest are: “Under the Greenwood”; “Close of a Stormy Day? ; ‘Pine Groves of Barberini Villa? ; “An Autumn Morning? ; “Autumn Gold”; “The Edge of the Forest”; “Passing Storm”; “Moon- rise? ; (Winter Morning, Montclair, New Jer- sey.2 Inness, George, Jr., American painter: b. Paris, France, 5 Jan. 1854. He is the son of George Inness (q.v.), the landscape painter. He was a pupil of the elder Inness at Rome in 1870–4, of Bonnat at Paris in 1875, began to exhibit at the National Academy in 1877, and became a member of the National Academy of INNOCENCE – INNOCENT Design in 1899. In 1899 he obtained a gold medal at the Paris Salon. His manner is forci- ble, and skilful in color. His work includes landscapes and animal subjects, among them: “The Pride of the Dairy’ (1878); ‘Pasture at Chemung’; ‘A Mild Day” (1887); and “Morn- ing on the River? (1902). In’nocence. A wildflower. See HousTONIA. In’nocent, the name of thirteen popes, as follows: Innocent I., Saint: b. Albano; d. 12 March 417. He succeeded Anastasius I. as Bishop of Rome in 402. He supported Saint Chrysostom (q.v.) when the latter was driven from his see of Constantinople through the machinations of the Empress Eudoxia. Rome was pillaged by Alaric in 410, during his pontificate. He is com- memorated by the Roman Catholic Church on 28 July. Innocent II. (GREGORIO DE PAPI, or PAPAREscHI, grâ-gö-ré'ó dā pā-pé pā-pâ-rés'- kē) : b. Rome; d. 23 Sept. I I43. He was elected pope in II 30 by a part of the cardinals, while the others elected Peter of Leon, who took the name of Anacletus. Innocent fled to France, where he was acknowledged by the Council of Etampes, by Louis VI., and soon after by Henry II. of England; also by the Em- peror Lothaire, who conducted him in II.33 to Rome, where he occupied the Lateran, while Anacletus occupied the Castle of Crescentius, the Church of St. Peter, and a large part of the city and maintained himself against Innocent until his death in II38. He held the second Ecumenical Council in the Lateran, which con- demned Arnold of Brescia and his heresy, de- clared all the decrees of Anacletus null, and excommunicated Roger of Sicily, who had Sup- ported the latter. Roger, however, obliged In- nocent to acknowledge him as king, absolve him from excommunication, and invest him and his heirs with Apulia, Calabria, and Capua. Innocent III. (GIovaNNI LotRARIO CoNTI, jö-vān'né lö tha'ré Ö kön'té): b. Anagni, Italy, II61; d. Perugia, Italy, 16 July 1216. On the death of Celestine III. (1198) he was unani- mously elected at the age of 37. Innocent, in the vigor of manhood, endowed by nature with all the talents of a ruler, possessed of an erudi- tion uncommon at that time, and favored by cir- cumstances, was better qualified than any of his predecessors to elevate the Papal power. By his clemency and prudence he gained over the inhabitants of Rome, obliged the imperial prefect to take the oath of allegiance to him, and directed his attention to every quarter where he believed that a Papal claim of property or of feudal rights existed. He concluded treaties with many cities of Tus- cany for the mutual protection of their liberties and those of the Church, and soon obtained pos- session of the ecclesiastical states in their widest extent. He excommunicated Philip Augustus, king of France; laid the kingdom under an interdict in I2Oo because Philip had repudiated his wife Ingeburga, and obliged the king to submit. He was still more decided in his treat- ment of John, king of England, who refused to confirm the election of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury. Innocent laid the kingdom under an interdict, and in 1212 formally deposed him. John was finally obliged to sub- mit, resigned his territories to Rome, and re- ceived them as a Papal fief from Innocent. All Christendom acknowledged the Pope's Spir- itual sovereignty; two Crusades were undertaken at his order, and his influence extended even to Constantinople. Innocent was one of the greatest Popes and rulers. It has been said of his rule, as of that of Gregory VII., whom he most re- Sembles, that in those times the power of the Pope was salutary as a bond of union for Eu- rope, in which the still firmer bond of a com- mon civilization and knowledge did not, as at present, exist. In 1215 he held a council, the fourth Lateran and twelfth general which passed the decree making confession and communion obligatory at Paschal time. Frederick II. was acknowledged as German emperor, and the Fran- ciscan and Dominican orders were confirmed. Innocent IV. (SENIBALDI DI FIESCHI, sā-né- bā1'dé dé fě és kö); d. Naples 7 Dec. 1254. He became Pope in 1243 and was perpetually at feud with the German emperor Frederick and his successors. Innocent V. (PIETRO DI TARENTASIA, pē-ă'trö dé ta-rén-tä'sé-á): b. 1225; d. Rome 22 June I276. His pontificate lasted only from 20 Jan- uary to 22 June of the year 1276. Innocent VI. (ETIENNE D’ALBERT, a-té-ên dāl băr): b. Brissac, France; d. 12 Sept. 1362. His pontificate extended from 1352 to 1362, and during this period the Papal residence was at Avignon. Innocent VII. (Cosmo DE’ MIGLIORATI, kös'mô dā mé-glö-ré-ā'té): b. Sulmona, Abruzzi, Italy, I366; d. Rome 6 Nov. 1406. He was Pope from 1404 till his death, but was op- posed by the antipope, Benedict XIII., who held his court at Avignon. Innocent VIII. (GIovan NI BATTISTA CIBO, jö-vān"nè bát-tés'tá ché'bö): b. Genoa 1432; d. 25 July 1492. He became Pope in 1484 and was for some time at war with Ferdinand of Naples and held the sultan Bajazet's brother Zelim a prisoner. Innocent IX. (GIovaNNI ANTONIO FACCHI- NETTI, jö-vān'né àn-tó-né'ö få-ché-nēt’té): b. Bologna, Italy, I519; d. 30 Dec. 1591. He oc- cupied the papal chair only from the 29th of October preceding his death. Innocent X. (GIovaNNI BATTISTA PAMFILI, jö-vān'né bat-tés’tă pâm-fé'1é): b. Rome 7 May 1574; d. 6 Jan. I655. In 1629 he was elevated to the cardinalate and became Pope in I644. Under him the temporal and spiritual power of the papacy was greatly increased. In I651 he condemned the Treaty of Westphalia and he formally condemned Jansenism in 1653. Innocent XI. (BENEDETTo ODESCALCHI, bā- nā-dét’tö a-dés-kāl'ké): b. Como, Italy, 16II; d. I2 Aug. 1689. He served in his youth as 2. soldier in Germany and Poland, took orders later and rose through many important posts, until he was elected Pope in 1676, on the death of Clement X. He was eminent for his probity and austerity; zealously opposed nepotism and Simony, and restrained luxury and excess. He condemned the New Testament of Mons and several other Jansenistic works. He also an– athematized sixty-five propositions drawn from the works of modern Casuists and condemned INNOCENT – INO Molinos and the Quietists. He determined to abolish the right of asylum exercised in Rome by foreign ambassadors; but Louis XIV. would not yield to so just a claim, occupied Avignon, and imprisoned the papal nuncio in France; in consequence of which the authority of the Pope received a severe blow by the IV. Propositiones Cleri Gallicani in 1682. These disputes were highly favorable to the English Revolution, as it induced the Pope in I689 to unite with the allies against James II., in order to lower the influence of Louis XIV. Innocent XII. (ANToNIo PIGNATELLI, an-tó- né'ó pen-yā-té1'lé): b. Naples I3 March 1615; d. 27 Sept. I700. He became archbishop of Naples, a cardinal in 1681 and Pope in 1692. During his pontificate Louis XIV. and the French bishops revoked the Declaration of the French clergy, and submitted to the judgment of the Holy See in the matters in dispute during the pontificate of Innocent XI. Innocent XIII. (MICHELANGELO Contr, mé-kél-ān'jè-ló kön'té): b. Rome 15 May I655; d. 7 March 1724. In 1695 he was made archbishop of Tarsus, and became a cardinal in I707. He was also made bishop of Viterbo in I712 and succeeded Clement XI. in the papal chair in 1721. Innocents, Feast of Holy, variously styled Innocent's Day and Childermas, a festival gen- erally observed on the 28th, but in the Eastern Church on 29 December, in commemoration of the massacre of the children at Bethlehem, “from two years old and under,” by the Order of Herod, with the purpose of destroying among them the infant Saviour. The Church of Eng- land at the Reformation retained it in its ritual among its anniversary festivals. St. Cyprian refers to these children as martyrs, as does St. Augustine with still greater explicit- ness. It is to them that the hymn of Prudentius, ‘Salvete Flores Martyrum,” is addressed. Innocents Abroad, The, a famous book of travels by Samuel L. Clemens (“Mark Twain”). In a vein of highly original humor this widely- read book records a pleasure excursion to Eu- rope, the Holy Land, and Egypt, in the sixties. Descriptions of real events and the peoples and lands visited are enlivened by more or less fictitious dialogue and adventures. In’novators, a name applied in Great Britain to educational reformers who, in the 19th century, succeeded in having corporal punish- ment abolished in public and private schools. The novels of Charles Dickens, particularly ‘Nicho- las Nickleby,” and ‘Oliver Twist,” had much to do with the origin of the reform movement. Inns of Court are certain societies in Great Britain exclusively invested with the right to call to the bar. The colleges of the English professors and students of common law are called inns, the old English word for the houses of noblemen, bishops, and others of ex- traordinary note, being of the same significa- tion as the French hötcl. The opinion is, that societies of lawyers, which before the Conquest held their chief abodes for study in ecclesiastical houses, began to be collected into permanent residences, soon after the court of common pleas was directed to be held in a fixed place,— a stipulation which occurs in the great charters both of King John and Henry III. In these houses exercises were performed, lectures read, and degrees conferred. The inns of court are governed by masters, benchers, stewards, and other officers, and have public halls for dining, readings, etc. In London the four inns of court are: the Inner Temple and Middle Temple (formerly the dwelling of the Knights Templars, and purchased by some professors of law more than three centuries since) ; Lincoln's Inn and Gray's Inn (anciently belonging to the Earls of Lincoln and Gray). Each inn is self-governing, and all have equal privileges. Innsbruck, ins'brook, or Innspruck (an- cient CENIPONTUM ; locally called SCHPRUCK), Austrian town and capital of the Tyrol, beauti- fully situated 59 miles north of Munich, on the banks of the Inn, near the confluence of the Sill, and almost in the centre of the valley of the Inn (Innthal), the sides of which are en- closed by mountains several miles distant, but so lofty (7,000 to 8,500 feet) as apparently almost to overhang the town. In consists of the town proper, situated on the right bank of the river, and of five suburbs. It is for the most part well built. The houses are generally of a lime- stone breccia, and from four to five stories high, and built in the Italian style. The buildings most deserving of notice are the Hofkirche, containing the tomb of the Emperor Maximilian I., one of the most splendid monuments of the kind in Europe, though he himself is not interred in it; and the tomb of Hofer ; the Church of St. James, with a painting by Lucas Cranach ; the Jesuits’ church, considered the handsomest in the town; the Capuchin church, with good paint- ings; the new palace, built by Maria Theresa, a very extensive edifice, with gardens which stretch along the side of the Inn, and form an excellent promenade; the old palace, in which the Archdukes of Tyrol and several of the German emperors used to reside; the university, founded in 1677, and re-established in 1826, well endowed, provided with a library, botanical gar- den, and cabinet of natural history, and attended by about 1,000 students; a gymnasium, and sev- eral other important educational establishments; and the museum, called Ferdinandeum, rich in all the productions both of art and nature with- in the limits of the Tyrol. The manufactures include woolen, silk, and cotton tissues, gloves, glass, etc. As the capital of the Tyrol, Inns- bruck is the place of assemblage for its states, and the seat of superior appeal, civil, and crim- inal courts, and of many important public offices. Many of the spots in the immediate vicinity have become memorable for the noble exploits which the Tyrolese peasantry performed in the war of Independence. Pop. (1890) 23,325. Innuits, in'ī-its. See ESKIMoS. I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, second wife of Athamas, king of Thebes, drew upon herself the anger of Hera by nursing Dionysus, the son by Zeus of her sister Semele. In order to favor her own children she pro- jected the murder of her stepchildren, Phryxus and Helle, who saved themselves by flight. Hera, still more highly incensed, made Athamas, the husband of Ino, mad, and he dashed his eldest son by Ino, against a rock. Ino fled with INOCARPUS – INQUISITION her youngest sort, Melicertes, and threw herself with him into the sea. Ino and Melicertes were made sea deities at the prayer of Dionysus. Ino was worshipped under the name of Leucothea. Inocarpus, i-nó-kār'pils, a genus of 1egu- minous plants, having unifoliate leaves and yel- low flowers in axillary spikes. I. edulis is the South Sea chestnut, native of Tahiti. It is a large tree, with luxuriant foliage, the delicate evergreen leaves being six inches or more in length. It furnishes seeds or nuts much valued in the South Sea Islands, the inhabitants gather- ing them while green, and mashing them for food. They are sometimes roasted, and then their taste resembles that of the chestnut. From I. edulis the red, gummy coloring matter called inocarpus is obtained. Inocula'tion. See INFECTION ; VACCINATION. In’osit (CoH12O6), (from Greek is, inos, a nerve, a muscle), a saccharine substance found in the muscular tissues of the heart, as well as liver, brain, kidneys, etc. It appears both in health and, to an abnormal amount, in disease. In cases of glucosuria and albuminaria it is found in the urine. It exists also in a number of plants, such as foxglove, potato, kidney-bean, acacia, asparagus, cabbage. It is very sweet, has no effect upon polarized light, does not undergo alcoholic fermentation, but yields lactic acid when fermented. See GLUCoSE. Inouye, Kaoru, kā-ö'roo €-nó-Oo'yā, Jap- anese statesman : b. Choshi I839. While a young man he went to Europe, and his mind be- came saturated with English ideas after a resi- dence of two years in London. His travels and studies were shared by his greater friend Ito (q.v.) and when the two students returned to the east they were active in the movement which revolutionized Japan by abolishing the feudal system and introducing representative govern- ment. He was vice-minister of the treasury in Tokio 1872; in 1825 he was made count and in 1892 minister of the interior. Inquiline, in'kwi-lín, a term applied in zo- ology to animals which live as tenants within the nests or homes of other animals. The use of the term is almost entirely confined to entomol- ogy and then often restricted to the cases in which the rightful and the intruding tenants are closely related. Similar cases among other ani- mals are commonly designated as commensalism (q.v.), but these and similar terms are used rather loosely. Examples of the inquiline rela- tion occur among the termites, ants, and bees, but are known especially among the gall-flies (Cynipidae); indeed, one entire division, com- prising more than 500 species, is named In- quilinae, because of the predominance of this Imode of 1ífe. These insects differ but little in structure from the true gall-flies, but they lack the power to produce galls and consequently de- posit their eggs within those of other species. They infest certain species of galls, as those of the blackberry and some oak-galls, in 1arge num- 15ers and sometimes more than one kind occur in a single gall. Perhaps the most remarkable feature of these inquilines is their frequent close resemblance to the insect which produces the gall which they infest. Inquisition, a tribunal or system of tribu- Inals instituted by the Roman Catholic Church for the discovery, examination, and conviction of heretics and their punishment by the secular arm. Under the successors of Constantine in the Roman Empire the repression of heresy, or rather the enforcement of the decrees of church councils and synods, was a function of the im- perial government, which inflicted temporal pen- alties upon the propagators of religious beliefs that contradicted the creeds approved by the State. When the reigning emperor was a favorer of Arianism or any other of the hetero- dox creeds, the orthodox bishops and their flocks were persecuted : when he was of the Orthodox party the heterodox sects were put under the ban. In executing the decrees of the councils the imperial officials, called in the laws of Theodosius and Justinian “inquisitors” (inquisi- tores), were assisted by the bishops; but the tribunals were the ordinary secular courts, and judgment was rendered in the name of the State, not the Church. But in the 12th cen- tury, when the supremacy of the ecclesiastical power was universally recognized in western Europe, the initiative in the work of repressing heresy was taken by the Church as of course, and the discovery, trial and conviction of the offenders were functions of the ecclesiastical power solely: the secular power simply exe- cuted the judgments of the church tribunals. Boniface VIII.'s definition of the respective powers and the mutual relations of church and State was not proclaimed till the close of the I3th century; but had a similar definition been promulgated in the 12th century it would have expressed the universal sentiment of princes and peoples at the time. The celebrated bull, Unam Sanctam, defines that “Both swords, the spiritual and the temporal, are in the power of the Church; yet the one is to be wielded for the Church's behoof, but the other by the Church herself: the one by the hand of the priest, the other by that of the king and the soldier, though at the will and sufferance of the priest ad nutum et patientiam sacerdotis. And sword must be subordinate to sword — oportet gladium. esse sub gladio, and the temporal authority sub- ject to the Spiritual power — temporalem auctor- itatem spiritual; subjic; potestati.” The first step toward the establishment of courts of inquisition would seem to have been taken in II79 when the third council of the Lateran issued a decree of excommunication against the adherents of the heretical sects of Southern France, who are charged not only with holding abominable heretical tenets but also with practising “unheard-of cruelties against the Catholics,” demolishing the churches and massacring widows and orphans. The council grants “an indulgence of two years to those who shall make war on them.” This decree was re-enforced by the Council of Verona (II84) over which Pope Lucius III. presided, and at which the Emperor Frederic I. assisted : the Council directs the bishops to bring to trial persons accused of heresy and to inflict fit punishment on the guilty. The fourth Council of the Lateran (1215), held in the reign of Innocent III., imposed on the bishops the duty of making a visitation of their dioceses twice or at least once a year either personally or by delegates to see that the Church's laws be en- forced. Bishops are authorized to bind the INSANE ASYLUMS – INSANITY inhabitants of a district by oath to search out heretics and bring them to trial. By the Coun- cil of Toulouse (I229) in the pontificate of Gregory IX. the search for heretics (inquisitio haretica pravitatis) was systematized. The bishops are to name for each parish two or three respectable laymen who shall take oath zealously to search out heretics and to deliver them up to the baillis. ...Whosoever knowingly conceals a heretic loses all his goods. If heretics are discovered on the estate of a land-owner, he incurs the penalties: the house of the heretic shall be torn down. Heretics who recant have to seek a new abode, and must wear on their clothing two crosses of different colors until the Pope or his legate permits them to assume the ordinary garb. Whoever abstains from use of the Sacraments is held suspect of heresy. A person convicted or suspect of heresy is de- barred from the practice of medicine. Lest the Ordinary church authorities should be remiss in carrying out this system Gregory IX. named (I232) as “pontifical inquisitors” monks or friars from outside, chiefly, Dominicans; shortly after the pontifical inquisitors were chosen from the Order of the Dominicans exclusively. Thus the duty of inquisition was taken out of the hands of the bishops and was discharged by officials responsible only to the Pope; from the judgments of the inquisitorial tribunals there was no appeal but only to the Holy See: in 1263 Urban IV. appointed an inquisitor-general for Provence, as a means of lowering the flood of appeals to Rome. The institution passed from Southern France into the other provinces of that kingdom and into Italy, Germany and Poland. The Inquisition in England was di- rected by the metropolitans and their suffragans without being responsible to any inquisitor-gen- eral : but as long as Lollardism disturbed the peace of the Church the search for heretics was prosecuted rigorously: bishops and archdeacons were required twice a year to make, inquisition of suspects: any man might be compelled under penalties to inform against persons suspected of heresy; the statute de haeretico comburendo was enacted by the Parliament in I396. In Spain the Inquisition, as set up in 1481 by Ferdinand and Isabella, was as much (or more) a political as an ecclesiastical institution: the officials from highest to lowest were appointed by the sovereigns and its action was directed by them without responsibility to the Holy See: Ranke calls the Spanish Inquisition “a royal tribunal furnished with spiritual weapons”; Llorente admits as much. The number of per- sons put to death under sentence of the Inqui- sition in Spain is put by Llorente at 31,000 from first to last, that is during 330 years. But Llorente made it impossible to check his state- ments by burning the original documents. Ranke impeaches his honesty; Prescott says that his estimates are “most improbable.” Catholic historians call attention to the fact that not only heresy, but many other offenses against the laws were judged by the courts of inquisition in Spain, viz: polygamy, seduction, unnatural crimes, smuggling, witchcraft, sorcery, false per- Sonation, etc. At the time when the Inquisition flourished, persecution for heresy was a uni- versal practice amongst all Christian peoples, and the methods of punishment inflicted were general throughout Europe. Protestant England persecuted as harshly and vigorously as Catholic Spain, and in both countries denial Of the state religion was equivalent to treason. Insane Asylums, Cottage System, or Vil- lage Plan. A form of construction for insane asylums and charitable institutions, much in vogue at the present time, in which large and imposing buildings are replaced by detached cottages. The cottages vary in size from those which will accommodate six to a dozen patients to larger ones which will accommodate 20 or more. They are usually constructed either in groups or along streets and avenues as a vil- lage. In the former, the several groups are given up to a particular industry as a farm group, where the patients are employed at farming, and others, as the garden, the brick yard, shop industries, etc., all of these being a part of one institution on a single large estate. In the village plan the institution is laid off in streets and avenues, and has the appearance of an ordinary village, each cottage having a flower garden in front, shade trees, etc. In either plan, there is conveniently located near the centre of the plant an administration building, a hospital for the sick and those requiring spe- cial care, a bakery, a laundry, and other utility buildings. The cottages may be constructed of wood or other material, and the cost of con- struction is small as compared with the old plan of asylum construction. It is, besides, more homelike, more convenient for adminis- tration and permits of indefinite expansion. Some of the best known institutions constructed on this plan are Alt-Scherbitz near Leipsic; Ga- bersee near Munich, Germany; the Saint Law– rence State Hospital at Ogdensburg, N. Y., and the Craig Colony for Epileptics at Sonyea, N. Y. Insanity, a disease of the brain character- ized by disorder or derangement of the mental faculties. This is its strictly pathological or scientific definition. Therefore, according to this definition, any disease of, or accident to, the brain whatsoever, provided such disease or accident caused any derangement of the mental faculties, howsoever trifling or temporary, would furnish an example of insanity. Thus a blow on the head causing unconsciousness, or a fever giving rise to delirium, is an example of an affection of the brain characterized by disorder of the mental faculties. Practically, however, the term insanity is limited to a group of affec- tions of the brain which is more distinctly fixed, and the members of which it will be the object of this brief sketch to define. Causes.— The causes of insanity are many and various, and the chief of these are the fol- lowing: Heredity, infection, poisoning, trauma- tism or injury, overwork or exhaustion, and mental and moral shock or strain. Of impor- tance also are age, sex, race, and nationality. Of all these causes the most important un- doubtedly is heredity. As Krafft-Ebing, the German alienist, has well said, there is no ground, except in tuberculosis, upon which her- edity shows itself more distinctly than in the case of mental disease. Statistics have been compiled by various authors to show as nearly as possible the exact prevalence of heredity in insanity, but the results have not been alto- gether in harmony. In fact, it is extremely difficult to determine this factor in many cases INSANITY in which it has been active, and this is so for two reasons: in the first place many patients and their friends conceal or deny a hereditary taint, and in the second place not a few patients and their friends, are really ignorant of their family histories beyond a generation or two. How many persons can tell accurately of what their grandparents died? The more this sub- ject of heredity in insanity is investigated the more reason there is to believe that its importance has been underestimated rather than the reverse. And yet as a factor in causation it is much more common in some forms of insanity than in others — a fact which will be emphasized later in this article. Some authorities have limited heredity to the direct line of descent, ignoring collateral lines; but obviously this restriction cannot be maintained. And yet, if the attempt is made to trace a neurotic taint through col- lateral lines, the difficulty is greatly increased. the subject is vastly broadened, and, from the medico-legal standpoint, the inquiry becomes greatly involved. In mental heredity, moreover, it is not so much the particular disease that is passed on from parent to offspring, as it is the predisposition; and this predisposition, often called neurotic, is not the result entirely of in- sanity in the ancestry, but may be shown by a family history of other grave nervous disorders, such as epilepsy, hysteria, neurasthenia, and im- becility. This is a fact not sufficiently appre- hended by the laity. Infections of various kinds may act as causes of insanity. The most important of these is syphilis, and this acts especially to cause that form of insanity known as general paresis. The various infectious diseases, such as typhoid fever, septicaemia, smallpox, cerebro-spinal meningitis and, in minor degree, some others, may cause mental alienation. Post-febrile in- sanity may follow typhoid fever; and puerperal insanity may be due in part to a septic infection. Poisons of various kinds may be very active causes of insanity. Chronic lead poisoning may give rise to a well-known form of delirium or mania; so in minor degree may mercury. But the most potent and most common of all poisons in the etiology of mental disease is undoubtedly alcohol. And this poison acts in two ways, for it may not only induce insanity in the individ- ual, but it also is most active in causing that hereditary predisposition to insanity in the off- spring to which reference has already been made. In fact, the subject of heredity is not a little involved with the subject of alcoholism in the progenitor. Traumatism, or injury, may act as an excit- ing cause of insanity. This is true especially of injuries to the head. Trauma acts most read- ily in conjunction with other causes, such as alcoholism and syphilis. Injuries to other parts of the body, especially when associated with great shock, as in severe railroad accidents, may lead to various forms of mental alienation. Overwork and exhaustion from any causes whatever may predispose to, or directly cause, a mental breakdown. This is true especially in cases in which the blood is depleted, the nu- trition of the nervous system impaired, and the mind harassed with care and anxiety. These causes are most active in persons otherwise pre- disposed, as by alcoholism, syphilis or heredity. Mental and moral shock and strain, such as sudden loss, grief, fright, mortification, intense religious and political excitement (as in the French Revolution), long continued anxiety, and the harassment of uncongenial surround- ings, as in the home-life, may all act as causes of insanity. The above are the chief categories of causes, but they do not exhaust the subject. It is in fact too extended for brief treatment. Finally, it must be borne in mind that in any individual case not one but a combination of several of the above causes has usually been active. Classification.— Almost every alienist of re- pute has attempted a classification of the forms of insanity. The subject is one of peculiar diffi- culty, owing largely to the fact that our in- timate knowledge of many of these various forms is far from complete. One of the most satis- factory schemes is the one by Krafft-Ebing, and is as follows, slightly abridged: £ 6 A.” MENTAL DISEASES OF THE DEVELOPED BRAIN. I. Diseases without Anatomical Lesions, or Functional Diseases. (1) Psychoneuroses, or otherwise sound. Ist. Melancholia. a. Simple Melancholia. b. Stuporous Melancholia. diseases of a brain 2d. Mania. a. Maniacal Exaltation. b. Frenzy. 3d. Stupor, or Acute Dementia. 4th. Hallucinatory Delirium. Note.— The above affections are primarily cura- ble, but the worst of them may terminate in chronic incurable forms and in de- mentia. (2) Degenerative Insanities: Affections of a brain endowed with a morbid predisposition. Ist. Constitutional Affective Insanity. 2d. Paranoia. a. Congenital. b. Acquired. This form includes various sub- groups according to the character of the delusions entertained by the patient. 3d. Periodical Insanity. 4th. Mental Affections arising from the constitu- tional neuroses. a. Neurasthenical. b. Epileptic. c. Hysterical. d. Hypochondriacal. II. Organic Insanities or Mental Diseases with Recog. nizable Lesions in the Brain. Ist. Acute Delirium. 2d. General Paresis. 3d. Cerebral Syphilis. 4th. Senile Dementia. Note.-- Chronic Alcoholic Insanity and Mor- phinism may yet have to be added to this group. & & B.” MENTAL AFFECTIONS OF THE UNDEVELOPED BRAIN. Idiocy and Imbecility. This scheme by Krafft-Ebing, while not with- out defects, is excellent for practical purposes and until someone can devise a better. Its great merit is that it is flexible: it readily admits new forms. Its defect is that it draws too sharp a distinction between the so-called functional and the organic insanities; and between the psychoneuroses and the constitutional forms. The truth is, all insanities are organic; and a constitutional taint may be present in the psycho- 116111’OSes. Following this classification we note the fol- lowing forms of insanity: A. The whole group of insanities as distinct from idiocy is included under this head, and as a first great subdivision comes: I. Mental Diseases without recognizable anatomical lesions: Functional Diseases. As INSANITY was inferred above, this whole group is only tentative in one sense, because as Scientific know- ledge advances it is found more and more that insanity in all its forms depends upon anatom- ical changes. For the present, however, this group may be allowed, with some reservation, to contain the following: (I) THE PSYCHONEUROSEs. In these forms the 1mental disease is such as can happen in a person with an otherwise perfectly normal brain. It is in a sense fortuitous, and not dependent necessarily upon a hereditary taint. Given the same causes, and it may be presumed that any person might develop a psychoneurosis, just as he might develop a fever. By this it is not im- plied, however, that heredity cannot act to pre- dispose to these forms. Melancholia is marked by depression. The affective or emotional, rather than the intellec- tual, faculties are involved. The patient has a sense of personal unworthiness; in other words, the depression centres about the patient's ego. He is not so much concerned about his misfor- tunes or his troubles, as about his unworthiness. Neither is he concerned about other persons: he is entirely self-centred. This may be said to be the keynote of melancholia. Delusions of a depressive character, as of having committed the unpardonable sin, may be present. The depres- sion may become so profound and overwhelming that the patient passes into a stuporous or atonic state. (Melancholia Attonita.) In this state the physical functions, such as appetite, diges- tion, and nutrition, may be correspondingly de- pressed. Suicide may result. In some cases the patient is restless under the burden of his men- tal suffering (Melancholia Agitata). Mania is marked by exaltation. The intel- lectual faculties are much more involved than in melancholia, and the patient is active, lo- quacious, Sometimes destructive and combative, Or else gay. He is somewhat incoherent, and his delusions are not well-defined, but fleeting and changeable in accord with his varying moods and disordered thoughts. The physical func- tions suffer as a result of exhaustion from over- activity. Frenzy is only a higher degree of mania, in which the mental functions are in en- tire disorder from over-excitation. Exhaustion is rapid. - Stupor, as its name indicates, is a psychosis in which the predominant tone is one of pro- found subversion of all the mental functions. Acute Dementia is another term for it. The patient may recover from a most unpromising state, especially in the case of young persons. Dementia Pracoa is such a form, although the prognosis is not always good. Primary Demen- tia occurs without preceding acute stages. Hallucinatory Delirium is a form of acute insanity marked by confusion and by the pres- ence of hallucinations of sight and hearing. Confusional insanity is a term sometimes used, especially for the types, which occur after acute infection, such as post-febrile insanity, and some forms following child-birth. All these psychoneuroses may, in unfavor- able cases, pass into chronic forms, and terminate in incurable dementia. (2) THE DEGENERATIVE INSANITIES. In these forms mental deterioration is en- grafted on a constitutional defect. Heredity plays a great part. The patients have been born with the neurotic predisposition. Their insanity. is simply a logical evolution of a badly organized nervous system. The great type of this form of insanity is Paranoia. The chief characteristic is the forma- tion of systematized delusions. At first these may be of a persecutory tinge: the patient be- lieves that he has enemies, who plot against his welfare or his life. He has hallucinations, especially of hearing. In a second stage, the delusions acquire a more expansive type: the patient believes that he is some great personage. As preliminary to all this, there is often a long career of moral and mental perversion: the patient has been noted as erratic, eccentric, visionary, and even immoral. He usually has displayed but little real brain power or steadi- ness, but often an intense egotism and a lack of common sense. Innumerable varieties and sev- eral stages occur. From this class are recruited in large part the criminal insane. These pa- tients are the monomaniacs of the older writers, and they include also the moral lunatics, pyro- maniacs and kleptomaniacs of more recent Sys- tematists. Among them are found also the vic- tims of obsessions, morbid impulses and fixed ideas. The paranoiacs are the dangerous luna- tics, and the prognosis is not favorable. Periodical Insanity is a form of constitutional insanity in which, as the name indicates, there is a tendency to recurrence. This recurrence is Sometimes in cycles (Circular Insanity), in which there is a period of maniacal exaltation, followed by one of melancholic depression, and then a somewhat prolonged period of apparent recovery, to be followed again by the morbid cycle. With every recurring cycle, however, the patient deteriorates somewhat, and may eventu- ally degenerate into chronic insanity. In the constitutional nervous diseases, such as Epilepsy, Hysteria, Hypochondria, and Neu- rasthenia, there are often mental changes of a morbid type, and these give rise to the forms of insanity named in accord with these respective neuroses. The symptoms vary widely in the several diseases. II. In the organic insanities, so-called, the disease is marked by recognizable changes in the brain-structure. Acute Delirium, or Bell's mania, is an acute infectious disease of the brain, of unknown origin, and of rapid progress, usually terminat- ing fatally. It is marked by confusion and de- lirium, passing into coma and death. The changes in the brain are of an inflammatory kind. General Paresis, or Dementia Paralytica, is caused by a progressive infectious or destructive process in the brain substance. Its dependence on syphilis is no doubt close, and it is further induced by alcoholism, dissipation and over- work. It is marked by change of character, erratic conduct and loss of mental and moral con- trol, passing on into a stage of expansive de- lusions with progressive dementia. There are also characteristic speech defects, changes in the ocular muscles and in the gait, with increas- ing feebleness and paralysis. Various crises oc- cur, such as maniacal, epileptoid and apoplectic, and in the last stage the patient is paralyzed and demented. Death is the inevitable result in the vast majority of cases. In Cerebral Syphilis there is a characteristic inflammatory process beginning in the coats of the small blood-vessels. Mental symptoms oc- INSCRIPTIONS cur in great variety, also many forms of par- alysis. * Senile Dementia is a form of deterioration occurring in old age, and is dependent primarily on changes in the blood-vessels in the brain. Progressive failure of mental powers, with Oc- casional delusions, is the chief feature. In some cases paralytic and epileptic crises occur. B. Finally we have the great group in which the mental affections are the results of arrest of development of the brain. These are not included in insanity proper by Systematic writ- ers, but are regarded as a group apart. This group includes Imbecility and Idiocy, and is defined under the latter head. No attempt has been made in the above clas- sification to include various debatable forms. Among such forms are Hebephrenia (occurring in adolescence) and Katatonia (a psycho- neurosis with both melancholic and confusional symptoms), and some others about which alienists are not yet agreed. The list must still remain open. PATHOLOGY..— In the group of organic in- sanities it has been pointed out that these dis- eases rest upon a recognizable anatomical basis: thus in general paresis the structural changes in the blood-vessels and tissues of the brain are so marked and so well studied that this disease may be said to have as well known a morbid anatomy as pneumonia. But this is true of very few of the insanities, and the above classification is con- structed largely on the distinction between forms of insanity with, and those without, well- defined anatomical changes. But while such changes cannot in many cases be detected even with the most powerful microscope, there is practically no doubt in the minds of most alien- ists that all insanities depend upon a physical or structural basis. In other words, they are but manifestations of morbid changes in the brain-cells. To detect these changes is still one of the great problems of psychiatry. The tend- ency of modern pathology is to seek for the anatomical changes of insanity mainly in two directions: first, in heredity; and, second, in infection or toxaemia. Heredity makes its im- pressions so invisibly upon the brain-cell that there may be wise doubts whether we shall ever be able to detect them; but its signs, or stigmata, on the body at large are not so difficult to dis- tinguish. The main difficulty is to interpret them. By these stigmata are meant defects or peculiarities in the grosser parts of the body, as in the bones, especially of the head and face, the ears, eyes, teeth, etc. As to infection, and the marks of it as found in the brain-cells, the evi- dence accumulates more and more that in many forms of insanity, especially those called func- tional, the direct agent is often a poison cir- culating in the blood and interfering with the nutrition and functioning of the brain plasma. Syphilis and chronic alcoholic poisoning leave definite changes in the blood-vessels, tissues, and membranes of the brain. Treatment.— The treatment of insanity re- solves itself into the preventive and the curative. Modern practice is beginning to concern itself more and more with the former, while of course it does not in any way relax its attention to the latter. The prodromal, or initiative, symp- toms of many forms of insanity, especially the psychoneuroses, are now so well understood, that it is often an easy matter to recognize the insidious changes that herald a mental break- down, and to guard the patient from the dan- gers and misfortunes of a fully developed attack. Of first importance is to remove the pa- tient from the exciting causes. Complete rest and isolation are therefore required and cannot be instituted too early. In order to secure these, hospital treatment is often essential. Very recently it has been proposed to treat these pa- tients in general hospitals, in special wards, and not to hurry thern into asylums under legal cer- tification. In other words, they are to be re- garded simply as other sick persons, and not to be immured merely as lunatics. The motive is thoroughly humane, and the practice is often successful in promising and selected cases. The indications are for rest, isolation and attention to the nutrition especially. There is no specific for insanity except in cases in which syphilis is active. In very many cases, however, the nature and course of the disease render it imperative to commit the patient to special hospitals for the insane. This is not only for the good of the patient, but also for the welfare of society. These hospitals or asylums in all civilized coun- tries are now among the very best of public in- stitutions, and the prejudices once existing against them are no longer warranted. The indications for treatment vary according to the nature of the case. The weak and exhausted must be built up ; the depressed must be en- couraged and diverted ; the violent and excited must be restrained ; the chronic and demented must be cared for often as though they were children. The practice of to-day is in favor of all humane methods, such as by recreation, use- ful employment, amusements, and an appeal to the best remaining or active elements of the mental life. Physical restraint is reduced to a minimum, although in the most violent cases it cannot be entirely abolished. Punishment is practically abandoned. It is satisfactory to know that all our best regulated hospitals for the in- Sane are enabled to report annually a good per- centage of recoveries, and this is in accord with the teaching and practice of modern science, which regards insanity entirely from its physi- cal aspect as a disease of the brain. With this definition this brief article may end as it began. Bibliography.— Bevan-Lewis, ‘A Text-Book of Mental Diseases? (1899); Chapin, ‘A Com- pendium of Insanity’ (1898); Clouston, ‘Clin- ical Lectures on Mental Diseases? (1884); Krafft-Ebing, ‘Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie) (1897); Regis, “A Practical Manual of Mental Medicine” (1894); Spitzka, “Insanity: Its Clas- sification, Diagnosis and Treatment”; Tuke, ‘A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (1892); Kraepelin, ‘Psychiatrie” (1899); Séglas, ‘Leçons Cliniques sur les Maladies Mentales’ (1895); Ray, ‘A Treatise on the Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity” (1871); Falret, (Des Maladies Mentales? (1864); Berkley, (A Treatise on Mental, Diseases? (1900). JAMES HENDRIE LLOYD, Formerly Neurologist Philadelphia Hospital. Inscriptions, records, engraved on stone, metal or clay. Inscriptions are in many cases the sole sources of our knowledge of ancient his- tory and languages; and, even when MSS. are extant, inscriptions, which preserve the original INSECT POWDER – INSECTICIDE forms of the letters, are of supreme palaeograph- ical importance. All the books of the Phoeni- cians, Etruscans, Oscans, Umbrians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Numidians, and Iberians have per- ished, and our knowledge of early Oriental his- tory is derived solely from inscriptions. More than 150,000 inscriptions are known. The chief classes are Semitic, Greek, Latin, Runic, Cunei- form, Egyptian, and Indian. In Greenland, on the shores of Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, true Runic inscriptions have been discovered. They were doubtless executed by Icelandic colonists or explorers. Records once supposed to be Runic, Punic, Celtiberic, or Numidian, have also been found in the United States, as on the Dighton Rock in Massa- chusetts, in the island of Monhegan off the coast of Maine, in the Grave Creek Mound in West Virginia. They are, however, either natural markings on the rock, or the records of Indian tribes, or even inscriptions of early colonists. The numerous inscriptions on the walls of the palaces and temples in the ruined cities of Yucatan, Honduras, Mexico, and Guatemala are written in characters, which constitute a System of hieroglyphic or pictorial writing, akin prob- ably to that of the Aztec MSS. which have as yet proved undecipherable. Insect Powder, the powdered heads of certain species of chrysanthemums of the genus Pyrethrum whose flowers contain a volatile oil which kills insects by asphyxiation. An Asiatic species (P. rosaum) is used in the Old World for making the insectifuge powders called pyrethrum, Persian, Dalmatian or buhach. Sub- stantially the same thing is manufactured in California where another species (P. cineraria- folicum) is grown in extensive crops, and the sun-dried heads, gathered in May and June, are ground between millstones, bolted and her- metically sealed in cans. These species are also grown as garden chrysanthemums, are eaten, after drying, by live-stock, and the powder has no evil effect upon the larger animals or man. Insecticide, any agent which destroys in- sects. This definition includes natural as well as artificial means of control, the latter being those operated by man. The most important of the former are adverse temperatures, exceSS1Ve or insufficient moisture, fire, bacteria, fungi, mites, spiders, fish, reptiles, insects, and birds. The artificial controls may be grouped according to their mode of action. Two principal groups are recognized; those intended to reach the ali- mentary tract through which they act, and those that act through the respiratory apparatus. The former are effective only with such insects as bite off and swallow pieces of plant tissue; the latter more or less also with these, but most fre- quently used upon insects which suck the plant juices from beneath the punctured epidermis. Caterpillars, beetles and their larvae, grasshop- pers, etc., all chew their food and have been most effectively controlled by Paris green, helle- bore, arsenate of lead, etc., applied to the in- fested foliage either as a spray or as a powder. Plant-lice, plant-bugs, and other sucking insects nave been held in check best by kerosene emul- sion, whale-oil soap, fir-tree oil, or other sub- stances that choke the breathing-pores in the insects’ bodies. Some of these insects are dreaded because of their great prolificacy, their small size and resistance to treatment. Gases are often used under favorable circumstances to reach insects troublesome in stored grain, among clothes, upon plants in greenhouses, and even upon plants in the open air—these last being covered with tents or boxes while being fumigated. Various chewing insects which tun- nel through the tissues cannot be controlled by sprays, and are usually beyond the reach of gases. The leaf-miners, which burrow just be- neath the epidermis of leaves and green stems, have never been effectively controlled. Some borers (currant-borer) can be kept in check by burning the twigs they infest, (peach-borer) by prodding them in their burrows, (Squash- vine-borer), by cutting them out, the method being suggested by the nature of attack. Other chewing insects (plum curculio) are jarred into kerosene. Lastly there are various oils and greases which are used upon animals and man to destroy fleas, lice, etc. Tobacco water and carbolic acid are also similarly employed. Formulae and Methods of Application.— Paris green should be mixed with a little water to form a creamy fluid, and then added to water or Bordeaux mixture (see FUNGICIDE) at the rate of one pound to 200 gallons or more. Arsenate of lead may be applied somewhat more liberally. Hellebore may be mixed with water (I ounce to 3 gallons) and a little glue or flour paste to increase adhesiveness. Each of these may be applied as a powder sifted on the plant, through a salt sack or blown upon them through a powder-gun. A little flour aids the sticking quality. When powders are used, the plants should still be wet with dew or rain. Kerosene emitilsion is made by intimately mixing a solution of hard soap (one pound to two gal- lons of hot water) with four gallons of kerosene, and diluting as needed for use with from 30 to 60 gallons of water. Pure kerosene and crude petroleum can be safely applied only to dormant plants, and then only upon bright breezy days, which will hasten evaporation. Kero-water pumps mix kerosene and water drawn from separate tanks, and apply the mixture direct to plants. They have hardly passed the experi- mental stage. Whale oil soap is mixed with water (I pound to I or up to IO gallons), and applied as a wash or spray. Carbon disulphide may be used where there is no danger of its inflammable fumes coming in contact with flame. An ounce is sufficient for from 50 to 75 cubic feet of air-tight space; and the exposure should be for 24 hours or longer. Hydrocyanic acid gas is prepared by adding cyanide of po- tassium (98–99 per cent pure) to water and sulphuric acid (cyanide, I ounce; water 2% ounces; acid, I Vá ounces for every 250 cubic feet of greenhouse; IOO cubic feet of nursery stock- room and 125 feet of dwelling house rooms, flour-mills, trees, etc.). Exposures may be from 30 to 60 minutes for trees, the former time be- ing for plants in active growth, the latter for dormant ones; from I2 to 24 hours is usual for rooms, granaries, etc. Since these gases are considered violent poisons the greatest care should be exercised in their application. Oils and greases are merely rubbed on infested ani- mals and man. Boiling water is effective in de- stroying both lice and eggs in clothing, but the clothing must be boiled for hours to destroy the eggs of the body-louse and the crab-louse. Dust, tobacco-dust, etc., are useful in poultry INSECTIVORA – INSECTS yards for the birds to wallow in. Carbolic soap is the favorite remedy for insects on pet animals. But with all stock, poultry, pets and man, clean- liness is the great preventive. For condensed information concerning in- secticides, consult: Circular No. 1, Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, I891; Marlatt, ‘Important Insecticides,” Farm- ers' Bulletin No. 127, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Hinds, “Carbon Disulphid as an Insecticide,” Farmers' Bulletin I45 (as above); Johnson, ‘Fumigation Methods? (New York, I902). M. G. KAINS, Horticulturist. Insectiv'ora, an order of mammals, all of Small size, usually five-toed, more or less planti- grade, and as a rule, possessing clavicles. “The Snout is generally long, and is often prolonged into a small proboscis. There is a tendency for the teeth to be of a generalized type and their number is often the typical mammalian 44. Moreover, trituberculate teeth, which are cer- tainly of an ancient form, are common.” These teeth are adapted to feed on worms and insects alone. Many other evidences go to show that the type is a very old one, and Beddard thinks it may have survived because of the small size, imitative adaptiveness and nocturnal habits. Woodward speaks of the group as probably the little-altered survivors of some of the most primitive placental mammals, agreeing with the Credonia in their low type of brain. Most of the families may be traced back to the upper Eocene. The order falls into two divisions, (I) True Insectivores, including the hedgehogs (Erina- ceidae), squirrel-shrews (Tupaiidae), tanrecs (Centetidae) otter-shrews (Potamagalida), hu- tias (Solenodontidae), golden moles (Chryso- chloridae), elephant-shrews (Macroscelidae), aquatic moles (Talpidae), shrews (Soricidae); and (2) Dermaptera, embracing only the colugos (Galeopithecidae). See HEDGEHOG; MoLE. Insectiv'orous Plants. See CARNIvoROUS PLANTS. Insects. (Lat. insectum), a class of Arthro- poda characterized by the body being divided into three regions, that is, a head, thorax, and hind-body or abdomen, and by the presence, in all but the more primitive and certain degraded forms, of wings, and of three pairs of thoracic legs. The body of insects consists of 2I seg- ments (somites) of which six are used to- gether to form the head, while there are three thoracic, and from IO to I2 abdominal segments. To the head are appended five pairs of jointed appendages, that is, the antennae, mandibles, and two pairs of maxillae, while in the embryo of certain insects and in the adult Campodea, there has been detected a pair of vestigial appendages. Besides these appendages, there are two com- pound eyes, one on each side, and usually three simple eyes (ocelli) situated in the middle of the head. While the antennae are undivided the first maxillae are subdivided into three branches, an inner (lacinia), a middle (galea), and outer (palpifer), bearing the palpus. The second maxillae are fused together, forming the under lip or labium; each second maxilla is composed of a lacinia, the palpus, while vestiges of the galea Occur in certain forms. In bees certain accessory appendages called paraglossae are present. Be- sides tº: maxillae, the so-called tongue or hypo- Ol. 9–5 ſº pharynx is present, being highly developed in bees; it lies on the under side of the mouth, just above the labium; in caterpillars it receives the end of the salivary duct, and is called the spinneret. Attention should also be called to the upper lip or labium, on the under side of which is the epipharynx, which bears minute taste-pits. The thorax consists of three segments, which can be easily distinguished in the primitive wing- less forms (Campodea) and in the cockroach and locust, but in the more specialized forms as beetles, moths, bees and flies, the segments are more or less fused together and, owing to the movements of the wing muscles, are subdivided into many separate pieces. In the wasps and bees the basal abdominal segment becomes to- ward the pupa State transferred to the thorax. The legs as a rule end in five jointed tarsi, the last joint bearing a pair of claws with a cushion (pulvillus) between them. Insects are enabled to walk on glass, etc., by means of a sticky fluid exuded from the ends of hollow hairs fringing the cushion. They climb by means of their claws. Insects differ from all other animals except birds and bats in possessing wings, and their presence, especially that of the muscles of flight, have greatly modified the shape and structure Of the thorax. The front pair of wings is at- tached to the middle thoracic segment (meso- thorax) and the hind wings to the metathorax. In the two-winged flies (Diptera) the second pair of wings are reduced and modified to form the balancers (halteres). The wings are flat sac-like outgrowths of the skin, and are strength- ened by the “veins” which form hollow rods. These veins contain a trachea, so that there is a space between the air-tube and the outer wall. When the insect emerges from the nymph or the pupa, the vein is filled with blood. The spaces enclosed by the veins and their cross-branches are called cells, and their shape often affords valuable generic and specific characters. In the more primitive insects there are numerous cross-veins, and such wings as in locusts, etc., are said to be net-veined. In the Lepidoptera there are few cross-veins. In the Diptera and Hymenoptera the number of veins is limited, the cells also being few. The skin of insects is hard, dense and elastic, due to the deposition of chitin. Internal Anatomy.— One of the distinctive characteristics of insects is their mode of respira- tion. This is effected by an intricate system of internal air-tubes (tracheae), which are filled with air by openings (spiracles) in the sides of the body; of these spiracles there are from one to two pairs in the thorax, and eight pairs in the abdomen. The tracheae are kept perma- nently open by a series of threads (taenidium) each of which makes from three to five turns around the thin tube; in this way the entire tracheal branch is provided with what at first was supposed to be a continuous spiral thread. The slit-like openings of the spiracles are guarded by a grate of stiff hairs to prevent the ingress of dust, etc. It should be borne in mind that no insect breathes through its mouth, but through the spiracles. Hence the efficacy of all oily or greasy substances in destroying every kind of insect in whatever stage of growth; wherever the oil touches the body a thin film spreads over it, covering the air-openings so that the insect soon dies by asphyxiation. Though INSECTS insects have a delicate pulsating tubular heart, they have no arteries and veins, since the air in the tracheae seeks the blood in the remotest parts of the body. The blood is thin and color- less. The aquatic larvae and a very few perfect insects breathe by external tracheal gills, the spiracles being in such cases often absent. The genital opening is always situated near the end of the body, in front of the vent on the under side. Besides a complicated digestive canal, in- sects have urinary tubes opening into the end of the intestine. The nervous system consists, besides the brain, of a chain of ganglia the greatest number of which is I3, but which become more or less fused in the more specialized groups, especially in the flies. The brain is remarkably complex, in accordance with the varied and complicated movements of the segmented body and jointed appendages, all capable of different kinds of In OtíOnS. Sense of Sight.— The compound or facetted eyes (ommatea) are composed of numerous simple eyes called Ommatidia, which vary in number from 12, in Lepisma, to 20,000 in the dragon-fly (AEschna), and even 25,000 in a beetle (Mordella). Yet notwithstanding the wonder- ful complexity of these compound eyes, most in- Sects are near-sighted, and perceive rather the movements of other animals than their exact outlines; the dragonfly and butterfly can see for a considerable distance. The simple eye probably only enables the 1nsect to distinguish daylight from darkness, or at most very near objects. Insects, like bees and butterflies, have the color-sense, and prefer certain colors to others. Sense of Smell.— Insects are chiefly guided by the sense of smell. This resides in the an- tennae, in which there are microscopic pits filled with fluid ; to this pit goes a fine nerve whose fibres end in staff-like sense cells. The number of these olfactory organs is in some insects enormous; thus in the European cockchafer there are 39,000 in the leaves of the male anten- nae, and about 35,000 in those of the female; in a single antenna of the hornet (Vespa crabro) are about 13,000 to I4,000. In the cockroach the abdominal cerci or feelers also possess such p1tS. Sense of Hearing.— The auditory organs of the locust are drum-like ears situated one on each side of the base of the abdomen, directly behind the first abdominal spiracle; in the green grasshopper, katydids, etc., a little auditory sac is lodged in the fore-legs (tibiae). It is supposed that most insects are destitute of the sense of hearing, at least auditory structures have not yet been detected; yet all sound-producing in- Sects must have ears to hear. ... Sense of Taste.— The taste organs are little pits or papillae which resemble the olfactory organs, but which occur on the inside of the upper lips, on the epipharynx, or at the base of the proboscis and maxillae in the bee. The Egg and Growth of Insects.— The eggs and the fertilizing fluid of the male are pro- duced in glands which open near the end of the body on the under side. The eggs are deposited by the female in the earth or in wood, leaves, etc., by means of the ovipositor, an apparatus composed of three pairs of hard appendages, and which in the wasps and bees form the sting. Most insects die on the approach of cold weather, when they lay their eggs, the species being rep- resented in the winter by the eggs alone. The eggs hatch in spring, the embryo passing through remarkable changes. Metamorphoses.— Most insects after hatching pass through a remarkable series of changes called a metamorphosis. The Small flies, moths. or beetles, are not the young of large ones, but adult insects, while the most primitive insects. have no marked metamorphosis, the mature locust only differing from the young in having wings; the more specialized forms, as beetles, moths, wasps, bees, and flies, pass through two stages of growth, that is, the larva and pupa, be- fore becoming winged and sexually mature. Larva.-The name was first given by the ancients to the caterpillar because they thought it masked the form of the perfect insect. Swam- merdam supposed that the larva contained within itself “the germ of the future butterfly, enclosed in what will be the case of the pupa, which is itself included in three or more skins, one over the other, that will successively cover the larva.” But the discovery by Weismann (q.v.) of the germs of the imago (imaginal disks or buds) in the larva completely changed our notions of the nature of metamorphosis (q.v.), and revolu- tionized our knowledge of the fundamental pro- cesses concerned in the change from larva to pupa or chrysalis, and from pupa to imago. Not only are the larvae of each order of insects char- acteristic in form, so that the grub or larva of beetles is readily distinguished from the larvae of other groups, or the maggots of flies from the footless larva of ants, wasps and bees, but within the limits of the larger orders there is a great diversity of larval forms, showing that they are the result of adaptation to their sur- roundings and mode of life. The larvae of nearly if not all the metabolous animals are probably secondary in their origin. Fritz Müller (q.v.) pointed out that this is the case with the larvae of the higher insects. The larva of a beetle is popularly called a grub ; that of a fly a maggot. The young of the more primitive insects, such as the cockroach, locust, all bugs, etc., which undergo an incomplete meta- morphosis, is called a nymph. See LARVA. Pupa.- The word pupa is Latin, mean- ing baby. Linnaeus gave it this name from its resemblance to a baby which has been swathed or bound up, as is still the custom in Southern Europe. The term pupa should be restricted to the resting, inactive stage of the holometabolous insects, that is, those with a complete metamor- phosis. The typical pupa is that of a moth or a butterfly, popularly called a chrysalis. A lepi- dopterous pupa in which the appendages are more or less folded close to the body and sold- ered to the integument, was called by Linnaeus a pupa obtecta; and when the limbs are free, as in Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera, and the lepidopterous genus Micropteryx, it is called a pupa libera. When the pupa is enclosed in the old larval skin, which forms a pupal covering (puparium), the pupa was said by Linnaeus to be coarctate. The pupa of certain Diptera, as that of the orthoraphous families, is nearly as much obtected as that of the tineoid families of moths, especially as regards the appendages of the head, the legs being more as in pupae liberae. The pupae of Coleoptera and of Hymenoptera, though there is, apparently, no near relationship between these two orders, are much alike in shape, and, （SJLOTHSNI ONOWNW №i CIWNIIN GHAI LOTHLON-I-I INSECTS AND FLOWERS – INSOLVENCY as Chapman pertinently suggests, those of both orders are helpless from their quiescence, and hence have resorted for protection to Some cocoon or shell. . But it is quite otherwise with the pupae of Lepidoptera and Diptera, which vary so much in adaptation to their surroundings, and hence afford important taxonomical and phylo- genetic characters. This, as regards the Lepi. doptera, was almost wholly overlooked until Chapman called attention to the subject, and showed that the pupae had characters of their own, of the greatest service in working out the classi- fication, and hence the phylogeny of the different lepidopterous groups. The pupae of the Neuroptera, Cóleoptera and Hymenoptera differ structurally from the imago, in the parts of the 'head and thorax being less differentiated. Thus in the head the limits or sutures between the epi- cranium and clypeus, and the Occiput and gula, are obscurely marked, while the tergal and pleu- ral sclerites of the imago are not well differen- tiated until the changes occurring just before the final ecolysis. It is easy, however, to homologize the appendages of the pupae with those of the imago of all the holometabolous orders except in the case of the obtected pupa of the Lepidoptera (and probably of the obtected dipterous pupae), where the cephalic appendages are soldered together. Classification of Insects.-The number of known species of insects is from 200,000 to 300,000, but it is estimated that there are upward of a million species now living. In fact, the class of insects vastly outnumbers all other groups of animals. This is probably due to their being winged, and to their great fecundity. At present the class of insects is divided into two subclasses, that is, the (I) Synaptera, repre- sented by the wingless orders Thysanura and Collembola; and (2) Pterygota, comprising I5 winged orders and which may be thus tabulated: Series I.- Heterometabola, with an incomplete or va- riable, though slight, degree of metamorphosis. No distinct larva or pupa state, the young being nymphs. Order I. Dermaptera. (Earwig.) “ 2. Orthoptera. (Cockroach, hopper, stick insect.) * (Bird lice, Perla, white ant.) locust, grass- & & . Platyptera. . Odonata. (Dragonfly.) . Plectoptera. (Mayfly.) . Thysanoptera, Thrips. . Hemiptera. (Bugs.) Series 2.- Holometabola, or with a complete metamor- phosis. Order 8. & & & 4 & & & & & & i & & Neuroptera. (Corydalus, lace-wing fly, ant-lion. 9. Mecoptera. (Panorpa, Boreus.) Io. Trichoptera. (Caddis flies.) “ II. Coleoptera. (Beetles.) & “ 12. Lepidoptera. (Moths and butterflies.) “ 13. Siphonaptera, (Flea.) & & 14. Diptera. (Mosquito, fly.) “ 15. Hymenoptera. (Saw-fly, ant, wasp, bee.) Fossil Insects.--About 3,000 species of fossil insects have been described, of these from 200 to 300 are Palaeozoic, 500 Mesozoic, and the re- mainder are Tertiary. The oldest fossil insect- remains is the wing of a supposed bug (Proto- cimer) from the Ordovician of Sweden. The wing of a cockroach (Palaoblattina) has been detected in the middle Silurian of Calvados, France. From the Devonian shales of St. John, N. B., nine species of primitive net-veined insects have been collected. The coal measures are characterized by cockroaches, primitive dragon- flies, May-flies, and grasshopper-like forms, phasmids, etc., also occurring. All of the Palae- ozoic insects known are very primitive. Modern forms, those having a complete metamorphosis, begin to appear in the Triassic and Jurassic, where remains of beetles, a saw-fly, and a moth occur. Ants, bees and butterflies date from the Oligocene and Miocene Tertiary. Bibliography.— The latest general works on insects are Carpenter’s “Insects, their Structure and Life’ (London, 1899), and Sharp's “Insects? (Vols. V. and VI. of Cambridge Natural His– tory, 1895–9); both contain sufficient references to other works. For American insects consult: Packard’s ‘Text-book of Entomology” (1898), and ‘Guide to the Study of Insects? (1889); Comstock's ‘Manual for the Study of Insects? (1895); ‘Insects and Crustacea” (Vol. II., Standard Natural History, 1884); Howard's ‘The Insect Book? (1901). The last named contains a copious bibliography, especially to the voluminous publications of the Entomological Division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. See FRESH-water INSECTs; MARINE INSECTs, and the names of groups and species, as FLIES, HYMENOPTERA, MoTHs, etc. ALPHEUs S. PACKARD, Prof. of Zoology, Brown University. Insects and Flowers. See FLOWERS AND INSECTS. Insects, Fungi Affecting. See FUNGI. Insects, Injurious and Beneficial. ENTOMOLOGY, ECONOMIC. Insects, Propagation of Disease by. See FILIARISIS; FLIES; MosquTTOEs; MYIASIs, ETC. Insessores, in-sé-sö'réz, a discarded term in Ornithology designating a group styled “perchers,” which included the majority of the Smaller and more familiar birds. The term has been abandoned because the group denoted by it is a purely arbitrary one. Insid'ious Flower-bug. See FLOWER-BUG. . Insolvency. In a popular sense the word insolvency applies only to persons without prop- erty or means sufficient to satisfy their creditors. The legal definition embraces all who are unable to pay their debts at maturity in the ordinary course of business, even though they may possess assets exceeding their liabilities. A failure to meet Overdue obligations renders a person liable to proceedings against him in a court of in- Solvency, in which his assets may be taken into the possession of the officers, marshaled, and dis- tributed to his creditors. Should there be an amount in excess of what is required to pay the creditors and the expenses of administration, the balance so remaining is the property of the debtor. From a very early period in the his– tory of civil government, laws have existed pro- viding for proceedings by creditors against in- solvent debtors, by which the debtor's property could be taken from his possession, to be held by another as a trust fund to be applied to the pay- ment of his just debts. In case of an insuffi- cient amount to pay all debts in full, provisions are usually made for a pro rata distribution. These laws have generally provided for classes of preferred debts, payments of which were to be made in full, even though such payments ex- hausted the entire assets. Preferred claims com- monly included all claims of the government or state, and often claims for labor to a limited See INSPIRATION amount, and claims for the necessaries of life. Provisions are usually made for the exemption of certain articles to the use of the debtor, not to be included in the assets. The Constitution of the United States provides that Congress may establish uniform laws on the subject of bank- ruptcy throughout all the States, and the first act upon that subject was passed in 1800, since which time there has been some Federal bank- ruptcy law, with brief interregnums. A uniform Inational law upon the subject now exists. The first act of Congress upon this subject provided for proceedings by the creditors only, but in 1841 an amendment provided for voluntary pro- ceedings by the debtor, by which he could sur- render his property and obtain a discharge from all of his debts, provided he had been guilty of no fraud. In the absence of a national law on the subject of insolvency, the States all have authority to enact and enforce laws upon that subject. The Federal act now provides for vol- untary proceedings by the debtor, as well as proceedings against him by the creditors, with provisions for his discharge. The various State acts have usually contained such provisions. The Federal act suspends all State insolvency laws during its continuance. See BANKRUPTCY LAWS. Inspiration, in theology, the communication by the Holy Spirit, to writers and speakers, of a portion of the knowledge and feeling of God, in such fashion that they can be communicated to other men; especially used in relation to the Bible. On the fact of inspiration rests all at- tribution of divinity to the sacred writings above any others; but theories of its method and ex- tent have necessarily changed with the advance of critical knowledge. They have never had an authoritative pronouncement even from the Church of Rome, which allows liberty of judg- ment on this; the Bible not holding the supreme place there as in Protestant bodies, and the lat- ter being too divided for a credal statement on this point, by the very causes which call for one. All theories rest not only on the necessary im- plication of divine character in the Bible, but on two specific passages: 2 Tim. iii. I6: “All Scripture is given by the inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine” (Revised Version, “Every Scripture inspired of God is also profit- able for teaching,” which does not relinquish the claim of inspiration); and 2 Pet. i. 21, “Holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost” (Revised essentially the same). The Scriptures were the Old Testament. The early Church did not generally dwell on theories of inspiration, regarding it as a pas- sive “ecstasy” in which divine truth was com- municated, but rarely going on to its effects on the inspired writings or the methods which produced them. Origen, however, the great builder of doctrinal framework, formulated an exact theory of “plenary” or entire inspiration, which preserved the writers from all faults of memory, and left no iota either incorrect or superfluous in Scripture. But others held that all believers were inspired in different degrees; as this made all believers infallible interpreters of the Scriptures, the perilous nature of such a doctrine led to the opposite one, that there was an inspired official depositary of interpretation as well. as an inspired canon of writings. The mediaeval Schoolmen evolved the theory that there were two kinds of inspiration in the Scrip- tures: direct, found where moral and doctrinal truths are directly taught; and indirect, in his- torical passages, whence ethical truths can only be derived by allegorical interpretation. Regarding inspiration not as a purpose but a method, there are three explanations within the limits of Orthodox Christianity: the “plenary” or verbal, the dynamic, and what may be termed the “irradiant” theories. The remaining one, which makes the inspiration only that common to all human beings — who are part of the divine mind — and having no part in any special reve- lation, is really not a theory of inspiration at all, as it holds that there is none; that all things are parts of the world's evolution, and the sacred writers and the Bible were evolved like the rest, though the latter is the greatest moral product of the world, and to be reverenced in the moral rank as we reverence the greatest writers and thinkers in theirs. In the early uncritical ages of the Protestant churches, the universal and obvious theory of inspiration was the plenary. The original text Of the Bible was dictated word for word by the Holy Spirit, the writers being merely penmen, or media on whom were impressed certain phrases, which must not be varied on peril of distorting the divine revelation. The words of Scripture thus transmitted are God’s words, to each reader as if spoken directly to him by the Deity, and no matter to what subject they relate, be it doctrine or history, the origin of man or the duty of man. That there are different styles, corresponding to different writers, means only that God has accommodated his expressions to their natures, for his own utilities. Hence the least particle in the Scriptures is surcharged with meaning, and if anything seems in conflict with Science, history, or other portions of the Bible, it arises from corruption of text, bad translation, or other change from the actual re- vealed language. This is the only theory with perfect logical continuity; unhappily it can only be maintained, in face of the increasing body of knowledge of texts, facts, and natural ethics, by those willing to abnegate their own right of criticism wholly in favor of their own infalli– ble interpretation. Indeed, the chief argument for the latter is that the divine purpose would be defeated, if its intention in giving the revelation were made null by the misunderstanding of fal- lible human faculties. The dynamic theory is the first step outside this bulwark enforced by the impossibility of maintaining verbal inspiration, and relegates the divine agency to an indirect function. In place of its dictating the exact phraseology and the precise facts, the writers are so filled with divine force that for all purposes of conveying the essential divine purpose, that of showing the truths of sin and danger and the path of sal- vation, they are a portion of the divine and in- capable of error. Under this theory the writers are left a free hand, according to their own limitations and those of their age, in dealing with narrative facts or their own guesses at them; but are guided explicitly in all matters of faith and morals. In order to be received, the reve- lation had to be accommodated to the mental con- ditions of different ages; and men of each re- ceived guidance from God to present it so that it was true in relation to them, and remained So for all ages under all conditions. The war- INSTINCT rant of the Bible is its incomparable and super- human system of ethics, and its proof of divine origin is that evident superiority to all human devices. The “irradiant” theory is a recent one, and a step farther from the old claim of entire divinity. In this view the record as such has no divinity, nor infallibility of any kind. There is a divine revelation, but it acts by generating moral ideas in certain great selected men, and which, once generated, are left to fight their way and take their chance like the other useful ideas of the world, and undergo disbelief and mutilation, with the certainty that according to God’s purpose, truth will prevail at last. The proof of divinity in Christianity lies in the fact that its moral truths are the greatest in the world, and were original with it. Instinct. Instinctive acts are those physio- logical activities in which mind or consciousness is involved. Instincts may be regarded as inter- mediate between simple physiological or reflex actions and acts of reason exhibited by man. Animals of a grade higher than Sponges, polyps, most mollusks and other forms of a correspond- ing grade, have organs of sense, of perception, and in the higher vertebrates a brain and nerv- ous system and other organs of the same type as those of man, and such animals react to some- thing more than mere physical stimuli. We know by observation that the social insects, birds and mammals, at least those which have become domesticated, have sufficient intelligence to meet the ordinary exigencies of life, and that at times the ant, bee, beaver, elephant, dog, and ape can meet extraordinary emergencies, that is, rise with the occasion; that they may to a very lim- ited extent be free agents; that they are not mere automata. It has been observed that the more intelligent animals are not solely guided by the physical stimuli of light, odors, etc., but that they exercise the power of choice, selecting this or that kind of food, this or that mate. Ani- mals are subject to what we call the passions: they show anger, even when not hungry or under the domination of the reproductive instincts; their sounds express dissatisfaction or content- ment. They possess memory; with its aid ants and bees find their way back to their IleStS. Definitions of Instinct.— Descartes believed that animals are automata. It is popularly Sup- posed that animals are automata, physiological machines in which have been implanted by super- natural power what we call instincts. This view is still insisted on by two excellent ob- servers of the habits of insects, Favre and Was- mann, who claim that instincts are special innate or natural propensities, “transcending the gen- eral intelligence or experience of the creature.” But of late years the impression has arisen and gained force that instincts are “innate” and “natural” because they have arisen by a natural process and have been gradually acquired and transmitted from one generation to another. Erasmus Darwin held that instincts were the result of imitation by young animals of the ac- tions of their parents. This view is still held by Wallace, and, as Eimer claims, the power of rapid learning has played a part in the evolution of certain instincts. Thus the fox or rat learns from its parents, and becomes more cunning or sagacious with age and training. Lamarck practically regarded the lowest animals as automata, but in the higher animals, that is, those with a nervous system, we have instinct. “Hence, instinct in animals is an inclination which necessitates that from sensations provoked while giving rise to wants the animal is im- pelled to act without the participation of any thought or any act of the will.” To satisfy these wants they contract different kinds of habits; these are transformed, he says, into so many propensities, from which “originate their habitual actions, and Special propensities to which are given the name of instinct.” He then adds that the same habits and the same instinct are perpetuated from generation to generation, “without offering any notable variation, so long as it does not suffer change in the circumstances essential to the mode of life.” He thus intimates that instinct may vary, and he states that in birds and mammals instinct is variable. Darwin does not give a formal definition of instinct, but after stating that several distinct mental actions are commonly embraced by this term, he adds that “a little dose, as Pierre Huber expresses it, of judgment or reason often comes into play, even in animals low in the scale of nature.” He calls attention to the points of re- Semblance between instincts and habits, showing. that habitual action may become inherited, whence it results that “the resemblance between what originally was a habit and an instinct be--> comes so close as not to be distinguished.” He concludes that, by natural selection, slight modi- fications of instinct which are in any way useful accumulate, and thus animals have slowly and gradually acquired through successive genera- tions, their power of acting instinctively, and that they were not suddenly or specially endowed with instincts. Herbert Spencer defines it as compound reflex action, and also as “a kind of organized memory,” arguing that instinctive ac- tions grow out of reflex, and in time pass into intelligent acts. Romanes defines instinct as “reflex action into which there is imported the element of consciousness.” Lloyd Morgan also says: “It is a bit of animal automatism not necessarily involving more than the lower brain centres,” but it is a bit of automatism accom- panied by a consciousness in a broad sense. “The role of consciousness in a chick's pecking is to Select the adequate responses, and to steady the muscular mechanism to its work.” As the result of recent experiments Loeb regards instincts as inherited reflexes so purposeful and so com- plicated in character that nothing short of in- telligence and experience could have produced them. Packard gives the following definition: “The sum of inherited reflex acts, becoming habitual and arising from blended reflex and Subconscious though involuntary acts, performed at birth or through life blindly, without practice or previous experience, effort, training or thought.” Earamples.— It should be understood at the outset that instincts in animals are fundamentally connected with the means of obtaining food, or with reproduction, the latter involving care for the young, as in egg-laying, the selection of a nesting place by insects and birds, the construc- tion of the nest, and the defense of the young, and in the birds and mammals the training of the young to fly, or to hunt for prey. Reflex acts are simply physiological responses * INSTITUTE OF FRANCE to external physical stimuli, as muscular irrita- bility, the different tropisms, such as response to Odors, and other chemical properties, to cold, heat, etc. animals, as the protozoa, Sponges, polyps, Worms, etc., their modes of selecting and getting food, of escaping their enemies, are scarcely Imore than reflex. As examples of instinctive acts are those of very young chicks. Morgan regards as instinctive in these birds the act of “pecking, walking, scratching themselves, preen- ing their down and feathers, stretching up and flapping their wings, squatting down and dust- ing themselves, scattering and crouching when alarmed, uttering the danger-warning churr, and other sounds.” Young ducks afford examples in the way they “seize and mumble their food in the bill, their aptness in swimming directly on leav- ing their shell, piping, and smoothing the down of their breast with their bill.” It is when we observe the complicated nest- ing habits of the Spiders, and of the social in- sects such as ants, wasps, bees, as well as those of birds and the muskrat and beaver, when such striking and inexplicable forms of intelligence arise that we become perplexed how to explain them. Thus take the mode in which the honey- bee builds its cells. result of several bees working together, and due to the mechanical pressure of the insects against each other during the formation of the cell? While some contend that if left alone to build a single cell, this would probably be round, others show that a solitary wasp will build its cells in very regular hexagons. It is now conceded by TXarwin, Romanes, and others, that the process is not a purely mechanical one, but is “constantly under the control of intelligent purpose.” It is most probable that the hexagonal-cell building instinct is the result of habits which gradualiy arose, and which became fixed by heredity. In birds the modifications sometimes occurring in the shape and situation of their nests show that their instincts are, owing to change of condi- tions, plastic, reason teaching them to modify their nests so as to adapt them to new condi- tions. Experience and intelligence lead to such changes. The beaver manifests in his works in- telligence and reasoning capacity, both in the Construction of dams, canals, and in the mode of felling trees, and in the use in certain locali- ties of “slides.” In the monkeys and apes we apparently have the nearest approach to human intelligence, judging by the instances narrated by Romanes. Were it possible to breed apes for Imany successive generations more light would be thrown on their psychology. Meanwhile 1many acts performed by the domestic animals, the horse, dog, cat, elephant and even the pig, and their susceptibility to be trained, show that they may often act intelligently, and are prompted by a low degree of reason. Instincts Variable and Sometimes at Fault.— Lemmings in their migrations, impelled by their instincts to go ahead, will swim out into the sea and be drowned. Ants will store up beads in- stead of Seeds, and there are many instances where instinct is at fault. Certain instincts may also by change of the environment become directed into new channels. This is illustrated by numerous cases of insects, reptiles, and mam- Imals which have become adapted to an aquatic 1ife. An entire new crop of habits and instincts 1may thus arise. The instincts of young animals, Many of the movements of the lowest, derful differentiation of the asks the question, “Do animals reason”? Is it simply mechanical, the particularly of larval forms, caterpillars, grubs and maggots, are of a different description from those of the pupa state, and more especially of the adult state. In fact, instincts are pliable, variable, and in certain cases may lapse alto- gether, to be replaced by a new set. Were this not the case we should have no progress in the evolution of life. The more generalized animals have vastly less intelligence than the highly Spe- cialized forms. Compare the instincts of so complex a being as the ant, or wasp, or bee, with that of the locust or bug, or the instinctive and intellectual acts of social insects, with their won- individual into workers of different castes and the normal and supplemental males and females. Such are what are called complex instincts, and they are all brought into action through the principle of the division of labor. Do Animals Reason 2 — Lloyd Morgan ob- 'served that the chick rapidly profits by experi- ence after a few practical trials; hence he con- cludes that intelligence is founded on experience. He allows that chicks have intelligence, this in- volving the association of impressions and ideas, and the power of making a choice. He tº. O they focus the therefore” P “Do they think the why” P Probably not. Reason is not (as ani- mals “reason”) adaptation; they do not profit by experience of actions to varying circumstances. Hence, he thinks that animals probably do not reason as man is capable of reasoning. Here might be quoted Herbert Spencer's definition: “Reason or intelligence is the faculty which is concerned in the intentional adaptation of means to an end.” Finally, it is safe to assume that the higher animals, especially the domestic ani- mals, which have been in contact with and more or less trained by man, exhibit the germs of rea- son, and while they cannot make inductions and deductions or predictions, their intellectual acts differ rather in degree than in kind from those of the lowest human races. Consult: Romanes, ‘Animal Intelligence? (1883); ‘Mental Evolution in Animals? (1884); Morgan, ‘Animal Life and Intelligence? (1890–1); ‘Animal Behavior? (1900); Loeb, ‘Comparative Physiology of the Brain? (1902). ALPHEUS S. PACKARD, Professor of Zoology, Brown University. In’stitute of France, a learned body organ- ized after the first outbreak of the French Revo- 1ution, during which all the academies of learn- ing and arts in France had been suppressed. It was formed by the decree of 25 Oct. 1795, to re- place the Académie Française, the Académie des Sciences, and the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Its object was the advancement of the arts and sciences by continual researches, by the publication of new discoveries, and by a correspondence with the most distinguished scholars of all countries, and especially by pro- moting such scientific and literary undertakings as would tend to the national welfare and glory. The Institute was composed of a number of members residing at Paris, and an equal number of associates in the different parts of the Re- public. Each class could also choose eight learned foreigners as associates. It was at first divided into three classes, each of which was sub- divided into several sections. The first class embraced the physical and mathematical sciences, INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL SERVICE — INSTITUTIONAL CHURCH the second the moral and historical, and the third literature and the fine arts. The number of active members, exclusive of the associates, was 1imited to I44. The Institute received, however, its final organization by a decree of 23 Jan. I803. It was then divided into four classes: (1) the class of the physical and mathematical sciences, consisting of 65 members; (2) the class of the French language and literature, consisting of 40 members; (3) the class of history and ancient literature, of 40 members; (4) the class of the fine arts, with 28 members. A royal ordinance of 21 March 1816, restored the former names of the classes, so that the name of Institute was applied only to the whole body collectively. The same Ordinance assigned the first rank to the Acad- &mie Française, as being the oldest; the next rank to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles- Lettres; the third to the Académie des Sciences; and the last to the Académie des Beaux-Arts. These united, academies were under the personal direction of the king, and each had an inde- pendent organization. To each academy were attached Io honorary members, who had merely the right of being present at the meetings. In 1832 the old class of Sciences Morales et Pol- itiques was reconstituted as a separate academy, so that there are now five academies. The Académie Française had for its chief Ob- ject the cultivation of the French language, and was charged with the composition of a French dictionary, the merits of which have been often disputed and its plan condemned. The disposal of its vacant chairs has not always been regu- lated by the best taste and judgment, Descartes, Pascal, Molière, La Bruyère, J. J. Rousseau, Balzac, Dumas père, Daudet, and Zola having Theen rejected, while in former times many a shallow court favorite was accepted. The Académie des Inscriptions et Belles- Lettres has 40 members, IO free academicians, and 8 foreign associates. It has 40 correspond- ents at home and abroad, and devotes itself chiefly to subjects of a historical nature. The most distinguished scholars, both in and out of Europe, are, or have been, connected with it. Commit- tees of this academy superintend the erection of public monuments and the preservation of those already in existence. Works brought out under its auspices are: ‘Histoire littéraire de France,” “Recueil des Historiens de France,” and ‘Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum.” The Académie des Sciences has for its prov- ince the various branches of knowledge con- nected with the physical and mathematical sciences, natural history, medicine, etc., there be- ing in all II sections. It has 66 members, Io free academicians, and IOO correspondents. The number of foreign associates is limited to eight. The Académie des Beaux-Arts has 4o mem- bers, IO free academicians, IO foreign associates, and 61 correspondents. A committee of this academy was charged with the publication of a dictionary of the fine arts. The Académie des Sciences Morales et Pol- itiques, has 40 members, Io free academicians, 6 foreign associates, and 48 correspondents. Members of the Institute of France are elected for life by ballot, and have an annual salary of 1,500 francs. Institute of Social Service, American. See SoCIAL SERVICE. Institutional Church, a non-credal organ- ization of Christians, to supplement the regular church methods and ministrations —preaching, prayer-meetings, Sunday school, and pastoral visitations — by helpful social work in the com— munity. The moving spirit is the same as in the Y. M. C. A., University Settlement, Salvation Army, Rescue Missions, Christian Endeavor so- cieties, etc.; but “with the emphasis on Church, not Institution.” The prime object is to reannex to the church the functions which other bodies have been compelled to fill by its neglect of its duty; and strengthen it by gathering potential Christian elements which under the old system do not come to it, as well as by combining in it- self all the claims to public gratitude and interest now shared between the purely ecclesiastical and the purely social institutions, or the half-way houses like the Y. M. C. A. It differs from the latter in not merely furnishing a religious atmo- sphere which may lead to church membership, but enrolling members at once in a real church of Christian work by absorbing the secular features of the other; in a word, to do, without vows or uniforms, what the Catholic Church has always done with its charitable functions — make them an integral portion of the church organization. Hence, it is not by itself a church in the sense of the Roman Catholic or the Methodist Church, but in a broad sense a description of any church which adds educational or social work; in gen- eral use, a title of any which throws into this work its predominant vitality. Free pews are an essential accompaniment, as the social aris- tocracy fostered by rented pews contradicts the basal democratic principle of institutional work; hence it is sometimes called Free Church, but preferably Open Church. The present name orig- inated with President Tucker of Dartmouth Col- lege, who applied it to Berkeley Temple, Boston. The movement started chiefly with the High Church element in England, modeled on the Catholic idea; it flourished for two generations in that country before reaching the United States, about 1880, and it has hardly been a vigorously spreading one here for above I5 years. Now, however, a large number of churches — Episco- pal, Congregational, and Baptist in the forefront, but also Methodist, Presbyterian, Unitarian—have adopted the idea with increasing vigor, besides the work of this class always performed by the brotherhoods and sisterhoods of the Roman Catholic Church. One of the earliest of these was Plymouth Church of Indianapolis, inspired by the memory of Mr. Beecher. Notable among others are the St. Bartholomew, St. George, St. Paul, and Judson Memorial of New York, and the Tabernacle of Jersey City; Berkeley Temple, Parker Memorial, and Ruggles Street Baptist of Boston; Grace and Bethany of Philadelphia; Ninth Street of Cincinnati, Pilgrim of Cleve- land; Plymouth Tabernacle of Detroit; People's of St. Paul; and the Denver Tabernacle. In I894 the Open and Institutional Church League was organized in New York; it held several con- ventions in Eastern cities (1895–1901), and for three years published the ‘Open Church) as its 9rgan, but has practically lapsed, being merged in the ‘National Federation of Churches and Christian Workers.” The total of its work, however, is not shown by its nominal member- - INSTRUMENTS ship; the same spirit has infected outside churches, and their methods are being more and more adopted as a general basis of work. The platform of the League stated that it aimed to save all men by “abolishing, so far as possible, the distinction between the religious and the secular”; by “open church doors for every day and all the day, free seats, a plurality of Christian workers, the personal activity of ail church members, a ministry to all the community through educational, reformatory, and philan- thropic channels, to the end that men may be won to Christ and his service, that the Church may be brought back to the simplicity and comprehensiveness of its primitive life.” It is not correct to say, as is often done, that its methods are purely secular: its additional meth- ods beyond the regular religious ones are so, for the very reason it exists. These involve a thor- ough organization for social and philanthropic work; but the religious features are sedulously conserved and carefully fitted to the work, the spirit of worship being cherished and made the centre of inspiration. The service generally ends in the communion; there is congregational singing of both hymns and chants, led by a highly trained choir, and often responsive read- ings; the whole with the sermon are intended to be brief, varied, and attractive. Sunday schools are carefully attended to ; prayer meet- ings given new features; in summer there are open-air meetings; and other Christian asso- ciations, endeavor societies, brotherhoods, etc., are encouraged. The officers and workers of the church are given active special duties, such as pastoral visiting, reception and -welcome of strangers, canvassing for the various activities of the church; and there are not only sub-pastors, But deaconesses, sisters, and nurses. The purely secular side embraces all departments of cul- ture, physical, intellectual, and moral, as well as direct charities. Morally, the church work above should be sufficient. The charitable departments include not only direct aid to the poor, but wood-yards, employment bureaus, etc.; personal endeavor to provide employment for those willing to work; dispensaries, hospitals, and crèches; and encouragement to thrift by savings funds. Special buildings are often erected. That the movement is liable to perversions is admitted; such is the case with every institu- tion. Secularization is one; but unless it can be faced, the churches cannot influence or draw in those outside them, for the simple reason that the latter cannot be brought within hearing. Sensationalism, to draw in hearers to be bene- fited, is a graver one, and ill-judged; as one of its chief workers puts it, “a camp-stool congre- gation neither pays nor repents,” and a lasting work must be content with slower processes. Instruments, Engineering. To attempt a definition of an engineering instrument is hardly practicable, as the wide range of departments into which the profession is now divided de- mands so many special appliances for their re- quirements that no one description is possible, and an extended catalogue is inadmissible with- in the limits of this article. The earliest known engineering instrument was the Diopter of Hero of Alexandria, 130 B.C., although rude appliances must have been used long before that time by the ancient engineers in the construction of the public works of Chaldaea and Egypt, the ruins of which even now awaken our admiration and wonder. It was not, however, until the begin- ning of the 19th century that the great impulse to the construction and use of engineers' in- struments was given by the advance of civiliza- tion and commerce incident to the application of steam as a motive power on sea and land. Since that time great advances have been made not only in the design and accuracy of engi- neering instruments but also in the invention of new instruments for the many purposes re- quired by engineers in the construction of rail- roads, canals, bridges, harbors, etc. The characteristics of engineers’ instruments differ in the various nations as the requirements of engineering practice, and thus American en- gineers’ instruments possess a distinct charac- ter of their own as compared with other na- tions, having as a rºle few parts and lightness of construction combined with great strength and an adaptability of parts for the special service required. It is not the purpose of this article to attempt a description of the various instruments used by engineers—this may be found in the article SURVEYING-but to give the reader a general idea of their construction. The metals used in the construction of engi- neers’ instruments are principally the alloys of copper and tin with small quantities of silver, aluminum, and German silver. Great care must be constantly exercised that these substances be INSULATOR – INSURANCE free from iron or other material which would affect the magnetic needle. In the construction of an instrument such a distribution of the metals is aimed at that the greatest strength consistent with light weight may be obtained and that the metals coming into contact at the bearing surfaces may be of such varying compo- sition as to cause the least friction. Take, for the purpose of better illustration, an American transit, illustrated herewith, as typical, as far as the construction is concerned, of nearly all engineering instruments. The plate of the instrument on which the magnetic needle is mounted, or, as it is termed, the compass circle, is turned with great care so that the surface may be absolutely true, and is gradu- ated usually into 720 spaces, each representing One half of a degree. Compass circles are usually figured in quad- rants of a circle, that is, from o at the point marked “N” or “North” to go and back again, while the figuring of the limb varies with the custom of the maker or the requirements of the engineer. In engineers’ instruments, however, the angu- lar measurements are made usually without the use of the needle, by a telescope so mounted as to revolve in a vertical or a horizontal plane. The angular measurement of its movement be- ing indicated on circles divided into fractional spaces of a degree and read for convenience to finer spaces by one or more verniers. Accuracy of graduation of the compass circle, and especially of the limb, is essential to the perfection of the instrument, and great pains are taken by manufacturers in perfecting and improving engines for graduating. The best machines are automatic in action and the spaces are so accurately laid off that there is no appreciable error in the finished work. The instrument rests on the socket or bearing surface to which the compass plate and limb are attached; the surfaces of the socket must be so accurately fitted together as to produce no error when the parts are moved on each other. The socket is mounted on a leveling head, which is actuated by three, or in the usual American practice, by four leveling screws, as shown, by means of which the instrument can be accurately leveled. Upon the compass plate are placed the standards which support the telescope, the prep- aration of the optical parts of which is next in importance to the fitting of the socket and the graduation. The telescope consists of an eye piece and ob- ject glass mounted in a tube. The eye piece is simply a magnifier of the image produced at the focus of the object glass. Two kinds of eye pieces are used, one showing the image erect, and the other showing the image inverted. The object glass is composed of two plates of optical glass of such specific gravity and re- fractive index that it will magnify the image clearly without prismatic colors. To secure achromatism the two parts of the object lens are made the one of crown and the other of flint glass, the crown being a light glass of soda and silica and the flint being a heavier glass con- taining potash and lead. The surfaces of each are curved to such a degree that the rays of light entering the object glass may be properly re- fracted and concentrated at a point called the focus. The making of the lenses is an operation requiring much skill in manufacture, as upon the accurate grinding of the curved surfaces depends the quality of the telescope. At the focus of the object glass are placed the cross-wires, which are filaments of spider web or very fine platinum. In conjunction with these are often used two more wires commonly called stadia wires, so placed that they intercept on a rod a space proportional to its distance from the instrument, thus furnishing an effi- cient method of ascertaining distances di- rectly by the observer, The metal parts of the instrument, having been prepared, are polished with some suitable material, a prep- aration of rouge being generally used for fin- ishing the surface of the screws, and the larger surfaces being finished with fine emery paper. The larger parts are usually colored dark to avoid reflection of the sun, while the smaller ones, such as screws, etc., are left bright in order that there may be a pleasing contrast be- tween the different parts of the instrument. The parts, prepared as above, are covered with a thin coat of lacquer, a preparation of shellac and alcohol, applied after heating. All the parts are assembled and fitted together, and the in- strument is then ready for the final complete ad- justment. This consists in fitting the sockets so that they will move freely on each other, placing the compass plate and limb in position on the sockets, making the limb truly concen- tric with the socket and placing the vernier in position. The telescope must be so adjusted that its parts may work freely, and having been supplied with optical parts, etc., it is then fitted to the standards or supports previously placed in position on the compass circle. The whole instrument is then tested for accuracy and if found correct is packed in its case and is ready for use. The above description is only intended to give a general idea of the construction of a typical instrument, but in the same methods will practically apply in the construction of all engi- neering instruments, such as levels, plane-tables, the various kinds of compasses, etc. W. F. GURLEY, of W. & L. E. Gurley, Troy, N. Y. In’sulator, a body used to separate an electrified conductor from other bodies, and which offers great resistance to the passage of electricity. Glass, shellac, resins, sulphur, ebonite, gutta-percha, silk, and baked wood are nota- ble insulating materials. Wires in which cur- rents of electricity are passing are often ar- ranged in coils. To prevent the lateral passage of electricity from one coil to another, the wires are usually covered with silk and shellac. In- sulators on telegraph poles, to which the wires are attached, are usually made of porcelain, glass, or stoneware. Underground telegraph wires are usually of copper, insulated by means of a coating of gutta-percha or india-rubber, and protected by tape or iron wire, metal tubes, or wooden troughs filled with bitumen. The core of a submarine cable consists of a copper wire insulated by a covering of gutta-percha whose weight is greater than that of the wire. See ELECTRICITY (Conductors and Insulators). Insur'ance, a contract by which one party, for a stipulated consideration, undertakes to indemnify or compensate another party against loss by certain specified risks. The INSURANCE party undertaking to make the indemnity is usually called the insurer or underwriter, the other the insured or assured; the agreed con- sideration is termed the premium ; the written contract, a policy; the events...or causes of loss insured against, risks or perils; and the thing insured or the subject to be protected, the insur- able interest. Marine insurance relates to prop- erty and risks at sea; insurance of property on shore against fire is called fire insurance; life insurance, in its widest sense, is a contract en- tered into by the insurer to pay a certain benefit contingent upon the duration of one or more lives. Besides these classes of insurance there are many others; the traveler may insure him- self against loss entailed from damage by rail or sea; the farmer from the inroads of disease among his live stock; the employer from the fraud of a dishonest cashier, etc. The practice of marine insurance seems to have long preceded insurances against fire and upon lives. It is impossible to state the precise period of its introduction, but it is probable that it dates from about the beginning of the I5th century; though it is contended, on the author- ity of certain ancient writers, that traces of this form of insurance are to be found among the Romans. Some Anglo-Saxon guilds insured their members against loss from fire, water, rob- bery, etc. Commercial insurance, however, seems to have originated in Flanders about 1300, although priority is claimed for both Italy and Spain. It is probable that insurance was intro- duced into England by the Lombards early in the I6th century, but few court cases pertaining to it are found till the middle of the 18th century. In Great Britain fire insurance has been prac- tised for over two centuries, but on the Conti- nent its introduction dates considerably later. The history of life insurance, as well as that of various other forms now in practice, belongs to a still later time. For the history and develop- ment of the principal insurance systems in this country, see INSURANCE, MARINE ; FIRE INSUR- ANCE IN AMERICA; INSURANCE, LIFE, IN AMER- ICA ; INSURANCE, FRATERNAL. Insurance, Credit, is a business proposi- tion which offers to the seller of merchandise on credit protection against excessive losses as the result of bad debts. When loss occurs a certain percentage is to be borne by the party insured, and the balance of the loss is made good by the company issuing the policy of indemnity. To illustrate: Application is made for an insurance bond on sales amounting to $400,000 a year, and a bond is written on a basis of one half of I per cent loss; this one half of I per cent on sales, or $2,000, would represent the insured's own risk in bad debts, and if he lost no more than that amount he would receive nothing from his insur- ance. But should his losses be $5,000 in bad debts, his own loss would still be only $2,000, and the excess, or $3,000, would be paid him by the insurer, provided the losses had come within the terms and conditions of the bond. Credit insurance is a natural product of the present age. The extent of credit in mercantile transactions is one of the most remarkable developments of modern times, and is the legitimate result of the development of the banking system and facilities for rapid transportation and quick communica- tion. The first important systematic aid to the credit system was the establishment of the com- mercial agency, which is now recognized as indispensable to an intelligent transaction of credit business. But this first aid was not com- plete within itself, and a supplementary system was needed to still further minimize the risk of excessive losses through insolvency of debtors, and credit insurance Supplies this want, inas- much as it provides the creditor with substantial collateral on every account, and is actively bene- ficial in its influence on the insured. The annual losses in the United States by the insolvency of debtors exceed by about 50 per cent the losses by fire. It has long been the general custom to pay insurance companies to carry the risk of loss by fire, but until comparatively recent years each merchant had to carry his own risk of loss through insolvency of debtors. Credit insurance is based on the sound economic prin- ciple which recognizes the province of the specialist. Both fire and life insurance offer pro- tection superior to that which can be obtained through any other medium, because the principle of the law of average cannot be efficiently em– ployed except by the specialist. Protection is against the possibility of abnormal loss no less with fire than with credit insurance. Credit insur- ance from the standpoint of the insurer proceeds on the principle of average which promises a profitable return on the sale of protection. The cost of protection is assessed on the basis of normal losses accruing in any given business for a period of years. Such loss may be termed the normal loss. Normal loss is that inevitable im- pairment of resource which can be borne by a business and yet admit of a satisfactory dividend on capital invested. Abnormal loss is loss in excess of that which permits satisfactory divi- dend on capital investment, and it is against such loss that credit insurance offers protection. From the standpoint of the insured, credit pro- tection cannot be considered a profit-earning investment. It is simply and solely protection against excessive loss by bad debts. A crop fail- ure; an epidemic of disease, or a widespread or protracted industrial labor strike, are possibilities of danger which no man can provide against, as respects commercial credits, except through the medium of insurance protection. Experience may qualify a credit man to guard against bad debts through the rascality or impaired credit condition of those seeking credit, but no amount of experience or capacity can of themselves ren- der it possible to provide against contingencies growing out of such causes as above mentioned. It is against the unseen and unknowable that the prudent man seeks to make provision, and the intelligent merchant in taking out credit protec- tion will know that it is not possible for him to draw on the indemnity company profitably; that when his loss has exceeded the normal limit, pro- tection can only in part repair the excess loss. Great care should be exercised by the insured in taking out a policy of credit indemnity. The peculiar need of his business should be intelli- gently considered. Precedent cannot be safely followed, for the character of every man’s busi- ness is in more or less degree individual. Unless an intelligent application of the principle of credit insurance is made to each individual case, the greatest amount of protection cannot be realized. The principle of credit insurance being economically sound, it follows that if the insured in any given case does not realize the protection contemplated, it is because the conditions of the INSURANCE ENGINEERING – INSURANCE, FRATERNAL indemnity are not adjusted to the needs of the business. No amount of indemnity can be con- sidered a profit maker of itself; its true Sphere is that of a profit saver. In explanation of the proposition that an insured is always a loser, when his losses make demand on the indemnity company, it is conceivable that excess losses should so dovetail with the conditions of the policy as to reimburse the insured for every dollar of excess loss, but such instances would be rare indeed. s It would be practically impossible to limit pre- cisely the line of credit on every individual case to the exact ratio of protection. Such a con- servative policy would by no means realize the best results of credit protection, and, if strictly adhered to, would restrict rather than expand business. Protection can be made to operate injuriously in both directions, and it would be as false policy to limit business to the letter of protection as it would be to expand it beyond the limits of the spirit of indemnity. A credit should not be extended merely by reason of the collateral security furnished by credit-indem- nity, but such security should be used to justify a risk which would not otherwise be undertaken, and to increase a line of credit beyond its natural unsecured limit. A bank will not lend on col- lateral alone. The personnel of an individual borrower is an equation which can not be elim- inated, whether the loan be in money by a bank or in merchandise by a merchant. Collateral security in the case of a bank operates to reduce the interest rate, and the difference between the rate which would be demanded without collateral and the rate with collateral, measures the premium paid by the bank for the protection. In the case of a merchant, the rate paid for protec- tion is the cost of carrying the security as repre- sented by the premium on the policy of indem- nity. The banker, therefore, pays a higher rate for collateral protection than the merchant. The essential features of the contract between the insured and the insurer are: (1) The instired to bear a normal loss of an agreed per- centage of his annual sales. The said ratio of own loss to be determined by facts established |by the record of the business for a series of years. (2) Insurance to apply to both rated and un- rated accounts at an agreed ratio, as the circum- stances of the business in question may require and justify. (3) Liberal insolvency conditions, in which technical distinctions are eliminated, and the actual and virtual facts equitably arrived at. (4) Prompt payment of losses at the period of settlement. . A. TAYLOR, J Prest. Wilmington, N. C., Board of Trade. Insurance Engineering, a science or Imethod of procedure for the better application of principles and ruies in the business of insur- ing property against fire. The decision of the trustees of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology to establish a course in what for want of a better name has been designated insurance engineering, is commendable and should meet with hearty encouragement from the fire under- writers. Its object will be to instruct those who take the course in the selection and con- structive use of materials with a view to mini- mize the risk of destruction by fire. Naturally, this will for the present relate more directly to mill and factory property than to dwellings, but the influence of such a school should soon be felt in every department of architecture, espe- cially if out of its work shall grow a determina- tion on the part of the fire underwriters to make such discrimination against buildings, in which they are expected to take all the risks, as will make it to the advantage of those who build or buy houses of any kind to do what is possible to share this risk by guarding against fire within practicable limits of slow-burning construction. The latest official calculations—those of In- surance Commissioner Dearth of Minnesota — lead to the conclusion that 75 per cent of the enormous annual loss from fires in this coun- try results from fires which are preventable. The policy of the insurance companies has lent itself to the encouragement of indifference on the part of owners of insured property to every- thing except the rate of premium. Commis- Sioner Dearth's further conclusions are: It is not to the large number of promiscuous fires that, heavy losses to property are attributable, but more to the larger select risks occuring in heavy commercial circles where great values are involved. One of the greatest evils in fire underwriting is in the matter of over-insurance, which places a premium upon criminal carelessness on the part of the assured, if not absolute incendiarism. For this evil the companies themselves alone are, of course, to blame, and consequently have it entirely within their power to eliminate. There is very little question that the companies are at the present time exercising a far greater degree of precaution in this direction than heretofore; in short, cancelations, reduc- ing the liability of the companies on all the more hazardous classes of risks, are causing not only the local agents, but the assured, no end of trouble, and much greater care is, beyond question, being exercised in the line of inspections, especially looking to the matter of values as compared with the amount of insur- ance covering on the property. These are all matters that are , being strenuously considered by the under- writers throughout the country, and , beyond question must result in a material decrease in the fire waste. The erection of insurance engineering into a profession will enable the insurance companies gradually to reorganize their business on safer lines, and in so doing discourage the practices which have grown up through the co-operation of owners and agents to saddle them with larger responsibilities than any scale of prac- ticable premiums would warrant. The number of men qualified to practise as insurance engi- neers has never been great enough to meet the requirements of the companies. The new School should have an immediate and im– portant practical relation to the public welfare in the safeguarding of life and property and the raising of the standards of construction in build- ings admitting of classification as insurable risks. The undertaking has the enthusiastic support and co-operation of Edward Atkinson of Bos- ton, whose efforts in recent years have mate- rially changed the methods of mill construction and the theories of industrial insurance; and it has appealed so strongly to mill owners, build- ers, manufacturers, and other investors to whom fire is a constant menace that, at Mr. Atkinson's instance, a fund sufficient to place it at once on a substantial money basis with liberal allowance for the heavy initial expense has been raised Insurance, Fraternal. The principles which govern the system of fraternal insurance can be gleaned only from the decisions of the courts of law, the dictum of the insurance departments of the different States, the files of the leading fraternal journals, and the official reports issued by the National Fraternal Congress, the asso- ciated fraternities of America and the fraternal Societies themselves. INSURANCE, Fraternal Insurance, as popularly understood at the present time, is “The obligation of a fra- ternal beneficiary association to pay the benefits prescribed in its constitution and laws when all requirements by or on behalf of the members are fulfilled.” In the early days of fraternalism in America the term “protection” was universally used in describing the benefits furnished by the different beneficiary societies. See FRATERNAL BENEFICIARY SOCIETIES IN AMERICA. The term fraternal insurance, although origi- Inally a misnomer, and clearly inapplicable in any true conception of the real aims and objects of a fraternal beneficiary association, has, how- ever, come into general use of late years as being synonymous with the words fraternal protection and fraternal benefits, whenever ref- erence is made to the money benefits paid by a fraternal beneficiary society. This change has come about so gradually that it is difficult to trace its origin or fully measure its effects. The primary cause of this mingling of insur- ance terms with fraternal names has undoubt- edly been the failure of the officials of the dif- ferent Societies to constantly keep in mind the distinction between the insurance contract sup- plied by an insurance company and the fraternal protection furnished by a fraternal society, while a secondary cause has been the efforts of the insurance commissioners of the different States to compel all fraternal beneficiary associations to comply with the regulations in force as to insurance companies. In order, therefore, to fully understand the scope and meaning of the term fraternal insur- ance, as now understood, it is first necessary to ascertain the meaning of the word insurance. Webster defines it as “a contract whereby for a stipulated consideration called premium one party undertakes to indemnify or guarantee another against loss by certain specified risks.” The supreme court of Pennsylvania (1890), in the case of the Commonwealth v. the Equitable Beneficial Association (137 Pa. St. 412) (18 Atl. I, II2), thus points out the distinction be- tween regular life insurance and fraternal pro- tection, as then understood. “The general object or purpose of an insur- ance company is to afford indemnity or security against loss. Its engagement is not founded in any philanthropic, benevolent, or charitable principle; it is a purely business venture, in which one, for a stipulated consideration or premium per cent engages to make up, wholly or in part, or in a certain agreed amount, any specific loss which another may sustain, and it may apply to loss of property, to personal injury, or to loss of life. To grant indemnity or secur- ity against loss, for a consideration, is not only the design and purpose of an insurance company, but is also the dominant and characteristic fea- ture of the contract of insurance. “What is known as a beneficial association, however, has a wholly different object and pur- pose in view. The great underlying purpose of the association is not to indemnify or secure against loss; its design is to accumulate a fund from the contributions of members for bene- ficial or protective purposes, to be used in their own aid or relief in the misfortunes of sickness, injury or death. The benefits, although secured by contract, and for that reason, to a limited ex- tent, assimilated to the proceeds of insurance, FRATERNAL are not so considered. Such societies are rather of the philanthropic or benevolent character. Their beneficial features may be of a narrow or restrictive character; the motives of the mem- bers may be to some extent Selfish, but the prin- ciple upon which they rest is founded in the considerations mentioned. These benefits, by the rules of the organization, are payable to their own unfortunate out of funds which the mem- bers themselves have contributed for the pur- pose, not as an indemnity or Security against loss, but as a protective relief in cases of Sick- ness or injury, or to provide the means of a de- cent burial in the event of death. Such Societies have no capital stock; they yield no profit, and their contracts, although beneficial and protec- tive, altogether exclude the idea of insurance, or of indemnity, or of security against loss.” We may therefore assume that insurance is a contract between an insurance company on the one hand and the insured on the other, and pro- vides for the payment of a specific indemnity by the company in consideration of certain stipu- lated premium payments by or on behalf of the insured. It has been held that a verbal contract of insurance is valid, but by universal practice the contract is made in writing, and is called a policy. The policy, therefore, expresses the terms of the contract, and governs the right of the parties. Fraternal insurance, on the other hand, is the very antithesis of insurance as above under- stood. A fraternal society does not, and under the laws of the different States has no power to, make an insurance contract. It does not, and cannot, issue a policy. It does not promise indemnity against loss, and is not limited to any stipulated premium payments. Its contract is not between the society on the one hand and the members on the other, but between the mem- bers of the society, each with the others, and this contract is not expressed in the certificate of membership issued by the society. This cer- tificate which it issues is not a policy. If it were, the society would immediately cease to be a fraternal society, and be not only classed by the insurance departments of the different States as an insurance company, but required to report and pay taxes as such. The usual form of certificate in use certifies that the holder has been duly and regularly accepted and admitted to membership in the organization, and entitled to all the rights and privileges accruing under the specified benefit, as prescribed in its consti- tution and laws as then existing or subsequently altered or amended by the duly constituted su- preme body of the association. The certificate, therefore, is merely evidence of membership, and certifies that the holder is entitled to the rights and privileges flowing therefrom. It is in no sense a policy, and has never been so construed by any court of last resort. Of late years there has been some conflict in the decisions of the courts as to the legal effect of some peculiar certificates of membership that have been issued by fraternal associations, but in the leading cases the courts have uniformly adhered to the rule that the certificate is merely evidence of membership, and that the rights of the parties, or, in other words, the contract for fraternal protection, is governed by the consti- tution and laws of the organization as they ex- ist at the time the right to the benefit accrued, although in some cases the society has been held INSURANCE, LIFE to have waived certain provisions in its consti- tution and laws because of peculiar features in its certificate, and in other cases, certain prac- tices or customs that, in the judgment of the court, tended to mislead the members, as to the proper construction or binding effect of some clauses in the constitution, have been held to be a waiver on those provisions. The laws of the different States require every fraternal beneficiary association to have a repre- sentative form of government and to be or- ganized and carried on for the sole benefit of its members and their beneficiaries. Each member, therefore, has a voice in the management, and has no right to complain of any lawful changes, alterations or amendments to the constitution and laws made during his membership, because they have been made by him or in his behalf, and for the general good of the entire membership. As the organization is purely mutual, every member who is to share in the benefits ought in equity to bear his fair share of the cost, and it follows, therefore, that he is also bound by any changes that may be made in his rate of dues or assessments by the constituted authorities of the organization. To sum up in a word, “insurance” is a con- tract, while fraternal protection is the result of a contract; the one makes a definite promise of a certain indemnity in consideration of certain stipulated premium payments, while the other is the obligation of a fraternal association to pay the benefits prescribed in its constitution and laws when all requirements by or on behalf of a member have been fulfilled. Many, of course, prefer to rely on the business promise of the in- surance company to pay the prescribed indem- nity, but the millions of members in the frater- nal societies of America prefer their fraternal protection, not only because it is cheaper, but because it is better and surer. Every member of every fraternal association fully realizes that any tampering with good faith in dealing with any single member would be fatal to the or— ganization, and ultimately injure the entire mem- bership. In the judgment of all true fraternalists, the mutual interests of the members, therefore, constitute a safeguard that is far more reliable, and certainly more durable, than the mere promise of any purely business company. The membership of the various fraternal beneficiary associations in America that report to the insur- ance departments of the different States is over 4,500,000, and the amount of protection carried is in excess of $6,450,000,000. Up to the end of Too2, the various societies have distributed over $800,000,000 among the beneficiaries of deceased members. Last year their total payments for death losses were over $73,000,000. These fig- ures do not include the vast number of small societies scattered through the various States which do not report to the insurance depart- ments. For further information consult: The Annual Reports of the Insurance Departments of the different States, and the Official Reports of the Fraternal Beneficiary Societies. FREDERICK GASTON, President The Grand Fraternity. Insurance, Life, In America. The ordi- nary mind fails to grasp the significance of the enormous figures representing the business of American life assurance companies at the present day. The accumulated funds of the companies reporting to the State of New York in 1902 were over $2,000,000,000, and the assurance 1n force in these same companies was over $8,400,000,000. The existing American com- panies have during the past 50 years paid out, in the shape of matured policies, dividends of profits, surrender values, etc., more than $3,000,000,000. If what is known as “industrial” business were added to the above figures, the assurance in force would be larger by Over $1,700,000,000, and assessment and fraternal as- surance would add nearly $6,500,000,000 more. It may assist the imagination in realizing the immensity of these sums to compare the accumu- lations of the standard American life assurance companies with some other large masses of in- vestments. For example, the national debt of the United States is $1,314,929,600, or about two thirds the amount of the accumulated funds of the American life assurance companies reporting to the State of New York. The capital of the Bank of England is £14,553,000, which at $4.86618 would be $70,800,000, or about one fifth of the accumulated assets of any one of the three largest life assurance companies of America, and less than one twenty-fifth of the accumulated funds of all the American companies reporting to the State of New York. The combined cap- ital of all the national and State banks in New York city is about $199,224,700. In support of the statement that the great sums of money and obligations accumulated by the American life assurance companies have been chiefly rolled up within 50 years, it may be stated that the entire assets of the 15 life assurance companies existing in the United States in 1852 amounted to little over $7,900,000, and the amount assured by policies then existing hardly exceeded $80,000,000. The returns of these companies, as collated in the first annual report of the Insurance Com- missioner of Massachusetts, made in 1855, indi- cate that the business of life assurance at that time was in an exceedingly crude state, both as to volume and method, and it would astonish many an agent engaged in soliciting business for companies in modern times, on the basis of large dividends of profits, to see how little in that day was made of this feature of the assurance con- tract, the attention of the officers being concen– trated upon the elements of permanency and cer– tainty of payment. One company says in its official report: “We disapprove of dividends, except conditional dividends, and hope to see the system abandoned.” Another company answers: “Dividends annually, if the condition of the company is such as to admit of the same safely, and then declared in scrip.” Another says: “Dividends paid at the discretion of directors.” These admissions by the American companies in their infant stage are almost comical when com— pared with the modern returns, showing, for ex- ample, that during the year 1902, $26,589,715.25 in dividends were paid to policy-holders by the companies reporting to the State of New York, and besides, $310,917,220.77 of surplus were held for apportionment and distribution at times when future dividends fall due under the contracts. If the tremendous results of the American companies were due to a natural and spontaneous evolution, we should expect to find a similar con- dition of things in other countries than the United States, but this is not the case. Life as- surance was, indeed, a gradual development in INSURANCE, LIFE the older countries. It would be difficult to state accurately how early the principle of mutual as- surance was put into Some kind of practice. Ordinances are discovered in France and other continental countries as early as the 16th cen- tury prohibiting any assurance on the life of men, showing that the practice must have ob- tained before that time, and was then frowned upon. Modern assurance in any organized form seems to have been first adopted probably as early as the I5th century. The first English statute on this subject was passed in 1601, and recites that “it hathe bene tyme out of mynde an usage amongste merchantes, bothe of this realme and of forraine macyons, when they make any greate adventure, to give some considera- cion of money to other persons to have from them assurance made of their goodes.” Or- ganized fire insurance seems to have dated from the latter part of the 17th century. Annuities and tontines were also known after the middle of the 17th century, and it was in the latter part of this century that Halley, the Astronomer Royal of that day, published what is known as ‘The Breslau Table of Mortality.” This was one of the earliest steps taken toward the recog- Inition of life assurance as a science, and the study and development of the science in a prac- tical way are indicated by the successive mor- tality tables, each improving on its predecessor. The first organized life assurance institution in England was the Amicable Society, founded in 1706, but the real history of British life as- surance begins with the organization of the Equitable Life Assurance Society in 1762, and Dr. Price, who repeatedly did work for that company, constructed the ‘Northampton Mor- tality Tables? in 1780, which was long regarded as a true guide to the expectation and duration of life, and is still used by the supreme court of the State of New York as a basis for estimat- ing the value of certain life estates. The ‘Car- lisle Table of Mortality” was published by Mr. Joshua Milne in 1816, from observations upon the mortality of two parishes in the city of Car- lisle. The table is still in use, even among some American companies, for annuities, but has been generally supplanted by later and more appro- priate tables deduced from the experience of many life assurance companies, the principal tables being the “Actuaries,” or ‘Seventeen Offices Ex- perience,” “The Institute of Actuaries Expe- rience? (1863), (The American Experience” and the new experience just published by the In- stitute of Actuaries, which now form the guides for American assurance organizations. The history of life assurance in Great Brit- ain, from the latter part of the 17th century to the present time, has been one of gradual growth. In 1867, a list was published of over 35o life assurance companies that had been or- ganized in Great Britain. Many of these were “bubble” concerns, as may be inferred from the fact that to-day there are less than IOO British companies doing business in ordinary life assur- ance. The total ordinary business in force in these companies is a little over £660,000,000, Or, at $4.86618, about $3,21 1,678,800 and the accumu- lated funds of these companies is only a little over £296,000,000, or, at $4.86618, about $1,440,- 389,280. Thus, it appears that in what may be called the birthplace of life insurance, the ac- cumulated funds of 125 years are about $500,- oooooo less than the American companies have accumulated in 50 years, and the outstanding as- surance of the former is less than two fifths of that of the latter. If we pursue our investigations into Ger- many, we find that there are 63 companies, whose amount of assurance in force is over $1,986,000,000, and whose total accumulated funds are more than $867,600,000. In France there are 16 companies, whose amount of assur- ance in force is $688,470,000, and their accumu- lated funds are over $399,300,000. How, then, is the enormous advantage in progress of the American companies to be ac- counted for P The answer is, by American enterprise and industry. There are men living who have observed the progress of life as- surance in America during the last half-century who can testify to the truth of this assertion. I think it will be generally admitted that the late Henry B. Hyde, the founder of the Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States, and afterward its president, more than any other one man injected a spirit of aggressive energy into the business. From the time that he entered the field, what had theretofore been an easy- going and sluggish conduct of life assurance affairs became an active, vigorous, competitive administration. The ingenuity of mathematicians and business men began to be taxed to devise methods in connection with assurance which would make it more popular and divest it of many onerous conditions which had grown up in the past; and the ambition of individual propagandists to extend the blessings of life assurance began to be stimulated in a way then altogether unprecedented. The method of accumulating dividends of profits for the benefit of persisting policy-holders during long periods, thus making an advantageous offset to the bur- den of long-continued payments of premium, became one of the features of American life assurance, and appealed naturally and success- fully to the keen American mind. It was formerly the custom, not only in Europe, but in America, for life companies to keep the widows and other beneficiaries of deceased policy-holders waiting for periods vary- ing from 3 to 6 months after the death of the bread-winner before the money on the policy could be availed of, while lawyers searched for reasons to escape payment. In America this practice has become almost a dead letter. Com- panies which do not unhesitatingly pay at once upon the death of the assured cannot hold their own in competition. One company advertises every year the promptness with which its claims have been paid, showing in 1902, for example, that nearly 81 per cent of its death losses were paid within a day after the proofs of death were submitted, and more than 91 per cent of the whole within one week thereafter. Another concession of American companies to the rights of the assured has been what is known as the “incontestable feature,” by means of which the company estops itself from making any resistance to the policy on any ground whatever, except non-payment of premium, after it has been in force for one year. This has been one of the most radical, and at the same time reasonable, reforms in American life assur- ance. It has abolished all that narrow quibbling which too often characterized the action of life assurance companies in former times, and has placed the responsibility on the companies of INSURANCE, MARINE discovering frauds and mistakes within a brief period after the assurance is issued, and usually during the lifetime of the party most concerned. Space does not admit of a further pursuit of this examination. The healthful innovations brought about by rivalry in competition have been so numerous and so important as to make the policies of American companies extremely at- tractive, even to those living in foreign coun- tries, and it is a tribute to the enterprise and skill of American life underwriters that Several of them have “carried the war into Africa,” So to speak, and established their business in Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, Spain, and, indeed, in all distant lands. The three largest companies of the United States have for many years been transacting business in foreign coun- tries, and had assurance in force in these coun- tries at the end of 1902 amounting to $874,- 464,188. American life assurance is on a footing as firm as that of any business in the world. There are degrees, of course, of excellence represented in the management of American companies, but taking not only the more successful but the aver- age of the institutions, it may be confidently asserted that no safer or more carefully con- ducted financial enterprises exist. The number of persons holding policies in the American companies of all kinds at the present time is probably upward of 20,000,000. Of these, say, about 1% per cent, or 250,000, may be taken as the number dying in a year. Tak- ing five persons as the average number in each family, there would remain an average of four beneficiaries on the death of each person as- sured, or about 1,000,000 persons in 1902 bene- fited by the payment of about $192,000,000 in death losses by all the companies. As a means of distributing wealth, and protecting the un- fortunate at the cost of the more fortunate, nothing could be devised which would more nearly approach the ideal than the American System of life assurance. And all these figures are annually increasing. There are probably between 40,000 and 50,000 men and women making their living as agents in propagating the business of life assurance in the United States. These industrious people are veritable missionaries for the highest good, and in these days when there is so much discussion as to the most feasible way of arresting poverty and encouraging thrift, the study of life as- surance as practised in America by the com- panies which have worked out such an example to the world would repay the time and atten- tion given to it on the part of every intelligent citizen who loves his country and his kind. º JAMES W. ALExANDER, President Equitable Life Assurance Society. Insurance, Marine. American marine insur- ance business had its birth at about the close of the 18th century, but suffered heavily when the American flag began to disappear from the high seas. For the past quarter of a century it has had a hard struggle to keep itself anywhere near the old standard of prosperity. To do this it has had to draw for the greater part of its re- turns upon foreign commerce, and been forced to compete with English companies. New York's marine-insurance history is that of all the other seaboard States, for in nearly all marine insurance once flourished, but has now succumbed to English competition. The golden period of American marine insurance was be- tween the years 1840 and 1860, when the clipper sailing ship was developed and perfected. . In those times the leading merchants owned their own ships, and frequently a member of the firm would go to China or the East Indies to Super- vise the proper distribution of the cargo, and to secure a remunerative one for the return. The ship and cargo were insured with an Amer- ican company, and as it might be as long as nine months before the vessel was heard from, the risk was considerable and rates were high. As much as five or six per cent was charged for insurance in those times. The rate on dry goods from Liverpool to New York in the old packet sailing ships was placed at two per cent. This trade was carried in American ships, and the insurance, both on the vessel and on the cargo, was naturally placed in American companies. But the rates of insurance have changed with the transformation of the ocean-carrying service. The East India goods are now shipped across the Pacific to San Francisco, and thence east via rail. The cost of insurance on these is now only three quarters of one per cent. Rates on the Atlantic have likewise declined. Insurance on dry-goods and like merchandise carried in the modern “liners” is placed at two tenths of one per cent. In other classes of goods depreci- ation in rates is in like proportion. Marine underwriters do not ascribe the de- cline in American marine insurance to any trouble from unwise laws or legislative inter- ference, but to the changed business conditions and to English competition. The bulk of the car- rying trade of the world has passed into British hands, and a British merchant and ship owner in- sures in a British company. The English marine companies have, as well, invaded American soil, and have secured a large portion of the Ameri- can business. When the English companies first established themselves in America, along in the early seventies, they began cutting rates. The American companies did not effect any com- bination to prevent this, but followed their ex- ample. The American companies were also placed somewhat at a disadvantage by the laws governing the admission of foreign marine-in- Surance corporations. The foreign companies are required to make a deposit before they can write American business; but in New York State, which has stringent insurance laws, the amount is fixed at the minimum capitalization allowed a home company, namely, $200,000. So much of the carrying trade of the world is done under the British flag and with the aid of British credit, and with countries under British con- trol, that the American underwriter, working against all these disadvantages, is seriously handicapped. Therefore, there being no national or local tariff associations among marine under- writers, the American companies are worsted in this rate war. There are now not enough of them to form any sort of an association which would wield much power. Despite the work of the American companies to hold their own, through loss of prestige on the Ocean and active rivalry on land, there are a number of stock and mutual American marine- insurance companies which continue to do a flourishing business. The largest and one of the oldest is the Atlantic Mutual of New York, which has over $12,000,000 of assets, and has INSURANCE PATROL – INSURRECTION been most carefully managed throughout its career. It was formed in 1842, at the time when many stock companies were turned into mutual companies, and by which change the profits ac- crue to the policy-holders instead of the stock- holders. The company is noted for retaining its faithful and tried officers until their death. The 1ate John P. Jones was connected with the com- pany for 50 years, and was its president for 40. In his life-work of building up the company he was ably assisted by vice-presidents W. H. H. Moore and A. A. Raven, who have been with the company 30 and 40 years respectively. Among the other large companies which still do a thriv- ing business are the two Boston corporations, the China Mutual and the Boston Marine. There have never been many marine Lloyds in the United States, though this form of marine insurance has been most in vogue in marine un- derwriting in Great Britain. The origin of the term is both interesting and peculiar. The name of Lloyd originated in old Lloyd's Tavern, in Tower Street, London, far back in the days of Queen Anne. It was the practice of many ship- Owners and traders to drop in at the tavern and talk Over their prospective profits; and gradually a custom developed of inscribing their names on a blackboard, certifying that the men signing would be jointly liable for the loss of a vessel during a certain voyage. From this crude be- ginning have grown the world-famous associa- tions in the British Isles. In the United States there are a few Lloyds, two of the principal ones being located in New York — the United States Lloyds and the New York Marine Underwrit- €1’S. The scope and definition of a marine policy is, of course, entirely different from a land fire policy. The risks insured against are many, and may be summarized as including all perils of the sea. There are two classes — a voyage and a time policy; the former is generally used in insuring vessels, and the latter for cargoes. There are naturally many clauses governing marine-insurance policies, such as capture, seiz- ure, war, and so on. The life of the insurance on a ship begins at the port from which it is insured until moored for 24 hours at the port to which it is insured. When an insurance is made on freight to be carried under a charter, the policy attaches as soon as the vessel sails, al- though she may be destined to a distant port for her cargo. Though single losses to marine underwriters have been small, compared with some of those of fire underwriters, there have been shipwrecks that have lived in marine-insurance men's mem- ories. One of the greatest losses to American marine insurance was that of the American steamer Central America, which foundered off the Cuban coast in September 1857. The Cen- tral America was bound from Aspinwall, now Colon, to New York, and was loaded principally with treasure from the California gold-mines. She carried insurance amounting to between $700,000 and $800,000, all of which had to be paid by American underwriters. Another not- able loss was that of the steamer Erie, which sailed from Pernambuco, Brazil, loaded with coffee, on 1 Jan. 1893, and was burned at sea. Coffee prices were high in those days, and the Erie went down with $500,000 insurance. Two losses which not only made inroads on the American marine companies, but which also seriously crippled the growth of American steam transatlantic service, were the sinking of the steamer Arctic, off Newfoundland, in 1854, by collision, and the disappearance of the steamship Pacific, which sailed from Liverpool for New York in January 1856, and was never heard from. Both steamships belonged to the Collins Line, which was the first one to put on steam- vessels for the Atlantic trade. These early losses were particularly detrimental to American marine insurance, because the companies carried extremely heavy lines in those days. Among the recent heavy losses was that of the steamer Oregon, which was run into and sunk off the Long Island coast in 1886. American marine underwriters had between $700,000 and $800,000 On the Oregon's cargo. The loss of the Oregon also showed underwriters how quickly even a properly constructed iron ship sinks. The in- troduction of iron in place of wood for building vessels has not made any material difference in the rates of insurance, for iron has hazards which wood has not, and vice versá. As to the future of American marine under- writing, it is difficult to prophesy. As trade fol- lows the flag, so marine insurance flourishes in the country with a prosperous merchant marine. The United States is again forging to the front as a great ship-building nation, and this gives American marine underwriters hope that Ameri- can marine insurance may follow in the wake of the growth of American ship-building. Insurance Patrol, an organization peculiar to New York and other large cities, which co- operates with the fire department, but is con- trolled by the combined insurance companies, who support it through the board of fire under- writers. The New York corps was organized in 1835, when there was an epidemic of incen- diary fires. The patrol is provided with wag- Ons and an equipment designed for its special work. Its most important service is in saving goods, which it does by removing them from burning buildings, or by covering them with rubber or oiled sheets, as a protection from water, dirt or cinders. In some cities it is known as Salvage corps, or protective associa- t1On. Insurrec'tion, the act of rising against governmental authority, active opposition to the power of the state. In the United States, power to suppress insurrections by employing the mi- litia is given to Congress by the Constitution, Art. I., Sec. 8, Clause I5. In 1792 and 1807 acts were passed giving the President power to call forth the militia when notified by an associate justice of the Supreme Court or a district judge that the execution of the laws is obstructed, and on application of a legislature or a gover- nor, when the legislature could not be convened, and to employ also the land and naval forces of the United States. The Whiskey Insurrection (q.v.) was directed against the Federal author- ity and the President employed force to suppress it on notification by the Federal judge. During the Buckshot War (q.v.), in 1838, between the Whigs and Democrats in Pennsylvania, the gov- ernor of that State asked for assistance, but it was refused. The governor of Rhode Island made a similar application during the Dorr Re- bellion (q.v.) and the regulars were held ready for action, but their aid proved unnecessary. These last two cases came under Art IV., Sec. 4, INTELLECT — INTERCONTINENTAL RAILWAY of the Federal Constitution, which provides “that the United States shall protect” each State on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be con- vened), against domestic violence. When the Civil War began the President was obliged to take prompt steps in calling out the militia, though no application had been made to him as required by the acts of 1792 and I795. His action was justified by Art. II., Sec. 3, of the Constitution, providing that “he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed,” but Con- gress on 6 Aug. 1861 formally validated and made legal all of President Lincoln's previous acts, proclamations, and orders. The Force Bill (q.v.), of 20 April 187I gave the President spe- cial power to use military force in certain con- tingencies. In the South during the reconstruc- tion period, and subsequently in different places at the North, during riots in connection with strikes, the employment of Federal troops has entered as a significant feature into the history of our government. In’tellect. See MIND; PSYCHOLOGY. Intent, a legal term signifying the end or object which a person had in the performance of an act, the making of an engagement, or the drawing up of a will. Generally the legal con- sequences of an act are considered quite inde- pendently of the intention of motive of such an act. A wrong done to the person or property of another is punishable at law without considera- tion of the intentions of the person committing the violence or trespass. But when an engage- ment has been made by person, or a written disposition of property executed, the intention of the person making the engagement or sign- ing the deed is fair matter for legal inquiry. In this connection a subsequent stipulation by word of mouth is not competent to nullify or modify the terms of a written engagement. In- tent also forms an important part in suits for defamation, fraud and negligence. Negligence must have intent to make it criminal, so must defamation and fraud and malicious mischief. Consult Thayer, “Preliminary Treatise on Evi- dence? (1898); Black, “Construction and Inter- pretation of Laws? (1896); Hardcastle, ‘Rules which govern the Construction and Effect of Statutory Law” (1900). Intent, in psychology, according to James, is that which intelligent consciousness “means or intends”; the intent is a feeling in consciousness which is usually identified or practically identical with the object of conscious- Iness at a particular time. By others, however, the word intent is meant to apply to a certain point of view from which an object may be re- garded. Thus when our conscious processes Have a unity of interest, there is, as a rule, a cer- tain, amount of unity of object. If the interest is divided, more particularly to the attainment of a definite or a vivid knowledge, the object as it becomes more perfectly known is identical with the object as previously less perfectly Rnown; and as one's conscious thought is di- rected constantly toward the object, it receives, little by little, further and further definite speci- fication, the detail being more or less in the background; yet the detail is all the time in Consciousness, as it were inevitably associated with the object itself. The detailed object, con- sidered y Baldwin as the goal of conscious en- ol 9—6 deavor, may be appropriately called the intent of consciousness, for he says “it is what the mind consciously means or intends but has not, at- tained.” The end pursued becomes defined in the pursuit of it, and so far as it is yet indefi- nite, and therefore only partially developed in consciousness, it is an intent. Consult Baldwin, Jºnary of Philosophy and Psychology,” ol. I. In"tercolumnia’tion, in Greek architecture, the space between two columns. This space is measured in diameters of the foot of the column. Vitruvius mentions five varieties of intercolum- niation. These are the pycnostyle (that is, with columns thickly ranged) of one diameter and a half, which are least frequently found; the systyle (that is, with columns harmoniously ranged) of two diameters, the diastyle (that is, with columns far apart) of three diameters, the areostyle (that is, with columns sparsely ranged) of four diameters; and the eustyle (that is, with columns a due distance apart) of two and a quarter diameters. Intercontinen'tal Railway, or Pan-Ameri- can Railway, a proposed line of standard gauge, to connect the railway systems of the United States and Mexico with those of the Argentine Republic, utilizing as far as practica- ble existing systems in Central and South Amer- ica. At the first International Conference of American States, held in Washington (1889–90) the committee on railway communications said in their report, “That a railroad connecting all or a majority of the nations represented in this conference will contribute greatly to the devel- opment of cordial relations between said nations and the growth of their material interests.” President Harrison on 19 May 1890 recom- mended that Congress should make an appro- priation for the share of the United States in the expenses of a preliminary survey. Congress complied, and the Intercontinental Railway Commission began its work with A. J. Cassat as chairman and H. G. Davis at the head of the finance committee. The commission spent about $360,000 for surveys, maps, etc., three corps of engineers making experimental surveys between the north of Guatemala and Argentina in 1892, 1893, and 1894. It was found that the approxi- mate length of the line to connect the south- eastern boundary of Mexico with Buenos Ayres would be: in Guatemala, 230 miles; Salvador, 220; Honduras, 70; Nicaragua, 224; Costa Rica, 363; Colombia, I,372; Ecuador, 635; Peru, I,671 ; Bolivia, 774, and Argentina, I, I43; total, 6,702. The distance from New York to the Guatemalan frontier is 3,769 miles, and thus the total from New York to Buenos Ayres is Io,471 miles. Links between the termini of the Argen- tine and Mexican systems: In Bolivia, 192 miles; in Peru, I51 miles; in Nicaragua, 31 miles; in Salvador, 20 miles; in Guatemala, 30 miles. This statement shows that about half of the distance between New York and Buenos Ayres was covered by railways then existing. On 27 Nov. 1901 the Pan-American Railway committee of the Second International Confer- ence held in Mexico City stated that “some addi- tional railroad has been built that could be util- ized as a part of a continental system”; that not more than 5,000 miles of road would have to be constructed to estáblish railway communication between the systems of North and South Amer- INTERDICT – INTEREST ica; that $200,000,000 would be ample for this work; and that the surveys made by the engi- neers of the commission demonstrated the prac- ticability of constructing all of the missing links. The concluding assertion, however, should be re- ceived with caution. In Central America the proposed line runs along the volcanic coast; on entering South America it is continued among the enormous volcanic Andes, still paralleling the Pacific shore, but further inland. Recom- mendations made by the committee on 27 Nov. 1901 were that a permanent committee on Pan- American Railway should be appointed “to further the project after the adjournment of the conference”; also that the United States should take the lead in sending “competent and reliable persons whose duty it shall be to determine ac- curately the resources of the different countries and the condition of railway lines in operation and the prospects for business for an intercontinental line and also to ascertain what concessions or assistance each of the re- spective governments is willing to grant to the enterprise.” The permanent committee ap- pointed by the president of the conference comprised Ex-Senator Henry G. Davis and four others. A special commissioner was sent to the Latin-American republics, as Sug- gested. In’terdict, an ecclesiastical decree which forbids the performance of certain acts of pub- lic worship. When an interdict was laid upon a town, district, or country, all the churches were closed, the bells were silent, the sacra- ments, except infant baptism and extreme unction (and sometimes even these), were with- held, the rites of burial were not performed, and all the public ceremonies of religion were sus- pended. Interdicts may be general, as applied to a country or city; particular, as applied to a parish or diocese; personal, as applied to a per- son, or some class of persons. The bishops seem to have anciently exercised the right of publishing interdicts; for in 870 Hincmar, bishop of Laon in France, issued one against a parish in his diocese. One of the earliest cen- sures of this sort on record was imposed upon the city of Rouen in the 6th century on account of the murder of the Archbishop Pretextatus by order of Queen Fredegonda. In 997 Gregory V. laid the kingdom of France under an inter- dict because King Robert had married his cousin, and the king was abandoned by most of his court. The same penalty was inflicted upon the kingdom of England under Stephen (II47) by Eugenius III., under John (I2O7) by Innocent III., under Henry VIII. (1535) with little effect by Paul III., and under Elizabeth (1587) by Sixtus V. Adrian IV. laid Rome under an interdict for the purpose of compelling the Romans to drive out Arnold of Brescia. Gregory IX. made use of the same instrument of compulsion in his quarrel with the emperor Frederic II. During the middle ages the interdict was a powerful engine of attack for the popes in their contests with sov- ereigns, as the popular dread of its effects was So great that kings were often forced by rebel- lions to submit to almost any conditions in order that it might be taken off. From the time of the reformation general and local interdicts have become rare. When Paul V. laid Venice under an interdict in 1606, the churches were not closed, and only a minority of the bishops sub- mitted to it. Interest (“it concerns”— the party in issue — originally an award of damages, later used to evade the anti-interest laws), a charge for the use of money, by custom computed annually, on a basis of so many out of each IOO units loaned; but without diminishing the capital. It is possi- ble to pay interest without loss, because, under conditions now general, the borrowed money can be employed in productive industry, from which a return equal to or greater than the in- terest can be obtained ; or because comfort, prestige, or moral advantages of many kinds are derivable, justifying the expenditure when enough is left. Such borrowing is now useful on the whole, because civilization has ingrained a self-restraint in the masses which makes them. in most cases manage money soberly and pru- dently. But in the early ages this was not so, except in a few developed commercial cities: Babylon carried on business by interest loans, and even bottomry bonds on shipping. Tyre probably did so, the great Athenian commerce was built up entirely by it, as Demosthenes ex- plicitly says, but the mass of people were not fit to have the use of money, had no remuner- ative employment for it, and borrowed it only to use in Self-indulgence, or in desperation be- cause any rate was a choice of evils. There was little property to pledge, and the security was mostly the debtor's person; foreclosure meant selling him for a slave, and the grievance which called for Solon’s legislation was the debt- slavery of a large section of the citizens. Hence arose a violent prejudice against the system alto- gether, as immoral in itself; the law of Moses prohibited it between Jew and Jew; Aristotle says it is essentially immoral, because money cannot breed money (this in the age of Athenian commerce), and never was meant for any such use; the Christian Church inherited the repro- bation from the Jewish, and for many centuries forbade its members to take “usury” (money for the use of money, that is, interest at any per- centage), and the secular laws were correspond- ent. In England interest did not become legal till the time of Henry VIII., but had been actu- ally practised for many generations, by legal fictions of partnership or breach of contract, etc.; previously it was in the hands of the Jews — who were so indispensable as financial agents that a Jew who was converted to Christianity had all his property confiscated — and later of the Lombards. The first English permissive Statutes fixed Io per cent as the legal limit that might be charged; early in the 17th cen– tury it was set at 5. No Serious doubt of the power of governments to regulate the current rate of interest obtainable was entertained till Bentham wrote his ‘Defence of Usury’ in 1786, proving that the laws could not possibly have any effect; because if the legal rate fixed was equal to or greater than the current rate it could mot work any change in it; and if less, holders of money would not lend without obtaining their price plus an insurance for the risk of legal punishment. The doctrine was violently dis- liked, and has not even yet overcome the deter- mination of the mass to show their dislike of usury by statute, or their belief that they can affect rates; but in a few American States of late years the anti-usury laws have been abol- INTEREST – INTERFERENCE ished. Of course a legal rate is always pro- vided in default of contract. Interest is not a natural right, but a matter of law or contract. The holder of a note paya- ble without stipulation of interest cannot claim any until the note has become due and remains unpaid; thenceforward it draws money at the legal rate. The United States pays no interest on its debts, except where bonds are issued spe- cifying it. Of the separate States and Territories there is no legal restriction on the rate allowable by contract in Arizona, California, Colorado, Con- necticut, Maine, Massachusetts, Nevada, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah, or Washington; the legal rate in each is 6 per cent except with Col- orado (8), Nevada (7), Utah and Washington (8). The others have rates as follows, the legal rate coming first, then the contract rate per- mitted: Alabama, 8, 8; Arkansas, 6, Io; Dela- ware, 6, 6; Florida, 8, IO; Georgia, 7, 8; Idaho, 7, I2; Illinois, 5, 7; Indiana, 6, 8; Iowa, 6, 8; Kansas, 6, Io; Kentucky, 6, 6; Louisiana, 5, 8; Maryland, 6, 6; Michigan, 5, 7; Minnesota, 6, Io; Mississippi, 6, Io; Missouri, 6, 8; Mon- tana, 7, I2; Nebraska, 8, 8; New Hampshire, 6, 6; New Jersey, 6, 8; New Mexico, 6, 12; New York, 6, 6; North Carolina, 6, 6; North Da- kota, 6, 12; Ohio, 6, 8; Oklahoma, 7, 12; Ore- gon, 8, Io; Pennsylvania, 6, 6; South Carolina, 7, 8; South Dakota, 7, I2; Texas, 8, Io; Ver- mont, 6, 6; Virginia, 6, 6; West Virginia, 6, 6; Wisconsin, 7, Io; Wyoming, 8, 12. The rates in the District of Columbia are 6, Io. That these provisions are more the result of tenacious tradition than of any very exact rea- soning is shown by their terms. Only in three States — Illinois, Louisiana, and Michigan — has there been any recent attempt to keep down by law the rate of contractual interest to the rate actually current in the community; in the others, unspecified debts bear 6 to 8 per cent interest while the current rate is 5. As to the contract interest, II States stick to the attempt to forbid anything beyond the legal rate; but that assumed interest being above current rates, some leeway is left. One of these, moreover — New York — favors its peculiar interest by allowing any con- tract rate on “call loans” over $5,000. Sixteen make the rate so high — from Io to 12 per cent — that any one with the least pretense of credit or security can contract freely; above that, we have to deal with pawnbrokers and “fences,” the former protected by tacit allowance, the lat- ter amenable only to criminal legislation. The theories of interest, like most economic principles, are much disputed by economists. The chief theories are those of “abstinence,” holding interest to be a reward of abstinence from using up the capital in enjoyment (a vari- ant of this regards it as a result of the general appreciation of the present above the future); of “productivity,” holding it to be the return for production by capital in the same way that wages are a return for production by labor; the combination of the two, regarding the return as fixed by supply and demand, the latter depend- ing on productivity and the former on absti- nence; and the “monopoly” theory, which con- siders it a toll levied on the product of labor by the capitalists who control the means of pro- duction. Interest, in psychology, is a term by which at least two or three different things may be meant. On the one hand interest may be defined as the consciousness which accompanies mental tendencies of any sort so far as they are con- centrated on mental objects. It is manifested by a certain amount of voluntary attention to which it may be considered a stimulus. The ex- ploiting habit, curiosity, the desire to know, may be defined as primary forms of interest, as distinguished from custom and habit and one's way of regarding things, the former being re- garded by Baldwin in the nature of a stimulus to the intellectual function, the latter as frequent performance of a process. The word also, in the vulgar sense, applies loosely to what is meant by personal advantage; as, for instance, it is “to a man's interest” to ob- tain such and such. In pedagogics interest is often looked upon as a form of amusement, a stimulus through the play-instinct to induce intellectual effort. In the science of teaching, the ideal is to awaken an interest in the ends for which pupils study, and that a permanent interest in the ends should be fostered through the means. Baldwin well says that when interest attaches to the end, but not to the means of reaching it, we have drudgery, as in the case of workmen who think only of the dollar, taking no interest in the labor that wins it; on the other hand, when there is interest in the means, but not in the end, we have play, we do not work. When, however, there is interest in the end to be ob- tained, and also in the means for reaching the end, the ideal of work desirable in education is reached. See Herbart, ‘Science of Education? ; ‘Doctrines of Interest? ; Baldwin, ‘Story of the Mind? ; ‘Educational Review,” Vol. X., Bald- win, “Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychol- ogy,” Vol. I. Interfer'ence, in physics, is a phenomenon exhibited by wave motion of all kinds, and consists in the coming together of waves having different phases, in such a way that the effects of the waves are either increased or diminished. Interference may be observed when two differ- ent trains of waves come together upon the surface of water or any other liquid. Where the crest of a wave belonging to one system coincides with the crest of a wave of the other system, the elevation of the water surface is sensibly equal to the sum of the heights that the separate waves would have if each existed in the same place alone. When a crest of one of the waves coincides with the trough of an- other, the disturbance of the water surface is reduced, and the elevation (or depression) which results is equal to the difference between the elevation of one of the component waves and the depression of the other one. The kinds of interference that are of the greatest practical importance in physics are those which occur among sound waves, or among waves of light. The phenomena in these cases are ultimately of the same general sort as those observed upon the surface of water. In the case of sound, interference may even produce entire silence in certain regions, when two trains of Sound waves, of equal intensity, are brought together in a suitable manner. A more familiar result of the interference of sound waves, how- ever, is the production of “beats,” when two or INTERIOR – INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS more trains of waves, having but slightly differ- ent wave-length, come together while the two are moving in nearly the same direction. This phenomenon is exhaustively treated in Helm- holtz’s “Sensations of Tone,” and it also re- ceives a more or less adequate treatment in all of the better works on physics. The more familiar of the interference phe- nomena that are afforded by light are those which are observed in connection with soap bubbles and with very thin plates of transparent solids. Light, upon striking the soap bubble or the thin plate, is reflected toward the eye from both Surfaces, and the trains of light waves that reach the eye from these two sources, since they have a slight difference of phase (which varies, moreover, from point to point of the bubble or the plate), interfere with one another so as to produce effects that are often very beautiful and striking. A soap bubble, when viewed by monochromatic light, often ap- pears to be covered with dark striae; the dark lines being due to the fact that at the points that appear dark the two trains of light-waves, coming respectively from the inner and outer surfaces of the soap bubble, nearly or com- pletely neutralize each other. When the bubble is viewed by white light, we do not commonly See the dark striae, their places being taken by bands of color. This is because the different colors that compose white light have different wave-lengths, so that at any given point in the bubble only a portion of the colors are de- stroyed by interference, leaving the remaining constituents of the white light to produce their full chromatic effect upon the eye. (See LIGHT ; ACOUSTICs; Sound.) Inte'rior, Department of the, one of the executive departments of the United States gov- ernment whose heads are cabinet secretaries. The “home department,” long existent in all European governments, was only constituted in this country by act of 3 March 1849. Its func- tions had previously been exercised by bureaus or officials of nearly all the other departments: patents, copyrights, public documents, and the Census belonged to the State Department; pub- lic lands, mines, and judicial accounts, to the Treasury; Indian affairs, to the War Depart- Iment; and pensions to the War and Navy, each for its own pensioners. By later laws the In- terior was given charge of education, public Surveys (including the geological survey; but the coast and geodetic survey belongs to the Treasury), subsidized railroads, Territories, na- tional parks and reservations, returns of public Contracts made by several other departments, Some charitable institutions in the District of Columbia, and a number of other matters. The Secretary makes an annual report of the number of public documents received and distributed. He has a salary of $10,000, and two assistant Secretaries. His office has seven divisions: ap- pointments, disbursements, lands and railroads, Indian affairs, pensions and miscellaneous, pub- 1ic documents, and stationery and printing. Al- though most of these are managed by commis- sions appointed by the President, their work is under the secretary’s direction, and their re- ports are made through him. Most of the clerks and subordinate officers in the bureaus are ap- pointed by him. All patents issued by the United States must be signed by him. The first secretary was Thomas Ewing of Ohio. Interlaken, in'tér'1äH én (“between the lakes”), Switzerland, village in the canton, and 26 miles southeast of the town of Berne, one mile southeast of Unterseen, beautifully situ- ated near the left bank of the Aar, in the valley of Boedeli, between the lakes of Thun and Brienz. It contains a beautiful old castle and numerous hotels. It is visited annually by 80,000 to IOO,000 tourists. Pop. about 2,500. Internal Improvements, the construction and reparation of roads, bridges, canals, harbors, lighthouses, etc., at the expense of the United States government. The Constitution not hav- ing made any provision for such improvements, the execution of public works of this character became subject to the vicissitudes of party poli- tics. Yet since 1789 funds have been perpetu- ally appropriated by Congress for the carrying on of improvements throughout the country, SO long as these lay strictly within Federal juris- diction. Such would include lighthouses, buoys, beacons and public piers, rivers and harbors. The Federalist party, and after it the Demo- cratic party, opposed all improvements on rivers and roads, the benefit of which passes to the sev- eral States. Yet in 1806 an appropriation was made for the construction of the Cumberland Road, which should penetrate the Western States and facilitate the mail service, as well as open up unsettled territory to the increasing tide of immigration, and serve for the trans- portation of troops and army supplies. The Federal Government, about the same time, un- dertook the construction of a road through Georgia toward New Orleans. In 1898 Con- gress passed a resolution in which it claimed the power to make appropriations for such internal improvements as the construction of roads and canals, and the maintenance and direction of water courses. Such roads and canals as the President should consider of Federal impor- tance were ordered by Congress to be surveyed, and $300,000 was subscribed to stock of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. But there was a wide difference of opinion with regard to the constitutionality of such legislative action, and in May 1822, President Monroe vetoed the Cum- berland Road bill. He supported this procedure by the declaration that Congress had acted ultra wires. That body, he maintained, had no right under the Constitution to carry out such in- ternal improvements at Federal expense. Presi- dent Jackson in 1830 followed Monroe's exam- ple and vetoed the Maysville Turnpike Road bill. Henceforth, the matter of such internal improvements was left to the legislation of the various States. Jackson had somewhat miti- gated the force of his veto by advocating the distribution of the Treasury surplus among the various States, but when the Whigs tried to put this into execution in 1841, President Tyler by his veto put a stop to any such attempts, and they have never since been repeated. The in- troduction of railroads under the management of private corporations did away with the call for road appropriations, although something like a bonus was given to the projectors of new lines by the vast grants of lands which were made to them. Tracts of 40,000,000 and 50,000,000 acres were thus transferred to railroad companies. At INTERNAL REVENUE SYSTEM – INTERNATIONAL BROTHERHOOD . . . present both the great political parties are in- clined to reclaim so much of the public lands thus granted, as has not been earned by a strict fulfilment of the conditions on which the grant was made. The appropriations for internal im- provements under the head Rivers and Har- bors for the year 1903 was $32,540,199.50 as against $7,046,623.00 in 1902. Internal Revenue System, of the United States, properly all taxation except that of for- eign goods at customs offices; but in use re- stricted to what were formerly termed excises (q.v.), on internal trade and manufactures, through a bureau of the Treasury Department, organized 1862. Before that time, though ex- cises had been imposed, they were unpopular and brief. An intense dislike to them had been inherited from England, where they traditionally connoted an independent revenue for the sov- ereigns to free them from popular control, and arbitrary interference with private business and persons by irresponsible officials, the raw state of trade and manufacture in this country made a general excise system very injurious ; and the customs dues amply provided for the expenses. The first occasion when they were resorted to was just after the adoption of the Constitu- tion. The assumption of the State debts, and other expenses of the new government, com- pelled Hamilton to recommend an excise, though in the “Federalist? and elsewhere he had strongly urged its impolicy; he was also anxious to test the power of the government to enforce taxation, which the Articles of Confederation could not. On 3 March 1791 a bill was passed taxing distilled spirits of domestic manufacture. In the then West (western Pennsylvania) the still was like the New England cider mill, but much more important, because the long dis- tances and bad roads made corn unprofitable unless condensed into whiskey, hence there was open revolt, which had to be put down by national troops (1794). Direct resistance ceased, but the tax was largely evaded, and it was two years before it was extended to Ken- tucky and Tennessee, while the collections in North Carolina were poor. In 1794 the system was extended in fear of a war with England, but owing to unskilful choice of articles or pro- visions in detail, the only one which produced much was that on sugar, from the high import duty, which gave the home market to the domes- tic manufacturers, so that what went into excise came off customs. Stamp taxes were laid in 1797, but were of odious associations. With the election of Jefferson as President the whole sys- tem came under ban, the Democrats having al- ways opposed it, and on 6 April 1802 the entire internal taxes were repealed, with nearly $700,000 outstanding and uncollected, and which remained so. The dislike was not to the taxes as such, but to the inquisitorial methods of col- lection involved; and this persisted. But the War of 1812 compelled a renewal of them : un- fortunately they were laid so late that the war was over before they began to produce much. They were needed to pay off the war debts, however, and were retained till 23 Dec. 1817. Thence till the Civil War no internal tax of any kind was levied in the United States. The first real “system”— for the others in- cluded but few articles — and which has become a standing part of our system of taxation, was inaugurated 1 July 1862, others followed, placing an enormous and very ill-distributed burden on the people, which they bore uncom- plainingly, for the end in view. It is almost too complimentary to call it a system, as it was an indiscriminate heaping of taxes upon every stage of every article, on labor and tools, raw materials and finished products, processes and professions. Articles paid sometimes a dozen taxes on the various stages, and another on the final one, before reaching even the wholesaler to begin a round of middemen's profits. “The only principle recognized,” says David A. Wells, “if it can be called a principle, was akin to that at Donnybrook Fair, “Wherever you see a head hit it.” “Wherever you find an ar- ticle, a product, a trade, a profession, or a source of income, tax it!” Within the period 1861–7 no less than 25 revenue bills were passed by Congress. The incessant endeavor was to find new objects of taxation. The industrial effects of the sudden huge unequal burdens, and the political effects of the enormous reve- nue to spend at discretion, cannot be discussed here. The taxes did not begin to produce largely at once; in 1863 the receipts were $37,640,787.95; in 1864, $109,741,136.Io; in 1865, $209,464,215.25; in 1866, the summit, $309,226,813.42. Then the items began to be stricken off, the total sinking by 1873 to $113,729,314. I4: able business men have attrib- uted part of the inflation, and consequent panic, to the sudden removal of burdens to which business had adjusted itself. The next year it touched bottom, $102,409,784.90. The taxes by this time had been reduced to about the present status, and tended to increase with the growth of the country, even rising some- what through the bad years 1875–9. The in- come tax, though fairly productive — the height being $37,775,873 in 1870 — was dropped in 1872; no other tax was ever so unpopular, from its prying into private secrets, and its work- ing through informers. It is also the one which bears hardest on the most heavily burdened class of the community, the moderately sal- aried men in various callings. Protection lead- ers have repeatedly urged or hinted at repeal of all internal taxes, to prevent any reduction of customs duties; but the moral feeling re- inforces the economic sense of the people in insisting on liquors and tobacco being taxed. Attempts have been made to increase the reve- nue from liquors by raising the tax; but the result is the reverse, the premium on fraud being too great. In 1894 the income tax was re-established, but the Supreme Court decided it unconstitutional under its particular terms. On 1 July 1898, to provide for the expenses of the Spanish War, fresh internal taxes were laid; of which the most fertile were stamps on all mercantile papers, telegrams, etc., and on patent medicines, and wines, which yielded in the ensuing fiscal year $43,837,816.66. Special taxes on bankers and amusements, and some other things, yielded several millions. The total receipts in 1899 were $273,484,571.44. In Igor and 1902 the new taxes were all abol- ished. International Brotherhood of Mainten- ance-of-Way Employees, an American labor union, having a department of fraternal in- surance. It was founded at Demopolis, Ala., INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE in 1887, and had a membership in 1903 of 40,000. Since its organization the society has disbursed $500,000 in death and disability bene- fits. It has secured increased wages for main- tenance-of-way employees to the amount of $6,000,000 annually. It was actively engaged in the great strike on the Canadian Pacific Rail- way in 1901. The strike was settled after a struggle lasting II weeks, with the understand- ing that all members of the brotherhood would be reinstated in their former positions within two weeks; the question of wages to be left to arbitration. Sir John A. Boyd, Chief Jus- tice of Ontario, was chosen chairman of the Board of Arbitration and awarded the employees an increase of 20 per cent over previous wages. The brotherhood has secured trade agreements for its members from a number of the largest railway systems of the United States and Can- ada. It also holds a charter of affiliation with the American Federation of Labor, and pub- lishes the “Advance Advocate,” a monthly magazine, devoted exclusively to the interests of maintenance-of-way employees. International Date Line, an imaginary line %. ºr $ 3 ºr * drawn through the Pacific Ocean somewhat ir- regularly, but tending in a general northerly and southerly direction, and separating the islands of the Pacific Ocean in such a way that all those which lie to the east of it carry the same date as the United States, while all those on the west of it carry the same date as Japan and Australia. The nature of this line may be made clear by the following illustration : A traveler leaves New York city at noon on Sunday, and proceeds westward just as fast as the earth turns on its axis, so that he follows the sun in its apparent westward progress with such pre- cision that he keeps it always directly south of Him. It will be noon, therefore, at every place he passes. If, however, he asks the day of the week at every point of his journey, he will be told that it is Sunday at all points in the |United States, and even as far west as Hawaii. This can not hold true indefinitely, however, be- cause when he has gone entirely around the world, and has returned to New York, he will have been gone 24 hours, and will therefore be told that it is Monday noon. Everywhere in Map of the world, showing the International date line. Europe, too, he would have been told that it is Monday noon. Yet it has always been the same day to him, and there must have been Some place on the journey where he was told, for the first time, that the day was Monday instead of Sun- day. At this place, if he wishes to be in ac- cord with the people that he meets, he must arbitrarily change the name of his day from Sunday to Monday. Mariners are in the habit of making the change upon crossing the 180th meridian from Greenwich, England; but this fact is of no service to us if we wish to compare the date carried on one of the Pacific Islands with the corresponding date (say) at New York, because the mariners pay no attention to the local dates on the islands that they pass. The ideal way to find out where the date actually does change would be to canvass the entire Pa- cific Ocean, so as to find out what date is actually in use on every one of its islands at some given instant. A line drawn from pole to pole in such a manner as to keep all islands bearing one date on one side and all islands bearing the other date on the other side, would afford a perfectly definite basis for the com- parison of dates, and would be the true “International Date Line.” No such canvass has yet been made. As a general rule, it may be said that the date now in use upon most of the different islands or groups, is the date which results from the One carried there by the first European or American col- Onists; and this date will pre- Sumably be different according as the colonists came from the east or the west. This is not true universally, however, be- cause arbitrary changes in the date are known to have been made in a number of cases. For example, Alaska was first colonized by the Russians, who brought with them the Rus- sian date. When the American settlers moved there, they carried with them the date of the United States, and this led to some considerable confusion, the Sunday of the Americans being the Monday of the Russians, in spite of the fact that the Russians still use the Julian calendar. In 1867, when Alaska was pur- chased from Russia, the date in use there was made to conform to that used in the United States. Again, the Philippines were discovered by Magellan, in 1521, and Manila was founded by Lagaspi in 1571. Magellan brought his date from the east, and after the islands were col- onized they kept the same date as the Spanish possessions on the opposite side of the Pacific; and they therefore carried a different date from that prevailing on the neighboring Asiatic coast. This was changed in 1844, by the omission of the 31st day of December in that year from the Philippine calendar; this change bringing the date in use in the Philippines into harmony with that prevailing at Hong Kong and other Asiatic ports. The best data at present available indi- cates that the date hine follows substantially the course shown upon the accompanying map, $. 3 & $ -k INTERNATIONAL LAW which is prepared from data furnished by the United States Naval Observatory. This date line is subject to modification, as our knowledge of the dates carried on the various Pacific Islands increases. International Law, the law of nations; those rules or maxims which independent polit- ical societies or states observe, or ought to ob- serve, in their conduct toward one another. In- ternational law is divisible into two heads: the one which regulates the rights, intercourse, and obligations of nations, as such, with each other; the other, which regulates the rights and obli- gations more immediately belonging to their respective subjects. Thus the rights and duties of ambassadors belong to that head which re- spects the nation in its sovereign capacity; and the rights of the subjects of one nation to prop- erty situated within the territory of another nation, belong to the latter head. Some of the maxims regarding the rights and duties of 11ations during a state of peace are: I. Every nation is bound to abstain from all interference with the domains of other IlationS. 2. All nations have equal and common rights on the high seas, and they are not bound to admit any superiority there. The sea which washes the coast of a nation, to the extent of three miles, is now deemed to be a part of the territory of the nation, over which it may exer- cise an exclusive jurisdiction. And, in respect to persons subjected to its laws, every nation now claims a right to exercise jurisdiction on the high seas, for the purpose of enforcing both international law and its own municipal regu- lations. 3. No nation has a right to pursue any criminal or fugitive from justice in a foreign country; its claim, if any, is a mere right to de- mand him from the nation in which he has taken refuge. 4. Every nation has a right to regulate its own intercourse and commerce with other na- tions. 5. Foreigners are bound to obey the laws of a country as long as they reside within it, and under its protection; and the property held by foreigners within a country ought to be pro- tected in the same manner as that of natives. 6. Every nation has a right to send and to receive ambassadors and other public ministers; and this right of embassy has always been deemed peculiarly sacred. Their persons are Held sacred and inviolable. Their property, and servants, and retinue enjoy a like privilege. 7. It is through the medium of ambassa- dors and other public ministers that treaties, conventions, and other compacts between na- tions are usually negotiated, thus forming a posi- tive code for the regulation of their mutual rights, duties, and interests. In the modern practice of nations such treaties and compacts are not generally deemed final and conclu- sive until they have been ratified by the re- spective governments to which the negotiators belong. War introduces an entirely new order of rules. The right of declaring war results from the right of a nation to preserve its own exist- ence, its own liberties, and its own essential in- terests. In a state of nature men have a right to employ force in self-defense; and when they enter into society this right is transferred to the government, and is an incident to sovereignty. What are just causes for entering into a war is a question which has been much discussed by publicists. Defensive wars are necessarily jus- tifiable from the fact that they involve the existence or safety of the nation and its in- terests. But offensive wars are of a very dif- ferent character, and can be justified only in cases of aggravated wrongs or vital injuries. The first effect of a declaration of war is to put all the subjects of each of the nations in a state of hostility to each other. All the prop- erty belonging to each is deemed hostile. If it be personal property it may be captured as prize; if lands, it may be seized and confiscated at the pleasure of the sovereign; if it be merely in debts or stock it may, in the extreme exercise of the laws of war, be equally liable to confisca- tion. As soon as a battle is over the conquerors are bound to treat the wounded with kindness, and the prisoners with a decent humanity. And there are some things which seem positively prohibited from their cruelty and brutal barbar- ity; such are the violation of female captives, the torturing of prisoners, the poisoning of wells, the use of inhuman instruments of war. In time of war there is occasionally an inter- course between the belligerents which should always be held sacred. Thus the interchange of prisoners by cartels; the temporary suspension of hostilities by truces; the passage of flags of truce; the engaging in treaties of capitulation. When any conquest of territory is made the inhabitants pass under the dominion of the conqueror, and are subject to such laws as he chooses to impose upon them. There are also certain rights which war confers on the bellig- erents in respect to neutrals. Thus they have a right to blockade the ports or besiege the cities of their enemies, and to interdict all trade by neutrals with them. But no blockade is to be recognized unless “the besieging force can apply its power to every point in the blockaded state.” They have a right also to insist that neutrals shall conduct themselves with good faith, and abstain from all interference in the contest by supplying their enemy with things contraband of war. And hence arises the in- cidental right of search of ships on the high seas for the detection of contraband goods. A neu- tral nation is bound to observe entire imparti- ality between the belligerents. Neutral nations are, strictly speaking, bound to compel their subjects to abstain from every interference in the war, as by carrying contraband goods, serv- ing in the hostile army, furnishing supplies, etc. Subject to the exceptions above referred to, a neutral has a right to insist upon carrying on its ordinary commerce with each of the bellig- erents in the same manner as in times of peace. See DIPLoMACY ; HAGUE ConFERENCE; NEU- TRALITY. International Law, Recent History and De- velopment of. Nothing could better exemplify the fallacy of drawing from present ills de- spondent prophecies of evil than a comparison of the state of international law at the close of the 19th century with its condition at the beginning. The wars in the midst of which the century opened were not only world-wide in their effects, but they were characterized by a defiant disregard and systematic violation of the rules of international conduct. As early as 1793 both France and Great Britain, soon after the war broke out be- INTERNATIONAL LAW tween them, sought to interrupt the lawful course of neutral trade. With this object each power adopted measures the injurious effects of which were greatly aggravated by the irregular and arbitrary manner in which they were executed. The Peace of Amiens proved to be but a brief truce, and after the war was renewed even greater excesses were perpetrated. The idea of conquering England by destroying her trade, though it did not originate with Napoleon, was the inspiration of his so-called Continental sys- tem. On 28 March 1806, Prussia, after taking possession of Hanover, published, in pursuance of her agreement with Napoleon, a proclamation which purported to close the ports of the North Sea, as well as all rivers running into it, against British ships and trade. The British govern- ment sought to retaliate by an Order in Council which declared the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, the Elbe, and the Trave to be in a state of blockade. Napoleon then issued his famous Berlin decree, by which he assumed to blockade the British Isles, and to prohibit all commerce and correspondence with them. Great Britain's response was an Order in Council not only for- bidding neutral vessels to trade between ports in the control of France or her allies, but also forbidding them to trade, without a clearance obtained in a British port, with the ports of France and her allies, or with any port in Europe from which the British flag was excluded. Na- poleon's answer was the Milan decree, declaring every vessel that had submitted to search by an English ship, or consented to a voyage to England, or paid any tax to the English govern- ment, and every vessel that should sail to or from a port in Great Britain or her possessions, or in any country occupied by British troops, to be denationalized and to be good prize. By these measures the right of neutrals to hold commer- cial intercourse with belligerents was virtually denied, each belligerent endeavoring under the guise of blockades, which existed only on paper, to prevent all trade that could not be made sub- servient to its interests. It is hardly conceivable that any power would now venture to assert such pretensions. They were at the time scarcely defended on legal grounds; and in the declara- tion of Paris of 1856, to which both France and Great Britain are parties, it is expressly recorded that “blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective.” This rule is recognized as but the expression of a principle of international law. The illegality of paper blockades is to-day uni- versally acknowledged. No less important than the subject of neutral rights is that of neutral duties. The first author- itative formulation of the duties resulting from a state of neutrality is to be sought in the execu- tive, legislative, and judicial acts of the United States in 1793 and I794, during the first series of European wars growing out of the French Revolution. But on the foundations then laid there has been built up an elaborate and well- regulated system, the obligatory character of which is not now questioned. The comprehen- sive neutrality statute of the United States of 20 April 1818, became in the following year the model of an act of the British Parliament. From time to time laws and regulations were adopted by other governments, and the duties of neutrality became a determinate part of inter- Irational law. The final vindication of the sys- tem as the ultimate standard of international obligation and responsibility was made in the case of the Alabama claims. In the discussion and practice of neutrality, rules have naturally been formulated as to what constitutes a state of belligerency, and as to the conditions under which it should be recognized. The recognition of belligerency presupposes the existence of a state of war in the international sense, and necessarily implies that the parties to the conflict may exercise toward each other and toward third powers such rights as war gives. But on or near the border line that di- vides peace from war there stands pacific block- ade, a measure of recent invention, the precise legal position of which has not been authorita- tively determined. During the first half of the 19th century a fruitful subject of controversy was that of vis- itation and search. That belligerent cruisers might lawfully visit and search the merchant vessels of neutrals on the high seas, for the purpose of enforcing the observance of the laws of war, was on all hands admitted; but in cer– tain cases, as in that of the impressment of sea- men, the belligerent right of search was sought to be employed for other purposes; and it was even asserted that a right of search existed in time of peace, especially for the purpose of putting an end to the slave trade. These preten- Sions were vigorously resisted, especially by the United States. In 1858 the Senate unanimously resolved : That American vessels on the high seas in time of peace, bearing the American flag, remain under the jurisdiction of the country to which they belong, and therefore any visitation, molestation, or detention of such vessels by force, or by the exhibition of force, on the part of a foreign power, is in derogation of the Sovereignty of the United States. “After the passage of this resolution,” said Mr. Fish, as secretary of state, “Great Britain formally recognized the principle thus an– nounced, and other maritime powers and writers on international law all assert it.” It would be difficult to overestimate the im- portance, both theoretically and practically, of the establishment in the 19th century of the free- dom of vessels on the high seas from visitation and search in time of peace. It was the acknowl- edgment of this principle that made the seas really free and gave freedom to commerce. Nor does the freedom of the seas become less impor– tant with lapse of time. As a principle it grows rather than diminishes in the estimation of man- kind; for, in the light of history, its evolution is seen to mark the progress of commerce from a semi-barbarous condition, in which it was ex- posed to constant violence, to its present state of prosperous security. Closely related to the principle of the free- dom of the seas is the question of the naviga- tion of the narrow channels by which they may be connected. This question has been discussed in respect to natural channels in several cases, the most notable of which was that of the dues charged on vessels and their cargoes passing through the Danish Sound and Belts. By treaties made with the interested powers, in 1857, Denmark relinquished the dues, the powers paying her a lump sum, in consideration not only of her renunciation of her claims to tolls, but also of her agreement to maintain such lights, buoys, and pilot establishments as the trade of the Baltic might require. An artificial channel necessarily involves special considerations. Its INTERNATIONAL LAW construction requires the expenditure of money and gives rise to proprietary rights; and it is not denied that those rights may be asserted by the exaction of tolls. In this respect the naviga- º of the artificial channel obviously cannot be ree. subject has been authoritatively settled as a part of international law, a tendency has been shown in the case of great international highways to act on analogies and to make the artificial channel free in the sense that it shall be open to the ships and merchandise of all nations on equal term S. While the right freely to navigate the seas has been established, a great advance has been made toward assuring the free navigation of waters flowing into the sea in cases in which they wash in their navigable course the territory of two or more states. By the treaty of Vienna of 9 June 1815, it was agreed that rivers which sep- arated or traversed two or more states should, along their whole navigable course, be, in respect of commerce, entirely free to everyone, subject to regulations of police. This principle was ap- plied primarily to the Rhine, but was also ex- pressly extended to the Neckar, the Main, the Moselle, the Meuse, and the Scheldt. With a limitation of the right of free navigation in Some instances to the citizens or subjects of the ripar- ian powers, similar stipulations may be found in treaties relating to the rivers and canals of the ancient kingdom of Poland; to the Elbe, Po, Pruth, Douro, Danube, and other rivers in Eu- rope; and to the rivers La Plata, Paraguay, Uru- guay, St. Lawrence, Yukon, Porcupine, and Stikine in America. By an imperial decree of 7 Dec. 1866, the government of Brazil opened “to vessels of all nations,” after a certain day, the Amazon as far as the frontiers of Brazil; the Tocantins, as far as Cameta; the Tapajos, as far as Santarem; the Madeira, as far as Borda; the Negro, as far as Manáos; and the San Francisco, as far as the city of Penedo. The principle of freedom, which has been so widely extended in commerce and in navigation, has also been acknowledged in matters of gov- ernment. Such an acknowledgment may be seen in the established rule that new states and new governments are entitled to recognition on the ground of their de facto existence. The old theory of legitimacy and divine right found its last practical assertion in the acts of the powers composing the Holy Alliance, who, in their vari- ous circulars, associated “revolt and crime,” de- nounced “as equally null and disallowed by the public law of Europe, any pretended reform effected by revolt and open force,” and an- nounced their determination “to repel the maxim or rebellion, in whatever place and under what- ever form it might show itself.” Their acts cor- responded with their words; but they were soon forced by the progress of events to abandon their ground, and to admit in practice the principle which they had condemned. In the last IOO years there has been wit- nessed a change in the law relating to the ac- quisition of territory by occupation. In former times, when so large a part of the world was unsettled, great weight was given to the mere fact of discovery. Under the papal bull of 1493, and the Treaty of Tordesillas of the following year, Spain and Portugal sought to divide between themselves on that ground the whole But, though it cannot be said that the unknown world. Even the early English char- ters asserted the British title to extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In the 19th century, and particularly in the latter half of it, the powers, especially in respect to territorial claims in Af- rica, recognized more clearly than was ever done before the necessity of actual and effective occu- pation as the basis of permanent national title. In the system of extradition, which is chiefly the development of the 19th century, we find One of the many evidences of the growth among nations of a clearer perception of the duty of promoting common social ends. In former times there existed a strong repugnance to the sur- render of fugitives from justice. This was due partly to the ancient idea of asylum, partly to perverse notions of national dignity, but per- haps in largest measure to ignorant and ground- less prejudices. It was not, indeed, until the middle of the 19th century that the great ex- pansion of the system may be said to have be- gun. Since that time, however, its growth has been rapid and far-reaching. An increasing tendency to acknowledge the force and Supremacy of law may be seen in the growing frequency of arbitrations for the settle- ment of disputes between nations, not only as to the rights of individuals, but also as to their Own rights, as well as in the recent efforts to establish a permanent system of arbitration, as proposed in the plan of the International Amer- ican Conference (1890), in the unratified treaty between Great Britain and the United States (1897), and in the convention adopted at The Hague (1899). During the 19th century there were, exclusive of cases still pending, at least 136 international arbitrations. Probably there were more, though certain lists lately circulated, by which the number appears to have been vastly greater, are quite inaccurate, since they include not only numerous cases of mediation, but also Ordinary boundary surveys, domestic commis- Sions, and even pure diplomatic negotiations. Both in number of arbitrations and in importance of the questions involved in them, the United States and Great Britain easily lead the way. There are two modes in which international law may be developed. The first is the general and gradual transformation of international Opinion and practice; the second is the specific adoption of a rule of action by an act in its nature legislative. The operation of the former mode it is often difficult to follow in its details, but its effects are potent and undeniable. Per- haps its clearest and most definite exposition may be found in the opinion of the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of the Spanish fishing-smacks, the Paquete Habana and the Lola (the Paquete Habana, 175 U. S. 677). The particular point decided was that coast fishing-vessels, with their implements and supplies, cargoes and crews, unarmed and hon- cstly pursuing the peaceful calling of catching and bringing in fresh fish, are exempt from capture as prize of war. In reaching this con- clusion, the Court considered the question whether the exemption was merely a matter of “comity,” or whether it was a matter of legal right to which the Court was bound to give ef- fect. In behalf of those who sought the con- demnation of the vessels there was cited an opin- ion of Lord Stowell, in which it was said to be “a rule of comity only, and not of legal decision.” With reference to this statement, Justice Gray, INTERNATIONAL LAW who delivered the opinion of the Supreme Court, said: The word “comity " was apparently used by Lord Stowell as synonymous with courtesy or good-will. But the period of a hundred years which has since elapsed is amply sufficient to have enabled what originally may have rested in custom or comity, courtesy or concession, to grow, by the general assent of civilized nations, into a settled rule of international law. As well said by Sir James Mackintosh: “In the present century a slow and silent, but very substantial mitigation has taken place in the practice of war; and in proportion as that mitigated practice has received the sanction of time, it is raised from the rank of mere usage/and becomes part of the law of nations.” The importance of this judicial declaration, in its bearing on the development of international law, it is difficult to overestimate. Even the most eminent judges have seemed at times to labor under the impression that it was some- how the peculiar prerogative of a remote age to fix by its customs, however rude and barbarous they may have been, an immutable law in com- parison with which the practices of modern times are merely “comity” or “courtesy,” which may be discarded at will. The enlightened dec- laration of the Supreme Court, which was the very foundation of its decision, should have a potent effect in clearing away the misconceptions on which many well-known dicta, of an opposite effect, are founded. The last century was, however, specially dis- tinguished for the modification and improve- ment of international law by what may be called acts of international legislation. Among the Sources of international law the publicists com- monly enumerate the stipulations of treaties. Where a certain rule of action is uniformly em- bodied in a succession of treaties between the leading powers of the world, it assumes in course of time the character of a principle of international law. But in the latter part of the I9th century, immediate and important results were directly produced by means of international conferences. Allusion has already been made to the effort Of the Congress of Vienna to establish the free navigation of international rivers as a general principle. By the same congress an important contribution to international law was made in the form of rules to regulate the rank and prece- dence of diplomatic agents. By those alone who are familiar with the annals of diplomacy can the delicacy and interest of this subject be fully appreciated. It had probably given rise to more disputes and caused a greater waste of time than any other within the whole range of inter- national relations. The rules of the Congress of Vienna, slightly modified by the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, were accepted by all the powers which then composed the interna- tional circle. They divide diplomatic agents into four classes: (1) Ambassadors, legates, and nuncios, who, in a sense, specially represent the person of the sovereign. (2) Envoys, ministers, or other persons accredited to sovereigns. (3) Ministers resident, accredited to sovereigns. (4) Chargés d'affaires, accredited to ministers for foreign affairs. Yet more remarkable as an act of legislative aspect was the declaration on maritime law made by the Congress of Paris of 1856. The declaration embraced four rules: (1) Privateering is and remains abolished. (2) The neutral flag covers an enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of war. (3) Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband war, are not liable to capture under the enemy’s flag. (4) Blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective, that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy. The fourth rule may, as has heretofore been observed, be considered as merely declaratory of international law; for publicists had ceased to defend the paper blockades of the Napoleonic era. The third rule may also be classed as de- claratory, since it was generally observed in the absence of a treaty stipulation to the contrary. But by the first two rules it was proposed to give the character and force of law to principles which had previously been obligatory only where they were made so by express treaty. This ele- ment in the situation was acknowledged in the declaration itself, in which the signatories an- nounced their purpose to invite the adhesion of other powers with a view “to establish a uniform rule.” The powers invited to adhere embraced practically all those within the sphere of inter- national law; and, with the exception of the United States, Spain, and Mexico, they accepted the declaration in its entirety. Those three powers objected to the naked inhibition of priva- teering on the ground that, so long as the mari- time capture of private property was recognized as lawful warfare, such an inhibition would give undue advantage to great naval powers, but the United States offered to go further and accept the entire declaration, if it were so amended as to exempt private property at sea from capture, save in the cases of contraband and blockade. All the powers approved the second rule and it is now a principle of international law. It was so announced by the United States and Spain at the outbreak of the recent war between them. Since 1860 numerous attempts have been made by means of international conferences to legislate on the modes of conducting warfare. On 22 Aug. 1864, there was concluded at Geneva the famous convention for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded in armies in the field, commonly called the Red Cross Conven- tion. Almost all civilized powers have adhered to this convention, and the observance of its provisions is considered a test of civilization. Agreements and declarations have also been made as to the nature of the weapons that may be used in war, and as to the treatment of pris– oners of war. In this relation we should specify the declaration of St. Petersburg of 1868, which was framed by an international military com- mission. Far more extensive, covering almost the whole field of the laws of war on land, is the project of declaration of the Brussels Con- ference of 1874, which, though the powers repre- sented in the conference failed afterward to make it binding, forms the basis not only of the “Manual” formulated by the Institute of In- ternational Law in 1880, and of the plan of con- vention adopted by the Spanish-Portuguese- Latin-American Military Congress at Madrid in 1892, but also of The Hague Conference rules concerning the laws and usages of war. Notice should also be taken, as contributions to the development of international law, of the efforts made in the 19th century, outside inter- national conferences, to codify various branches of international law, and especially the laws of war. In this particular the 19th century should not withhold its tribute to the 17th, which, even though its earlier wars were distinguished by INTERNATIONAL WORKINGMEN'S ASSOCIATION barbarities, may yet claim as its own Gustavus Adolphus and his humane code. Nevertheless we find in the recent acts of various govern- ments a marked advance toward a more compre- hensive system. The publication by the United States in 1863 of instructions for the govern- ment of armies in the field set an example which has had a stimulating effect. In July 1870, ample instructions were issued by the French government to its naval officers. Russia in 1877, during the conflict with Turkey, issued to her soldiers a catechism founded on the project of the Brussels Conference, besides prescribing liberal rules for the treatment of prisoners of war. In 1894, after the outbreak of the war with China, Japan promulgated a comprehensive prize law, based on the works of jurists, the conclu- sions of the Institute of International Law in 1882, and the French naval instructions of 1870, and setting the salutary example of abolishing the interest of the individual captor in the prize. In the war between the United States and Spain, each belligerent issued systematic instructions for the government of its army and navy, and the secretary of the navy of the United States Has since prescribed, with the President's ap- proval, for the use of that branch of the service, a naval war code, which purports to embody the laws and usages of war at Sea. In the recent development of international 1aw, much influence has no doubt been exerted by unofficial societies, the activity of which specially marked the second half of the 19th cen- tury. In the case of the Red Cross Convention, the original impulse proceeded from such an as- sociation. The Institute of International Law (Institut de Droit International), and the In- ternational Law Association, formerly known as the Association for the Reform and Codifica- tion of the Law of Nations, are leading ex- amples of societies, unofficial in constitution but international in membership, which are devoted to legal progress. Besides improving the general rules of law, nations have during the past IOO years made great progress in securing by cooperation com- mon interests, the attainment of which can be assured only by special agreements. The tend- ency toward cooperation may be seen in the treaties, of which the convention signed at Brus- sels 2 July 1890, may be mentioned as the lead- ing example, made for the purpose of putting an end to the African slave trade. It may also be observed in the adoption, as the result of the Marine Conference at Washington, in 1889–90, of uniform rules of navigation. In 1883 a number of powers of Europe and America entered into an international union for the protection of industrial property, and various governments which were not among the original parties have since adhered to it. In the follow- ing year a convention was made between 26 states for the protection of submarine cables outside territorial waters. Only two years later, on 9 Sept. 1886, a treaty was concluded at Berne for the protection of property in literary and artistic work. To this treaty, commonly called the International Copyright Convention, the United States was not a party; but it may be said that a step toward its acceptance was taken in the act of Congress of 1891, by which foreign authors and artists were for the first time enabled, sub- ject, however, to the limitation of having the type set in the United States, to copyright their works in the United States as well as at home. One should also mention the various interila- tional agreements in recent times for the regula- tion and protection of fisheries on the high seas. By the process of national consolidation which specially marks the more recent years, in- ternational relations have been profoundly affected. Multitudes of petty states, with di- verse interests and claims to distinction, have been absorbed into great national organizations. If international relations have not, in Conse- quence of this absorption, lost any of their seri- ousness and importance, they have in a sense become more simple, and the possibilities of in- ternational cooperation, whether for the im- provement of law or the protection of common interests, have increased. But while the situa- tion has thus been simplified, there has also been a significant widening of the circle in which are included the states that acknowledge the obligations and enjoy the advantages of inter- national law. As the law of nations was orig- inally the product of the Christian states of Europe, nations were classified, with reference to its acceptance and rejection, as Christian and non-Christian. With the admission of Turkey, by the Treaty of Paris of 1856, “to participate in the advantages of the public law and concert of Europe,” this classification ceased to be accu- rate. Lately we have witnessed a further en- largement of the circle by the admission of Japan. The admission of those states to the concert of nations does not signify that the standards of international law have been altered or abandoned. On the contrary it denotes a more general acceptance of those standards as the test of advancement in law, in morals, and in civilization. See DIPLOMACY ; HAGUE Con- FERENCE ; NEUTRALITY. JoHN BASSETT MooRE, Columbia University, New York. International Peace Conference. See HAGUE CONFERENCE. International Workingmen’s Association, an organization of the workingmen of all countries for the advancement of the interests of labor and the emancipation of the working classes. It grew out of a visit of French work- ingmen to the World’s Exposition at London in 1862. In 1864 an organization was formed in London, and an “Address and Provisional Rules’ published ; the rules provided for a general congress to be held annually and a cen- tral council appointed by that congress to sit in London; workingmen's Societies were to join the International in their corporate capacity. The principles and policy were not then defi- nitely announced ; the first congress held at Geneva in 1866 passed resolutions favoring the limitation of the working day and the abolish- ing of child labor; at the next congress at Lau- sanne (1867) socialistic principles were first definitely announced ; from this time the influ- ence of Marx and his followers grew in the or— ganization. In 1868 at the Brussels congress the International announced its opposition to war, and favored the general strike; at the Basel congress in 1869 Bakunin and the anar- chists were admitted; , but they were expelled from the association in 1872 at the congress at The Hague; this same congress transferred the seat of the General Council to New York. The anarchists held a separate congress at Ge. INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION – INTESTINE Ineva in 1873. In 1867 the International rendered substantial aid to the strike of the bronze work- ers in Paris, and the next year to the strike of the Geneva builders; it assisted the English workmen by preventing the importation of un- derpaid laborers from the Continent in time of Strikes. The International was accused of complicity in the Paris Commune, and while the two had no official connection many of the leaders of the Commune were Internationalists, and its principles and aims were defended by the International. In the United States the Social Party, a socialist political organization, was af- filiated with the International in 1868, and later Some individual trades-unions were also affili- ated; finally the North American Federation of the International was formed and held its first national congress in 1872; its organization was in local sections of at least ten members, with a Federal Council of nine elected by the annual congress. Shortly after the transfer of the General Council to New York the Internation- alists took a prominent part in the eight-hour day demonstration in New York. The formal Organization of the International was dissolved in 1875; in Europe the Social Democratic par- ties of the different countries grew out of it, and in the United States the Socialist-Labor party. The anarchist faction in the United States split into two organizations, the Interna- tional Workingmen’s Association and the In- ternational Working People’s Association. The International was important in the history of the labor movement as being the first expres- Sion of the recognition of the common interests of labor in all countries, and as being the means of spreading widely the knowledge of the prin- ciples of the Marxian socialism. Consult: Ely, ‘French and German Socialism,” and ‘The Labor Movement in America? ; Villetard, (His- tory of the International’’; Zacher, “The Red International.” Interstate Commerce Commission. See CoMMERCE, INTERSTATE. Interstate Commerce Law. See CoM- MERCE, INTERSTATE. In’terval, in music, is the distance or dif- ference of pitch, arithmetically expressed, be- tween any two tones of a given scale. Occi- dental nations, including America, employ the diatonic scale (see SCALE), an octave compris- ing five tones and seven semitones, named after the first seven letters of the alphabet. The affix of a flat or sharp before a note denotes its Quality but does not affect its name, and the eighth note being in unison commences a new Octave. Taking the scale in the key of C major, the various intervals are: minor second = E–F or B-C; grave major second = C-D, F-G, A–B ; grave minor third = D–F; minor third = E–G, A—C, B–D ; major third = C–E, F-A, or G-B ; perfect fourth = C-F, D–G, E-A, G–C', or B–E"; acute fourth = A–D’; acute augmented fourth = B–F; grave diminished fifth = B–F’; grave fifth = D–A; perfect fifth = C–G, E–B, F–C’, G–D', A–E ; minor sixth = E–C’, A–F B–G’; major sixth = C-A, D–B, G–E"; acute major sixth = F-D’; grave minor seventh = D–C', G-F', B-A’; minor seventh = E-D', A—G; seventh = C–B, F-E’; octave = C–C', D–D', etc. By taking various notes of the dia- tonic scale as starting points, and measuring known intervals from these, we arrive at inter- mediate notes of the scale, of which the follow- ing are examples: Ci minor third below E; D # minor second beiow E; E 2 minor third above C; A 2 minor sixth above C; B 2 minor seventh above C; Biº 3 major third above C. The difference of pitch between C and C# or between D and D0 is called a semitone, and an interval increased or diminished by a semitone is said to be augmented or diminished. This applies especially to the interval of a fourth or a fifth, which with the octave are said to be perfect, because any augmentation or diminu- tion mars their consonance. The major sixth or third may, however, be diminished to a “minor” sixth or third without destroying the consonance; and the term “minor” is also ap- plied to the diminished second or seventh. In- tervals confined within the octave are simple, when they exceed it compound; the octave be- ginning a new series, the ninth is the Octave of the second, and so forth. Intes’tacy, the legal state of a person dying without having disposed of his property by last will and testament. In Great Britain intestacy does not affect real estate, which is dis- posed of in accordance with the rule of de- scent. The effect of intestacy in Great Britain is merely that no directions have been left for the distribution of personal property. The ef- fect of intestacy in the United States varies in accordance with the laws of inheritance fixed by each of them. Intestacy may be complete, as when a valid will is not left by the dead pro- prietor; or partial, when the extant will only provides for the distribution of part of the prop- erty. In these cases the property passes to the heirs or next of kin of the decedent in accord- ance with the laws of the place where the prop- erty is. See DESCENT ; HEIR: INHERITANCE. Intestine, Bowel, or Gut, the alimentary tube, in the higher animals limited to that por- tion between the stomach and the outlet at the anus. The human intestine is divided into the small and large intestine, the two parts varying in structure, movement, and function. The small intestine starts at the pylorus of the stom- ach, as the duodenum, and the first eight or ten inches are so distinguished. This portion is the widest and most deeply placed of the parts of the small intestine. About three or four inches below the pylorus the ducts of the gall-bladder and pancreas open conjointly into the bowel. The duodenum emerges from the cover of the peritoneum and becomes the jejunum. The re- mainder of the small intestine constitutes the jejunum (about two fifths) and the ileum. Be- tween these divisions there is little difference, except that the jejunum is more freely movable, occupies the upper left portion of the abdomen more than the lower and right, and has thicker walls. The lumen of the small intestine grad- ually grows less from the duodenum, where it is two inches and a half in diameter, to little more than an inch where the ileum empties into the large intestine. The ileum is inserted sev- eral inches above the actual beginning of the large intestine, so that a blind pouch is formed below the point of juncture; this pouch, called the caecum, gives off the appendix vermiformis (see APPENDICITIs) from its lower and back part. From the caecum the large bowel passes up to the under surface of the liver as the ascending colon (see CoLON), thence across the abdomen INTESTINE below the lower border of the stomach as the transverse colon, turns down to the iliac fossa as the descending colon, forms a peculiar S-shaped curve, the sigmoid flexure, which passes over the brim of the pelvis, where it is called the rectum (q.v.). The large bowel is about six feet in length. Both bowels have four Coats, the mucous coat, the submucous, the mus- cular, and over most of the bowel an investment of peritoneum forming the serous coat. In the Small intestine the mucous membrane is thrown up into permanent folds, each extending over half-way around the inside of the bowel. In this way a large surface is exposed for the ab- Sorption of food. Furthermore, the inner sur- face is covered with finger-like projections called villi, each having a large absorbing vessel in its centre. At the bases of the villi are tubular (of Lieberkuhn) and branching glands (of Brun- b g * -- **** yºga º . .** f: : '# # *. 1. §: Section of the Ileum and Caecum: a, ileum; b, caecum; c, ileocaecal valve; d, opening of the appendix; e, appendix. ner) that dip down into the mucous membrane. Scattered over the surface there are tiny col- lections of lymphoid tissue, called Solitary fol- licles, and here and there collections of these follicles into groups one to three inches long, called Peyer's patches. It is these spots that are attacked and ulcerated in typhoid fever. The muscular coat consists in an inner layer run- ning around the bowel and an outer longitudinal coat. The large bowel differs from the small in the absence of the folds and villi, and is but slightly movable within the abdomen, being Bound down to the abdominal wall posteriorly By the peritoneum. (See PHYSIOLOGY.) Diseases of the Intestine.— These may be disturbances of the function of the bowels without actual inflammation, or they may be inflammations in different parts and of different kinds; but with inflammations there is neces- sarily a disturbance of the various functions, and differentiation frequently becomes a matter of difficulty. Diarrhoea and constipation (qq.v.) are symptoms of many different conditions, as are also deficiencies of secretion and absorption. The nervous mechanism of the bowels may be changed, giving rise to abnormal sensations and disturbance of all the functions. True in- flammation of the intestines is the most common cause of abnormal action, and therefore is de- scribed in detail. Acute Intestinal Catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane that varies much in its symptomatology with the part of the bowel af- fected and the causative agent. Among the causes may be mentioned the eating of tainted fruits and other foods; the overeating of any food; overdrinking, particularly of very cold liquids; the injestion of chemical or mechanical irritants; “catching cold”; and the poisons of the infectious diseases. The bowel is inhabited by numerous forms of micro-organisms, many of which are entirely harmless; but when any of the various agencies mentioned above affect the mucous membrane, the micro-organisms are able to attack the damaged surface. Many forms of bacteria produce particular types of disease when they find such lodgment, because they in- vade the system with their peculiar products. (See CHOLERA INFANTUM ; CHOLERA ; DYSEN- TERY.) But to the growth of bacteria must always be ascribed some of the symptoms in any intestinal catarrh. The attack usually starts in acutely with fever, general bodily discomfort, and abdominal pain. If the inflammation be confined to the upper part of the small intestine there may be constipation; but this is uncom- mon, and diarrhoea is the rule. Inflammation of the Small intestine is spoken of as enteritis, but this is usually associated with more or less in- flammation of the large bowel, called colitis (q.v.), although it may occur alone even in its last portion, the rectum. The pain in colitis is apt to be confined to the sides of the abdomen, and when the inflammation is low down there is constant desire to defecate, pain accompany- ing the act. Passage of mucus alone also in- dicates an inflammation low down in the rec- tum. The stools in acute intestinal catarrh vary much with the cause of the trouble; in some observed cases of dysentery the discharges are 1ike rice-water. Treatment of these conditions depends upon the severity and location of the inflammation. The mild cases, with ordinary loose movements, recover without medication with abstinence from food for 24 hours. Castor– oil or small doses of calomel will cleanse the intestine of irritating substances. The more severe cases are kept in bed and allowed small amounts of milk after the first day, and are given small doses of castor-oil or mixtures of bismuth, opium, and other sedative drugs. If the large intestine is found to be involved, irri- gation with common salt in water (teaspoonful to the quart) is valuable. Great care must be used in the selection of diet for some time. Duodenitis occurs associated with acute gas- tritis (q.v.), and has the same symptoms, except for the presence of jaundice due to the closure of the bile-ducts. The disease runs its course or— dinarily in a few weeks without any treatment except rest in bed for a few days, simple diet, and mild cathartics to relieve the constipation. Chronic intestinal catarrh results from a severe attack of acute inflammation in which the mu- cous membrane is left with permanent changes, or from repeated attacks of inflammation. Cases INTESTINE of chronic inflammation may occur without pre- vious evidence of acute attacks. The symptoms vary much in kind and intensity, but pain, flatu- lence, and disturbance of the bowels are usually complained of. There may be pronounced con- stipation, alternating constipation and diarrhoea, daily unformed movements not distinctly diar- rhoeal, or, what is most common, a constant di- arrhoea. More or less admixture of mucus in the stools is usually observed. Sooner or later there is apt to be a loss of flesh and strength. When the large bowel is much involved in such a process there is usually a coating of the stools with mucus, or the passage of clear mucus. In the treatment it is best to rely mainly on carefully regulated life — exercise, baths, fresh air, sufficient rest, avoidance of exposure, and properly selected diet. In diet the objects sought are the regulation of the bowels and the avoidance of irritation. When there is diarrhoea it is wise to avoid fruits, salads, cabbage, coarse- fibred breads, sugars, honey, pastry, sour and sweet wines, and carbonic beverages. In cases attended with constipation most of these may be allowed, but sausages, rich dressings, cucum- bers, cabbage, and very coarse-fibred breads should be forbidden. Mineral waters are fre- quently used with Success, such springs as Carls- bad and Vichy for the diarrhoeal cases, and such as Marienbad, Hathorn, and Congress for those attended with constipation. Chronic ca- tarrh of the large bowel is treated with small doses of castor-oil and irrigations of the bowel with water, to which may be added antiseptics or astringents. Intestimal Hemorrhage, or blood passed from the bowel, may be due to piles, tumors, dysen- tery, colitis, typhoid fever, tuberculosis of the intestinal tract, ulcers of the duodenum, portal obstruction as in cirrhosis of the liver, haemo- philia, purpura, and the hemorrhagic forms of the infectious diseases. When blood coming from the stomach or high up in the small intes- tine is passed by rectum it is changed to a tarry appearance. This is due to the action of the digestive juices and bacteria. The farther down the intestine the blood starts, the brighter red is it found when passed. Intestinal Obstruction.— This is a term that includes a great variety of conditions in the ab- domen having the common feature of obstruc- tion to the passage of the contents along the bowel; and in addition there is in the acute condition some injury to the bowel resulting in special symptoms. Two varieties are differen- tiated, the acute and the chronic. Acute intes- tinal obstructions are caused by foreign bodies, gall-stones, and hardened or large collections of faeces in the canal; by contracting scars, or tumors of the wall, twists of the gut (volvulus), intussusceptions (invagination of a portion above into the part below); by adhesions of the peritoneum, causing constricting bands; and by Strangulations of portions of the bowel con- tained in hernia. Besides these causes, from local or general peritonitis there is apt to be a condition of paralysis of a portion of the bowel, giving rise to the same state. The symp- toms vary considerably with the cause of the obstruction and the part of the bowel affected, but in general the symptoms are pain — fre- quently of a colicky sort — constipation, inabil- ity to pass gas — with resulting tympanites — vomiting, first from the shock, and later from reversed peristalsis, until at length the vomitus is bilious and finally even faecal. Because of these symptoms and the injury to the nerves of the intestine resulting in “shock,” there is a gradually increasing prostration. Certain features indicating that the obstruction is in the small intestine are early vomiting, the pas- sage of faeces from the lower bowel, and the greater swelling of the centre of the abdomen. Absolute constipation from the first is apt to mean an obstruction low down in the large bowel. The cause of the obstruction may be in- dicated by the presence of a tumor, or by some- thing in the previous history. Intussusception is the most common cause of the obstruction in children; a tumor may be felt on the outside, or the bowel may be felt in the rectum. Faecal impaction is indicated by a long history of con- Stipation, and rectal examination shows the hardened masses. If intestinal obstruction be not relieved, the patient may die of shock, with gradual exhaustion, from gangrene of the bowel — the blood-supply being usually shut off — and Sometimes from peritonitis. Medical measures for the relief of most forms of the malady are not successful, and temporizing is attended with danger; but rest of the body as a whole, and especially of the intestinal tract, must be absolute. Some au- thorities advise the use of opium for further quieting the intestine when the diagnosis is certain. Lavage of the stomach is of great value, and large enemata may be curative when the cause of the trouble is intussusception, for- eign body, or hardened faeces. Most forms of obstruction require the opening of the abdo- men, Search for the cause of the obstruction, and attempts at removal. Results depend on the quickness with which operation is under- taken; death may ensue, in spite of the removal of the obstruction, if interference be too long postponed. Chronic intestinal obstruction is caused by about the same conditions as the acute variety. The symptoms include various digestive disturbances, flatulency, constipation, and, when due to malignant growths, the gen- eral loss of flesh and strength. Intestinal Parasites.— Three principal forms of these affect man — tapeworms, roundworms, and pinworms (qq.v.) The list of symptoms attributed to the presence of tapeworms in the human intestine is long and varied, but even loss of nutrition from such a parasite's pres- ence is usually slight. Finding the worms or their eggs in the stools is the only convincing symptom. Treatment of this condition consists first in the preparation of the intestine by light diet for 24 hours before the taenifuge is given and six or eight hours before, allowing a lib- eral diet of onions, salty herring, and garlic; this rather loosens the worm's hold. Mild purgatives may also be given at this time. Early on the following morning the selected drug is taken, and this may be either male-fern, pomegranate, pumpkin-seed, kousso, or kamala. After about I2 hours a brisk cathartic is taken and the worm is passed. Careful search must be made for the head, for unless it is passed treatment must be started again while the worm is yet weak. Santonin and purgatives effect expulsion of roundworms. In the treatment of pinworms it is customary to take advantage of the fact that the females deposit their eggs in the large intestine and rectum. Santonin INTONING – INVENTIONS and cathartics aid in gathering the worms where they may be killed by injections of benzine (20 drops to the pint of water), or by solutions of quinine, though further catharsis may be neces- Sary. DUDLEY D. RoBERTS, M.D., Brooklyn, N. Y. Inton'ing, the practice of delivering prayers in the recitative form. Intoning differs little from chanting: in the latter case the ca- dence is more developed, the divisions more rhythmical, and the music in continuous har- mony. In intoning the greater part of the prayer is recited on one note, and then Sung by several voices in unison, the closing words of the sentence being sung to the proximate notes of the scale and in harmony. The practice of intoning prevails in the Greek, Roman, Ang- lican, and Lutheran Churches. Intoxication (literally poisoning, com- monly restricted to poisoning by means of al- cohol, for a discussion of which latter see AL- COHOLISM. Intoxication in the sense of poi- soning may result from poisons having their origin outside of the human body (exogenous poisoning), or from poisons which may be de- veloped within the body itself (endogenous poisoning, or auto-intoxication). Some of the most important problems connected with the in- fectious diseases concern themselves with the study of the intoxications that result from the formation of toxins by specific bacteria distrib- uted throughout the human body during the course of a disease. From the same point of view many of the most complicated intoxica- tions result from variations in the normal me- tabolism of the body. Thus in diabetes mellitus (q.v.) there is developed an acid intoxication (diabetic coma), which is due to the inability of the body properly to neutralize by its alkaline salts the excessive amounts of acid produced as a result of the perverted metabolism of this disease. Similarly in Bright's disease a type of intoxication (uraemic poisoning) results from failure of the kidneys to eliminate poisonous products from the human body. It seems not un- likely that a number of diseases such as migraine (sick headache), some forms of epileptic convul- sions, different types of skin-eruptions, and some of the mild insanities result from auto- intoxication (q.v.). See PoisonING. Introduced Species. A long catalogue might be made of species of animals and plants which have been transferred by accident or de- sign from their native country or locality to other regions. Sometimes, as in the case of salmon in New Zealand, rabbits in Australia, the European house-sparrow in America and else- where, or western fishes in eastern waters, this is done by design; but in the great majority of cases the introduction is accidental and unwel- come, as in the case of the hundred and more species of injurious insects brought into the United States from foreign lands (or the fewer sent abroad from here), and the very many spe- cies of “weeds” naturalized on our, and other shores. Such introductions are in the main acci- dental, the eggs or seeds or grown individuals passing from one region to another in ships or railway trains, or cargoes or discharged ballast ; so many plants have been introduced by the lat- ter means that botanists class the group of alien weeds as “ballast plants.” See ACCLIMATIZA- TION ; ZOOGEOGRAPHY. Intuba’tion, the introduction of a tube into an orifice or an organ, as the larynx, to keep it open. Specially designed tubes for such a purpose are sometimes used in cases of croup, diphtheritic obstruction, etc., as a substitute for tracheotomy. In’ulin, a substance resembling starch, but intermediate in nature between that body and the gums. It occurs in the roots of elecampane, dandelion, and certain other plants, and also in the Jerusalem artichoke and the common po- tato. When pure it is a tasteless white powder consisting of spherical particles. Its chemical formula is probably a multiple of CeFH10O3, though CºH12,Oas has been suggested. It is insoluble in alcohol, and but slightly soluble in cold water, although it is very hygroscopic. It dissolves freely in hot water. It melts at 320° F., becoming thereby converted into a different Substance known as “pyro-inulin.” It is not fermentable, and does not reduce Fehling's so- lution. Iodine renders it brown or yellow. Invasion, the entry into a country by a public enemy. As early as 1795 Congress pro- vided by law for protection against the inva- sion of the United States by any foreign nation or Indian tribe. The act made it lawful when- ever there should be an invasion, or imminent danger of one, for the President to call out such number of the militia of the State or States convenient to the place of invasion as he might think necessary to repel it. This, strengthened in some respects by amendments, has been in force ever since. An invasion has usually all the elements of war, and the invaders may be dealt with as persons at war with the country invaded, in accordance with usages of warfare without the declaration of war by Congress. The Supreme Court of the United States has decided that a State is invaded when there is a do- mestic rebellion within its territory, and that the same rules of law may be enforced as in the case of an invasion by external foes. This de- cision practically abolishes all distinction be- tween invasion and insurrection, and the same rules which furnish a remedy for invasion can be applied in the suppression of an insurrection or local rebellion. In case the State militia is not sufficiently strong, or not easily available, the standing troops of the United States may be Ordered out by the President, if indeed it be necessary to call upon the State troops before resorting to the regular troops of the United States. It is not necessary that actual armed violence shall be resorted to in order to consti- tute insurrection. Any combination of persons too powerful to be suppressed by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings is tantamount to insurrection, and warrants the use of the effec- tive measures provided for by law for its sup- pression. . Inventions. The progress of the world in its numerous vast industries and arts has been founded, to a very large extent, upon in- ventions and discoveries and their subsequent development. Under the American patent law and system, inventors all over the world are stimulated to make public their inventions by reason of receiving in exchange a monopoly in the form of a patent on the invention for a period of 17 years. INVENTIONS The remarkable increase in the number of protected inventions is shown by the records of the United States Patent At the end of the first year (1790) 3 patents were issued. In the year end- ing 1902, 27,136 patents were granted. The total number of patents issued from April 1790 to November 1903 was 752,774. An invention is recognized to be any new Office, as follows: or useful mechanical contrivance or article, method, discovery, composition of matter, or sys- tem not previously known or used, or any im- provement on any known machine, art, method, or system. Below is given in chronological or- der a list of important inventions beginning with the 16th century, with the title of the invention, the year it was made, the name of the inventor and his nativity: INVENTIONS Date Inventor Nativity Discoveries of Elec- } I560|William Gilbert England trical Phenomena. . . . I603 Won the title of “founder of the science of electric- ity.” Screw Pºpſ; 1620 |Blaew Germany Spirally grooved rifle barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . 1620 |Koster England Iron furnaces. . . . . . . 1621 |Lord Dudley England The use of steam. ... 1630 |David Ramseye | England The first authen- tic reference in English literature to the use of steam in the arts. Bay Psalm Book, first book published in the Colonies. . . . . I640 - Mass. Barometer . . . . . . . . . . 1643 Torricelli Italy Steam engine, atmos- Thomas Newco- pheric pressure . . . . I663 men England Machine for generat- Otto von Gue- ing electricity. . . . . 1681–6, ricke Germany First paper mill in illiam Ritten- America . . . . . . . . . . 1690 house Penna. First steam engine s with a piston. . . . . . 1690 |Denys Papin France The manufacture of plate glass estab- lished . . . . . . . . . . . . I695 France First to discover dif- ference be t w e en slºt; sºlºrs #; and insulators. . . . . 1736|Stephe (ſhe first practical ap- 36|Stephen Gray |England plication of the steam eng1ne. . . . . . I702 Thomas Savery England First newspaper in America “ Boston News Letter ’’. . . . . I704, John Campbell |Mass. First to produce elec- #: tric spark. . . . . . . . . I716|T)r. J. Wall England Thermometer . . . . . . . I709 ||Fahrenheit Danzig Electrometer, the well #; lenown pith ball . . . . ( 1772|John Cantor England T he “ Franklin ‘’ Benjamin Frank. printing-press ..... 1725 lin Utd. States Electrical glass plate }% machine . . . . . . . . . . 1772|Martin de Planta|France Stereotyping . . . . . . . . 1731 ||William Ged Scotland First to discover that º electricity is of two Cisternay du kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733–9 Fay France Flying , shuttle in weaving . . . . . . . . . . 1733 ||John Kay England Rotary 3-color nrint- ing-press (Multi- Color) . . . . . . . . . . . I743 |Platt & Keen England Electric or Leyden Jar I?45 |Kleist Germany Substitution of coke for coal in melting iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750 Abraham Darby|England Benjamin Frank. Tightning conductor. 1752 |_ lin Utd. States James Har- Spinning jenny . . . . . I763 greaves England INVENTIONS Date Inventor Nativity Piano forte, played in public in England 111 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I76 England Drawing rolls # 3. 767 |Richard Ark- g Spinning machine..] I wright England The introduction of 769 8. g the “ Hollander ’’ or beating engine for pulping rags in the manufacture of Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . 1773 - |Samuel Cramp- The mule spinner... 1774 |_ ton England & Jeremiah Wilk- Qut nails. . . . . . . . . . . I775 inson Utd. States Circular wood saw... 1777 |Miller England Branchard & Embryo bicycle. . . . . . 1779 || Magurier France Steam engine, the basis of the modern CI131Ile • . . . . . . . . . . I782 James Watt Scotland . E. ... ML Gas balloon . . . . . . . . 1783 || Montgolfier |France Puddling iron . . . . . 1783-4|Henry Cort England Plow, with cast iron mold board, and wrought and cast iron shares. . . . . . . 1784 }: Small Scotland 3.111CS C a r t- Power loom. . . . . . . . . 1785 || wright England First steam-boat in - the United States...| 1786 John Fitch Utd. States Steam road wagon. . . 1787 Oliver Evans Utd. States (First automobile). Grain thrashing ma- chine . . . . . . . . . . . . 1788 |Andrew Meikle |England Uranium discovered... 1789 |Klaproth Germany Hobby-horse, forerun- ner of bicycle. . . . . I790 England Rotary steam power printing-press, the - first idea of . . . . . . 1790 Wm. Nicholson. England Wood planing ma- chine . . . . . . . . . . . . I791 |Samuel Bentham|England Gas first used as an illuminant . . . . . . . 1792 Wim. Murdoch England Cotton gin. . . . . . . . . . 1794 |Eli . Whitney Utd. States Art of Lithography... I796 Alois Senefelder Germany Machine for making continuous webs of Papeſ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800 |Louis Robert France Richard Trevith- Steam coach ........ 1801 | ick England Wood Mortising Ma- chine . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801 ||M. J. Brunel |England Pattern loom . . . . . . . 1801 ||M. J. Jacquard|France First fire proof safe. . 1801 |Richard Scott |England Steamboat on the Clyde, “ Charlotte William Sy m- Dundas '' . . . . . . . . 1802 || ington England First photographic ex- Wedgewood & periments . . . . . . . . 1802 avy England Planing machine..... 1802 Wiśh England The application of illiam Hor- steam to the loom.. 1803 || rocks England Steel pen. . . . . . . . . . . 1803 ||Wise ... [England Steam Locomotive on Richard Trevith- rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804 || ick England Application of twin screw propellers in steam navigation...] 1804 John Stevens Utd. States Process of , making malleable iron cast- ings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804 |Lucas England First life preserver...; 1805 John Edwards |England Luigi Brugma- Electro-plating . . . . . . 1805 | telli Italy Knitting machine, the latch needle in the 1806 Jeandean France Steamboat navigation O11 e Hudson River . . . . . . . . . . . . 1So? |Robert Fulton Utd. States Percussion or deto. nating compound... 1807 |A. J. Forsyth Scotland First street gas light- - ing in England. ... 1807 ||F. A. Winsor England Band wood saw ... . . 1808 ||Newberry England Barium, strontium Sir Humphry and ..", ſigh 1808 || Davy England Polarization of light from reflection....] 1808 |E. L. Malus France IRAPUATO – IRELAND in its chief traits at a comparatively recent date through the deciphering of those inscriptions. The Zend is the language in which the Zend- avesta, the sacred writings of the Parsees, are composed. By the term Middle Iranian lan- guages the Huzvaresh or Pehlevi and the Parsi principally are understood, which are preserved in the commentaries to the Zend-avesta. The latter approaches to the modern Persian. The dialect of the Pehlevi coins, as well as the in- Scriptions of the time of the Sassanian dynasty, also belong to this section. The most important of the New Iranian languages is the Persian, in which has been produced a very rich and cele- brated literature, and which as a cultivated lit- erary language is distinguished from the dialec- tic varieties of the different regions of Persia which European scholars are as yet only par- tially acquainted with. The Afghan, or Pashtu, and the dialects of the Kurds, form separate branches of the Iranian family. The isolated Ossetes of the Caucasus also speak an Iranian language. The Armenian is a branch of the same stock, and contains many peculiar elements. Irapuato, e-rá-poo-ā'tö, Mexico, district town in the province of Guanajuato, on the Mexican C. railroad, about 30 miles south of the city of Guanajuato, capital of the province. The climate of this region is mild and favorable to the growth of fruits, of which strawberries and other varieties are produced in abundance. Several ancient churches, convents, etc., give the town an interest for visitors. Pop. about 20,000. Irawadi, ir-a-wid’í, or Irrawady, one of the great rivers of Southern Asia, traversing Burma in a southerly course. One branch of it rises near the eastern extremity of Assam, another branch rises in East Tibet, the two branches uniting about lat. 26°. It has gener- ally a south course, being deflected west, and its total length has been estimated at 1,200 miles. There are three rocky defiles in which its chan- nel is suddenly contracted, the lowest near Man- dalay; but from that point downward to its delta it has generally a breadth of from I to 4 miles. About 140 miles from the Indian Ocean, which it enters by numerous mouths, the delta commences. The current of the Irawadi is commonly gentle — even in its upper part being no more than at the rate of two miles an hour; except during the inundations, when it flows so rapidly that no sailing vessels could navigate it but for the assistance of the southwest monsoon. It is navigable from the sea upward for steam- ers of five feet draft to the Chinese frontier, 900 miles from the sea. Like the Nile, the Ira- wadi is the main artery of the country through which it flows; the principal population of Burma is established along its banks. Iredell, Ir'dé1, James, American jurist: b. Lewes, Sussex, England, 5 Oct. I75I; d. Eden- ton, C., 20 Oct. 1799. He was appointed comptroller of customs at Port Roanoke, now Edenton, where he arrived in 1768, retained this office several years, and meanwhile studied law. He was appointed by the attorney-general his deputy in 1774, and in 1777 was placed by the legislature on the bench of the supreme court, then just organized under the State con- stitution. In 1787 he was designated by the general assembly sole commissioner to collect and revise the acts of previous assemblies, which were to be considered in force in North Caro- lina. This collection of the laws, now referred to as “Iredell's Revisal,” was published in 1791. In February 1790 he became one of the justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, and held that office till his death. The ‘Life and Correspondence” of Iredell was published in 1857. Iredell, James, American lawyer, son of the preceding: b. Edenton, N. C., 2 Nov. 1788; d. Raleigh, N. C., 13 April 1853. He was graduated at Princeton in 1806, and was bred to the bar. He served for Io years in the house of commons of his native State, and twice as speaker in a house of which the majority were politically opposed to him. In 1827 he was gov- ernor of North Carolina, and from 1828 to 1831 a member of the Senate of the United States. He afterward resumed the practice of his pro- fession at Raleigh, where he was also for many years reporter of the decisions of the supreme court of North Carolina. In 1833 he was ap- pointed by Gov. Swain one of three commission- ers to collect and revise all the statutes in force in North Carolina. The result was the work known as the ‘Revised Statutes.” He afterward published a ‘Treatise on the Law of Executors and Administrators.” Ireland, ir’land, Alleyne, American author and lecturer: b. Manchester, England, IQ Jan. 1871. He was educated at the University of Berlin, traveled widely, lectured on tropical colonization at Cornell University in 1899, and in IQOO was appointed lecturer in politics at the University of Chicago, where his subjects were tropical colonization and Chinese foreign rela- tions. In addition to numerous contributions to periodicals, he wrote: “Georgetown, Demerara? (1897); ‘Tropical Colonization? (1899); ‘The Anglo-Boer Conflict? (1900); ‘China and the Powers? (1901). Ireland, John, American Roman Catholic prelate: b. Burnchurch, County Kilkenny, Ire- land, II Sept. 1838. He was educated in the cathedral school at St. Paul, his parents having come to the United States in his childhood. He studied theology in France four years at Mexi- mieux, and four at Var, and was ordained priest in 1861. During the Civil War he was chaplain to the 5th Minnesota regiment; he was after- ward appointed rector of the cathedral at St. Paul, and secretary, afterward coadjutor bishop of St. Paul. He succeeded to the see as arch- bishop of St. Paul in 1888. He took an active part in founding the Roman Catholic University in Washington, organized the first total absti- nence society in Minnesota and has been one of the foremost temperance advocates in the Amer- ican branch of his church. In 1887 he was in- strumental in promoting temperance revival in England and Ireland. He has published ‘The Church and Modern Society? ; etc. Ireland, Mary E. Haines, American trans- lator and author : b. Calvert, Cecil County, Md., 9 Jan. I834. In addition to serials and nu- merous other contributions to the periodical press, she wrote ‘What I Told Dorcas’ (1895), and ‘Grandma Elliot's Farmhouse? (1900); and she also translated from the German a lengthy series of minor works of fiction. Ireland, William Henry, English literary forger: b. probably London 1777; d. there 17 April 1835. He imposed spurious Shakespearian IRELAND MSS. upon his father, Samuel Ireland, a book- seller and engineer, who was a Shakespeare en- thusiast, and also upon other men of letters, and produced two “Shaksperian” plays, “Vorti- gern) and “Henry II,” the former of which was purchased by Sheridan and acted at Drury Lane, but was a complete failure. The criti- cisms of Malone led to the exposure of the fraud, which was acknowledged by Ireland in 1796. He wrote various novels, poems, etc., be- sides his ‘Confessions? (1805), containing an account of his forgeries. Ireland, the most westerly and smaller of the two principal islands of which the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is com- posed, extends from lat. 51° 26' to 55° 21' N.; its average width is about one fourth its length; area, 32,583 square miles. It is separated from England by Saint George's Channel and the Irish Sea, and from Scotland by a narrow passage, the North Channel. Ireland is on the continen- tal shelf, or sub-marine plain, which borders the continental land mass of Europe, hence it is physically a part of Europe. Topography.— The coast line is irregular; from Dundalk Bay to Wexford Harbor on the east there are less indentations than on any other part of the coast; Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea, is the only indentation of any size on this part of the island. Galway, Sligo and Donegal Bays are the largest on the western coast. The Atlantic currents, which beat against the western coast, have worn away the land in many places, thus causing fiords such as exist on the coasts of other countries subject to similar wave-action. Some of the many islands which fringe the coast have been formed by the washing away or the submergence of the land. The capes, promontories, and peninsulas have been formed largely by submergence. Some of the islands, all small, are Aran, Achill, Clare, and Rathlin. The chief ports are Cork, Dublin, Belfast, Waterford, and Londonderry. There are 14 harbors which will accommodate the largest ocean Steamers. The highlands are chiefly along the coast; the greater part of the interior is a plain. The mountains, more rounded hills than mountains, are short ranges with little or no connection ex- cept the several ranges in the southwest. Some of the mountains are Mourne, in County Down, the Wicklow Mountains, Knockmealdown and Galty in the south ; Caha, Stack and other ranges in Kerry; Slieve Boughta in Galway, a num- ber of short ranges in the counties of Mayo, Leitrim, Donegal, and Londonderry, and the Slieve Bloom between Queens and Kings coun- ties. The majority of the peaks are less than 3,000 feet in height; Carrantuohill (Carrantual), in Kerry, near the Lakes of Killarney, is 3,404 feet, and Galty Mountains, in Limerick, are 3,OI5 feet. The plain in the interior is about 500 feet above sea-level. Hydrography.— The rivers of Ireland, like those of England and Scotland, are small streams. The Shannon, the largest river in the British Isles, has its rise in the northeastern part of the province of Connaught, flows east, south, and west, forming quite a curve before entering the Atlantic Ocean, between the counties of Kerry and Clare. It passes through several lakes, the largest of which are Ree, Allen, and Derg. The estuary at the mouth is about 70 miles long; the whole length of the river is about 250 miles, I30 of which are navigable for large steamers. Its importance for transporta- tion has been increased by the canals Royal and Grand, which connect it with Dublin. In the southwest, in County Kerry, is a short mountain stream called Roughly River, with a long, broad estuary called Kenmare River. The Liffey, which flows into the Irish Sea at Dublin, the Lee which flows into Cork Harbor, the Boyne with its tributary, the Blackwater, are all short streams which have been made famous in history and literature. The Foyle, Erne, Lagan, Moy, Slaney, and others reach the ocean through broad estuaries or bays. Lough Neagh in the northwest is the largest lake of the British Isles. A number of the lakes of Ireland occur along the river courses, but are really basins, and not merely expansions of the rivers. Lakes Corrib, Conn, Foyle, Belfast, Strangford, Car- lingford, and others on the coast are estuaries or fiords, but the land-locked mouths entitle them to be called lakes, like Maracaibo in South America. The famous Lakes of Killarney are in County Kerry, in the southwestern part of the island. There is scarcely a place in Ireland that is more than 25 miles distance from water Com- munication with the ocean. Geology.—A limestone stratum belonging to the basal portion of the Carboniferous system underlies a large part of the interior plain. The upper Carboniferous rock has been destroyed by erosion except in a few places. Silurian rock underlies nearly all of the northern part, but the Cretaceous, Triassic, and Permian formations exist and appear at the surface in several places. Some of the cliffs of the north are of basaltic formation. The Giant's Causeway (q.v.) on the north coast of Antrim is basaltic. Its 40,000 or more, perfectly formed polygonal columns constitute remarkable specimens of this formation. Crystalline rocks form the axis of the mountains of the province of Connaught, and the highlands of Leinster. Old red sandstone and carboniferous limestone are found in the southwestern counties. Marble exists in large quantities in the county of Kilkenny and in parts of the adjacent counties coal of an anthracite variety is found, but not in large quantities; iron-ore exists in nearly every county. Copper of an excellent quality is in the western moun- tains, also gold and silver in small quantities. Soil.— The erosion of the limestone rock which has been going on for ages has contributed largely to the fertility of the soil of Ireland. The igneous rocks, the red marls, and other mineral formations, have added to the richness of the soil, and all has been distributed, by the gradual removal of the ice-covering, over a large area of the plain. After deducting the area, about one fifth of the whole, which is cov- ered by bog, mountain, and moorland, there is left a vast extent of arable surface covered with a deep friable loam of remarkable richness. In addition to the decomposed trap and the calcare- ous matter derived from the limestone, there is a large amount of vegetable mold which forms one of the most important ingredients of the soil. The bogs, useless for tillage, furnish peat for fuel. The Bog of Allen is the largest one in Ireland. 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Sº - - *- * . 33 - - - -- - - º º º º º --- º- ºš ºº:: tºº º º Rºll º hallunº - * * º ------- % ºhill º lºt ºn -ºº-ºººº. ºwº Pººvoº º - º 3. º, º ºx! º --- º º sº "ºn lºgº 5% - ºriº -- . º-ºut ºn º º - - -- º º - º - -º-º-º-º-º- º º º ------- º nº knºwn Head jº ºn º º ººlºº I IR E I * ND º --- ... º. º. - º - º - - º º º annº zºº - º º ºuld # - º ----- º º SCALE OF MILES §§ - º º º º, º - 1. - º - º Kº: º *...*** º 1. --- º: * *. º - Population of places is indicated. 3. - |-lt-º-º: Nº. º - -2, - º º C-L- - * * º - by different lettering, thus: º:3 $33 *: º º *. º, ºrkmen. 100,000 and over ------ DUBLIN 5%| - - º - - ºn-º. ºn- - -> 3. th-ca-i- º º, *, º," *erry Buu ºu-ºº-º-º: º Cork º ºul-- - º º - - - º º - 10 ºn to ºn Kukenuy- £3 - -- - - - º --- º * º * --- - lºw tº 10,000------------------ Nº|| ºw- º Cape Clear Small--laces-----------º 233 ºut lºuse Railroad -N920 º------. - º: | | | ºn 2 Canals - Kº ºpºrº tº ººº- --- & --~. - --- - º: - - -- -º-º-º- - gº Sº - º: sº º Greenwich º º º -- 3%.3%3%%23%2.3% sº º º: º --------. - º - - sº ºzººsººzºº %33% ºº º Xº3%@%@923%23%23%23%23%23%23% dºo, ------ º ----------------- 3. - - -- ---------- --- ººzºº Žºº º %3& - & & Cºod -º-º-º-ºººººººººººº- --- - - Pººvºº º - - -- - ----- ººzººcººn º - º ºooººooººoºººooººooºooººooººooººo, Zoº - --- --- & §§%$%$%@%ºl IRELAND The mean temperature is from 20° to 30° F. higher than other places in the same latitude on the eastern coast of America or the interior of Europe, and a few degrees higher than places in the same latitude on the west coast of Amer- ica. The summer temperature is modified by the surrounding waters, being lower by a few degrees than inland places of the same latitude. The moisture brought by the winds from the Ocean causes a heavy annual rainfall, and much fog, mist, and general dampness. The low mountains cerve to some extent as condensing agents, so that the greatest rainfall is near the coast. The average rainfall on the west and south coasts was, in 1879, 43.56 inches; in 1896, 36.36. The averages for the interior were in 1879, 34.39 inches; in 1896, 34.07 inches. Vegetation.— The climate and Soil are very favorable for vegetation. Its mild temperature and humid atmosphere enable several delicate plants, which usually in the same latitude can be cultivated only in sheltered gardens, to flour- ish here with vigor in the open air; and fre- quently forest trees continue to retain their foli- age after similar trees have lost their leaves in the warmest parts of England. The conditions would naturally indicate forests, and it seems that in early times, large tracts of magnificent timber were spread over its surface; but the grossest waste and mismanagement have pre- vailed, trees have almost disappeared except from the parks of the wealthy land-owners, or the “gentry”; and what ought to be among the Best is about the worst wooded country in the middle latitudes of Europe. More attention is now being given to the subject of forestry; in 1901 there were 309,741 acres in Ireland under forest, a portion of which was a new growth. During the year, 1,740 acres were planted with trees, mostly fir, spruce, and larch. Grass grows luxuriantly in nearly all parts of the island. Animals.- The fauna of Ireland consists Inow of birds and small rodents. Animals once found here and mentioned in the ancient liter- ature, as the deer, bear, wildcat, wolf, beaver, cattle peculiar to the island, and certain birds (including the garefowl), have all disappeared. There are no snakes nor toads in Ireland. Fish are plentiful in the streams and on the coasts. Fisheries.— The salmon fisheries are very valuable, and are increasing in value every year. With an increased supply of fish, high prices are maintained owing to the improved means of communication from remote districts with the |best markets. In spite of this, however, these fisheries are not cultivated to anything like SO high a degree as they might be. Still, the num- ber of men engaged in the salmon fisheries in Ireland is over I3,000, the estimated value of the salmon exported being from $700,000 to $950,000 annually. The principal sea fisheries of Ireland are those of herring and mackerel. The herring fisheries in the Irish waters are prosecuted chiefly on the east coast by Irish boats from Howth, Arklow, and other places on the Irish coast, and by a fleet of vessels from Cornwall, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. The number of boats engaged in this branch of the sea fishery is much smaller than in Scotland, from which considerable quantities of cured herrings are im- ported. The total number of vessels engaged in the sea fisheries is now about 6,525, the number of men and boys employed being about 26,200. The naiſe fishermen, it is said, are now success- Vol. 9–8 fully competing with their rivals, yet the sea fisheries of Ireland on the whole have much declined, as shown by the decrease from 55,630 hands and 13,483 boats employed in 1860, to the figures just given. Agriculture and Stock-raising.—The chief occupation is agriculture. The richness of the soil, its lightness that makes tillage easy, the large percentage of arable land, the amount of rainfall, the mildness of the climate, all com- bine to make Ireland an agricultural country. Despite the great extent of moorland-wastes and the large amount of bog-land, few countries raise, in proportion to the area, such a large amount of food products year after year. But with natural advantages above the average, ag- riculture as a system has not progressed as in many other countries. The wholesale confisca- tion of estates by the English gave the absentee landlord a large portion of the farm land of Ireland. The new owner usually cared only for his rent and gave little heed to improving the land, and showed no regard for the welfare of the man who tilled the soil. The holders and laborers received no encouragement to improve methods or make progress; on the contrary, they were handicapped in many ways, especially in the 18th century, when the English markets were closed to their products, and Ireland was excluded in a large measure from the com- mercial advantages given to the British posses- sions in other parts of the world. The holdings, or farms, originally too small to be occupied by farmers of capital and enterprise, were in many cases subdivided until they were reduced to the smallest patches, on the produce of which a family could barely subsist. One result of this poor policy was that the holders were obliged to raise as much as possible each year, for immedi- ate use, without regard to the ultimate effect of this mode of farming upon the land. Com- petent authorities say that this over-cropping has had a most deleterious effect upon the land. Yet the soil must have been restored to some extent, by rotation of crops or by the use of fertilizers, for the average produce of the soil per acre, in 1902, was found to have increased over the years 1850 and 1860. In some cases the holdings were enlarged during the last years of the 19th century. Statistics show that a change in the kind of crops has been gradually taking place; a decrease in the acreage under cereals and green crops and an increase in the area under meadow and clover. The following table shows the distribution of the cultivated area, given in acres, the first years of the pres– ent century: Clover and hay Pasture I,218,717 II,510,370 I,233,770 II,522,060 I,228,498 I I,575,592 Green YEAR Cereals crops Flax 1900. . . I,347, 189 I,098,377 47,451 I90I . . . I, 3 I 7,574 I,079,443 55,442 1902. . . I,306,398 I,070,449 49,746 The number of acres of farm land not under crops, but “resting,” was, in 1900, I2,589; in 1901, Io,886; and in 1902, 9,558. |Between 1851 and 1881 the farms of I to 15 acres decreased in number by 66,363. The total number of holdings in 1891 was 486,865, or I2,244 less than in 1881. Of these 18,243 (1,364 more than in 1881) did not exceed I acre, 55,584 (decrease of 6,197) were from I to 5 acres, I39,- 195 (8,628 decrease) from 5 to 15 acres, 120,472 (2,045 decrease) from I5 to 30 acres, and I39,401 (3,262 increase) above 30 acres. Each province, IRELAND shows a decrease in the total number of hold- ings, but in Munster the number is very small. Between 1841 and 1899 there was a total decrease in holdings “above I acre” of 25 per cent. The Land Act of 1870 greatly improved the conditions of tenure in Ireland. The chief aims of the act were to provide compensation to ten- ants for arbitrary eviction, and especially for improvements effected by them on their hold- ings in case of their being disturbed in their possession by the landlords, and to afford facil- ities to tenants for the purchase of their hold- ings. The act legalized what is called the Ulster tenant-right custom in all the districts in which it prevailed, and decreed the amount of com- pensation to be awarded in absence of such cus- tom. In 1881 it was supplemented by a more thorough and comprehensive measure. The ben- efits conferred on Irish tenants by this act were briefly summarized under the terms “fair rent,” “fixity of tenure,” and “free sale.” By the first of these every tenant who objected to his rent, or the rent the landlord wished to exact, was entitled to have a “fair rent” fixed for him by a court. The rent was to remain unaltered for I5 years, at the end of which period it might be readjusted, and raised or lowered. By the principle of “fixity of tenure” the law recog- nized that the tenant had a certain right in his holding in virtue of which he was not to be arbi- trarily removed from it without compensation, and which enabled him on leaving his farm to obtain the best price he could for yielding up his possession. The “free sale” of this right of ten- ancy was restricted only in so far as that it must be to one person only (except under agree- ment with the landlord) that the landlord might object on sufficient grounds to the person pur- chasing, and that he also had the right of pre- emption. At the expiration of the I5 years the landlord might resume possession of the holding On paying the tenant compensation for improve- ments effected by him, and also paying him the value of his tenant-right, both being determined by the court should the parties be unable to agree. A tenant who sold his tenant-right on quitting his holding was not to be entitled to compensation for disturbance, or if he had re- ceived compensation he was not entitled at that time to sell his tenancy. A tenant holding under the Ulster tenant-right might sell under that or under this system, but not partly under one and partly under the other. The scale of compen- sation for disturbance of tenancy was fixed as follows: Where the rent was $146.70 or under, a sum not exceeding 7 years’ rent; rent from $146.70 to $244.50, not exceeding 5 years' rent; from $244.50 to $489, not exceeding 4 years' rent; from $485 to $1,467, not exceeding 3 years' rent; from $1,467 to $2,445, not exceeding 2 years’ rent; above $2,445, not exceeding I year's rent. The act also empowered the land com- mission to advance loans to tenants not exceed- ing three fourths of the value of their holdings, to enable them to become proprietors, and such loans were repayable by an annual payment of 5 per cent for 35 years. Provision was also made for assisting emigration. A tenant whose holding, or the aggregate of whose holdings, were valued at not less than $733.50, was en- titled by writing to contract himself out of any of the provisions of this act, or of the act of 1870. Another act passed in 1887, extended the privileges conferred by the act of 1881, and a third act passed 1n 1896 went farther in the same direction. The Purchase of Land (Ire- land) Act of 1891 supplied the Land Commis- sion with further funds for advances to tenants. to enable them to purchase their holdings. But the Land Purchase Act of I4 Aug. 1903, whereby the tenants may buy the farms and become in- dependent of the landlords, is a great beginning toward a readjustment of agricultural conditions. The new law provides that the actual tenants or persons, or persons who have been tenants within 25 years, may purchase all the land they Occupy or desire at prices varying according to the condition of the property, to be paid for upon the installment plan, the seller accepting a mortgage for a term of years, the government guaranteeing the payment at the ruling rate of interest. The law is not compulsory; landlord and tenant may arrange matters. Stock-raising has increased in importance during late years. Statistics show that there are now in Ireland more cattle, in proportion to area, than in any other country of Europe. The following table will show the changes which have taken place since 1900: YEAR Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs I9 OO . . . . . . 49 I, I 56 4,608,550 4,386,876 I,268,521. I9 O I • , . . . . 491,430 4,673,323 4,378,750 I,219,135. I902 . . . . . . 509,284 4,785,204 4,215,740 I,372,592 England is the principal market for the cattle raised in Ireland. The breeds of horses vary with the locality; ponies are numerous in Con- maught; hunters in the north of Leinster; and draft horses in nearly all the counties on the eastern coast. Much good has been effected by co-operative Societies. The number of co-oper- ative organizations in 1901 were as follows: I06 agricultural Societies, 187 dairy and agri- cultural Societies with 81 auxiliaries, 29 poultry Societies, IO3 co-operative banks, 46 miscellane- ous Societies, and 2 federations. The member- ship of the whole was 51,000. Manufactures and Trade.— The linen manu- facture early took root in Ireland, and still con- tinues to be its most important staple; and in every article, except lace and cambric, competes successfully with all other countries. It has in- creased in a remarkable manner within the last 40 or 50 years, and Belfast, its centre, has now become the first city of Ireland in population as well as in manufacturing industry. The linen manufacture, indeed, is of importance; a large number of the factories are in Ulster. The cot– ton manufacture has had a very different history, the number employed in this industry having declined from 4,000 in 1868 to 800. The woolen manufacture appears at the outset to have out- stripped that of linen. It had at least made such progress as to alarm the woolen manufacturers of England, who, in a spirit of petty jealousy, petitioned the English parliament for its dis- couragement, and succeeded. The Irish were prohibited from sending their woolens abroad, and could not even send them into England with- out paying an oppressive duty. Had the manu- facture been suited to the country it might have surmounted all this absurdity and injustice; and, at all events, when these ceased to operate, would have revived. But the woolens of Ireland con- tinue to be of very secondary importance, and indeed the manufacture seems to have much decreased in recent years. The tweed has re- tained its popularity. The manufacture of Irish poplins (of woolen and silk, or woolen and flax INVENTIONS INVENTIons Date Inventor Nativity INVENTIONS Date Inventor Nativity Sir Humphr º * * * - Voltaic arc.......... 1898 || Bāvy”|England || Wood planing ma- William Wood- First steamboat to chine . . . . . . . . . .... 1828 worth Utd. States make a trip to sea, Tubular locomotive * * the “Phoenix *... . 1808 John Stevens Utd. States boiler . . . . . . . . . .... :] I828 |Séquin France Homeopathy intro- S. C. F. Hahne- Prism for polarized e duced . . . . . . . . . . . . 1810 11121111 Germany light • . . . . . . . . . . 1828 ||Nicol England Revolving cylinder Frederick Koe- Špinning ring frame 1828 John Thorp England printing-press ..... 18Io nig Germany he “Washington Breech-loading shot- printing press, lever gli Il . . . . . . . . e 1811 Thornton & Hall|Utd. States motion and knuckle Storage battery. . . . . . . I812 J. B. Ritter Germany joint for a screw, Dry Pile (prototype number of impres- of dry battery)....| 1812 |Zamboni Sions per hour, First practical steam 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829 |Samuel Rust Utd. States rotary p r in tin First steam locomo: press, paper printe Frederick Koe- #ye., in ...United on both sides. . . . . 1814 || nig Germany States, .. Stour. First locomotive in George Stephen- bridge. Lion "...... 1829 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . 1814 son England Double fluid galvanic First circular wood battery . . . . . . . . . . . 1829 |A. C. Becquerell France saw made in this Benjamin Cum- 'Magnesium ... . . . . . . . 1829 |Adam Bussey ||France Country . . . . . . . . . . 1814 | mings Utd. States || First portable steam Brathwaite Heliography . . . . . . . . 1814 Jos. N. Niepce|France fire engine : . . . . . . 1830 Ericsson England T)iscovery of Cyano- Magneto-electric in- e 8èrl - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1814 |Gay Lussac France duction . . . . . . . . . . 1831 ||Michael Faraday England Sir David Brew- Chloroform - : - - - - - - 1831 |G. J. Guthrie Scotland Kaleidoscope . . . . . . . 1814 || ster England First conception of Prof. S. F. B. Sir Humphry electric telegraph 1832 || Morse Utd. States Miner’s safety lamp. . 1815 Davy England First Magneto-electric Seidlitz powder. . . . . 1815 machines. . . . . . . . . . 1832 Saxton Utd. States Dry gas meter. . . . . . 1815 |S. Clegg England Rotary electric motor 1832 Wm. Sturgeon England Morphine, first organic Justus von Lie- alkaloid known. ...| 1816 Sertürner Germany Chloral-hydrate........: 1832 || big Germany Knitting machine. ...| 1816 |Brunel England Locomotive, O 1 d ... Draisine’ bicycle. . 1816 |Baron von Drais Germany Ironsides * built. . . . I832 |M. W. Baldwin Utd. States “Columbian * press, Link-motion for loco- elbowed pulling bar, motives . . . . . . . . . . 1832 Sir Henry James|England number of impres- Adoption of . steam sions per hour, 5ol 1817 |George Clymer Utd. States whistle for locomo- George Stephen- Stethoscope . . . . . . . . 1819 |Laënnec France tives . . . . . . . . . . . . 1833 son England Electro - magnetism Reciprocating saw- discovered . . . . . . . . 1819 |H. C. Oersted Germany tooth cutter within Lathe for turning ir- Thomas Blan- double guard fin- regular wood forms|| 1819 chard Utd. States gers for reapers...| 1833 |Obed Hussey Utd. States The theory of elec- tº º * -, 1- 33 Cyrus H. Mc- tro-dynamics first McCormick.” reaper | 1834 || Cormick Utd. States propóunded ......| 1820 Andre Ampère France Rotary electric motor 1834 M. H. Jacobi Russia P e l l et i e r & Cººlie acid discov- uinine . . . . . . . . . . . . 1820 | Caventon France CTCC1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834 Runge Germany lectroscope . . . . . . . 1820 |Bohenberg Horse shoe machine. . . 13: H. 5urden Utd. The tºion of the t Germany Constant electric bat- I835 tol. States A. electric current in- tery . . . . . . . . ; : • 1836 J. P. Daniell |England to mechanical mo- 8 Aºi gas dis- tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . I82I | Michael Farada COVérèCl . . . . . . . . . . 1836 ||Edmund Davy |England Galvanometer . . . . . . . 1822 |Schweigger y É; The revolver; a , de- 3 y g Multi-color printing...] I&22 ||P. Force Utd. States vice “for combin: Calculating machine.. 1822 |Charles Babbage|England ing a number of Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . 1823 James Berzelius Switzerl’d long barrels so as Discovery of thermo- to rotate upon a electricity. . . . . . . . . 1823 |Prof. Seebeck England spindle by the act Liquefaction and so- of cºcking the ham- lidification of gas...| 1823 Michael Faraday England Iſleſ. . . . . . . .. . . . . . 1836 |Samuel Colt Utd. States Water gas, produc- The screw applied to § 1336|Tohn Eri tion of . . . . . . . . . . . 1823 |Ibbetson England steam navigation. . #: John Ericsson |Utd. States Portland cement... ...| 1825 |Joseph Aspdin England The galvanizing of First passenger rail- II Orl . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837 |Henry Craufurd England way, opened be- - Cooke & Wheat- tween Stockton and Indicator-telegraph, ... 1837 || stone England Darlington, Eng- Photographic carbon land . . . . . . . . . . . . 1825 printing . . . . . . . . . . 1838 Mungo Ponton France Electrical Spur Babbitt, metal . . . . . . . 1839 Isaac Babbit Utd. States B wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . ; º d England Vulcanization of rub- Charles Good- romine . . . . . . . . . . . . I&2 . E33.13. I France er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I8 First railroad in Th: #: boat nº. 39 year Utd. States United States, near rically propelled. . 1839 Jacobi Germany Quinc aSS . . . . . 1826 Daguerreotype • * * * * * I8 Louis D Tre | {{ Tië"º of ºvää. º: *% aguerre | France circuits formulated 1827 George...S. Ohm Germany a direct photograph- Friction matches. . . . . 1827 John Walker Utd. States || ic positive in the The reduction of Friedrich Woh- camera, . by means aluminium . . . . . . . 1827 ler Germany of . highly polished Law of electrical re- s i 1 v e r surfaced sistance . . . . . . . . . . 1827 George S. Ohm Germany plate exposed ... to the vapors of iodine Improved rotary and subsequent de- printing-press Lon- velopment with don Times, 5, ooo mercury vapor. . im pressions per Cowper & Ap- Making photo-prints hour . . . . . . . . .....] I827 | plegarth England from paper nega- * tº Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839 ||Fox Talbot England Hot air blast for iron º furnaces . . . . . . . . . I828 J. B. Neilson |Scotland from negatives). INVENTIONS INVENTIONS Date Inventor Nativity INVENTIONS Date Inventor Nativity Photographic p o r- tº traits. (Daguerreo- Profs. Draper & Cocaine . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855 |Gaedeke Germany type Process) . . . . . 1839 || Morse Utd. States || Process of making Pneumatic Caissons... 1841 ||M. Triger France steel, . blowing air g Pianoforte automati- through molten pig- Sir Henry Bes- cally played. . . . . . . 1842 |M. Seytre France 1TOIl . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855 semer º England Steam hammer. . . . . . 1842 James Nasmyth Scotland Dr. J. M. Tau- Typewriting machine 1843 Charles Thurber Utd. States || Dryplate photography 1855 |. penot, .. Rrof. S. F. B. icycle . . . . . . . . . . . . I855 | Ernst Michaux |France Tirst telegram sent. . 1844 || Morse Utd. States || Sleeping car. . . . . . . . . 1856 Woodruff Utd. States: The use of nitrous $ Aniline dyes . . . . . . . 1856 |Perkins England oxide gas as an an- Dr. H or a c e Printing machine for aesthetic . . . . . . . . . . 1844 | Wells Utd. States the Blind (contains - elements of the The electric arc light present typewriting (gas retort carbon machine . . . . . . . . . . I856 |Alfred E. Beach Utd. States, in a vacuum). . . . . 1844 [Léon Foucault |France Regenerative furnace 1856 Wm. Siemens |England Automatic adjustment Refining engine in of electric arc light paper pulp making 1856 T. Kingsland Utd. States. carbons ... . . . . . . : ... 1845 Thomas Wright|England Coal-oil first sold in Messrs. Stout & Double cylinder print- ... the United States...| 1857 | Hand Utd. States, 1119-DrèSS . . . . . . . . . 1845 R. Hoe & Co. Utd. States || First sea going iron- & g R. W. Thomp- clad war vessel, the Pneumatic tire. . . . . . I845 son England “Gloire " . . . . . . . . 1857 France Sewing machine . . . . 1846 Elias. Howe tjå. States || Ground wood pulp ... 1858 |Henry Voelter |Germany Şuez canal started. ... 1846 |De Lesseps France Inclined elevator and Ether as an anaesthet- platform in the 1G. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 1846 |Dr. Morton Utd. reaper . . . . . . . . . . . 1858 |J. S. Marsh Utd. States. Artificial limbs. . . . . . ; States Qable, car. . . . . . . . . # E. A. Gardner |Utd. States. Gun cotton. . . . . . . . . . 1846 |Schönbein Germany Breech loading ord- First pianoförte key, nance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1858 Wright & Gould Utd. States, board player. . . . . . 1846 |Debain France Feed injector for Ghloroform in sur- S Boilers . . . . . . . . . . 1858 |Giffard France £ery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I847 |Dr. Simpson Scotl torage or secondary Nitro-glycerine --º #% Sobrero p tland battery . . . . . . . . . . 1860 Gaston Planté |France Time-lock. . . . . . . . . . . I847 |Savage Utd. States || Singing, telephone ...| 1860 |Philip Reis Germany Hoe’s lightning press Ammonia absorption capable of printing ice machine. . . . . . . I860 |F. P. E. Carré|France º impressions Improved stereotyping 861 |Charl C DeT Il Old T . . . . . . . . . . 1847 |Richard M. Hoeſ Utd. DTOCéSS . . . . . . . . . . IöOI 13.1 leS raske | Utd. States; Match-making IIla- 47 td. States Shoe sewing machine 1861 |George McKay | Utd. States. chinery . . . . . . . . . . 1848 A. L. Dennison|Utd. States || Driven well, a tube Breech gun-lock, in- with a pointed per- - terrupted thread. . . 1849 Chambers Utd. States forated end driven Col. N. W. Magazine gun. . . . . . . 1849 Walter Hunt Utd. States into the ground. . . 1861 Green . Utd. States, Steam pressure gauge 1849 |Bourdon France Passenger elevator. . . . I861 |E. G. Otis Utd. States. L Sir David Brew- Bºº yie fence in- 86 Utd. S enticular stereoscope. I& Ster Englan troduced . . . . . . . . . IöOI e td. States, Latch needle }. 49 gland Calcium carbide pro- Frederich Woeh- knitting machine. . 1849 |J. T. Hibbert |Utd. States ||, duçed . . . . . . . . . . . . I862 | 1er Germany ... Corliss’ Engine. . . 1836 G. H. Corliss Utd. States || Reyolving turret for Printing-press, curved floating battery. . . . 1862 |Theodore Timby Utd. States. plates secured to a First iron-clad steam rotating cylinder... 1849 |Jacob Worms France battery, “Monitor” 1862 John Ericsson | Utd. States. Mercerized cotton. . . 1856 John Mercer England Dr. J. Gat- Collodion process in Gatling gun . . . . . . . . 1862 ling Utd. States. photography ........ 1850 Scott Archer England Smokeless gunpow- American machine- der . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1862 J. F. E. Schultze|Prussia made watches. . . . . 1850 Utd. States || Pheumatic pianoforte Electric locomotive . . 1851 |Dr. Page Utd. States player (regarded Self-raker for har- as first to strike vesters . . . . . . .. . . . . 1851 W. H. Seymour|Utd. States keys by pneumatic Breech loading rifle... 1851 |Maynard Utd. States jet; * * * * * * e s is 1863 |M. Fourneaux |France Icemaking machine...; 1851 |J. Gorrie Utd. States || Explosive gelatine...| 1864 A. Nobel France The Rhumkorff coil 1851 |Rhumkorff Germany Rubber dental plate. 1864 |J. A. Cummings|Utd. States: g Ch a n n . n g & Automatic grain bind- Fire-alarm, telegraph 1852 Farmer Utd. States ing device. . . . . . . . . 1864 |Jacob Behel Utd. States. Reticulated screen for Process of making half: tone photo- fine steel . . . . . . . . . 1865 |Martin Utd. States graphic printing : . 1852 |Fox Talbot England Sir Joseph Lis- Soda process of mak: Antiseptic surgery. . . 1865 | ter England ing pulp from wood 1853 Watt & Burgess|Utd. States || Web-feeding printing º of . º: Michael Farad Aët: tic shell eièct I865 William Bullock Utd. States. electric induction. . . Ig 1CI1362 araday|England utomatic shell eject- Laws of electro- 53 y Eng or for revolver. . . . 1865 W. C. Dodge Utd. States. statics . . . . . . . . . . . 1853 |Michael Faraday |England The , Atlantic cable g Electrolysis . . . . . . . . 1853 |Michael Faraday England id . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1866 |Cyrus W. Field|Utd. States. Duplex telegraph. ... 1853 Gintl Austria Open-hearth steel pro- & Photographic rol I cº ised air roc k 1866 Siemens-Martin |England IſlS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854 Melhuish England ompressed air roc gº Diamond rock drill. . . #: Herman § States T111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1866 |Q. Burleigh Utd. States. Four motion . for }. Ślectric ma 1866 |Whitehead Utd. States. sewing machines. . 1854 A. B. Wilson Utd. States ynamo electric ma- Magazine firearm. . . 1854 Smith & Wesson|Utd. States chine . . . . . . . . . . . . I866 ||Wilde England Fat decomposed by Sulphite process for water or steam at making paper pulp sº high temperature, from wood. . . . . . . . 1867 Tilghman Utd. States since largely used f tº Disappearing gun car- in soap making....] 1854 |R. A. Tilghman Utd. States .riage . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868 |Moncrief England Safety matches. . . . . . 1855 Lundstrom Sweden First practical type- Iron-clad floating bat- writing machine... 1868 C. L. Sholes Utd. States, teries first used in Dynamite : . . . . . . . . . 1868 |A. Nobel France Oleomargarine . . . . . . 1868 |H. Mege France Crimean war . . . . . 1855 * - - - - -r - --w ºr ºr ~ * ~ * — - INVENTIONS - INVENTIONS Date Inventor Nativity INVENTIONs Date Inventor Nativity Water heater for Rotary disk cultiva- Steam fire engine. . 1868 || W. A. Brickell | Utd. States tor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1878 |Mallon Utd. States Sulky plow. . . . . . . . . 1868 B. Slusser . Utd. States || Decided advance in George Westing- the “Expression ” Railway air brake....] 1869 ; house Utd. States of self-playing Tunnel shield (oper- A pianofortes. . . . . . . . 1878 Gally Utd. States ated by hydraulic utomatic r a in power) y. º s tº a º a º 1869 |Alfred E. Beach Utd. States binder . ... 8 e e º e º 'º 1879 J. F. Appleby Utd. States A curved spring tooth - Kathode rays discov- - harrow . . . . . . . . . . 1869 |David L. Garver Utd. States ered . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1879 |Sir Wm. Crookes England Dynamo-electric ma- Steam plow . . . . . . . . . 1876 W. Foy Utd. States. chine . . . . . . . . . . . . 1870 (Gramme France Magazine rifle . . . . . . 1879 |Lee Utd. States & Isaac ** Blake ’’ telephone ; Celluloid . . . . . . . . . . . 1870 | Hyatt Utd. States transmitter . . . . . . . 1880 | Blake Utd. States Rebounding gun-lock 1870 |L. Hailer Utd. States || Hammerless gun. . . . . 1880 |Greener Utd. States The Goodyear welt Storage battery or ac- C a m i 1 I e A. shoe - sewing Iſla - cumulator . . . . . . . . 1880 | Faure France chine . . . . . . . . . . . . 1871 ||Goodyear Utd. States || Typhoid bacillus iso- Photographic gelatino lated . . . . . . . . . . . . 1880 | Eberth & Koch Germany bromide emulsion Prieumonia bacillus is- (Basis of present olated . . . . . . . . . . . 1880 Sternberg Utd. States rapid photography). 1871 |R. L. Maddox England Button hole machinel 1881 Reece Utd. States. Continuous We b Improvement in “Ex- printing-press . . . . . 1871 |Hoe & Tucker Utd. States pression ” of self- Grain binder . . . . . . . 1871 |S. D. Locke Utd. States playing pianofortes | 1882 |Schmaele Utd. States Compressed air rock H and photographic - drill . . . . . . . . . : ... 1871 S. Ingersoll Utd. States camera for plates. . 1881 Wm. Schmid Utd. States. Positive m O ti O n p Tuberculosis bacillus weaving loom ... ... 1872 J. Lyall Utd. States isolated . . . . . . . . . . 1882 |Robert Koch Germany Theory that light is Hydrophobia bacillus an electric phenom- isolated . . . . . . . . . . 1882 Louis Pasteur France ) €11011 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1872 Clerk Maxwell, England Cholera bacillus iso- º George West- lated . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1884 |Robert Koch Germany Automatic air brake 1872 inghouse Utd. States || Diphtheria bacillus Automatic car coup- isolated . . . . . . . . . . 1884 |Loeffler Germany er - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1873 (E. H. Janney | Utd. States Lockjaw bacillus iso- T he photographic * e º & lated . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1884 ||Nicolaier France platinotype process 1873 Willis England Antipyrene . . . . . . . . . 1884 ||Kuno Utd. States Prints by this Othmar Mergen- process are perma- Linotype machine . . . . I884 || thaler Utd. States' nent. The rear-driven chain George W. Mar- Quadruplex t e i e- - safety bicycle. . . . . 1884 || ble Utd. States grapf1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1873 |T. A. Edison Utd. States || Chrome tanning of Twine binder for leather . . . . . . . . . . 1884 Schultz Utd. States harvesters . . . . . . . . 1873 |M. L. Gorham | Utd. States || Process of reducing Gelatino bro m i de aluminium . . . . . . . 1885 Cowles England photographic emul- Gas burner . . . . . . . . . 1885 Carl Welsbach Germany sion. (Sensitiveness Hydraulic dredge . . . 1885 |Bowers Utd. States to light greatly in- First electric railway creased by the ap- in United States, plication of heat).| 1873 Charles Bennett England Hampden and Bal- Self-binding reaper. . 1873 |Locke & Wood Utd. States timore, Md. . . . . . . . 1885 G 1 i d de n. Contact device for Barbed wire machine 1874 | Vaughan Utd. States overhead electric C. J. Van De- Siphon recorder for trolley . . . . . . . . . . . 1885 poele Utd. States' submarine t e l e- Sir W i 1 1 i a m Graphophone . . . . . . . 1886 (Bell & Tainter Utd. States graphs . . . . . .. . . . . . 1874 | Thompson. England Electric welding . . . . 1886 Elihu Thompson Utd. States Store cash carrier... 1875 |D. Brown Utd. States || Combined harvester Illuminating w a t e r and thresher . . . . . 1886 |Matteson Utd. States gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1875 T. S. C. Lowe Utd. States || Band wood saw. . . . . 1887 |D. C. Prescott Utd. States Roller flour mills. ... 1875 |F. Wegmann Utd. States || Cyanide process of Middlings purifier for obtaining gold and M c Art hur & flour . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1875 Geo. T. Smith Utd. States silver . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887 | Forrest Utd. States Ice making machine 1875 |R. P. Pictet Switzerl’d System of polyphase Speaking telephone. . 1876 |Graham Bell Utd. States electric currents 1887 ||Nicola Tesla Utd. States º Paul Jabloch- e I n.c. a n de scent gas Carl A. Von Electric candle . . . . . 1876 koff Russia light ... . . . . . . . t ... 1887 | Welsbach Austria (The first step The formation of ---> • * * towards the divi- a cone-shaped in- sign of the elec- terwoven mantle of tric current for thread coated with lighting.) a refractory rare Continuous machine earth and rendering for making tobacco the same incandes- cigarettes . . . . . . . . 1876 Russell Utd. States || cent by the heat Steam feed SaW rays of a Bunsen mills . . . . . . . . . . . . 1876 |D. C. Prescott Utd. States || gas burner regard- The first Portland less of how the gas §ngnº plant in lav. P is produced s tº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1876 Coplay, Pa. -> Phonograph . . . . . . . . 1877 T. A. Edison § States Pº. ºnnesſing 1888 Harvey Utd. States Gas engine. . . . . . . . . . 1877 N. A. Qtto Utd. States || “. Kodak ,P snap-shot E a st m a n & • Carbon microphone... 1877 |T. A. Edison Utd. States C2 Iſleſ a 1888 Walker Utd. States Telephone transmitter Construct d 3 º of variable resist- Se ºnuous 3.11Cé . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877 Emil Berliner Utd. States isitized ribbon Carbon filament for film Electric , lamp. . . . . 1878 (T. A. Edison Utd. States || Process of making H. DeChardon- (Beginning of artificial silk I888 net railCe the incandescent Hertzian waves or }.}" electric electric wave radia. ight.) tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 |Heinrich Hertz Germany INVENTORY – INVERSION –w INVENTIONs Date Inventor Nativity Inventions Date Inventor Nativity First rotary cement The first oil burning kilns in U. S. . . . . 1889 * Coplay, Pa steamship built in Nickel steel. . . . . . . . . 1889 |Schneider Utd. States the United States, Process of making “Nevada '' . . . . . . . I902 aluminium . . . . . . . 1889 |Chas. M. Hall ||Utd. States || English Pacific cable, Electric plow . . . . . . . 1896 W. Stephens Utd. States Canada-Australia ... 1902 Improved linotype Othmar Mergen- American Pacific machine . . . . . . . . . 1890 thaler Utd. States cable . . . . . . . . . . • - || IQ03 Utd. States Biºlº º: 890 W1 neumatic tireS I e ‘º e Kºjº maga- * It is interesting to note that between the ... à. rifle; . . . . . . . . . 1890 |Krag-Jorgensen | Utd. States years 1872 and 1900 there were on what may be Coherer” for re. termed the honor roll of inventors 39 in- ceiving electric s * te Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . 1891 ||Edouard Branly|England ventors each of whom had received over Ioo Rotary steam turbine 1891 |C. A. Parsons |England patents. A few of the most important were: 'Cement lined paper } & pulp digester . . . . . I891 |G. F. Russell Utd. States Thomas A. Edison e tº e º ºs e º 'º e e º 'º e e s ∈ e s 742 Round bale cotton Francis H. Richards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 DTCSS • - - - - - - - - - - - 1891 Brown & Utd. States Elihu Thompson . . . . . . . . . . . ... tº e º 'º e º e º & º is 444 Microphone . . . . . . . . 1891 Emile Berliner |Utd. States Charles E. Scribner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Power º applica. 1861 |Northrup Utd. States #.º.º.º. e e s e º e º e º ºs e e s = e º e s is a s is e : Cºlerº rºjº Rudolph M. Hunter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 ehyde . . . . . . . . . . . 1892 |J. J. A. Trillat France Charles J. Van Depoele (deceased) . . . . . . . . 245 Shoe-last iathe g for George Westinghouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 different lengths ... 1893 |TKimball Utd. States Rudolph Eickemeyer (deceased). . . . . . . . . . I7 I Kinetoscope . . . . . . . . 1893 |T. A. Edison Utd. States Hiram S. Maxim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Process for making Philip Diehl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I37 carborundum . . . . . I893 |E. G. Acheson | Utd. States Hosea W. Libbey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Calcium carbide pro- g Louis K. Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II.4 duced in electric Thos. L. Will- Talbot C. Pººr tº s e º e g º e º ºs & tº e º s tº e s tº * * * * * IO9 furnace . . . . . . . . . . 1893 Lºï Rayleigh Utd. States James H. Northrup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I O2 Argon, a chemical º: Sir ayº In the preparation of the foregoing statis- element . . . . . . . . . . I894 || Ramsay England tics, credit is given to L. H. Campbell, of the Process for liquefy- e United States Patent Office, for valuable assist- Eß air iocomo tive 1895 Carl Linde Germany a11Ce FREDERICK C. BEACH, Ph.B º, 162Ctrl C Ocomotive, & : ~: 3. :-. B. & O. Belt Tun- Editor (The Scientific American.” nel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1895 Utd. States f ſº 1i hedule of Prof. W. C. In’ventory, a written list or sche X-Rays. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1895 || Roentgen ...... [Germany oods, chattels and other personal property of Acetylene gas from Thomas L. Will- goo. di idual tat hether for use in legal S calcium ºrbi; les: 1895 son Utd. States tºo: i. * i. *.m. purposes The ystem O W11 eleSS tº pr CeeCl1 y & g g : iii”; I896 |G. Marconi Italy term is also employed to designate lists of as- Fººtion of “ad. sets prepared in cases of insolvency and bank- activity, i. e., em- ruptcy, and lists of property, made out by anation o: º: guardians of estates or infants. These º 1ng rays from lum- º e & i inescent ::ić 1896 |Henri Becquerel France ...al, flºº...". º: Use of ultra-viole gº & © rays in treating dis- 896 ||Niels R. Finsen|D k officer of the court files his inventory he be- €aSČS. . . . . . . . . . * * * I89 g en mar Nernst electric light...] I897 Walter Nernst rmany COII leS pººl. agº. º, property Method of ren- or goods so listed. See also EXECUTOR. ; *...*. Inver'sion, a change of order whereby the conducting electric- first becomes last and the last first. (I) In ity and thence be- rhetoric, a reversal of the natural order of words i.e...”. for the sake of euphony, emphasis, or the like; º Va C1111111. also the turning of one's own argument against Mad a me S. him by an opponent in discussion. (2) In º diº 1898 Pºcooper France chemistry, a change in molecular structure tric fight ... . . . . . . . " 1900 | Hewitt Utd. states which is usually induced by ſº OT º An artificial light heating with a dilute, acid, as in the case o $º. starch, sugar, etc. .Thus starch and dextrine *** .. wº are changed into glucose, cane-sugar into in- trum obtained by vert sugar, and maltose into glucose. (3) In passing an electric geology, the overturning or folding over of #º strata by igneous agency, so that the order of #.”. mercury their succession seems reversed. (4) In math- vapor, the latter matics, the operation of changing the order acting as a conduc- of the terms, so that the antecedent shall take #riºtă. the place of the consequent and the reverse, power for photo- in both couplets. Thus, from the proportion graphic purposes. : b : ; c : d, we have, by inversion, b : a M. Santos-Du- ; : d ; c. (5) In music, the transposition of Air-ship . . . . . . . . . . . . I90I Dº. Harves France certain phrases having a common root. (a). The Aºmº nºw "tºº"ua sale ºf , º, º ºr e rst passenger & y steam turbine ship, Denny & Broth- many inversions can be made as there are actual “Edward VII.” . . . . 1901 ers England , 11otes in the chord, not counting the root, the INVERTASE — INVOICE harmony in such inversions remaining the same, though the order of component parts is changed; (b) alteration of intervals by making that which was the upper note the lower, and the reverse, the inversion of an interval within the octave being readily found in the difference be- tween the figure 9 and the interval known; (c) the alteration of a subject produced by invert- ing the intervals of which it consists. In’vertase, or In’vertin, an enzyme occur- ring in many fungi, notably in certain yeasts (for example, the saccharomyces), and also in the seed-plants. It transforms cane-Sugar into a mixture of dextrose and levulose; this mixture being called “invert-sugar” because it turns the plane of polarized light to the left, while the cane-sugar from which it is obtained turns it to the right. According to some writ- ers, a yeast cannot invert cane-sugar except by secreting invertase; but Monilia candida ef- fects the inversion, and yet produces no inver- tase. In this case the action is probably due to some other enzyme, hitherto unidentified. In- vertase probably plays a very important part in vegetable chemistry. Like other enzymes, it can apparently perform an unlimited amount of chemical work, without sensible diminution of its own substance. (See FERMENTATION.) knvertase is most active at a temperature of from 120° to 140° F., and in a slightly acid medium. It has been isolated in the form of a powder. Inver’tebrates, a collective term for the lower divisions or phyla of the animal series, which agree in not having a vertebral column or back-bone, used in contradistinction to the highest group of the animal kingdom, to which the name Vertebrata or vertebrate animals is given. In the system of Cuvier the Inverte- brata were divided into the Radiata, Articulata, and Mollusca. Further study revealed that these names did not distinguish natural groups; and the term Invertebrata has no longer any definite significance in classification (q.v.). Inves’ titure, in the feudal law, was the open delivery of a feud by a lord to his vassal, thus, by external proof, affording evidence of property. To use the words of Blackstone, “Investitures, in their original rise, were prob- ably intended to demonstrate, in conquered countries, the actual possession of the lord, and that he did not grant a bare litigious right, but a peaceable and firm possession. At a time when writing was seldom practised, a mere oral gift, at a distance from the spot that was given, was not likely to be long or accurately retained in the memory of by-standers, who were very little interested in the grant.” For this reason in- vestiture was performed by the presentation of some symbol to the person invested, as a branch of a tree, etc. In the primitive church, after the election of a bishop, and his consecration, the early Christian emperors claimed a right of confirmation. Charlemagne is said to have in- troduced this practice, and to have invested the newly consecrated bishop by placing a ring and crozier in his hands. Gratian, indeed (Dis- tinct. 63, cap. Adrianus), directly affirms that Pope Adrian positively conceded to the emperor the power of electing, even to the papacy, in 774; but neither Eginhard nor any other con- temporary writer mentions this fact. The custom, however, existed, nor does it - —-4 appear to have been objected to or opposed during the lapse of two centuries from his reign. The disorderly state of Italy, which suc- ceeded the death of Charlemagne, frequently in- terrupted the exercise of this right by the Carlovingians; but even so late as IO47, when the empire had passed to another line, Henry III. received an explicit admission of his pre- rogative, and repeatedly used it. The investi- ture in the lesser sees followed as a matter of course. Alexander II. issued a decree against lay investiture in general, which was revived by Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), who, having suc- ceeded in annulling the prerogative of the em- perors to nominate or confirm popes, sought to disjoin entirely the ecclesiastical from the civil rule. It was not, however, until the papacy of Calixtus II., in II22, that the question was ter- minated, as it appears, materially to the ad- vantage of the holy see. In France, even under the papacy of Hildebrand, the right of investi- ture does not appear to have been made a subject of open quarrel. In spite of the protests of the holy see, the kings exercised the power, but at length relinquished the presentation of the ring and crozier, and contented themselves with conferring investiture by a written instru– ment, or orally, upon which they were left in peaceable possession of the power. But in Eng- land Paschal II. was engaged in a contest little less fierce than that which he maintained with the emperor. Anselm, the primate, refused to , do homage to Henry I. for his see. The king seems to have asserted an unqualified right of vestiture, which the pope, who was appealed to, as unqualifiedly denied. After a protracted struggle, and continued threats of excommuni- cation, the controversy ended in England, as it did afterward in Germany, by compromise. Paschal offered to concede the objections against homage provided Henry would forego the ceremony of investiture. To this he agreed (IIo7). Invin'cibles, an Irish secret society of 1882, an off-shoot of the Fenians. One of the objects of the Invincibles was to “remove” or assassinate government officers or others who might incur the displeasures of the association or its leaders. On 6 May 1882 the society suc- ceeded in “removing” Lord Frederick Caven- dish, who had just arrived from England as secretary for Ireland, and Thomas A. Burke, the under-secretary, in the Phoenix Park at Dub- lin. The plot was directed against the latter gentleman, and the former, interfering to pro- tect his friend, shared his fate. On 20 Feb. I883 20 persons charged with complicity in the Phoenix Park murders were put on trial; on I4 July, Joseph Brady, who had been convicted of actual perpetration of the murder of Mr. Burke, was executed, as were others subse- quently. The leading witness, who revealed all the secrets of his fellow conspirators, was James Carey of Dublin. He was shot dead near Natal, on 29 July, by an Irishman, O’Donnell, who was subsequently tried, and executed for his crime. Invocation of Saints. See SAINTs. In’voice, a list or bill of goods; a detailed statement of merchandise in stock, or to be shipped. Very frequently an invoice accom- panies a shipment of goods along with the bill of lading from the consignor to the consignee. IO – IODINE AND IODIDES IN MEDICINE An invoice is a memorandum and is not a docu- ment of title nor a contract of sale, and has no value in law other than memoranda. Io, i'5, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Inachus; according to others of Iasus or Peiren. Zeus (Jupiter) fell in love with her. Hera (Juno) perceived the infidelity of her husband, an1 resolved to be revenged on both. Zeus, to protect Io from the jealousy, of Hera, changed her into a beautiful white heifer. Hera was not deceived, and set a gad-fly to torment her, and persecuted her without a moment's rest through the world. The wanderings of Io in this con- dition were a favorite subject with the poets of ancient Greece. Also, in astronomy (I) the first satellite of Jupiter, discovered by Galileo in I6IO. (2) The name of the 85th asteroid, dis- covered by Peters at Clinton, N. Y., 19 Sept. 1865. Iodine, i'6-din or -din, a non-metallic ele- ment, analogous in its general properties to chlorine and bromine. It was discovered by Courtois in 1811, in the mother-liquor of kelp that had been used for the production of Sodium carbonate; occurring there in combination with sodium and magnesium. It is still obtained from the ashes of certain seaweeds, but the principal supply is now obtained from “caliche,” a crude nitrate of sodium that occurs in immense quan- ...tities in northern Chile. In the preparation of the commercially pure nitrate of Soda from cal- iche, the mother liquors, after the removal of the nitrate by crystallization, are found to con- tain large quantities of iodine, chiefly in the form of iodate of sodium, NaIOa; and it is from this substance that the iodine of commerce is now chiefly prepared. The richest caliche contains about 3.5 pounds of iodine per ton. In its ordinary form, iodine is a solid sub- stance, melting at 237° F., and boiling at about 38oº F. In a vacuum, iodine sublimes without melting. Solid iodine is soft, and dark gray in color, with a metallic lustre. The vapor is vio- let in color, from which circumstance the ele- ment takes its name (Greek, “like a violet”). Chemically, iodine has the symbol I, and an atomic weight of 126.85 for O = I6, or I25.9 for H = I. Solid iodine has a specific gravity of about 4.95 at ordinary temperatures, and a specific heat of about O.05412. Its volume in- creases, on account of thermal expansion, by about o.oOo. 3 of its own value for a rise of temperature of I* F. At temperatures not far above its boiling point, the vapor of iodine lias a specific heat (at constant pressure) of O.03369; and in this same region of temperature the ratio of its specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume is about I.294. Iodine shows an important change in its vapor density at high temperatures. Thus, Thelow about 1,200° F. the vapor has a density about I26 times as great as that of hydrogen under the same conditions of temperature and pressure; but as the temperature rises the den- sity of the vapor, relatively to hydrogen, falls off, until it is only about 68 at 2,700° F. It is believed that this change in density indicates that the molecules of iodine vapor split in two as the temperature rises; a molecule, just above the boiling point, containing two atoms, while at the higher temperature the molecules are 1monatomic. Iodine is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, carbon disulphid, chloroform, and gly. cerin. It is only slightly soluble in pure water, but dissolves readily in aqueous solutions of the iodides. It is also soluble in benzine, acetic acid, and numerous other organic fluids. Iodine is a non-conductor of electricity. With hydrogen, iodine forms the important compound HI, known as hydriodic acid. (See HYDRIODIC ACID.) With the metals it forms binary compounds called “iodides,” which may also be regarded as salts of hydriodic acid. Of these the most important is potassium iodide, KI, which is largely used in medicine. It is prepared by dissolving iodine in a solution of caustic potash, evaporating to dryness, and ig- niting. This salt is very soluble, and crystal- lizes in cubes. The iodides of ammonium, so- dium, Strontium, and zinc are also used to a more limited extent. Iodoform, a yellow crys- talline powder with a peculiar characteristic odor when warmed, is also much used as a dressing in surgery. It has the formula CHIa, and is analogous in its chemical structure and deportment to chloroform. Iodoform may be prepared by dissolving iodine in an alcoholic Solution of caustic potash, the iodoform that is produced separating out as a precipitate. It is also prepared in Germany, to a certain extent, by the electrolysis of a similar solution. (See Löb, ‘Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Or- ganic Compounds.”) Iodine and its compounds are used to Some extent in photography, and to a larger extent in synthetic chemistry, for the preparation of the coal-tar colors (q.v.), and other organic substances. Iodine forms two important oxy-acids, known respectively as iodic acid, HIOs, and periodic acid, HIO, + 2H2O. These are anal- Ogous, in their chemical deportment, to chloric and perchloric acids. Free iodine, combines. with starch to form a remarkable deep blue compound, whose pro- duction is a well-known test for the presence, in a given substance, of either starch or free iodine. To detect the presence of iodine in a Solution, a few drops of thin, clear starch paste are added to the solution to be tested (which should be cold), and hydrochloric acid is added until the reaction is acid. A couple of drops of a concentrated solution of potassium nitrite are then added, when the dark blue color of iodide of starch will instantly be produced, if iodine is present. This test may readily be mod- ified so as to serve for the detection of starch. The reaction is not given by dextrin, nor by other isomers of starch. I’odine and Iodides in Medicine. Iodine and the iodides have been used in med- icine since the Chinese are supposed to have introduced them, 2000 B.C. or earlier. The exact method of action of the iodides is not clear, but it would seem that iodine, being a normal constituent of the human body, is a very essential element in normal metabolism. It is found in comparatively large quantities in the thyroid gland, which is known to exercise a very important action in the general body-metab- olism, and it is probably by means of the stim- ulation of the general metabolism of the body that the iodides manifest their beneficial action. The iodides are freely absorbed from watery solutions by mucous membranes throughout the body, particularly in the stomach and intes- IOLA — IONIAN ISLANDS tine. They are taken up into the blood, pass through the tissues, stimulating the lymph-flow, and are excreted in the urine in the form of Salts. Iodine itself possesses a local irritant action. It is soon converted into the iodides when taken internally, and causes similar internal changes. When the iodides are taken in large doses, or even in small doses for a long time, a form of chronic poisoning known as iodism results. In this the chief symptoms, found in the air- passages, consist of a catarrh, especially of the nose, with profuse watery secretion, sneezing, and sometimes bronchitis. There is usually swelling and irritation of the throat and tonsils, and Salivation. Nausea and gastric discomforts are common, and skin-eruptions are frequent. There is usually loss of weight, and if the iodide has been taken for a very long period a condition of cachexia, characterized by a great loss of flesh, weakness, depression, and restless- ness, may result. The chief use of the iodides in medicine is in the treatment of syphilis, on which it has a specific effect. It is also very useful in the various joint-pains of a chronic character, usually known as chronic rheuma- tism. Iodine is valuable in the treatment of those diseases known to result from thyroid in- sufficiency, notably in myxoedema (q.v.), and in cretinism, its allied form in children. For stimulation of the respiratory and nasal pas- sages, as in chronic bronchitis, asthma, and dry nasal catarrh, the iodides are of great value. Io'la, i-Ö'la, Kan.— The city of Iola, Allen County, Kan., is located on the left bank of the Neosho River, about 40 miles west of the Mis- souri line, and about 100 miles south of Kansas City. The town is reached by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railroads. History.— It was laid out by the Iola Town Company in 1859. A post-office was located there the same year and a small village soon grew up. During the war the town made but little progress. In 1865 it became the county- Seat of the county, and grew steadily, although very slowly until 1895, when its population was I,565. In 1896 natural gas was discovered on the town site, and as soon as it was shown that a large gas field existed in and near the town it began to grow rapidly, the population in 1904 exceeding II,000. This rapid growth followed the location in and near Iola of nine large zinc smelters, a number of brick factories, two Port- land cement plants and other manufacturing enterprises attracted to the place by the cheap fuel which the large field of natural gas supplied. Churches, etc.— The leading church denomi- nations are the Presbyterian, Methodist Epis- copal, Christian, Baptist, Episcopal, Reformed, and Catholic. The city is well supplied with schools, its high school being one of the best in the State. There are two daily papers, the ‘Record? and the ‘Register.” Business, Population, etc.— The city is sur- rounded by a well-settled and prosperous agri- cultural community, but its chief business is derived from the manufacturing industries al- ready named. The population is almost wholly American, the exceptions being a few Poles and Swedes employed in the manufacturing plants. An electric road connects Iola with a number of suburban towns, aggregating a population of about (1904) 5,000. CHARLES F. SCOTT. Io'na, or Icolmkill, an island on the west coast of Scotland, one of the Inner Hebrides, in the county of Argyle. Iona is about 3 miles long by 1% miles broad; area, 2,000 acres, of which 600 acres are under cultivation, the re- mainder being hill pasture, morass, and rock. The island derives its interest and celebrity wholly from its history and its ancient ruins, and especially from its connection with Saint Columba, who took up his residence here after the middle of the 6th century (565). The ex- isting ruins are all, however, of a much more recent date. Forty-eight kings of Scotland, four kings of Ireland and eight kings of Nor- way are said to have been buried on Iona Is- land, among them. being King Duncan, made famous by Shakespeare. About 1900 the Duke of Argyle conveyed the entire island to the Church of Scotland under certain conditions of preservation and restoration. Ionia, I-Ö'ni-a, that part of the seaboard of Asia Minor which was inhabited by Ionian Greeks, a beautiful and fertile country opposite the islands of Samos and Chios, which also be- longed to it. According to tradition, the Greek colonists came over from Attica about IoSo B.C., and founded I2 towns, which, though mutually independent, formed a confederacy for common purposes. These included Phocaea, Ephesus, Miletus, etc., and latterly Smyrna. Commerce, navigation, and agriculture early rendered them wealthy and flourishing, but the country was made tributary by Croesus, king of Lydia, and later by Cyrus, king of Persia (557 B.C.). With an interval of independence they remained under Persia until this empire was overthrown by Alexander the Great, 334–I B.C., when they be- came a part of the Macedonian empire. Ionia, at a later period, became part of the Roman province of Asia. It was afterward totally de- vastated by the Saracens, so that few vestiges of its ancient civilization remain. Ionia, Mich., city and county-seat of Ionia County; on the Grand River, and the Detroit, G. H. & M., the Pere M., and the Grand T. R.R.'s; 34 miles east of Grand Rapids. It con- tains the State house of corection, the State asylum for the dangerous and criminal insane, large railroad repair shops, and manufactories of pottery, furniture, machinery, edged tools, and clothing. The industrial interests are greatly promoted by excellent power furnished by the river. The city has a public high School, library, several daily and weekly periodicals, and an assessed property valuation of about $2,500,000. Under the revised charter of 1897, the government is administered by a mayor and city council elected annually. Ionia was settled in 1833 and incorporated in 1873. Pop. (1890) 4,482; (1900) 5,209. Io'nian Islands, a number of islands be- longing to the kingdom of Greece, in the Ionian Sea, off the coast of Albania and the western and southern shores of Greece, the most South- ern, Cerigo, and its dependent islets being off the southeastern extremity of the Morea. The principal islands, seven in number, are, reckon- ing from north to south, Kerkyra (Corfu), Paxos, Levkas (Santa Maura), Ithaki (Ithaca), Kephallenia (Cephalonia), Zakynthos (Zante), and Kythira (Cerigo). To each of these larger islands a number of simaller, Scattered along their respective coasts, are attached, and in- IONIAN PHILOSOPHY — IOWA cluded in their several local jurisdictions. Area of the whole, 1,097 Square miles. Pop. about 300,000. All these islands belong to the great calcareous formation of Greece. They are ex- tremely mountainous, and do not contain enough arable land to produce the corn required by the population; and were it not for the vine, olive, and currant, all of which they produce, they could support but a small number of inhab- itants. The climate is even more temperate than that of the neighboring mainland. Snow often falls in the winter, and lies on the moun- tains, but rarely on the plains. The staple ex- ports are oil, currants, valonia, wine, soap, and salt. The few manufactures are chiefly textile and ornamental. The religion is that of the Eastern Greek Church, to which four fifths of the population belong. Each island has its own bishop, and at the head of the whole is an ex- arch or primate. The Ionian Islands, so called from lying in that part of the Mediterranean anciently known as the Mare Ionicum or Ionian Sea, often figure in the ancient history of Greece, but only singly, not collectively. In 1809–Io all the islands were overrun by the British troops except Corfu, which did not come into the hands of the British till it was assigned to them by the Peace of Paris in 1814, and the possession of the British was finally fixed and regulated by another treaty concluded at Paris in 1815. The seven islands were then formed into a republic, under the protectorate of Great Britain. In 1857 a wish was expressed by their representatives for reunion with Greece, and the islands, with the consent of the other European powers, were transferred to the kingdom of Greece in 1864. Ionian Philosophy, the earliest school of Greek philosphy, a school which attempted to explain the phenomena of nature from the forces and attributes of matter itself. In order to do this the philosophers of this school followed two courses, some assuming a single original substance as the ground of all things, and ex- plaining the development and formation of the phenomenal world by a process of condensation and rarefaction which they conceived as affect- ing the mode of existence of that substance; while others considered all things as formed by separation and combination out of a per- manent and unalterable primitive form of mat- ter. According to the view of the first class of Ionian philosophers, therefore, the original ma- terial principle was conceived as itself liable to change, and the changes which take place in it were held to give rise to the forms by which the world is known to us; while according to the view of the second class of Ionian philosophers the original material principle was looked upon as in its own nature and qualities unchangeable, and everything was explained by a change of external relations in space. Ionian School, the school of philosophy which started from the Ionian city of Miletus. The leader of the school was Thales, who started from a disbelief in the current mythological fables of his day. Thales was born about 636 B.C. He was a man of political activity as well as of deep meditative habits. He was pro- ficient in mathematical knowledge and founded the Ionian school which was principally con- cerned in an inquiry as to the constitution of the universe. He propounded the axiom that the basis of all phenomena was water, and per- haps he was just as near the truth as Huxley when he declared that everything came out of what he called, by a question-begging term, protoplasm. The next philosopher of the Ion- ian school was Anaximenes 529 B.C. He also was a materialistic philosopher and like Liebig believed that the origin and substance of every- thing was air. Diogenes of Apollonia went farther than his predecessor and taught that the basis of phenomena was mind. The Ionian School found its highest development in Anaxi- mander of Miletus 610 B.C., who taught what has been the profoundest discovery of all philos- Ophy ancient or modern that the basis of being was Töötreupov, the Infinite. Ionian Sea, that part of the Mediterranean communicating with the Gulf of Venice by the Strait of Otranto, and having Greece and part of European Turkey on the east; Sicily and the most southern part of Italy on the west. Its greatest breadth is between Cape Matapan in the Morea, and Cape Passaro in Sicily, which is about 400 miles. Ion'ic Order. See ARCHITECTURE (Greece). Ionization. See ELECTROLYSIs; ELECTRON: SOLUTION. Ios, i'és, an island in the AEgean Sea, said to have been the birth-place of Homer. Ac- cording to the ancients his mother was born here, and the poet's grave was likewise located here. I OU, a written acknowledgment of debt, usually made in this form:—“To A. B. I O U Ten Dollars.-C. D. May 12, 1891.” In Great Britain when the name of the creditor is stated such a document is evidence of a debt of the amount stated due to him by the person whose signature it bears. In the absence of the name of the creditor the document is prima facie evi- dence of such a debt being due to the holder of the document. It is not negotiable. The letters I O U are of course used instead of the words “I owe you,” on account of the similarity of sound. The I O U is seldom used in the United States. Iowa, I'o-a (“the Hawkeye State”), a north-central State extending from the Missis— sippi River to the Missouri River, and occupy- ing three and one sixth degrees of latitude. It is bounded on the north by Minnesota, on the east by Wisconsin and Illinois, on the south by Missouri, and on the west by Nebraska and South Dakota. Area, 56,025 square miles; 55o water; it is 310 miles east and west, and 210 north and south. Capital, Des Moines. Pop. (Igoo) 2,231,853. It is the sixteenth State in order of admission to the Union. Topography.— Iowa, is a part of the great central plain, and is chiefly undulating prairie, rising in gentle swells from the Mississippi River to a divide running diagonally, from a height of 1,694 feet in the northwest to a slight elevation in the southeast, with a parallel sub- divide in the southwest. There are now no swamps and few natural forests. The only rough spots are the sharp bluffs where the rivers have cut their paths through the glacial drift; the only woods, those along the streams, altogether about 7,000 square miles of wood- land, with oak, elm, hickory, black walnut, ma- ple, cottonwood, linden, ash, box-elder, pine, A B 95° C D 95° E. F 94° º H 93.” | J 92° - K L 91° M N = - - - - - " Caledonia - - 1 sºr T L L MVO R. E. & - -y- - - c | H. ST ON * -y S- - - - - N- M. - º º - -- - -- - º: * - *. - Satureº - ©. Trichland - - - LEK Connor *Lycurgº - º Center - - w *ALL AM A º ºw & Creek *ukon Yello - fºrbie - - - º G. R. *… T Mineral Point Crathorne - - Laneaster o - - - - - Mi - b - -- ner. * Hº: - Rº E - - ** º P M T & Platteville; TVº: cº - - - - T” - Turkey Darlington tº 2. - --- - --- - E. - 41° w------ - Saº- -- º ºnes º *** Unionville sº se” P}5 tº Tsº S C o T. L. A. N. Statute Miles, 29–1 Kilometres, 46–1 inch. - - -- 20 20 30 40 50 º 70 Eu Rand. Mewall-Co.'s New 11-14 Map of Iowa. cowright 95 º E. IOWA cedar, etc. The eastern watershed, two thirds of the whole State, is drained to the Mis- sissippi by a series of streams, nearly all of which are parallel and have a southeastward course. The western part is drained to the Mis- souri by shorter and swifter rivers, flowing first southwest and then south as the Missouri turns eastward. The chief Mississippi affluents are the Upper Iowa, the Turkey, the Maquoketa, the Wapsipinicon, the Iowa, and the Cedar (the “main” stream, the Iowa, 375 miles, its “tributary,” the Cedar, 4oo miles, the two form- ing the second largest interior system of the State and joining not far from the mouth of the Iowa), the Skunk, and lastly the Des Moines with its numerous affluents, far the greatest and commercially the most important as well as the finest scenically, rising in Minnesota and run- ning diagonally across the entire State in a course of 550 miles, with a basin of I4,500 square miles. The State is prolonged by a southeastern corner to include the entire chan- nel of the Des Moines. The northern part of the State has a continuation of the many small, clear, pebbly lakes of Minnesota in glacier- scored pits; some of them — the Walled Lakes — surrounded each by a natural wall of loose stones. The largest are Spirit Lake and the two Okoboji lakes in Dickinson County, and Clear Lake in Cerro Gordo County, all popular summer resorts. West Okoboji, of great depth, lies between wooded hills, and is indented by several picturesque “points” or promontories. Climate.— The winter climate is somewhat severe, owing to the influence of the great un- interrupted plains to the northwest; but like all this region, the severity is tempered by freedom from excessive moisture. The State is one of the healthiest in the Union, several of the streams in the northeast having rocky channels, and none having the miasmatic bottom-lands found farther south. The dry, pure air of its rolling prairies affords a valued sanatorium for consumptives. The extreme temperatures range from IIo° above to 40° below zero; but the aver- age range is from 95° above to 20° below. The average rainfall during the years from 1890 to I903 inclusive was 31.4 inches — two thirds of it between April–October, and more than half dur- ing the critical crop months, May, June, July, and August. Geology.—No less than five separate sheets of drift cover the State, giving a remarkable variety of productive soil, as well as many dif- ferent clays for industrial purposes. The water- shed shows the inclination to the underlying palaeozoic rocks, in lines from northwest to southeast. The oldest formation is Sioux quartzite in the northwestern corner. Cre- taceous deposits overlie the older formations through the northwest part generally; along the eastern side from north and south are Cam- brian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous in succession. The most valuable mineral beds are the vast fields of bituminous coal, covering more than one third of the entire area of the State, and turning out in the year ending 30 June 1903, 6,185,734 tons, valued at $8,016,274; employing I3,192 persons, of whom 9,169 were miners. It is the leading coal State west of the Mississippi except Colorado, and a great factor in all the northwestern industries. Its limestone, the finest grade of building stone, near Marshall- town, Anamosa and other points, is quarried to the extent of about $800,000 a year. Its gypsum from the rocky hills in the vicinity of Fort Dodge is the basis of a fast increasing manu- facture of stucco, hard-wall plaster, and paint, also clays for pottery, fire and building brick, tile, and terra-cotta. Iowa ranks eighth in the value of its clay products. Considerable min- eral water is also exported, that from the Colfax Springs being in the lead. Agriculture.— Iowa is unsurpassed in the quality and extent of cultivated land. It pre- sents mainly a friable black loam on the top, from one to five feet, deep; is easily worked, is in the main free from stumps and stones, and requires little or no commercial fertilizers. It has three main varieties, the principal being the alluvial mud of the river bottoms, the glacial drift of the prairies, covering most of the State, a sand and clay loam, and the loess, a rich yellow deposit containing much carbonate of lime, found at great depth on the Missouri slope and along the streams in the central and eastern portions. There is now almost no waste land in the State. In 1900 it presented the unparalleled record of 86.5 per cent improved farm land. A large part of the remaining I3.5 per cent yields income as timber and pasture land. With this fertility and a steady and sufficient rainfall, the State has for many years been first in the Union in value of products derived exclusively from the soil. The total value of its farm products in 1900 was $365,411,528, of which over a hundred million. was fed to its own live stock. Its great crop is corn; it varies, in bushels, from 129,104,930 in 1894 to 383,453,190 in 1900, with an average value of $100,000,000 to $150,000,000. A fourth of its surface is covered with cornfields. Its Second crop is oats (of which it was second in the United States), with a total in 1900 of I68,364,170 bushels; third, barley, 18,059,060; wheat, 22,769,440; rye, I,170,970; and buckwheat, 151,120. Its cereals altogether occupy nearly half of its area. It also raises considerable flaxseed. Its hay product is surpassed only by New York; in 1902 it was 5,2II,232 tons, most of it used for feeding its own stock. The vege- table crops are also of great importance; in potatoes it was second in 1900, producing 2,662,660 bushels, also 224,622 bushels sweet po- tatoes, altogether realizing $3,870,746; other veg- etables, $3,332,039. It has a considerable fruit crop, especially of apples; in 1900 the value of orchard products was $1,849,767, besides $878,446 of small fruits and berries. The average of Iowa's chief products during the I3 years, 1890– I902, in bushels, is: Corn, 261,200,756; wheat, I6,130,339; oats, II7,II8,483; rye, I,907,482; barley, I2,503,051 ; flax, 2,182,950; potatoes, I2, Ig8,347; hay, tons, 5,517,884. Iowa leads all the other States in the value of the implements on its farms, namely, $57,960,660. Stock-Raising.— Iowa stands near the top in the value of live stock, $278,830,096 in 1900; and it is significant that while one State, Texas, surpassed it in number of neat cattle,_ 9,428,196 to 5,367,630 — the difference in values was only as $163,228,904 to $142,518,902; the average Iowa animal being worth $26.55 against the Texan's $17.31. In dairy cows New York alone takes precedence, and the value of dairy products in 1900 was $18,819,000. That of poultry and eggs was $19,508,000. Great care is taken to have the best breeds of stock, and IOWA this alone accounts for the difference in value of the Iowa and the Texas cattle. The richness of the milk is due largely to the breed. In the number of horses (1,268,016) and Swine (9,723,791) Iowa led all the other States in Igoo; and from 1850 to the last census there has been a steady increase in the number of Swine, cattle, and horses. Manufactures.—The State's fast-growing population and prosperity and its abundant and almost inexhaustible supply of bituminous coal have, together, within the last decade given a rapid impetus to manufacturing. Small fac- tories have enlarged and many new factories have sprung up. Not a few of these are assum- ing large proportions. In 1900 Iowa manufac- tured 7,800 cultivators, 5,000 equalizers, 7,560 harrows, 34,560 hoes, I3,638 plows, 2,02I seeders, IOO drills, 3,720 harvesters, 3,775 hay-carriers, IO,98o dozen hay-forks, 5,809 horse hay-rakes, 79,296 Scythes, 58,003 separators, etc., rep- resenting a total value of $1,343,455 — a gain of over $400,000 in a single year. In the same year Iowa's product of metal-working machines was valued at $273,50I. There is but one manu- factory of typewriters in Iowa (Des Moines), but it is fast becoming one of the foremost in the country, exporting largely to Great Britain, France, and the colonies. The output of car- riages and wagons in 1900 was $4,087,400; product of paints was $336,867; chemical indus- tries paid $70,022 in wages. A curious industry has sprung up in and about Muscatine — the manufacture of pearl buttons from mussel shells found in the beds of streams. Almost unknown, it has grown to huge proportions, and now that the manufacturers have united in the protection of the sources of supply, the future of this industry is assured. The value of its products in 1900 was $866,538, more than one fourth of which went for wages. The industry is now chiefly confined to the cutting of blanks for the eastern market, Iowa has 702 flouring and grist mills, two with a capacity of IOO,000 barrels annually. The output of its mills in bushels is: wheat, I2,521,953; corn, 6,352,045; rye, 458,763; buckwheat, 277,593; barley, 538,740; other grain, 5,859,842. Cedar Rapids, Fort Dodge, and Muscatine have extensive oatmeal mills; the one at Cedar Rapids is said to be the largest in the world. The grand total of food products in 1900 was $142,000,000. The slaugh- tering and meat-packing industry represented in 1900 a total product amounting to $25,695,044: Cheese, butter and condensed-milk factory prod- uct in 1900 was $15,846,077 — an increase of nearly 50 per cent in Io years. The fruit and vegetable canning product in 1900 was $1,359,958 — a gain of over $800,000 in Io years. Iowa ranks third in the canning of corn. The starch product in 1900 was $896,831 — a gain of over $500,000 in Io years; product of boots and shoes in 1900 was $786,141, a gain of over $200,000 in IO years; product of gloves and mittens in IOOO was $142,600; product of planing mills in 1900 was $8,684,566. A fact not generally understood is that there is more timber in Iowa to-day than at any other time in its history. The clay prod- ucts, which were $175,165 in 1890, had increased in Io years to $2,224,920; to this should be added brick and tile products, which in 1900 aggregated $1,979,322; also pottery, terra-cotta and fire-clay products, $192,702. The paper product in 1900 was $243,776. Dubuque has the only ship-building plant in the interior. Among the larger cities. Des Moines leads in brick- making (over 25,000,000 annually), proprietary medicines, book and job printing and binding, typewriters and hosiery; Sioux City, Ottumwa, Cedar Rapids, and Des Moines in meat-packing; Davenport, Dubuque, Burlington, Des Moines, and Ottumwa in foundries and machine works; Dubuque, Council Bluffs, and Grinnell in car- riages; Burlington, Davenport, Des Moines, Dubuque, Ottumwa, Keokuk, and Oskaloosa in cigars; Sioux City, Des Moines, Cedar Rapids, Fort Dodge, Mason City, in flour and other food products; Des Moines, Ottumwa, Grinnell, Newton and Fort Madison in farm and other machinery; the principal river cities in malt products. The total value of manufactured products in 1900 was $164,617,877 – an in- crease of over 31 per cent in IO years; the capital represented in I4,819 fac- tories was $102,733,103 — an increase of over 32 per cent; the wages paid the 58,553 employes was $23,931,680 — an increase of over I7 per cent. These figures, showing enormous growth in the last decade, are a surprise to those who regard Iowa as distinctively an agri- cultural State. Transportation and Commerce.—Several of the interior rivers are navigable for small boats, the Des Moines for Ioo miles, the Missouri for fair-sized steamers its whole length, and the Mississippi for large ones. But the first named are not used to any extent; they have been superseded by railroads; the shifting channel, sandbars and snags of the Missouri make its navigation dangerous and slow. Only the Mis- sissippi remains in practical use. The State, lying in the main path of transcontinental com— merce, and originating much well-distributed local traffic, is a vast network of railroads, seven of the great trunk lines crossing it. Every one of the 99 counties has at least one railroad. The farthest distance between railroads at any point in the State is I3.79 miles. In Igo3 it had 9,855 miles of road, exclusive of electric lines. Banking and Insurance.— Iowa has the great- est number of banking institutions of any State in the United States. In August 1903, it had I,482, divided into 258 national banks, 245 State banks, 350 savings banks, and 56I private banks. The State banks had capital of $10,445,800; deposits, $45,268,974.73; surplus, $1,718,832.4I. The savings banks had capital $11,565,500; de- posits, $87,620,377.34; surplus, $2,173,462.88. Total capital of all banks in the State, $53,435,020; total deposits, $264,803,000. Iowa is rapidly gaining prominence in the insurance world. In life insurance it promises soon to become a formidable competitor with the East- ern States. In 1902 there were 42 life insurance companies having headquarters in the State, and of this number 24 were located in Des Moines, “the Hartford of the West.” Of the 42, Io were “old line” life companies, carrying insurance to the amount of $36,972,257; 8 were assessment companies, carrying $209,955,500; I6 were fraternal benefit associations, carrying $168,418,000. Total of insurance carried by Iowa companies, $415,345,757. Education.— Iowa stands second in the literacy of its population; 99.63 per cent of those from Io to 14 years were, in 1900, able to read and write, although there was no compulsory attendance law prior to 1902. In 1902 it ex- IOW.A. 's， Naetoſ， sºoſ Lºv ºtottavo ºttvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . ： | _ IOWA pended $9,556,890 on its schools, there being 18,513 schoolrooms with 22,708 teachers holding certificates. The enrollment of children in the public schools in that year reached 560,173. There has been a liberal increase in the wages of teachers during the school year of IQ02 and 1903. About one third of the schools are located in towns and cities and two thirds in the country. Relatively few of the teachers have had normal training. One State nor- mal school and several private normal schools were in operation in Igoo. In 1902 the State Inormal school had 28 professors and 28 other teachers, with 2,065 students. Under a law passed in 1902, I6 private schools have become accredited for the training of teachers under State supervision. For higher education there are about 200 public high schools and a number of private academies. The courses of study pursued are of high standard and generally uniform. The State University, the head of the public school system, is at Iowa City, the former capital, with law, medical, dental, and other colleges, which in 1902 had 48 professors, III other teachers, and 1,512 students. There is also a State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, located at Ames, which in 1902 Had 32 professors, 43 other teachers, and 1,480 students. In 1902 a “Memorial University,” at present a military academy, was opened at Ma- son City by the national order of the Sons of Veterans. Connected with certain of the public secondary schools there are 20 training classes for teachers. Among the private schools of the State there are I6 business colleges and 26 acad- emies. Under the auspices of the Roman Catho- lic Church there are in the State 25 schools for higher education (academies and colleges), with an attendance of 4,040 pupils, 3 normal schools, I67 parish schools, with an attendance of 22,529 pupils. Iowa was one of the first States to pass a township School law. This law has enabled a Thumber of towns to better their school facilities. In 1895 Buffalo Centre township, for example, was organized into a school township, and within four years all the district schools except two were closed and the pupils were transported to a central graded school. The law makes provision for the transportation, at public ex- pense, of children living remote from the cen- tral School. The State report for 1901 shows that consolidation has been tried in 28 counties, transportation in 35, and both in 19. Good results were reported in 27 counties, doubtful in 5 counties. Bad roads are the chief obstacle in the doubtful counties, but a vigorous “Good Roads” movement is minimizing this obstacle. Ninety-five per cent of the county superintend- ents for IQoI favored the plan. Libraries— In 1893 there were 83 public 1ibraries in Iowa, as follows: Supported by the State, I2 (volumes, II8,974); college and aca- demic, 24 (volumes, 95, II.4); association and subscription, I6 (volumes, 81,234); free public, I5 (volumes, 68,809); miscellaneous, 7 (vol. umes, 46,176); public school, 5 (volumes, 7,850); total, 418,157 volumes. In 1903 the number of libraries had increased to 248, as follows: Supported by State, 22 (volumes, 236,953); college and academic, 36 (volumes, I79,261); association and subscription, 32 (vol. umes, 52,080); free public, 70 (volumes, 336,305); miscellaneous, II (volumes, 89,159); public school, 77 (volumes, 75,982); total, 969,740 volumes. º Churches.— In the number of church Soci- eties in the State the denominations rank as follows: Methodist, Lutheran (three branches), Roman Catholic, Baptist, Christian (Disciples), Presbyterian, Congregationalist, United Breth- ren, Evangelical Association, Protestant Epis- copal, Friends, Reformed, Adventist. There is one Roman Catholic archdiocese, with two dioceses. The non-polygamous Mormons or “Latter-day Saints,” and the Amana Colony community of Christian Socialists, have a large and prosperous membership. Charities and Penal Institutions.— The State charitable institutions are managed by a board of control appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate. There are four insane retreats: at Clarinda, Mt. Pleasant, Independ- ence, and Cherokee; besides four private asylums; a school for the deaf at Council Bluffs; a school for the blind at Vinton ; an institution for feeble-minded children at Glen- wood; a soldiers’ home at Marshalltown; and a home for soldiers’ orphans at Davenport. There are State penitentiaries at Anamosa and Fort Madison, both have adopted the graded System; an industrial school for boys at Eldora, and one for girls at Mitchellville. L. S. Coffin has established a home for ex-convicts on his farm near Fort Dodge. State Government.—The constitution was adopted in 1857. By law, the electors must vote Once in Io years on calling a convention to revise the constitution, which convention the legislature must call if so voted. All amend- ments must receive a majority vote of both houses at two successive legislatures, and then be passed by popular vote. The Senate has 50 four-year members, the House Ioo two-year; legislative sessions are biennial. Bills must have a majority of all members elected to both houses — not merely present. A two-thirds vote overcomes the governor's veto. Executive officials are elected for two years — half in one year and half in the alternates, with the excep- tion of the railway commissioners, who are elected for three; the railroad commission has power to regulate rates, etc. The judiciary consists of a Supreme court, with a chief justice who is such by reason of priority of election, and five associate judges, one chosen every year; also 53 district judges in 20 districts, each serving four years. Women may vote only on School questions involving the expendi- ture of money. All incorporated towns of 2,000 people and over are ranked as cities; all platted but unincorporated towns are villages. In 1902 there was a militia of 2,474 officers and enlisted men. The number of representatives to Con- gress is II. In politics the State has been Republican since the organization of the party, except in the years 1890–4, when the advocacy of prohibition drove it into retirement. The prohibitory amendment adopted in 1882 was pronounced unconstitutional by the supreme court of the State, and was succeeded by pro- hibitory laws which after several years' trial were in turn succeeded by a local option law, under which 54 of the 99 counties were reported in 1993 as wholly free from saloons. Finances – The State has no debt except one of $19,936 to its own school fund, which debt by provision of the constitution is a permanent IOWA CITY one. It had a balance in the treasury I Jan. 1903, of $926,916.65. Local taxation is limited to I per cent of valuation for current expenses, but this may be exceeded for waterworks, sewers, schools, etc. not incur a debt greater than $250,000 except for war purposes, and cannot loan its credit to any person or association; counties and towns cannot run in debt to over 5 per cent of their actual valuation. The average income is about $3,000,000 a year. Population and Divisions.— Iowa ranks tenth among the States in population. The population was 43, II2 in 1840; (1850), 192,2I4; (1860), 674,913; (1870), I,194,020; (1880), I,624,615; (1890), I,9II,896; (1900), 2,231,853. The original population was part of the great IFree-State movement which peopled the central States except Indiana. Of the entire population (1900), 305,920 were foreign-born. Of these I23,162 were from Germany; 72,6II from Scan- dinavia, or nearly two thirds from the Teutonic nations; besides several thousands from German Austria and Switzerland. From England and English Canada were 35,195, French Canadians 14,168, Ireland 28,321, Holland 9,388. Colored, I2,693. There were 81,845 more males than females. There are no great centres of popula- tion. The capital, Des Moines, on the river of the name, is the largest, with 62,139. On the same river to the north is Fort Dodge, an old frontier fort and settlement (I2,162), and below it Ottumwa (18,197) and Keokuk (I4,641). The Mississippi River business is chiefly repre- sented, from north to south, by Dubuque (36,297 — the first settled site in the State), Clinton (22,698), Davenport (35,254), Musca- tine (14,073), Burlington (23,2OI), Fort Madi- son (9,278), and Keokuk, the “Gate, City,” at the mouth of the Des Moines. Sioux City (33, III), in the extreme west near the mouth of the Big Sioux, and Council Bluffs (25.802), opposite Omaha, the old terminus of the Union Pacific, represent the Missouri River; Cedar Rapids (25,656) and Waterloo (I2,580), the valley of the Cedar River; and Marshalltown (11,544), the valley of the Iowa River. History.— The territory now included in Iowa was originally inhabited by the Ioway and Illinois tribes of Indians, which were driven out by the Sacs and Foxes. In 1761 the “Ioway” or Iowa tribes were on the east side of the Missouri River and near the headwaters of the Des Moines; but in 1805 they were occupying land on the south side of the Des Moines River. Later they left the vicinity of the Des Moines, some going to the reservation of the Foxes and Sacs (now Oklahoma), others to a reservation in Kansas. The missionary, Father Marquette, and Joliet, the fur trader, were the first white men known to have traveled in this section. In 1673 they visited the tribes of Indians along the Mississippi River, and first landed on Iowa soil near the mouth of the river now known by the name Iowa. In 1788 a party of Io white men under Julien Du- louque established the first white settlement at the place now occupied by the city of Dubuque. They were attracted to this locality because of the lead deposits in the vicinity. They opened mines, but how successful they were may be con- jectured from the fact that after the death of Dubuque, in 1810, his associates abandoned the settlement. All that portion of country drained ments made by other Frenchmen. The State as a whole can- . by the Mississippi was claimed by France be- cause of the explorations made by Marquette and some of his companions, and because of settle- France's claim to this territory was ceded by treaty to Spain in I763, but the country was returned to France in I800-I. In 1803 all the territory now known as the “Louisiana Purchase” (q.v.) was bought of France by the United States government. The territory now the State of Iowa was part of the Territories of Louisiana in 1805; of Missouri in 1812; of Michigan in 1834; of Wisconsin in I836. Iowa became an independent territory in 1838, and was admitted as a State in 1846. The Indian claims to lands within the boun- daries of the State were purchased by the |United States government before its admission as a State. The last purchase was made in I843. Remnants of the Sacs and Foxes occupy a reservation, 419 acres, in Tama County, and still receive annuities from the government. In I832 a settlement was made at Fort Madison, an abandoned government post, and soon after Burlington was founded, and in 1830 a settle- ment was again made at Dubuque. In 1857 the Indians attacked the settlers living near the Okoboji lakes and Spirit lake, in Dickinson County, and about 30 whites were killed and nearly all the houses burned. This action on the part of the Indians retarded for some years the growth of that section of the State. Iowa City was first selected for the Territorial capital (it became the State capital in 1846), but in 1857 the capital was changed to Des Moines. Iowa had in the Federal army during the Civil War 75,839 men, which was about one tenth of her population. Some of this number were in regiments belonging to other States. Consult: Aldrich, “Annals of Iowa? ; State Historical Society publications; Shambaugh, ‘Documen- tary Material Relating to the History of Iowa? ; Monette, ‘History and Discovery of the Mis– sissippi Valley”; Iowa Geological Survey publications; Shambaugh, “History of the Con- stitutions of Iowa? and ‘Messages and Proclamations of the Governors of Iowa?; Gue, ‘History of Iowa.” JoBIN son BRIGHAM, Librarian, Iowa State Library. Iowa City, Iowa, city and county-seat of Johnson County, on the Iowa River, and the Burlington, C. R. & N., and the Chicago, R. I. & P. R.R.'s; 54 miles west of Davenport. The city is pleasantly built on a succession of plateaus, rising one above another from the river banks, which are here high. The first plateau is laid out as a public promenade, and the third, which is about 30 feet higher than the first, is crowned by a handsome Doric edi- fice I2O feet long and 6o feet wide, of a beauti- fully marked stone quarried in the vicinity called “bird’s-eye marble.” This building was origi- nally intended for the State capitol, but, on the removal of the seat of government to Des Moines, was appropriated to the State Univer- sity. From 1839 to 1854, this was the seat of the Territorial and State governments. It is the seat of the State University of Iowa, the Iowa State Academy, the State Historical Society and Library, the Homoeopathic, Allopathic, and Mercy hospitals. It is the farming trade centre for Johnson, Cedar, and Iowa counties, with an annual trade exceeding $1,000,000; has excellent power provided by the Iowa River; and has IOWA COLLEGE — IPHICRATES manufactories of flour, iron, woolen goods, per- fumery, gloves, jewelry, fencing, and linseed oil. The city has electric light and street railroad plants, waterworks on the Holly system, nu- merous churches, and an assessed property val- uation of about $6,500,000. Besides its manu- facturing interests the city has an extensive stock-raising and meat-packing industry. Pop. (1890) 7,016; (1900) 7,987. Iowa College, a coeducational institution founded in 1847 at Grinnell, Ia. ; under the auspices of the Congregational Church. In 1901 it had 33 professors and instructors, 41 I students, 27,000 volumes in the library; pro- ductive funds, $470,000; grounds and buildings valued at $150,000; and an income of $49,000. Iowa River, a considerable stream in the State of Iowa rising in Hancock County, near the Minnesota State line and flowing southeast into the Mississippi River, north of Burlington. It is 300 miles in length, and is navigable to Iowa City, 80 miles from its mouth. Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, a coeducational institution for technical education at Ames, Iowa. It re- ceived a grant of land from Congress under the law of 1862, and was first opened in 1868. Reg- ular courses are offered in agriculture, mechan- ical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, mining engineering, technology, science as related to industry, and general and domestic science; special shorter courses are given in the fall and winter in dairying, agri- culture and mechanics, horticulture and me- chanics, and domestic science. The State Ag- ricultural Experiment Station is also allied with the college. The annual income in 1902, in- cluding the Federal appropriation, was $120,000; there were I,220 students in attendance, and 84 professors and instructors. Iowa, State University of, an educational institution forming an integral part of the pub- lic school system of the State, situated at Iowa City. It was first opened in 1847, receiving con- trol of lands given by the Federal government. (See Colleges, LAND GRANT.) The university is controlled by a board of regents of 2 ex- officio members and II elective members. Its work is organized in the following departments: the college of liberal arts (including the sum- mer session), which offers courses leading to the degrees of A.B., B.S., and Ph.B.; the graduate college; the Iowa school of political and social science, with both undergraduate and graduate courses; the college of law; the college of medi- cine; the college of homoeopathic medicine; and the college of dentistry. The library, which lost 25,000 volumes by fire in 1897, now con- tains nearly 65,000 volumes; the university is— sues the following publications: ‘Natural His- tory Bulletin”; “The Transit,” an engineering journal; ‘The Law Bulletin” ; ‘The Bulletin of the Homoeopathic Medical College? ; ‘The Uni- versity of Iowa Studies in Psychology”; “The State University of Iowa Studies in Sociology, Economics, Politics and History.” The State appropriates over $125,000 annually to the uni- versity, and the total income amounts to over $300,000 annually. In 1902 the number of stu- dents was I,512; the number of professors and instructors, 160. - Iowa Wesleyan University, a coeduca- tional institution founded in 1844, at Mount Pleasant, Iowa; under the auspices of the Meth- Odist Episcopal Church. In 1901 it had 20 pro- fessors and instructors, and 380 students. There are 5,000 volumes in the library. It has productive funds, $75,000; grounds and build- ings valued at $150,000; benefactions, $32,000; and an income of $14,000. I'owas, a tribe of American Indians of the Algonquin family. In 1800 the Iowas lived in Minnesota and soon after moved southward. They were called Palinchas, or “Dusty Noses,” in their own tongue. Lewis and Clark, the ex- plorers, designate them as the Ayanways, and the early French traders called them the Ajowes. In 1836 they moved to the Wolf River region west of the Mississippi, and in 1861 ceded 16,000 acres of land to the United States. The rem- nants of the tribe, some 1,000 in number, at present live on reservations in Oklahoma and Kansas. See also INDIANS, AMERICAN ; Iowa. Ip'ecac, or Ipecacuanha, a South American plant of the order Rubiaceae variously called by botanists Cepharlis ipecacuanha and Psychotria fipecacuanha. The plant, which is found mainly in moist shady forests in Brazil, is a creeping herb Or sub-shrub with mostly bare stems, only the extremities producing leaves. The small white blossoms, which are borne in heads with long stalks, are followed by dark purple ber- ries. The rather fleshy more or less divided roots were in medicinal repute among the South American Indians, and gradually found their way into European medicine under the name “ipecacuanha.” They have been considered emetic, nauseant, diaphoretic and expectorant, and in large doses are reputed poisonous. They appear in commerce in various grades (gray, brown and red), which are dependent mainly upon the season at which they are gathered, the way they are dried, the age of the plants, etc. The chief supplies are collected during January, February and March by the Indians. Owing to the slow growth of the plant and the low price the roots command, ipecac is not cul- tivated commercially; it has, however, been suc- cessfully grown in various parts of the world. The roots of several other plants are substi- tuted for those of true ipecac, among the best known being those of Tylophora asthmatica and Sarcostemma glaucum (Venezuelan ipecac), both of the natural order Asclepiadaceae. Other species of Psychotria and certain species of Richardsonia are similarly but unofficially em- ployed. Wild , or American ipecac (Gillenia stipu- lacea) of the rose family, is a common plant in the Southeastern United States and as far north as western New York. It is a perennial herb about three feet tall, bearing paniculate corymbs of white or pale rose colored flowers. It is hardy, of simplest culture and being graceful is frequently planted for ornament in flower bor- ders where the soil is of good quality. Iphicrates, 1-fik'ra-téz, Athenian com- mander: b. and d. in the 4th century B.C. Of humble origin, he raised himself to eminence by his courage and talents. In the war of Corinth (393-2 B.C.) he opposed with success Agesilaus, the warlike king of Sparta. He was sent to the Hellespont to act against Anaxibius, but in spite of his victory was unable to prevent the IPHIGENIA — IRANIAN LANGUAGES conclusion of the shameful Peace of Antalcidas (387 B.C.). In 369 B.C. he was appointed to the command of the troops sent by the Athenians to the assistance of Sparta, on the invasion of Epaminondas, but allowed the Theban general to retreat from the Peloponnesus. In the So- cial War (357–5) he was one of the com- manders of the fleet fitted out by the Athenians for the recovery of Byzantium. Being accused of treachery by one of his colleagues and put on trial he was acquitted; but though he lived to a great age, did not again engage in active service. Iphicrates was the author of some improvements in Greek arms and accoutre- ments. He was accustomed always to fortify his camp in the field even in a friendly coun- try; “Because,” he said, “if, contrary to proba- bility, I should be attacked, I may not be obliged to make the disgraceful excuse that I did not expect it.” Iphigenia, if-i-jé-ni'a, in Greek legend, a daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra (according to some an illegitimate daughter of Theseus and Helen), who was to have been sac- rificed to Artemis (Diana) at the advice of the prophet Calchas, when the goddess, enraged with Agamemnon, detained the Greek fleet in Aulis by a calm. Under pretense that she was to be married to Achilles, Iphigenia was led to the altar. But in the moment when the priest was about to give the death-blow Iphigenia dis- appeared, and in her stead a beautiful hind was Substituted, whose blood gushed out on the altar. Artemis had relented, and conveyed her in a cloud to Tauris, where she became the priestess of the goddess. Conformably with the law of the country, she was obliged to sacrifice every Greek that landed there. While serving as priestess her brother Orestes came to take away the image of Artemis, as he had been ad- vised by an oracle to do, that he might get rid of the madness to which he had been subject since the murder of his mother. Iphigenia hav- ing recognized him as her brother, the two con- trived a means of escape, and carried off with them the image. The story of Iphigenia was dramatized by Euripides (who composed two plays upon the subject — ‘Iphigenia in Aulis’ and ‘Iphigenia in Tauris?), and Goethe, and it is also the subject of two operas by Gluck, ‘Iphigenie en Aulide? (1774); and ‘Iphigénie en Tauride? (1779). Ipomaea, Íp-ó-mé'a, a genus of plants, in- cluding several hundred species, of the order Convolvulaceae, consisting mostly of twining prostrate herbs, widely distributed in warm re- gions. The species of most importance is I. Purga, which yields the jalap of commerce. Some are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers, and are known to gardeners as convol- vuli. I. purpurea is the best known garden spe- cies. See JALAP. Ipsambul, İp-sām"bool. See ABU-SIMBEL. Ipswich, Mass., town in Essex County, on the Ipswich River near its mouth, and on the Boston & Maine railroad, 27 miles northeast of Boston, and 9 miles south of Newburyport. As Agawam, it was settled in 1633 by John Win- throp and 12 others. The name was changed to Ipswich (after Ipswich, England), in the fol- lowing year, by resolution of the Massachusetts General Court. As early as 1634 it had a meet- ing-house, while in 1642 the first free school in the town was established. Ipswich was among the foremost towns of Massachusetts in re- sisting the arbitrary taxation introduced under Gov. Andros in 1687, and a number of its citi- zens suffered punishment in consequence of this action, which foreshadowed the stand to be taken later, by this town and the colonies gen- erally, against similar policies on the part of the British government. Among the distin- guished persons who at some time lived at Ips- wich were Anne Bradstreet, Nicholas Easton, William Hubbard, John Norton, and others. The town has various industries, among the ar- ticles manufactured being grist-mill products, hosiery and underwear, bricks, lumber and boxes, carriages, cabinet-work, soap, isinglass, heels, etc. The Manning High school, the Ips- wich Historical Society, and the excellent pub- lic library give the town rank and influence in educational and literary affairs. Pop. (1900) 4,658. Iquique, é-ké'kā, Chile, a seaport in the province of Tarapacá, till quite recently merely a small fishing village, but now a town of about 34,000 inhabitants. It owes its prosperity to the export of nitrate of soda and borax, the former of which especially is found in great quantities in the pampa of Tamarugal. The annual ex- port of nitrate amounts to about 350,000 tons, and that of borax to about 1,500 tons. Iodine is also exported. The pampa of Tamarugal still contains, it is estimated, about 60,000,000 tons of saltpeter. In 1868, and again in 1877, the town was almost entirely destroyed by an earth- quake. In 1879 it was bombarded and captured by Chile from Peru; and in 1891 it was much damaged by insurgents. Iquitos, é-ké'tós, a native tribe in Peru, residing at Loreto, on the left bank of the Mara- fion, about 75 miles above the mouth of the Rio Napo. The settlement has an active trade, valued at $2,000,000 annually; the imports are exchanged mostly for india rubber. In 1900 they numbered about I2,000. Irade, i-rá'dé, a Turkish decree or com- mand of the Sultan, directed to his grand vizier, whose duty it is to announce it to the public. Iran, ê-rān', the name given by the ancient Persians to their native land, in opposition to Aniran (that is, Not Iran), the land of the bar- barians, by which term were meant principally the Turco-Tartaric tribes bordering on the north. The Persian rulers of the dynasty of the Sassanidae call themselves, in inscriptions on monuments and elsewhere, kings of Iran and Aniran. At the present day the name is used in contradistinction to Turan, the name applied to the more depressed regions of Asia inhabited by the Turco-Tartaric tribes, to designate the great table-land of Asia, which has a mean ele- vation of from 3,500 to 4,000 feet. The central portion of this table-land consists of an exten- sive salt-desert. Iranian (i-rā'ni-an) Languages, a family of the Indo-European languages, closely allied to the Indian group, and called by Some philol- ogists Persian, from the best known member of the family. The two oldest known Iranian lan- guages are the Old Persian and Zend. The former — that of the cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemenian dynasty, and the language of the Persians proper — has only become known -， ， ， ， … |-| …，|- |（~）. JOHN IRELAND. ARCHIBISHOP OF ST. PAUL. IRELAND or cotton) is very flourishing. The number of textile factories in 1890 was 263, which employed 7I,788 persons. There are about 20 mills en- gaged in paper-making. The brewing of porter and distillation of whiskey form important items in the national production. The making of shirts and other clothing for men is becoming prominent. Ship-building was begun several years ago, and during the last of the I9th cen- tury it became quite prominent. The largest ship-building yards are in Belfast, where about Io,000 men and boys are employed. The ships of the White Star line are all built in Belfast. Ship-building is carried on to some extent at Dublin, Londonderry, and Haulbowline. Home work still flourishes; and the Irish hand-made laces and embroideries are still popular. Commerce.— That of Ireland is not at all proportioned to her natural capabilities, and to the admirable facilities afforded by the excellent harbors situated on her coasts. The laws made by the British government to destroy the com- merce of Ireland account in a large measure for the present condition of trade. The most impor- tant articles of export find a market in Great Britain. They consist chiefly of grain and flour, live stock, salt and fresh meat, eggs and butter. Manufactured articles, particularly linen, rank next in importance; but as the bulk of such ar- ticles is very small in comparison with their value, the trade, or at least the shipping con- nected with them, holds only a secondary place. The trade with foreign countries is also incon- siderable. The principal imports are colonial produce, woolen and cotton goods, wheat, wool, coal, and salt. Of the shipping employed in this trade only a mere fraction is Irish. Belfast and Dublin are the chief shipping ports. The value of the exports direct from Ireland to foreign ports was about $4,533,090 in 1883, of imports from foreign parts $53,166,620; in 1900 they were $6,560,240 and $50,072,985, respectively. In I90o the number of vessels entered from the col- onies and foreign parts was 1,048 (1,032,109 tons); and cleared 448 (473,758 tons); entered coastwise 31,069 (6,401,172 tons); cleared 31,026 (6,746,328 tons). Transportation.— The rivers of Ireland form excellent navigable channels. In several of them, however, when the water was low, the navigation became seriously impeded by rocky shoals. In removing these, or in making artifi- cial cuts for the purpose of avoiding them, vast sums have been expended. Improvements of equal importance have been made by the con- struction of canals; but since the introduction of railroads, canals have in Ireland, as elsewhere, sunk to a position of secondary importance. The principal canals are the Grand Canal, I65% miles in length; the Royal Canal, 96% miles; the Barrow Navigation, 42% miles; the Newry Navigation, 35 miles; the Lagan Navigation, 26% miles. With the exception of the Barrow Navigation, the Grand Canal, and the Lagan Navigation, the dividends paid by the Irish canals in the possession of public companies are almost nominal. The Royal Canal yields a profitable return, but it is merged in the Mid- land Great Western Railway. The Grand and Royal canals connect the important systems of the Shannon Navigation, in all 158 miles in length, with Dublin. The railroad system of Ire- land has attained a considerable development. The roads are all constructed on a gauge of 5 feet 3 inches, which is compulsory. The aver- age cost of construction, including carrying stock, is about $80,000 per mile. The principal railroads are the Belfast and Northern Counties Railway, with a total length of 180 miles; the Dublin, Wicklow, and Wexford Railway, 135 miles in length; the Great Southern and West- ern, 478 miles; the Midland Great Western Rail- way, 425 miles (including the Dublin and Meath, Great Northern and Western, etc.); the Great Northern of Ireland, 503 miles (including the Dublin and Belfast Junction, 63 miles, and the Ulster Railway, 140 miles); and the Water- ford and Limerick Railway, 14.1% miles, or in- cluding the lines of other companies worked by it, 269 miles in length. Few of the Irish rail- roads pay any dividend at all; but those that do pay represent a large proportion of the capital invested in railroads in Ireland, and some of them are very remunerative concerns. The most profitable of them are a short one connecting Dublin with Kingstown, the Belfast and North- ern Counties, and the Ulster Railway. The total length of railroads completed and open for traf- fic I Jan. I902 was 3,208 miles. The total num- ber of passengers for that year was about 28,- OOO,000, the total amount of minerals and general merchandise carried, about 5,300,000 tons; the total receipts from the carriage of passengers and goods amounted to nearly $20,000,000. Public Works.- Large sums have been ad- vanced in loan by the sanction of the imperial parliament under various acts for public works and improvements in Ireland. The Irish board of public works has charge of such grants and their expenditure; the objects to which they are applied include landed improvements and drain- age, fishery piers and harbors, roads, bridges, and public buildings, tramways, light rail- ways, and certain lines of inland navigation, and the preservation of ancient monuments. The commissioners have authority to lend for the purpose of any work for which county or bor- ough councils are authorized to borrow. Of $121,141,190 of loans advanced for purposes that have not yet been fully carried out (“current Services”), $67,655,395 have been repaid, besides interest amounting to $35,707, II5, while the sum of $7,985,250 has been remitted. The largest item of this expenditure, namely, $26,196, Ioo, has been spent on the improvement of lands; river drainage and navigation have absorbed some $14,837,500, while on lunatic asylum buildings there has been spent $13, IoI,925; in schemes for the improvement of public health, $13,451,390; under the Laborers’ Acts, $9,150,940 (to provide employment, etc.); on railways, $6,000,635; in advances to occupants for improvement of hold- ings, $5,355,530; roads and bridges, $5,041,220. ther sums have been spent on harbors andf docks, reclamation of lands, dwellings for the poorer classes, teachers' residences, dispensaries. and in advance to tenants for the purchase of their farms. The recent Land Purchase Bill has made available a large sum of money to be used in aiding tenants in purchase of hold- ings (1903). Money, Weights, Measures.— The standard of value is gold. Silver is legal tender up to 40 shillings; bronze up to I2 pence; and far- things only to 6 pence. Bank of England notes are legal tender. The names of the coins used are sovereign, half-sovereign, crown, half-crown, florin, shilling, sixpence, threepence, penny, half- IRELAND penny, and farthing. The standard units are: of weight, the pound, 7,000 grains; of length, the yard; of capacity, the gallon, containing Io pounds avoirdupois of distilled water at 62° F., the barometer at 30 inches. On these units all other legal weights and measures are based. The sovereign weighs 123.274 grains, and contains II.3.OOI grains of fine gold. The shil- ling weighs 87.27 grains, and contains 80.727 grains of fine silver. Bronze coins consist of a mixture of copper, tin, and zinc. The penny weighs I45.83 grains. Banks.- The institution known as the Bank of Ireland has a royal charter and unconditional liability. This bank manages, free of charge, all the public debt of Ireland, and, like the Bank of Scotland, it loans money to the British gov- ernment, for which, since 1865, 3 per cent is paid. In 1902 there were in Ireland nine joint- stock banks with 625 branches, all of which had adopted limited liability. Six of the nine banks were note-issuing. There are two kinds of savings banks in Ire- land: One the trustee savings bank, which has been in existence since the first years of the I9th century; the other, the postal savings bank, which was begun in 1861. The annual amounts which may be deposited by each person are reg- ulated by the Savings Bank Act. According to the act for 1893 the amount which may be de- posited in one year by one person is £50, or $244.50, and not £30, or $146.70, as was the law under a former act. The amount of stock which may be purchased was raised from £IOO, or $489, to £200, or $978, and the increase in the stock- Tholding limit was changed from £300, or $1,467, to £500, or $2,445. The post-office savings banks are considered more secure than the trustee sav- ings banks, and the deposits in the former are some larger than in the trustee savings banks. The trustee savings banks received in 1897 about $23,044,180, and in 1902 about $23,547,910. The postal savings banks received in 1897 about $IO,869,735, and in 1901 about $12,298,705. Charities.— The Poor Law, which regulates the system of public charities, is about the same for Ireland as for England and Scotland. It provides for relieving the needy in their own Thomes or for placing them in charitable insti- tutions. The law is administered by the local government board through boards of guardians elected for the purpose. The number of indoor poor who received assistance for the year 1902 was 43,531 ; the number of outdoor poor for the same year was 57,813; and those in asylums, 1,427. A large amount of aid is dispersed through private means; but a strong effort is being made to remove the causes, which are about the same in all countries, and which usu- ally result in poverty. Efforts have been made to improve the methods of work, and to foster habits of economy. Government.— Ireland, by the Act of Union, became an integral part of the United Kingdom, and shares in its legislation by means of 28 rep- resentative peers in the House of Lords, and IO3 representatives in the House of Commons. The representative peers are elected for life by the whole body of Irish peers. The Lord-Lieu- tenant, who represents the sovereign, holds his court in the castle of Dublin. Since 1898 great changes have been made in the manner of ad- ministering the local government. Previous to that date the chief authority in the county was the grand jury, and all local affairs pertaining to the government and local laws were attended to by the grand juries and presentment sessions. The act of 1898 provides for a council, elected by the people, for a term of three years. The government of the boroughs, rural and ur- ban districts, is also vested in an elective coun- cil. The unincorporated boroughs are governed by commissioners. The government of the incorporated bor- oughs is vested in a mayor, aldermen, and coun- cil. The large cities are now county boroughs. The chief secretary, the under-secretary, and four commissioners, who are appointed by the Lord-Lieutenant, constitute the local govern- ment board, which has supervisory authority over the local council. This board approves or rejects nominations made by the local authority, decides upon salaries, and has the whole local government in charge to a certain extent. The judiciary of Ireland is similar in many respects to that of England. The highest tri- bunal is the Supreme Court of Judicature, com- posed of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal. Other courts are the Court of Bankruptcy, the Land Commissioner's Court, and the High Court of Admiralty. The English municipal law is administered by the courts of Ireland. Finances.— In addition to local indebtedness Ireland assists in the liquidation of the national debt of the kingdom. The amount which has been apportioned to Ireland, it is claimed, is larger, in proportion to the wealth of the island, than the amount apportioned to England and Wales. The imperial revenue collected in Ire- land for the fiscal year ending 31 March 1902 was about as follows: Customs, $15,500,000; excise, $15,850,000; estate and duties, $317,300; stamps, $15,740,000; income tax, $5,822,000; post-office, $3,697,000; telegraphs, $876,200; crown lands, $163,400; miscellaneous, $574,200; making a total, together with the non-tax reve- nue, of $46,792,000. The local taxation revenue for the same year was about as follows: Cus- toms, $74,850; excise, $635,000; estate and duties, $995,000. The expenditures for the same year were about as follows: Against exchequer, for the civil government, $22,200,000; for collection of taxes, $1,215,000; post-office, $5,435,000. For local taxation accounts paid the same year, $5,275,000. The whole makes a grand total of about, for imperial revenue, $284,125,000; for local revenue, $1,945,000. The total amount raised for local expenditure was . distributed about as follows: For water, gas, electric lights, $12,270,820; tolls, dues, $1,913,560; rents, interest $1,229,225; gov- ernment contributions, $7,810,780; loans, $2,365,800; miscellaneous, $2,103,685. The chief local expenditures were about as follows: Town and municipal authorities (police, sani- tary works, etc.), $8,025,450; unions, poor relief, $5,592,420; county, rural sanitary, and road au- ºrities, $9,591,165; harbor authorities, $2,422,- 2O. Population.— Since the census of 1841, when the inhabitants of Ireland numbered fully 8,000,- OOO, the population has almost steadily decreased. In 1846–7 a frightful famine, occasioned by the potato disease, broke out, and was followed by a visitation of fever and cholera. The popula- tion was in consequence greatly reduced, and since then emigration has taken the place of IRELAND. 2. St. Stephen's Green Park, Dublin. Albert Memorial, Belfast. I. IRELAND | famine and disease in reducing it further. The extent of this emigration will be gathered from the following statement of the numbers that left the country between 1851 and 1899: Number of Emigrants between May 1, 1851, and Dec. 31, 1898. PROVINCES Males Females Total Leinster . . . . . . . . . . . . 355, I O4 320,706 675,81 o Munster . . . . . . . . . . . 673, Io 640,092 1,313, 198 Ulster . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590,314 475,761 1,066,075 Connaught . . . . . . . . . 282,532 306,616 589, 148 Not specified . . . . . . . 61,766 48,902 II o,668 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . I,962,822 | I,792,077 3,754,899 From the causes just referred to the total population of Ireland, which might by natural increase have amounted to at least IO,000,000, had dwindled away to 4,425,597 in Igo2. The population by provinces in 1901 was as fol- lows: Leinster, I, I52,829 (I50. I per Square mile); Munster, 1,076,188 (II2.3 per Square mile); Ulster, 1,582,826 (183.8 per square mile) ; Connaught, 646,932 (94.5 per square mile). In that year the average population per Square mile for Ireland was 136.7. In 1901 there were six county boroughs with populations as follows: Dublin, 290,638; Belfast, 349,180; Cork, 76,122; Limerick, 38,15I ; Londonderry, 39,892; Water- ford, 26,769. Education.— The present difficulties in estab- lishing a public system of education in Ireland had their origin in the times following the ef- forts to make the people abandon the Roman Catholic Church. As a consequence, the parents refused to patronize the government Schools. The laws of the time of William III. and Queen Anne made it a crime for Catholics to teach or to have their children taught by Catholics, or to send them abroad where they would be educated in Catholic schools. The rigid enforcement of these laws resulted in a large proportion of illit- eracy among the Roman Catholics, although they had established schools abroad which were at- tended by those with wealth sufficient to live in a foreign country. (Consult, ‘History of Irish Schools and Scholars of the Middle Ages.”) The principal educational institutions in Ireland are Dublin University and the three Queen's Colleges. The Queen's Colleges were formerly connected with an examining and degree-con- ferring body, Queen’s University, for which the Royal University of Ireland was substituted in 1882, in pursuance of the University Education (Ireland) Act, 1879; $100,000 being yearly granted from the surplus funds of the Irish Church (q.v.). The Queen's Colleges, how- ever, are not directly affected by this act. The Royal College of Science for Ireland was estab- lished under the authority of the Science and Art Department, London, in August 1867. Its object is to supply a complete course of instruc- tion in science applicable to the industrial arts, and to aid in the instruction of teachers for the local schools of science. There are professors of physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, agricul- ture, mining, geology, applied mathematics, etc. The course of instruction extends over three years. There are also the General Assembly’s Theological College, Belfast; the Magee College, Londonderry, a Presbyterian college opened in 1865, and embracing in its curriculum literature, science, and theology; the College of St. Colum- ba, near Dublin, founded for the purpose of es- tablishing a system of instruction preparatory to the university. The Catholic University of Ireland, estab: lished in 1854, grants degrees in theology and philosophy, and since 1882 sends its students to the Royal University for examinations for de- grees in arts, medicine, law, and engineering. Affiliated with the Catholic University, and now a part of it, are the following colleges: St. Patrick's, Maynooth; University College, Dub- lin; University College, Blackrock; St. Patrick's, Carlow; Holy Cross, Clonliffe; and School of Medicine, Dublin. There are additional, in different cities and towns, about 40 Roman Cath- olic colleges and seminaries for men, and a large number of academies or secondary Schools for women. There are numerous non-sectarian schools, some of them of royal and private foun- dation and endowed, but the most prominent are those established since 1831 under the superin- tendence of the commissioners of national edu- cation. These schools are open to the children of parents of all denominations. The pupils are not required to attend any religious exercises or religious instruction of which their parents or guardians disapprove, and opportunity is given to pupils of each religious persuasion to receive separately at appointed times such religious in- struction as their parents or guardians may ap- prove of. Of these schools there were 8,670 in operation in 1899, with 785,139 pupils on the rolls. The average daily attendance was small, being only 513,852. In 1892 an act was passed by which a beginning was made of free education, and a modified system of compulsion. In 1878 an act was passed for the promotion of the inter- mediate secular education of boys and girls in Ire- land. By this act about $5,000,000 from the Irish Church surplus fund was set apart, being in- vested in commissioners who are to apply the revenue arising from it to the purposes of the act, these being (I) the carrying on of a system of public examinations; (2) the awarding of exhibitions, prizes, and certificates to students; and (3) the payment of results fees to the man- agers of schools fulfilling certain prescribed con- ditions. The schools referred to in the act are of a grade superior to the national schools. The subjects of examination are Latin and Greek, modern languages, Celtic, natural science, math- ematics, etc. The system of apportion accord- ing to results is no longer in use; instead the amounts awarded are based on average attend- 3.11CC. Considerable attention is given to technical instruction. In all the convent schools the young girls have regular courses in domestic science, and in several trades are taught. The Department of Agriculture and Technical In- struction has an advisory board of technical in- struction. In 1901–2 the course of experimental science had been adopted in I52 schools with 6,412 science pupils. The central institutions be- longing to this department are the Royal Col- lege of Science, Dublin, and the Metropolitan School of Art. Throughout the provinces the work is being organized by the councils of county boroughs, urban districts, and counties. The annual grant for the technical instruction is $25,895,000. Provisions are made for the IRELAND special training of teachers for the different de- partments of work. Language and Literature.— The predominant in the Irish literature is the heroic, pathetic, love of nature, romance, virtue, and through all runs the traditional. Although the Ogham, a system of writing, was introduced into Ireland about 13 centuries before Christ, yet the literary produc- tions were transmitted orally. Hyde says, “The Hove of literature of a traditional type, in song, in poem, in Saga, was more nearly universal in Ireland than in any other country of western Europe.” The modern literature of Ireland, or the lit- erature produced by Irish writers of the last centuries, has been included under English lit- erature because the language used is English. See CELTIC LANGUAGES. JMusic.— See IRISH MUSIC. Art and Architecture.— Many of the ancient types of architecture extinct in other lands may still be found in Ireland. Their buildings and home life remained practically undisturbed for centuries; no ancient Roman architecture is found on the island. When Christianity was introduced, the change in form of the Druid temple was for several centuries in accordance with the natural development of the people, ex- •cept the addition of the small cross, the win- “dows facing the east, and the altar. When the Clonfert Cathedral, in County Galway, there is a fine example of an Irish Romanesque door- way. This church is said to have been founded by St. Brendan, “the navigator.” The inter- laced patterns on the piers, the ornamented col- umn, are all most beautiful. “There is not,” says Mr. Brash, “a square inch of any portion of this beautiful doorway without the mark of the Sculptor's tool, every bit of the work being fin- ished with the greatest accuracy.” The Cathe- dral at Ardmore, County Waterford, shows an- other advance in its decoration; here may be Seen The Judgment of Solomon, Adam and Eve, The Magi bringing their gifts, the stable indi- cated by a cow, etc. Many of the modern cathedrals are most beautiful. The “Round Towers” of Ireland have been for years subjects of study and discussion. There exist in Ireland in whole or part about Ioo of those towers; 18 are in a perfect condition. Many claim that the Round Towers are of pre-Chris- tian origin, and cite the similar towers, two in Scotland, seven on islands off the coast, one on the Isle of Man, and a few on the Continent, as examples of pagan architecture. Their average size is IOO feet in height, circumference at base, 50 feet, walls at door lintel, 3% feet. The in- terior is divided into from four to eight stories. Petrie, who has studied the subject with care, claims that the towers are of Christian origin and were used both as bell towers and as safes or places in which to deposit the Church treas- ures. The Irish name for the towers, Cloig- theach, which means “house of a bell,” supports ºbuilding became too small a new one was erected ºbeside it. Some of the existing ancient speci- mens are a group of stone buildings on Skellig Michael, a rock rising precipitously out of the sea to the height of 7oo feet, and about eight ‘miles due west of the nearest headland in the County Kerry. The approach is by a flight of stone steps. Dry rubble masonry forms the walls, and in this group, as in others, the absence of the arch shows its ancient origin. It is oval outside, bee-hive in form, but rectangular within. The door has a horizontal lintel, above which is a small cross worked into the stone wall. The six cells in the interior, the common room for prayer (choir), the chapel, all show it was occu- pied by monks. The doors, with inclined jambs and horizontal lintels, antedate the arch. A wider lintel above, or the double lintel, indicates progression in architecture, a method of reliev- ing the pressure of the roofs. The roofs of the ancient buildings were of stone. There are many of these ancient ruins, some in a good state of preservation. Off the coast of Sligo, at Inishmurray, on the Isles of Aran, on islands off the coast of Kerry, and in many places are found buildings of dry rubble masonry. The change shows itself when cement is used and the walls become perpendicular, as at Gallarus, in Kerry, and a further advance is shown in St. |Declan’s oratory in Ardmore, with square per- pendicular towers, or, more properly, supports at the corners. Some of these were erected in the 6th, 7th, and 8th centuries. St. Colum- Cille's monastery at Kells was built about 807 A.f). In the “Annals of the Four Masters’ men- tion is made of the church St. Kevin founded in about IIo8, and which is still in existence, at *Clendalough. The Romanesque style makes its appearance in the IIth century; the earliest ex- ample is in St. Flannan's, at Killaloe. Brian T}oroimhe is said to have built churches at Killa- £oe, in County Clare. A church built about this time, at Freshford, the ancient Achadh-ur, eight Imiles northwest of Kilkenny, is still in use. At the theory of Petrie and others. Petrie ad- vances other and strong arguments in support of his theory. The ‘Annals of the Four Mas- ters’ mentions the bells in some of the towers. One of the finest examples of a Romanesque doorway in a Round Tower is at Kildare. Some of the ancient pottery shows skill and artistic merit. In designing and coloring the ornamen- tation of the old Celtic manuscripts show great artistic power. The initial letters are most beautiful, especially in the “Book of Kells,” a copy of the four Gospels in Latin, and in ‘Annals of the Four Masters.” The symbolism used by other early nations is not found in the works of the ancient Irish. The designs are geomet- rical patterns, interlaced ribbon work, diagonal and spiral lines, strange animals, peculiar birds, and the key pattern. The ancient metal work shows unique and beautiful designs; the bell shrines, the brooch of Tara, and many pieces of old metal work may be seen in museums. The laces of Ireland, revived the last of the 19th century, show most intricate and charming pat- terns. Sculpture and oil painting are modern arts in Ireland, and in both many of Irish birth have excelled. Religion.— The first authentic account of the introduction of Christianity into Ireland was in the 5th century, when Pope Celestine sent Ger- manus, bishop of Auxerre, and later, in 431, Palladius as bishop. Both Germanus and Pal- ladius found on the island believers in Chris- tianity, but no organized body of Christians. However, the chief work of conversion and or- ganization was accomplished by St. Patrick, who, good authorities state, was sent to Ireland by the same pope. Killpatrick, a town of Scot- land, is said to have been Patrick's birthplace, but some authorities claim that he was a native of France. He had been consecrated bishop IRELAND. 1. Blarney Castle. 2. Innisfallen, Lake Killarney. IRELAND before coming to Ireland as a missionary, and he selected Armagh as his see. A large number of converts were made, so many that even before Patrick died he had other bishops and a number of priests to assist him. The Roman Catholic Church in Ireland has four archdioceses and 25 dioceses. The archdioceses are Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam. The Roman Catholic clergy and churches are all supported by voluntary contributions. The college at Maynooth, for the education of those studying to become priests, was founded in 1795. There are several other Roman Catholic ecclesiastical seminaries and colleges. . The Reformation never made much progress in Ireland, and though a Protestant Episcopal church was established by law, it was only the church of a small minority. In 1869 it was disestablished. Previous to this time the clergy were supported by a tithe rent-charge, the pro- ceeds of the Church lands, etc., the total annual income of the Church, including the value of houses and lands in occupation, being about $3,068,920. By the above act, taking effect from 1 Jan. 1871, the position of the Church and clergy was entirely changed, though those hold- ing benefices at the time of its passing have not suffered loss. The property and tithes formerly belonging to the Church are now vested in commissioners, who pay to all deprived of in- come by the act, so long as they continue to discharge the duties of their offices, such an annual sum of money as they would otherwise Have received, deduction being made of curates’ salaries, and other outgoings to which the parties would have been liable, and regard being paid to the prospective increase of incomes by the falling in or cessation of such charges; or in- stead of an annual sum, an equivalent single payment has been paid to such as have com- muted their claims in that manner. The Irish Church accordingly is no longer a state Church, and none of its bishops have now a seat in Parliament. It is still a vigorous and flourishing institution, however, and possesses funds amounting to over $40,640,000. Of this, upward of $20,000,ooo have been voluntarily contributed by friends of the Church since it was disestab- lished. While disestablishing the Irish Church, the act at the same time declared the cessation of the Maynooth grant and the Regium Domum. The affairs of the Irish Church are now man- aged by the diocesan synods and by the general Synod in conjunction with the representative body. The supreme legislative powers reside in the general synod, which meets in Dublin, and is composed of the archbishops of Armagh and Dublin and the II bishops, and of lay and clerical representatives from the different dio- ceses; the lay representatives being more than twice as numerous as the clerical. The repre- sentative body incorporated in 1870 consists of the archbishops and bishops ex officio, 39 lay and clerical elected members (three for each dio- cese), and I3 co-opted members elected by the other two classes conjointly. This body is em- powered by its charter to hold Church property, subject to the regulations of the general synod. The Church uses the Book of Common Prayer, as revised in accordance with statutes passed by the general Synod, and furnished with a preface containing an exposition of its formularies in the sense in which they are understood by the Church. The Presbyterian Church of Ireland is chiefly confined to the province of Ulster, where it may be said, more especially in the counties of Down and Antrim, to be the leading religious denomination. Its ministers are supported by voluntary contributions, seat-rents, and church funds. . They were formerly aided by an annual grant from government, called the Regium Do- num, the amount of which, paid in 1869, was $202,735. This annual grant, however, was abolished, as already mentioned, by the Irish Church Act of 1869, and was commuted to a single sum of $3,506,860 paid to the Church. According to the census of 1901 there were in Ireland 3,310,028 Roman Catholics, 579,385 Protestant Episcopalians, 443,494 Presbyterians, 61,255 Methodists, and 56,703 members of other persuasions, besides 3,769 Jews. History.-The beginning of the history of Ireland is, like that of all European nations, enveloped in fable. Among the ancients it was known at least as early as the time of Aristotle, who calls it Ierne. In Diodorus Siculus it is called Iris; in Strabo, Ierne; in Pomponius Mela, Iverna; in Pliny, Hybernia. Plutarch calls the island Ogygian, meaning very ancient, and says: “They drew their history from re- mote antiquity, so that of other nations is new compared with them.” Yet the informa- tion to be found about Ireland in the works of the ancient geographers and historians is altogether very scanty. The bardic historians of the country speak of Greek and Phoenician colonies, and lists of kings, for which there is no authentic, but some probable, foundation. The vernacular language of the Irish proves that they are a part of the great Celtic race which was once spread all over Western Europe. The first probable records of the Irish people show that for the times they were advanced in civilization. The ancient bards were called Fileas or Feardanos, which means philosophers. Caesar mentions in his ‘Gallic Wars” their ad- vancement. Pliny, Caesar, and other authors say that the Druids who inhabited Ireland were learned ; they knew philosophy and the sciences. In the Irish chronicles we find that in the reign of Eochy the First, more than a thousand years before the birth of Christ, “society was classified into seven grades, each marked by the number of colors in its dress, and that in this classification men of learning, that is, eminent scholars, were by law ranked next to royalty.” Another proof of the exist- ence of an ancient civilization, marvelous for its time, was the institution of Feis Tara or the Triennial Parliament of Tara. The monarch, Ollav Feola, who reigned as Ard-Ri, or mon- arch, of Erinn, about 1,000 years before Christ, established this parliament. The subordinate royal princes or chieftains, constituted one branch; the Ollavs or law-givers, and bards, judges, Scholars, and historians, another branch; and the third consisted of the military com- manders. Under the Ard-Ri, or monarch, were the kings of the provinces, and under each king were the clans who were governed locally by a chief, each clan selecting its own. Wars were frequent, as fighting and bloodshed were common pastimes throughout the then known world. The battle was the final court of appeal, and in most instances the first court of trial. A cause of dissension in Ireland, as in Great Britain and other countries, was the antagonism IRELAND existing among people of different races. The Milesians, the Tuatha de Danaans, and the Fir- bolgs (q.v.) were distinct races centuries after the Milesians landed in Ireland. The differences among themselves seem not to have seriously affected their union when attacked by a common foe; as at the birth of Christ, when Rome was mistress of nearly all of Europe, she had never gained possession of Ireland. The introduction of Christianity into Ireland was not attended with bloodshed as in many other countries; indeed, afterward the nation seems to have enjoyed a season of repose from Strife, although southern Europe was being overrun with the Germanic hordes. This repose favored the growth and expansion of Christianity and the progress of learning. The schools and monas- teries founded by Saint Patrick and his bishops in the 5th century became the centres from which went forth many scholars; and even as early as the 6th century, Ireland became the seat of western learning; and its monasteries were the schools from whence missionaries who disseminated the Christian faith throughout continental Europe proceeded. In the 8th and 9th centuries the scholars of Ireland were among the most distinguished at the courts of the kings, especially at that of Charlemagne, but when the Northmen commenced their de- scents some of the schools were destroyed and the monks dispersed. The ravages of the Danes at this period had results different from the at- tacks of the Romans. The continued attacks for nearly two centuries fostered internal dissen- sions, when in the beginning of the IIth cen- tury Brian Boroimhe (Brian of the Tribute) united the greater part of the island under his sceptre, restored public tranquillity, and subdued the northern invaders. After a contest of about 20 years he conquered Malachy, the brave war- rior who “wore the collar of gold” won from the Danish invader, and became Ard-Ri of all Erinn. After the death of Brian, the island became a place of dissension; frequent wars rendered them weak against a foreign foe. This condition was largely the result of the divisions, made by Brian, of the island among his three sons. At this time Henry II. of England, pro- fessing love for Ireland and a great desire to re- store peace, sought to gain possession of the island. This was the beginning of the Anglo- Norman invasion of Ireland. Henry II. claimed to have received from Pope Adrian IV. a bull authorizing him to take possession of Ireland. (The authenticity of this bull is very doubtful.) After some delays occasioned by internal trou- bles in England, Henry attempted to gain pos- session of Ireland. For many years after, the history of Ireland was a record of persecution, confiscation of lands, and attempts to wrest from the people inalienable and hereditary rights. So great was the resistance that in the I4th century, at the time of Richard II., the authority of England extended practically over only a small portion of country on the eastern coast, called “The Pale” (q.v.). This was governed by various nobles subject to a viceroy. The sub- jection was, however, sometimes little more than nominal. The nobles quarreled among themselves, and were very often at open feud. The beginning of the reign of Edward III. (1327) was marked in Ireland by the out- break of civil strife in every part of the English “Pale,” advantage of which was taken by the Irish for a general rising, which threatened the safety of the English colonists, and which the government found itself unable to subdue, until it yielded to the demands of the barons in Ire- land, by granting them complete civil and mili- tary jurisdiction in their own districts. During the wars with France some Irish troops served in the English armies, and the common Sym- pathies induced by that circumstance seemed likely to promote a better state of feeling be- tween the two races, when the breach was made wider than ever by the celebrated statute of Kil- kenny (1367), framed under the viceroyalty of Lionel, duke of Clarence, son of Edward III., forbidding, under severe penalties, intermar- riages between English and Irish, the assump- tion of Irish names by persons of English blood, the use of the Irish language, the native (Brehon) law, etc. In consequence of this the disturbances between the Irish and English in- habitants of Ireland increased so greatly that the English viceroy found it necessary to pro- tect The Pale by payments of money to the Irish chiefs, and this state of matters continued dur- ing the reigns of Richard II., Henry IV., and Henry V., until, in that of Henry VI., when Richard, duke of York, was appointed governor of the island, who succeeded by his politic meas- ures in restoring peace. In the reign of Henry VII. (I495) was passed Poyning's Act (SO called from Sir Edward Poyning, lord-deputy of Ireland), which provided that all former laws passed in England should be in force in Ireland, and that no Irish Parliament should be held without previously stating the reasons on ac- count of which it was to be summoned, and the laws which it was intended to enact. The power of the English government in Ireland was thus strengthened, but nothing was done to improve the condition of the Irish, whom the oppressive severity of the English yoke em- bittered without subduing. At the beginning of the 16th century the greater part of the island still remained unconquered by the English. The Irish still lived according to their old con- stitution under their own chiefs. In 1541 Henry VIII. received from the Irish Parliament the title of King of Ireland; but he did nothing to extend the English sway, or to improve the social circumstances of the people. The Ref- ormation which took place in England during this reign took but a slight hold upon Ireland even in the English districts; but the monas- teries were suppressed, and the tribute to the Papal see abolished. Elizabeth's reign was Imarked by a series of risings, which finally ter- minated in a general war against England, usu- ally called the Rebellion. Hugh O’Neil, who had been raised by the queen to the dignity of Earl of Tyrone, was the leader in this war, which, though successfully begun, ended with the complete defeat of the insurgents, and the reduction of the whole island by the English (1603). More than 600,000 acres of land were taken from the Irish chiefs, and for the most part distributed among English colonists. The reign of James (I603–25) was somewhat favora- ble to Ireland; the arbitrary power of some of the chieftains was restrained, and the adminis- tration of justice improved, etc.; but the means which he took to effect some of these improve- ments were tyrannical. He demanded from every Irish chief the document upon which he rested his claim to his property, and if it were IRELAND not to be found, or contained even any formal error, his lands were forfeited to the crown. f 800,000 acres of land which in this way came into the hands of the king in the north of the island, a large share was entirely withdrawn from the Irish, and divided among Scotch or English settlers. In addition to this, the Catho- lics, on account of the oath of supremacy by which all public officers were required to acknowledge the king as head of the church, remained excluded from all official appoint- ments. The Roman Catholic hierarchy estab- lished in the 5th century was still in existence. Various circumstances, led, in I641, to an at- tempt to shake off the English yoke. Dr. Lin- gard says of this insurrection that it has been usual, for writers to paint the atrocities of the natives, and to omit those of their opponents, but that revolting barbarities are still recorded of both, and that if among the one there were monsters who thirsted for blood, there were among the other those who had long been ac- customed to deem the life of a mere Irishman beneath their notice. After the death of Charles I., Cromwell was appointed (15 Aug. I649) lieu- tenant of Ireland. With great cruelty, he re- duced the whole country within nine months. All the possessions of the Catholics were confis– cated, about 20,000 Irish were sold as slaves in America, and 40,000 entered into foreign service, to escape the severity of the conqueror. (See Drogheda.) Charles II. restored a portion of the lands, but fully two-thirds remained in pos- session of the English or of Irish who had be- come Protestants. Under James II. some changes were made; under his viceroy, Earl of Tyrconnell, Catholics were given a fair repre- sentation in Parliament. In the English Revo- lution of I688, the Catholics of Ireland sided with James, and the Protestants with William III. For a time the army favoring James were fairly successful; but the landing of William in Ireland changed matters. The battle, I July I690, at Boyne, won by William, proved a turn- ing point, as it encouraged the English and in a great measure discouraged the Irish. Sarsfield’s gallant defense of Limerick, the last place in Ireland that held out for James, saved that city from capture by William's troops; but on 3 Oct. 1690, the city capitulated, a treaty being conclud- ed with Gen. Ginkell on behalf of the English, according to which , the Irish were to be allowed the free exercise of their religion, as had been granted by Charles II. More than I2,000 Irish that had fought on the side of James went into voluntary exile. The Treaty of Limerick was not kept by the English, a fact which is commemorated by the name which the Irish still give to the place at which it was con- cluded, “The City of the Violated Treaty.” By a decree of the English Parliament upward of I,000,000 acres of land were now confiscated and divided among Protestants. In order to keep down every movement of the Catholic population, cruel penal laws were passed against those who adhered to that form of religion. By these laws the higher Roman Catholic ecclesiastical dignitaries were banished from the island; the priests were not allowed to leave their counties; no Roman Catholic could hold a public office, acquire landed property, enter into a marriage with a Protestant, etc. Such suppression and persecution naturally led to the formation of secret organizations whose object would be an overthrow of those in power, in order to Secure freedom and justice. “Whiteboys,” “Levellers,” and a number of kindred organizations were formed, whose methods were not always fair; but who were brought into existence by force of circumstances. All this, however, did not ameliorate the general condition of the country, and it was not till the American War of Inde- pendence taught the English government the folly of attempting to govern a people by coer- cion, that the severity of the laws relating to Ireland was mitigated. In 1778 the penal laws against the Catholics, although not repealed, were made much more lenient. Catholics were henceforth permitted to acquire landed proper- ty, to erect schools, and to observe their own re- ligion under fewer restrictions. In 1783, Poyn- ing's Act was repealed. The outbreak of the French Revolution had naturally a great effect on the minds of the Irish people. Out of a corps of volunteers which had been formed in 1779, but which had been dissolved a few years later, a society was formed calling itself the Society of United Irishmen, which included in it many Protestants, and which sought to make Ireland an independent nation. The Catholics at the same time took ad- vantage of the embarrassment of the British government to demand equal rights with the Protestants, and the government gave in to this demand so far as to remove the hin- drances which had been placed by the law in the way of Irish trade and industry, and to repeal nearly all that remained of the penal laws against the Catholics, who now received the right of acting as counsel be- fore the court, and of entering into marriages with Protestants. When further demands were refused, the Society of United Irishmen allowed its revolutionary aims to become more apparent, and the government then determined to quell the movement by force. The Habeas Corpus Act, which had been introduced into the country in I782, was repealed; the towns were strongly garrisoned, and the society dissolved and dis- armed. But the conspirators, trusting to ex- pected aid from France, were not discouraged. At the close of 1796 a considerable French fleet did actually appear off the Irish coast bearing 25,000 land troops, under the command of Gen. Hoche; but owing to adverse winds, and the incompetence of the commanders, it was obliged to return without having accomplished any- thing. The only effect of this expedition was to induce the government to take still stronger measures in Ireland, the whole of which was placed under military law. The United Irish- men were thus prevented from taking any open steps for renewing the society, but they con- tinued to pursue their ends in secret, and de- vised for themselves a very skilful military organization. At its head was a directory of five men, whose names were known only to those at the head of the provincial committees. In January 1798 the society already numbered more than 500,000 members, when a treacher- ous member gave information regarding the Society to the government, and several of the lead- ers were seized. In consequence of this the conspirators, not knowing the extent of the revelations that had been made, resolved to anticipate any further preventive measures on the part of the government, and rushed into premature action. In May 1798, simultaneous IRELAND risings took place at different parts of the island; but the government was fully prepared, and the main body of the insurgents, who made a brave fight, suffered a decisive defeat at Vinegar Hill on 21 June. Flying col- umns traversed the island, and checked by the most violent measures any further outbreaks. In August a French Squadron appeared in Killala Bay with I,500 men on board, under Gen. Humbert; but the British troops prevented a junction with the in- surgents, so that they were soon compelled to surrender. Another French expedition which approached the Irish coast in September was overtaken and attacked by Admiral Warren, and nearly all the ships composing it were cap- tured. Several subsequent attempts of the French were similarly frustrated. The events of this insurrection brought the British government to form the resolution of uniting the Irish and English Parliaments, since in the state of feeling which that movement too plainly manifested as prevailing among the peo- ple, it was seen that the independence of legisla- tion enjoyed by the country fostered the desire of political independence, and it was feared that new revolutionary efforts might thence derive a legal sanction. The first proposal to this effect which was made in the Irish Parliament was re- jected with indignation. The government then resorted to bribery to secure its purpose, and $8,000,000 was spent in buying up the rotten boroughs which had the majority of seats in the Irish House of Commons. The Irish land- 1ords were from the first favorable to the pro- ject. By these means an act providing for the legislative union of the two countries passed the Irish Parliament on 26 May 1800, and the British Parliament on 2 July in the same year, in virtue of which the union was effected on I Jan. 1801. But although this measure bound the destinies of Ireland still more closely to those of England, yet it was far from putting an end to the religious and political troubles which had so long divided the two countries. In order to gain the masses the enlight- ened Pitt had promised a complete political emancipation of the Catholics; but the bigoted George III. could not be induced to make this concession. Enraged at this great breach of faith the Catholics in 1802 formed a Catholic Asso- ciation, having for its object the accomplishment of this end; but it was not till the period of O’Connell's agitation, favored by a change of public opinion in England, that the government was induced to bring in an Emancipation Bill, which after passing both houses of Parliament, received the assent of George IV. On 13 April 1829. A new oath, which could be taken by Catholics as well as Protestants, was substituted for the one previously required from members of Parliament, and the Catholics were thus en- abled to take a seat in the house. They were also allowed to fill all public offices except that of lord-chancellor. This victory was greeted by the Irish Catho- lics with great joy; but they wanted more than emancipation which meant permission to hold certain offices, they wanted independence. The efforts of the national party were now directed to the repeal of the Union, for which purpose O'Connell founded the Repeal Association, which caused the Grey ministry in 1833 to bring before Parliament the Irish Coercion Bill (q.v.). When this bill became law the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland was empowered to forbid all assem- blies of the people, and to proclaim military law throughout the island; and in order to give force to the act an army of 36,000 men, besides 6,000 armed police, was sent over. The Coercion Act was indeed soon repealed, and from 1835, under the viceroyalty of Lord Mulgrave, a bet- ter feeling seemed to be growing up between the people and the government. But when the Tories came again into power in August 1841, O'Connell began anew the repeal agitation, and with such boldness that in 1843 the authorities caused him to be apprehended on a charge of conspiracy and sedition, on which he was con- yicted and condemned to pay a fine and suffer imprisonment for a year. These proceedings were, however, declared illegal by the House of Lords, and O’Connell was released. Soon after the terrible famine which visited Ireland in the autumn of 1845, and still more severely in the Summer of 1846, cast all other interests into the background. The spirit of the people seemed broken, and many of them sadly left their native land and by hundreds of thousands emi- grated to America. In the midst of this crisis O’Connell died, and the place of the party which he led was taken by one still more advanced, which received the name of Young Ireland. In these circumstances of political excitement the French revolution, which took place in Febru- ary 1848, had a great effect upon Ireland. The leaders of the Young Ireland party, Smith O’Brien, Mitchel, Duffy, Meagher, and others, entered into relations with the provisional gov- ernment at Paris, and the people generally be- gan openly to provide themselves with arms, and to exercise themselves in the use of them. But the measures of the government fustrated the designs of the conspirators. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended, the insurrectionary newspapers suppressed, and Smith O’Brien, who had been hailed by the people as King of Munster, and a number of his associates were arrested and condemned to death. This pun- ishment was afterward commuted to transporta- tion. In a short time peace was restored; but the material distress remained undiminished. Famine and disease decimated the population. The agricultural holdings were deserted, whole districts remained uncultivated, and a constant and overflowing stream of emigration directed itself toward the United States. fter a time agriculture revived, and the manufacturing industries of the island began to compete with those of England. In 1849 were chartered the Queen's Colleges, offering the same advantages to Catholics as to Protestants; but these institutions have been taken comparatively little advantage of by the former. The history of those institutions made the Catholics fear they were meant as a menace to their faith. In I852 telegraphic communication was opened with Great Britain. In 1853 an industrial ex- hibition was held at Dublin, resembling that held two years before in London; another exhibition was held in 1865. The latter year witnessed the discovery of a new conspiracy designed to effect a separation between England and Ireland. This had its origin in America at the time of the Civil War in the United States, when the numerous Irish in that country saw an oppor- tunity in England's attitude toward the seceding States. This conspiracy, originating among the IRELAND – IRETON members of a secret society calling themselves Fenians (see FENIANs), soon spread to Ire- land; but before the Fenians could take any overt action in that island their design was stifled by the proceedings of the British government (1865–6). The attention of Eng- lish statesmen was now strongly drawn to the necessity of doing all that could be done to render the Irish people loyal and contented; and with this view an act to disestablish the Irish Protestant Episcopal Church was passed in 1869, and another to improve the tenure of land, in I870. Since 1871 an agitation for what is called Home Rule has made itself prominent. In 1880 Ireland became the scene of an agitation car- ried on mainly by a body calling themselves the Land League. Various severe laws were passed to “coerce,” but further concessions were made, and to redress Irish grievances a land act was also passed in August 1881. Under this act substantial reductions on rents were made. The Land League was sup- pressed, but a new body called the National League was soon organized in its place. Another act for the relief of tenants in arrear with their rents was passed, 1885. In 1885, 86 Nationalist members, headed by C. S. Parnell, were returned to Parliament, and their pressure on the govern- ment led to the production of a scheme by Mr. Gladstone, in 1886, by which Ireland was to re- ceive a parliament of her own and the Irish members to be withdrawn from the Imperial Parliament. This scheme and the accompany- ing land purchase scheme were rejected by Par- liament and the constituencies; and a fresh act against crime in Ireland was passed in 1887, although statistics showed the island was in a most peaceable condition, and no remarkable acts of lawlessness were being committed. In I898 a very important Local Government (Ire- land) Act was passed. It established county councils, urban district councils, rural district councils, and boards of guardians in Ireland, and transferred to them the administrative func- tions formerly discharged by the grand juries and presentment sessions. The first elections under the act took place early in 1899. The re- sults showed that the voters of Ireland realized they were gaining ground. They never lost an opportunity to proclaim their discontent with the existing land laws, and their desire for “Home Rule.” The Irish members of the British Parliament kept the cause of Ireland before the people; and in 1903 a further concession was gained. On 1 Nov. 1903 a new “Land Act” went into effect whereby the tenants, sub-ten- ants, or the people, may purchase the land and hold it as their own. Arrangements were made to assist the tenant in making the purchase. Bibliography.— Hull, “Geology and Geog- raphy of Ireland”; Murray, ‘Handbook of Ire- land”; Russell, ‘Beauties and Antiquities of Ireland”; Johnson, ‘Historic and Picturesque Ireland? ; Cooke, ‘Handbook for Travellers in Ireland? ; Johnson, ‘The Isle of the Shamrock” ; McCarthy, “Five Years in Ireland? ; O'Brien, ‘Local Government in Ireland”; “The Great Famine in Ireland”; Russell, ‘Ireland and the Empire.” Art and Architecture.— Petrie, ‘Theories of the Origin of the Round Towers of Ireland? ; Wood-Martin, ‘Handbook of Irish pre-Christian Antiquities”; Stokes, ‘Irish Architecture? ; Dun- raven, ‘Round Towers’; George (in Chambers’ ‘Journal,” Vols. 75 and 76), ‘Irish Home In- dustries”; in Reliquary, Vols. V. and VI., and in Canadian Magazine, Vol. IV., articles on ‘The Cathedrals of Ireland.” History and Literature.— Falkner, ‘Studies in Irish History and Biography”; Frost, ‘Fairies and Folk Lore”; Curtin, ‘Hero Tales”; “Myths and Folk Lore of Ireland? ; ‘Tales of Fairies in Munster’; Lecky, ‘Leaders of Public Opinion”; Hyde, ‘Literary History”; Joyce, ‘Short His- tory of Ireland? ; Duffy, ‘Young Ireland’; Zimmern, ‘The Irish Element in Mediaeval Cul- ture”; Bryce, “Two Centuries of Irish History’; Richey, ‘Lectures on the History of Ireland? ; • Wills, ‘The Irish Nation; Its History and Its Biography”; Richey, ‘History of the Irish Peo- ple’; Westminster Review, Vol. 136, ‘Some Notable Irish Elegies’; Haverty, ‘Catalogue of Rare Books Relating to Ireland”; MacGeoghe- gan, ‘The National History of Ireland? ; Plow- don, ‘Historical Review of the State of Ire- land”; Lecky, ‘History of Ireland in the Eigh- teenth Century”; Mitchel, “The History of Ireland”; Sullivan, ‘Story of Ireland? ; McGee, ‘History of Ireland? ; Sullivan, ‘Ireland of To- Day”; Healy, ‘Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars? ; Froude, ‘History of Ireland) ; Burke, ‘Ireland's Case Stated in Reply to Froude.” B. E. BURKE, Editorial Staff (Encyclopedia Americana.” Ireland, Church of. See IRELAND. Ireland, Language of. See CELTIC LAN- GUAGE. Irenaeus, i-ré-né'ās, Saint, one of the Greek Church Fathers: b. Asia Minor ; d. Lyons, France, about 202. He was a learned and zeal- ous man, a pupil of Polycarp and Papias. He actively opposed the Gnostics, and especially the Valentinians. His works are lost, except his ‘Libri V. adversus Haereses,” of which there are fragments in the original Greek, and a Latin version, made, it is supposed, toward the end of the 4th century. He suffered martyr- dom at Lyons, of which he was bishop, in the persecution under Septimius Severus. Irene, 1-ré'né, empress of Constantinople: b. Athens about 752 A.D.; d. Lesbos 15 Aug. 803. In 769 she married Leo IV., after whose death, caused, as is generally believed, by poison ad- ministered by her, she raised herself (780) and her son Constantine VI., then but nine years old, to the imperial throne. When Constantine came of age he refused to permit her to par- ticipate in the government, and seven years later was arrested at the order of his mother, blinded and at last murdered. Irene was the first woman who reigned over the Eastern Empire. Her triumphal entrance into Constantinople, her liberality, the freedom bestowed on all prisoners, and other artifices employed by her, were not sufficient to Secure her from the consequences of her criminal accession. She had ordered many nobles into banishment, when Nicephorus, her treasurer, who had secretly been made em- peror, exiled her in 802 to the Isle of Lesbos. Her zeal for image-worship has caused her to be regarded as a saint by the Greek Church. Ireton, ir’tón, Henry, English general and statesman: ; b. Attenton, Nottinghamshire, 1611; d. Limerick, Ireland, 26 Nov. 1651. He was graduated at Trinity College, Oxford, and brought up to the law; but when the civil con- tests commenced joined the parliamentary army, IRIDIUM — IRISH ACADEMY and by the interest of Cromwell, whose daugh- ter Bridget he married in 1646, became commis- sary-general. At the battle of Naseby he commanded the left wing, which was de- feated by the furious onset of Prince Rupert, and was himself wounded and made prisoner. He soon recovered his liberty, and took a prom- inent part in all the transactions which threw the Parliament into the power of the army. He had also a principal hand in framing the ordi- nance for the king's trial, and was one of the judges. Ireton accompanied Cromwell to Ire- land in 1649, and was left by him in that island as lord-deputy. He reduced the natives to obedience with great vigor, but not without cruelty. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, and after the Restoration his body was taken up, Suspended from the gallows with that of Cromwell, and buried in the same pit. Irid'ium, a metallic element resembling platinum in its general properties, and occurring in nature in the metallic form, alloyed, usually, with platinum and osmium. The commercial supply comes chiefly from the Ural district, from Brazil, and from Borneo. Small amounts have also been obtained from California. The exist- ence of iridium was first recognized, in 1802, by Tennant, who observed that an insoluble residue remained behind after dissolving platinum ore in aqua regia. In 1804 he showed that this res- idue contains two new metals, to which he gave the respective names “iridium” and “osmium.” The separation of iridium from the other metals of the platinum group is a matter of some diffi- culty; and for details of the processes employed the more extended treatises on metallurgy and the chemistry of the metals must be consulted. Iridium is frequently obtained in the form of a Spongy gray mass, or a gray powder; but by heating either of these to whiteness, and sub- jecting them to compression, the metal may be brought into the form of a compact, lustrous mass resembling steel. In this form it is harder than iron, and somewhat malleable when hot, though brittle when cold. At ordinary tempera- tures it has a specific gravity of about 22.4, be- ing, with the exception of osmium, the heaviest substance known. Its specific heat is about O.0323 at ordinary temperatures, and its coeffi- cient of linear expansion (Fahrenheit) is about O.OOOOO39. Its melting point is very high, the estimates given by various authorities ranging from 3,600° F. to 4,500° F. Compact iridium, after being strongly heated, is insoluble in all acids, and is not affected by air or moisture. The metal has the symbol Ir, and an atomic weight of 193 if O = I6, or 191.5 if H = I. It forms numerous salts, but these are of no prac- tical importance. The name “iridium” (from Greek, “rainbow,”) refers to the varied colors exhibited by the salts of this element, as they pass from one state of oxidation to another. Metallic iridium, either alone or alloyed with Other metals of the platinum group, is used in the arts to a limited extent, where a hard, non- corrosible metal is needed. In particular, it is used for the tips of gold and stylographic pens, for the construction of standards of length, and for standard electrical resistance coils. Iridosmine, ir-i-dòs'min, or Osmiridium, a natural alloy of iridium and osmium in varying proportions, is a hard slightly malleable mineral, crystallizing in rhombohedra. It usually occurs as irregularly flattened grains, and contains Some platinum, rhodium and other metals of the platinum group. It is found associated with platinum in the Ural Mountains, in South Amer– ica, and elsewhere. It is also found in the black sands on the ocean beaches of northern California, and a small amount is recovered yearly by placer miners in the Sierra Nevada. Iridosmine is used to a small extent for pointing gold pens. Iriga, ć-ré'gá, Philippines, pueblo of the province of Ambos Camarines (Sur), Luzón, on the Buhi River, 23 miles southeast of Nueva Cáceres. It is on the main road, is a military and telegraph station, and one of the most im- portant towns in the province. Pop. I7,100. Iris, i'rís, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thaumas and Electra, sister of the Harpies, the fleet golden-winged messenger and servant of the Olympian gods, especially of Zeus and Hera. Iris was originally the personification of the rainbow, though she does not appear in the Homeric poems as the goddess of the rainbow. She is sometimes represented as a beautiful vir– gin with wings and a variegated dress, with a rainbow above her, or a cloud on her head exhibiting all the colors of the rainbow. Iris Family, a natural order of monocoty- ledonous herbs, mostly perennials with tubers, corms or rhizomes, and usually with an acrid flavor. About 8oo species belonging to more than 50 genera have been described from tem- perate and tropical climates, mostly from South Africa and tropical America. They are char- acterized by two rows of leaves, the outer of which fit over and protect the inner (equitant); regular or irregular perfect flowers which are frequently handsome ; perianth six parted, the other floral organs in threes; and many-seeded, three-celled fruits (capsules). Some species have been used as food in countries where they are native; others furnish rootstocks which are used for making perfumes, especially orris; some few have been employed to a limited ex- tent in medicine; but the species most widely popular are cultivated for ornamental purposes. Of these last the most important genera are Iris (fleurs-de-lis), Gladiolus, Freesia, Crocus, Tigridia, Tritonia, Sisyrinchium, Iaria and Belemcanda, elsewhere described. The plants of the genus Iris constitute one of the chief ornaments of the northern regions of the globe, and usually grow in wet places, bearing flowers of various colors, but the pre- vailing tint is blue. The common wild iris or flag (I. pseudacorus), common in Europe and also found in the eastern United States, has yellow flowers of large size and long sword-like leaves. The gladdon or stinking iris (I. fastidis– sima) is a British species, with bluish flowers. Among favorite garden species are the English iris (I. Ariphioides), the Persian iris (I. persica), the common iris (I. germanica), the snake's- head iris (I. tuberosa), and the Chalcedonian iris (I. susiana). Orris root consists of the rootstocks of the white-flowered I. florentina. and some other species. Among other species found in the United States are the larger blue flag (I. versi-color), common from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi, the slender blue flag (I. virginica), and several dwarf species. Irish Academy, Royal, a literary and archaeological association founded in Dublin, Ire- IRISH CATHOLIC BENEVOLENT UNION – IRISH LAND LAWS land, in 1786. Its object is to promote the study of literature, antiquities, and Science. The library founded and owned by the asso- ciation contains a large number of Irish manti- scripts and documents of public interest. It has a fine collection of antiquities which have been loaned to the National Museum, Dublin. The association is governed by a council con- sisting of 21 members. This council meets regu- larly several times a year. The work is divided among the members, who are subdivided into committees. The committees are three in number ; committee of literature, Com- mittee of science, committee of antiquities. Stu- dents making historical research in Ireland have found this association of great assistance. Irish Catholic Benevolent Union, a frater- nal organization founded in the United States in 1869. It has 149 subordinate societies and 14,000 members. The benefits disbursed since organization have amounted to over $2,500,000, and during the year 1902 amounted to $45,371. The membership in the union is confined to persons of Irish extraction, who are communi- cants in the Roman Catholic Church. Irish Deer, or Elk. See ELK. Irish Language, Society for the Preserva- tion of, an organization established in 1873, in Boston, Mass. The object is to foster the study of the Gaelic language so that it may again be one of the spoken languages of the Irish people. At first the society was called the Philo-Celtic Society. The headquarters are now in Dublin, where the organization was estab- 1ished in 1877. It has a number of branches in different parts of the United States. Irish Land Laws. Under the Brehon laws, when the people of Ireland were divided into tribes, the land was usually the property of one of the four or five tribes which were the strong- est in Erin. A large portion was given to the king or chief of the tribe, then divided among the clans that made up the tribe. Here again a large portion was given to the chief of the clan and then divided among the septs. The chief of the septs received the largest portion of the amount set apart for the sept. The free tribesmen, after the chief, received the greater part of the sept lands. Some of the tribesmen, the Ceil, owned cat- tle, some, the Daer and Saer, were loaned cattle by the chief. The Fuidhir were the tenants who performed the manual labor. When a chief died, the tribesmen distributed his land among his descendants, and when a tribesman died, the chief distributed his prop- erty. After England took possession of Ire- land, the land tenure in a large part of the island continued to be administered under the Brehon laws; but within “The Pale” the Eng- lish feudal system prevailed; there the king alone owned the land and the tenants derived ownership from him. Gradually England forced Ther land laws upon Ireland. This was done by driving the “rebellious Irish” out of certain counties, Kings and Queens, then all Ulster, when the Ulster plantation was established, in I607. Other confiscations and dispossessions took place until all Ireland came under the Eng- lish law. Cromwell took forcibly the best lands of Munster and Leinster and a large part of Ulster, and divided the whole among his sol- diers. Although some of the lands were re- stored later, it was retaken, by act of Parlia- men, under William III. Naturally the chiefs and leaders among the people of Ireland were deprived of their lands and the friends of the king of England or the English government, were given Irish possessions as a reward. The penal laws later made it a crime for a Catholic to acquire or hold land. Thus the Irish land question virtually began with the entrance of Henry II. into Ireland. With the Irish owners deprived of their lands there was instituted the system of “landlordism” which has been , a hindrance to Ireland's progress. The majority of those who owned the land did not live upon it, and usually the money received for rent was spent in a foreign country. The landlord owned only the land, the houses had to be built and all improvements had to be made by the tenant and at his own expense. The more a holding was improved, the more rent was demanded. The “middle men” who held lands under the owner, and sublet to tenants were the means of increas- ing the burdens of the peasantry. The com- Imission under Lord Devon, in 1843, to investi- gate conditions in Ireland, revealed an alarming state of affairs and the famine of 1846–8 brought the Irish Land question to the notice of the whole civilized world, even many of the Eng- lish statesmen who had censured Irish shift- lessness were astonished when they learned the nature of the land laws which gave power of eviction without any remuneration for improve- ments; and the wonder was that so much thrift and industry existed. In 1847 Lord Russel en- deavored to have Parliament pass an act to protect the tenant against loss by eviction. This measure failed, and others accepted by Parlia- ment later proved ineffectual. Two years after the terrible devastation by famine, the Tenant Right League was organized in Dublin, and its members began a Systematic campaign to elect to Parliament members pledged to support mea- sures for the relief of the tenants. The Land Acts of 1860, under the Palmerston ministry, Imay be said to have resulted from the agitation kept up by the Tenant Right League. Various Other organizations for the betterment of the people of Ireland were established, and among them were “physical force” societies. In 1870, under the Gladstone ministry, three new laws were enacted; that a tenant could not be evicted if his rent were paid; that this non-payment must be for at least three years; and that if the tenant choose, he might sell his improve- ments. This purchase of improvement clause was a great advance in favor of tenants’ rights. The Land League in various parts of the world, especially the United States, continued the agi- tation and brought the question of the wrongs of the Irish tenants before the whole world. The Ashbourne Act of 1885 provided for the purchase of the lands by the tenants and nearly $25,000,000 was set aside for that purpose. Later a like amount was added. In 1891 the Balfour Law Purchase bill was passed and nearly $159,000,000 was provided for its enactment. In 1896 this law was improved; but for various reasons, all the laws enacted by Parliament proved ineffective only in so far as the bringing of the matter to the notice of fair-minded statesmen. ... (See LAND LEAGUE.) The most radical and satisfactory “Land Purchase Bilſ» was enacted I4 Aug. 1903, whereby the tenant IRISH LITERARY may purchase and own land and the government will, under certain and fair conditions, be re- sponsible for the payment. To George Wynd- ham, who as chief Secretary for Ireland, pre- pared the bill, the credit is largely due for the passage of the act. (See WYNDHAM, GEORGE.) Consult: Reports on the “Land Purchase” acts for relief of Ireland; Hansard’s ‘Parliamentary Debates? ; Guinell, “The Brehon Laws”; Maine, ‘Lectures on the Early History of Institutions’; Fisher, ‘History of Landholding in Ireland?; Richey, ‘The Irish Land Law”; Godkin, ‘The Land War in Ireland? ; Richey, ‘The Irish Landlord.” Irish Literary Society, an organization es- tablished in 1892, in London. Its object is to promote the study of Irish literature, music, art, and history. Some of the leading Irish literary men and women of England and Ireland are active or honorary members, and strive in many ways to promote the work of the society. The Society provides lecture courses on topics per- taining to literary Ireland, and it has a large library which may be used by any of its mem- bers. Some of the members are Justin McCar- thy, W. B. Yeats, Rev. Stopford Brooke, Barry O’Brien, and several of the well known writers among the Irish women. There were (in 1903) about 625 members. Irish (Gaelic) Literature. See CELTIC LIT- ERATURE. Irish Moss, an edible dulse or seaweed. See CARRAGEEN. Irish Music has been celebrated from al- most prehistoric times, Irish teachers of the art as early as the 7th century holding high rank as specialists in the faculties of continental and English colleges. While the bagpipe was the popular instrument of the common people, the harp was in great favor among the noble and educated classes, and their professional harpists were noted for their skill. The Irish scale originally consisting of five notes, gradually de- veloped with the addition of a sixth and a sev- enth, until the Irish harp had a finely graduated scale of tones and semitones either in the key of C or G, extending through a compass of four octaves. A harp in the museum of Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, said to be that of Brian Boru, has 30 strings, and the Dallway harp, made in I621, has 52 strings. The national tempera- ment was so musically imbued that there were special songs and airs for different crafts and for almost every conceivable occasion. War marches were played by the pipers at the head of the clansmen marching to battle; spinning, weaving, Smithy, plowing, boating, and Sport- ing songs were in daily use, and there were even milking songs, slow and plaintive airs which had the effect of soothing the cows and induced them to submit gently to the milking operation. In Irish literature, native music is frequently classed under three different styles, known as mirth, sorrow, and sleep music, comprising (I) lively, spirited pieces, as jigs, reels, hornpipes and other dance music; (2) solemn and slow pieces, as laments or dirges, commonly called caiones or keens, and sung on the occasion of a death; (3) plaintive and soothing airs, such as nurse tunes, cradle songs, lullabies, etc. In the numerous collections of these airs, about 2,000 different melodies are preserved, some of the SOCIETY - IRITIS most popular being ‘Savourneen Dheelish,” ‘Eileen Aroon’ (popularly known by the Scotch appropriation ‘Robin Adair”), “The Coolin,” ‘Garryowen,” “Langolee,” “Molly Asthore” and (Patrick's Day.” With the universal spread of music after the 17th century, Irish music as a national feature became merged in the general history of the art. Turlogh Carolan, Carroll O'Daly, Reilly and the Conallons were among the chief of Ireland’s ancient harpists and musi- cians. In modern times Ireland's musical pro- ductivity is represented by Michael William Balfe, William Vincent Wallace, Sir Charles Villiers Stanford, and others. Consult: Graves and Stanford, ‘Songs of Old Ireland and Irish Songs and Ballads’ (1882–92); id., ‘Songs of Erin’; Graves and Wood, ‘Irish Folk Song”; Graves, ‘Songs of Irish Wit and Humor?; and collections of Bunting, Joyce, Moore and Petrie. Irish Presbyterian Church, formerly called the Synod of Ulster. Its members are mostly descended from the Scotch Presbyterians, who migrated to Ireland by invitation of James I., between 1609 and I612, to colonize Ulster. Irish Sea, the body of water between Eng- land and Ireland. It is connected with the At- lantic Ocean on the north by the North Channel, and on the South by Saint George's Channel. The north shore of Wales and the southwest shore of Scotland are washed by this sea. It is almost circular in form, about 140 miles north and South, and the same east and west. The largest arms of the sea are on the west shore. The Morecambe Bay on the coast of England, and several large fiords. Dublin and Dundalk bays are the most important on the west coast. The only large islands are the Isle of Man in the north, about midway between England and Ireland, and Anglesey off the northwest coast and a part of Wales. Irish Terrier, a rough-coated, strongly |built terrier, resembling the Welsh and Scotch terriers. See DOG. Irish Texts Society, an organization estab- lished in London. Its object is to promote the study of Irish literature, that is, of literature in the Irish text. They foster societies and issue publications to aid the work. In 1900 they pub- lished their third volume, which contained the poems of Egan O'Rahilly. In 1901 their an– Inual volume contained Keating’s ‘History of Ireland,” edited by David Comyn. The volume of Igo3 contains an ‘Irish-English Dictionary.” Iritis, 1-ri'tis, inflammation of the iris, the colored curtain that shows the pupil in its cen- tre. This disease follows several types, depend- ing on the kind and virulence of the causative agent. In the Serous form there is an exuda- tion of blood-serum into the space in front of the iris, and more or less fibrinous matter that tends to glue the parts together. Pain shoots through the whole eyeball, and vision is dimmed by the turbid fluid. Persistent adhesions to the lens are formed, causing a permanent dis- tortion of the shape of the pupil. Another form. is the plastic, in which the pupil is actually occluded by the fibrinous deposits. Rheumatism. and syphilis are the two most frequent causes of the malady, but many constitutional diseases — as gout, diabetes, anaemias, and menstrual dis- orders — may be factors in causing the disturb- ance, and it may also be secondary to diseases IRKUT – IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY IN AMERICA in other parts of the eye, or even in the other eye, as in sympathetic ophthalmia. . The treat- ment consists in dilating the pupil by dropping solutions of some drug, as atropine, into the conjunctival sac, treating the constitutional dis- ease at the seat of the malady, and in relieving the pain by hot fomentations, blood letting, and the administration of drugs that are sedative. Syphilitic iritis is a lesion of the third stage Of syphilis (q.v.), where tiny spots called gummata, of red or yellow appearance, grow in the sub- stance of the iris. Irkut, ir'koot, a river in Siberia, in the dis- trict of Irkutsk. It rises in the mountains of Sayansk, near the frontiers of China, and after a course of 220 miles flows into the Angara River at the town of Irkutsk. It is navigable for a distance of IOO miles. Irkutsk, ir'kootsk, a provincal government of Russia, in eastern Siberia, separated from China by the Sayan Mountains. It has an area of 287,061 square miles. The country is gen- erally mountainous, but produces rye, barley, oats and vegetables. The most important rivers are the Angara, Lena and its tributary the Vitim. Gold, iron, and salt figure foremost among the mineral products. Agriculture, cattle-breeding, and the transport of goods to and from China are the chief occupations of the people. Pop. 501,237 (one-third exiles and forced colonists). The capital city, Irkutsk, on the Angara, is the residence of the governor-general of eastern Siberia and the seat of a bishop. Although 3,722 miles from St. Petersburg, Irkutsk is the best-built town in Siberia, with straight, wide streets, and handsome public buildings. It pos- sesses a cathedral, several churches, a public li– brary, a museum of natural history, and other public institutions. The population consists mostly of Russians and Buriats. Irkutsk was founded by a Cossack chief, Ivan Pochabof, in 1652, and obtained town-rights in 1686. Owing to its position on the great Siberian railway between China and Russia, it is the commercial centre of Siberia, especially for the tea-trade; the annual value of its trade amounts to about $6,000,000. The communications between Ir- kutsk and Yakutsk and the northern parts of Si- beria are carried on by the river Lena. A destructive fire occurred in 1879, doing damage to the extent of $10,000,000. Pop. 43,962. Iron Age, (I) in mythology, the last of the four great ages of the world, supposed to be characterized by abounding oppression, vice, and misery. (2) In archaeology, an age, the third in succession, in which weapons and many other implements began to be made of iron, stone having been used for these purposes in the first, and bronze in the second. Iron and Steel Industry in America. Both the Assyrians and the Egyptians used imple- ments of iron many centuries before the Chris– ian Era. Iron and furnaces in which it was made are mentioned in the Pentateuch. The Greeks obtained their iron from the Chalybes, a nation on the south coast of the Black Sea. The Romans procured their iron from there, and also from Spain, Elba, and Styria. The iron mines of Elba, which to the present day yield a large amount of ore, were worked by the Etruscans, and the method employed by them for extracting the iron from its ores was probably very similar to that now known as the Catalan forge process. Probably the aboriginal inhabitants of North America were unacquainted with the use of iron in any of its forms. The iron of commerce is classified under three groups. These are “wrought iron,” “steel,” and “cast” or “pig iron.” When a lump of pure and easily reducible iron ore is heated on a bed of ignited charcoal in a smelting-fire or forge it is readily reduced to a lump of metallic iron similar in shape to the mass of ore treated. If the lump be sufficiently large, one end may be hammered and drawn out into a bar or rod, while the other end remains in the fire as a mass of reduced or partly reduced ore. Such an operation repre- sents the essential features of the primitive methods of iron smelting practised in the early colonial days of this country; the product thus obtained is known as wrought or malleable iron, whether it is made in the rude manner de- scribed or by the improved bloomeries which later replaced the rude old forge. From the bloomery, producing its soft malleable bar or bloom, the blast-furnace was gradually evolved, new metallurgical reactions were effected, and the product was obtained in a fluid condition, in which it could be run into simple sand recep- tacles, forming pig iron, or into specially con- structed molds to produce castings for practical use. The metal thus obtained was hard, brittle, and possessed physical characteristics distinct from malleable iron. Since by the use of im- proved methods it became possible to obtain the product of the blast-furnace readily and with vastly greater economy, pig iron soon became, as it is at present, what the Germans call raw iron (Roheisen), from which practically every other variety of finished iron or steel is obtained. The ton of pig iron is therefore taken as the rough standard by which the world’s produc- tion of iron is measured. In the colonial period the British government systematically discouraged all efforts of the col- onists to produce iron, in order to avoid com— petition with home industries. There were forges or bloomeries in nearly all the colonies from the times of earliest settlement, and as un- limited supplies of fuel were always at hand in the vast forests it was only necessary to find ore and obtain persons who could construct forges. The iron required for structural purposes, such as bars, straps, nails, sheets, etc., was obtained in the early days either by hammering the bloom from the forge or by shaping with rolls pro- pelled by water-power. In fact, before the in- vention of the puddling process in England by Cort, in 1784, a large proportion of all forms of wrought iron were derived in this manner. The old so-called “Walloon” process of refining pig iron into the malleable or wrought form or into a crude mild steel was introduced into the col- onies at an early date in their history. By the puddling process malleable iron is not directly produced from the ore, as in the older methods of manufacture, but indirectly from pig iron. The introduction of the puddling process was second in importance to no other invention in the history of the iron industry of this country. After the Revolution the iron industry developed steadily but slowly, probably owing to the fact that, as in colonial days, much, if not most, of the iron used along the seaboard was imported. No statistics of the production of iron were collected before the year 1810. The produc- IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY IN AMERICA tion of pig and cast iron in that year was 53,908 tons; wrought and malleable iron of all kinds, 27,105 tons; having a total value of $6,081,374, of which amount Pennsylvania pro- duced $2,473,748. The product of the steel fur- naces of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Jer- sey, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina in 1810 was 917 tons, valued at $144,736; of the whole number of steel furnaces Pennsylvania contained five, producing 53I tons, valued at $81,147. An analysis of these figures gives us some idea of the state of the industry at the be- ginning of the century. The product of the blast-furnaces — pig, or, as it was at that time termed, cast iron — was run directly into small castings then in demand for commercial pur- poses; the malleable iron was probably all de- rived directly from the ore in forges or bloom- eries, whence it was taken to the rolling or slitting mills to be made into rods, bars, plates, nails, etc. The steel made at this period in the United States was probably all produced by the cementation or blister process, and was all of the grade now known as high-carbon or tool steel. Although Huntsman's improvement of this process, by which the steel bars thus made were fused in crucibles and subsequently cast into ingots, had been in operation in Sheffield, England, a number of years prior to 1810, it is doubtful if his invention had been adopted in the United States at this early date. In the census of 1820 the quantities of iron made are not given; their value, however, is stated as fol- lows: Pig or cast iron, $2,230,275; wrought iron, $4,640,669; total, $6,870,944. The 1830 census gave: Pig iron and castings, $4,757,403; wrought iron, $16,737,251 ; total, $21,494,654. The production of iron steadily increased upon much the same lines as before and in 1840, 804 blast- furnaces produced only 286,903 tons of iron, and 795 bloomeries, forges, and rolling-mills only 197,233 tons of malleable or bar iron. For the first time in the history of the industry the pro- duction of cast or pig iron exceeded that from the bloomeries and forges. No figures are pub- lished for the value of the product in 1840, but if we assume the ton of pig iron to have cost $30, and the ton of hammered bar iron $90, we obtain $8,607,000, or nearly double the value of pig and cast iron produced in 1830. The total value of the bar iron at this estimate would be $17,750,970. The high cost of manufacturing charcoal, and its enormous consumption in the furnace per ton of iron produced, were serious obstacles to the growth of the industry, even where a good sup- ply of ore was well assured. As early as 1835 the adaptation of anthracite to the manufacture of iron began to attract attention, and Franklin Institute offered a gold medal “to the person who shall manufacture in the United States the greatest quantity of iron from ore during the year, using no other fuel than anthracite coal, the quantity to be not less than 20 tons.” The medal was never awarded, but there is abundant evidence that from 1830 to 1840 a number of attempts to use mineral fuel in smelting iron Ores were made. The first practically successful attempt to produce pig iron by the use of an- thracite was made by David Thomas at Catasauqua, Pa. The furnace which he erected there for this purpose was blown in on 3 July 1840. It was equipped with a “hot blast” oper- ated by water-power, and thus inaugurated in the United States, two of the greatest innovations in blast-furnace practice. This furnace, producing from the start 50 tons of iron per week, con- tinued in profitable operation until the year 1879, when it was dismantled. The early forms of hot-blast apparatus consisted of nests of iron pipes heated externally by separate fires, the object being to pass the air from the blowing- or blast-engine through these pipes, thereby greatly augmenting its temperature, and to de- crease the consumption of fuel per ton of ore Smelted. The hot blast was patented in 1828 by James B. Neilson of Glasgow, and its use is perhaps the most important improvement ever made in blast-furnace practice, for without it the present large and cheap production of pig- iron would have been impossible. Notwith- standing that the success in smelting iron in blast-furnaces with anthracite had been practi- cally demonstrated in 1840, the general use of this fuel appears to have grown slowly; it was Io or more years before the use of coal (either anthracite, coke, or a mixture of the two) became general. In 1846 the first fur- nace constructed with the intention of using raw bituminous coal as fuel was successfully placed in operation at Lowell, Mahoning County, Ohio. Although coke had been in general use in England for a number of years, it was not until I837 that it was successfully used in the United States in the blast-furnace at Lonaconing, Alle- ghany County, Md. The manufacture of Con- nellsville coke was commenced in 1841, but, according to Weeks, it was not until a number of years later, when railroad transportation had become more fully developed, that its value as a furnace fuel became thoroughly demonstrated. The period between the years 1840 and 1850 was a most eventful one in the history of the American iron industry. The introduction of the improvements in smelting already indicated, together with the use of steam-power for pro- pelling the blast and in performing other vari- eties of work about the furnaces, its replacement of water-power in operating rolling-mills and hammers, in mining coal and ore, and the rapid growth of the railroads, produced a stim- ulating effect probably never before experienced in a similar degree by any American industry. The railroads contributed largely to the develop- ment of the iron industry in two ways: directly, by rendering transportation comparatively cheap, thereby enlarging the iron market and increasing the demand; and indirectly, by cre- ating in their construction a new and unprece- dentedly large consumption of iron. As the pro- duction of iron increased in later years, the older iron-ore deposits became exhausted, or were proved inferior to the newly discovered ore-beds of the Lake Superior region. The prob- 1em of suitably locating a modern blast-furnace. producing from 9,000 to Io,000 tons of pig iron per month became a serious one, and its solu- tion has had the effect of moving the geograph- ical centre of the iron industry west of the Alleghany Mountains, nearer a new and larger ore supply, yet handy to the coke of Connells- ville. In 1850 there were produced in the United States 563,755 tons of pig iron by 377 establishments, and wrought iron to the value of $22,629,271 in 552 establishments. The evolution of iron and steel plate mak- ing, particularly boiler-plates, forms an interest- ing chapter in the growth of our great industry. IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY.IN AMERICA About 1815, when steam began to be used, Dr. Charles Lukens remodeled his mill to produce thicker plate. The bloom was reheated at the forge and hammered thin, usually about one and a half inches. It then went to the rolling- mill, where it was laid on a bed of coal in what was called a grate-furnace. After heat- ing, it was rolled into plates one quarter and three sixteenths of an inch thick and sent to the boiler maker. But soon the mill began shearing into regular commercial sizes: 48 and 49 by 26 by one quarter or three sixteenths; or, if large enough, it was sheared into plates 68 and 69 by 26, and the scrap was cut into nails. But when the reverberatory furnace was intro- duced, the scrap was arranged into piles of such size as was necessary to produce the re- quired plate, heated to a welding heat, and rolled in the mill. This state of things continued until the introduction of the puddling furnace. The most important advances made in the years between 1850 and 1860 were the invention of the “three-high” roll-train ; the introduction of mills for rolling beams, by Cooper & Hewitt, at Tren- ton, N. J.; and the invention in 1848 of the “universal mill,” by Daelin, a German engineer, which found its way to America I2 years later. In the manufacture of the finer quali- ties of steel, no progress was made up to 1860. According to the census of 1860, 97 establishments in the United States produced 51,290 tons of blooms, valued at $2,623,178; 286 establishments produced 987,559 tons of pig iron, worth $20,870,120; 256 establishments pro- duced 513,213 tons of rolled iron, worth $31,888,705; 13 establishments produced II,838 tons of steel (probably of cheap grades), worth $1,778,240. tº tº During the Civil War the resources of the iron industry in the Northern States were taxed to their utmost. The industry in the South, strained at an early day beyond its feeble ca- pacity, soon broke down, and most of the require- ments of the Confederate armies were supplied from abroad. In the train of dire disaster wrought py the Civil War some good to the iron industry may be found; for not only did iron ships make their appearance in the navy, but the use of iron plates had its inception. As early as 1859 the French had built the frigate Gloire, ar- mored with iron plates five inches in thickness, and in 1861 the British constructed the frigate Warrior, which was protected by solid iron plates four and a half inches thick. As regards armor, either of these vessels was much better protected than any of our monitors constructed during the Civil War, for the first monitor was protected by six to eight thicknesses of one-inch iron plates bolted one on the other with overlapping joints, and later vessels were probably protected in much the same way by armor made up of a greater number of similar one-inch plates. In 1855 and 1856, Henry Bessemer, of Lon- don, had obtained patents for a process of converting molten pig iron into steel by forcing small jets of cold air through the molten iron; but his invention was not successful until modi- fied by Robert F. Mushet, who added to the molten steel, after the blast had been stopped, a sufficient quantity of spiegeleisen (an alloy of iron and manganese) to neutralize the oxide of iron caused by blowing and to give the steel ths prºper degree of hardness and fluidity. ol. 9–9 Neither Bessemer nor his American rival, Wil- liam Kelly, of Pittsburg, who secured a patent but did not utilize it, accomplished anything in America until 1866, when their interests were combined with Mushet's and the first plant to produce the steel as a commercial article was put in successful operation by the Pennsylvania Steel Company at Steelton, near Harrisburg, Pa., June 1867. The first steel rails rolled in the United States in the way of regular business were rolled by the Cambria, Iron Company, Johnstown, Pa., August 1867, from ingots made by the Pennsylvania Steel Company. The pro- duction of Bessemer steel in the year 1867 was 3,000 tons, the industry continuing to grow with rapid strides. In 1890, 4,131,535 tons were produced, in 1900 7,532,028 tons, and in 1902 9,138,363 tons. Of these amounts 2,550 tons were made into rails in 1867, 1,853,862 in 1890, 2,250,457 in 1900, and 2,935,392 tons in 1902. The importance of the invention of the Bessemer process to the world in general and the United States in particular cannot be over- estimated, since it has reached a development with us greater than in any other country in the world. In 190I the total amount of all varieties of steel made in the United States was 44 per cent of the entire world's product. The rapid and enormous development of the Bessemer-steel industry in the United States is attributable chiefly to the great extension of our railroads. Bessemer steel is also used for steel bars, merchant steel and for tin plates. The basic Bessemer or Thomas process though used in Germany to produce 4,888,054 tons in I902, has not gained a foothold in this country. The open-hearth steel process was first used in 1856, when the Siemens Brothers of London perfected what is now generally known as the Siemens regenerative gas-furace, without which no open-hearth steel can be made. In 1864, Messrs. Emile and Pierre Martin, of the Sireuil works in France, erected, with the assistance of Dr. Siemens, one of the regenerative gas-furnaces to convert steel in an open-hearth or reverberatory furnace of their own construction. This scheme was a success from the start, and by a sub- sequent consolidation of the Siemens and Martin inventions a steel-making apparatus was de- vised, known as the Siemens-Martin or open- hearth process. This process was introduced into America in 1868 by F. J. Slade for Cooper, Hewitt & Company, at the works of the New Jersey Steel and Iron Company, at Trenton, N. J. In 1870 the production of open-hearth Steel in the United States was 1,500 tons, and in 1890 574,820 tons, the industry showing a rapid development during the intervening 20 years. Great Britain was long the largest pro- ducer of open-hearth steel in the world, and in this branch of the iron industry the United States was somewhat behind its great rival, until 1900. In 1890 Great Britain produced I,564,200 tons, as against 574,820 tons in the United States; in 1899 Great Britain produced 3,030,25I tons and the United States a little more than 2,900,000 tons; but in 1900 the fig- ures are 3,398,135 tons for the United States (following James M. Swank, ‘Iron and Steel at the Close of the 19th Century,’ 1901; the cen- sus figures, always incomplete, are 3,044,356) and 3,156,050 for Great Britain. This growth is all the more striking when it is known that in 1895 the writer of this article hopefully IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY IN AMERICA prophesied that the production might reach in that year 1,000,000 tons. Five years later it had passed the 3,000,000-ton mark. The so-called “basic” open-hearth process, although in suc- cessful operation in Europe for a number of years, was not introduced into the United States until 1888, when a number of such furnaces were constructed at the works of Carnegie, Phipps & Company, at Homestead, near Pitts- burg, Pa. Without going into technicalities, the basic open-hearth process may be briefly defined as an ordinary open-hearth plant whose furnace lining is made of a basic material, such as dolomitic limestone or the mineral mag- nesite. When pig iron containing a sufficiently great quantity of phosphorus to render it unfit for conversion into steel by any other method is melted in such a furnace, the basic lining, together with a basic flux which is added, re- moves the objectionable phosphorus and renders (other conditions being normal), the resulting Steel equal to that prepared in the open-hearth furnace in the old and usual manner. The pur- poses for which open-hearth steel is ordinarily adapted are quite different from those for which the Bessemer steel is most suitable; but the con- verse of this fact, however, is not true, since open-hearth Steel may be and frequently is used to an equal, if not greater, advantage wherever Bessemer steel is employed. In this country, at least, all high-grade structural material, such as boiler and ship plate, bridge and building members, high-grade castings, etc., is almost invariably of open-hearth steel, which is gen- erally considered, and doubtless is, more uni- form in quality than soft steel made by the Bessemer method. One of the most curious phases in the his– tory of the American iron industry is the fact that although the United States at one time con- Sumed nearly 60 per cent of the world's entire production of tinned plates, with the exception of a few sporadic attempts in 1873 and 1875, no tin or terne plates were made in the United States until 1891. Great Britain furnished vir- tually all the tin-plate used in the United States during the 20 years ending 1890. No better evidence of the success of our domestic tin-plate industry could be afforded than the fact that our imports have steadily decreased since 1889, those for 1890 being 29,435 tons, for 1894 215,068 tons, The American tically non-existent and was not reported in the census of that year. If the history of the development of the American blast-furnace practice were written it would form a large book of itself. . In 1870 most of the blast-furnaces in operation were still very primitive, and although no statistics for that year are given, it is probable that the best of them did not produce as an average Over 50 tons of pig iron per day, whereas in 1902 the production of 300 tons per day was a common occurrence, and some furnaces regularly pro- duced over 500 tons daily. The table at the bottom of the page taken from the United States census reports, exhibits the production of pig iron from 1870 to 1900. These figures show the rapid fall in the num- per of establishments, resulting from the move— ment of concentration nowhere so strikingly shown as in the steel and iron industry. The capital invested has increased 150 per cent ap- proximately in 30 years, the production nearly 700 per cent and the value of the product almost 200 per cent. During the 20 years between 1870 and 1890 production in the Middle States had nearly quadrupled, in the Western States in- creased nearly 5 times, and in the Southern States nearly Io times. In 1890 the American product passed the record figures of the British furnaces, made in 1882. Between 1890 and 1895 the American trade suffered considerably and fell below the British in its total product; then it again advanced and is now. IOO per cent greater than that of Great Britain. 3 ... • The wonderful growth of the world's iron. industry within 50 years is shown by the follow- ing tables, in metric tons (2,204 pounds). JPer Per COUNTRY 1854 cent I 902 Cent United States . 750,000 | I 2.5 18,003,448 40.7 Great Britain . . . . 3,000,000, 50.0 8,653,976 I9.5 Germany . . . . . . . . . 400,000 6.6 8,402,660 I9.O. France . . . . . • * * * * * 750,000 | I 2.5 2,427,427 5.5 Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . 2OO,OOO 3.3 2,566,000 5.8. Austria-Hungary . . . 250,000 4.3 I,335, OOO 3.O. Other countries . . . 650,000] Io.8 2,869,480 6.5 Totals. . . . . . . . . . . 6,000,000 | I Oo. 0 || 44,257,991 || Ioo.o. Even more striking is the increase in steel output in the last 35 years, as shown below: and for 1900 only 60,386 tons. Per P production amounted to 999 tons in six months Country 1867 jº I902 &: of 1891 ; to 6,092 tons in 1892; 44,563 tons in I893; over IOO,000 tons in 1895, and in 1900 to United States . . . . 19,963 4. I I5,186,406 44. O. 302,665 tons. The census, of 1900 reports 57 3. Bºii. . 23.60%| 4.8 #102,420 #3 establishments manufacturing tin and terne- Germany ... . . . . . . 122,591 || 26.0 Zºº: 22.5 late; gives their capita 6 º - France . . . . . . . . . . . 47,597 9.7 I,035,300 4.8 . g cap t º: $ º itS yass Russia . . . . . . . . . . . 6,27 I I.3 I,730,250 5. O. rs as averaging 3,671, and their WaščS. 3S Austria-Hungary... I 5,000 3. I I, I 43,900 3.3 $1,889,917; and estimates the cost of materials other countries’...| 3: ooo. 3.} | .333.3%; 5.6. at $26,728,150, and the value of the product Total 2 || I 8 as $31,892,OII. In 1890 the industry was prac- OtalS • * - - - - - - - - 49 I,422 || IOO.O 34,479,783| IOO.O PRODUCTION OF PIG. IRON. 1870 1880 1890 IQOO Number of establishments. . . . . . . . . . . 386 34 I 3O4. 224 Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $56,145,326 $89,531,362 $134,608,543 $148,226,113 age earnerS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,554 41,695 33,415 39,358 Total wages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $12,475,250 $12,665,428 $14,614,458 $18,500,462 Tons produced. e & g g g º s e º e º ºs e º sº tº s º gº e I,832,876 3,375,912 8,845,185 I4,452,234. Cost of materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $45,498,017 $58,619,742 $1 Io, og&,615 $131,536,424 Value of product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $69,640,498 $89,315,569 $145,643;I 53 $206,823,202 IRON CITY – IRON IN MEDICINE The total iron and steel exports and imports of the United States for the years 1890, 1900, and 1902 are shown below, the totals being long tons (2240 pounds). YEAR Exports Imports Excess 1890. . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,687 603,749 || Imp. 558,062 1900. . . . . . . . . . . . . I, I 54,284 209,955 | Exp. 944,329 1902. . . . . . . . . . . . . 370,805 || I,212,839 || Imp. 842,034 A sketch of the American iron industry would be incomplete without some reference to the introduction of the manufacture of armor- plate into the United States. This class of ma- terial not only has a peculiar and limited de- mand, but its manufacture requires the highest degree of metallurgical and mechanical skill, together with an exceptionally expensive plant. When the reconstruction of the United States navy was begun, some 20 years ago, we had ab- solutely no facilities for making the simplest kind of armor-plate, although we had some of the largest steel-works in the world. One of the first of the new armored vessels completed (the monitor Miantonomoh) was protected by “compound” plates imported from England. All the large forgings for the guns and shafts of the earlier ships were likewise imported. Owing to the policy of Congress, the Bethlehem Iron Company, and Carnegie, Phipps & Company, of Pittsburg, were induced to erect expensive plants necessary for making not only the heavy gun- forgings required, but also for all the different grades and thicknesses of armor-plate. In 1891 these firms began to supply armor for the ships in course of construction, although at first their output of finished armor was extremely slow. The delays have now been slowly overcome, and at the present time there is little doubt that these great steel-works will be able to supply the armor as fast as new ships are constructed. How successful these works have been in fur- nishing our government with the best grades of armor-plate could have no better illustration than the fact that the Bethlehem Iron Com- pany soon began supplying foreign govern- ments with armor for their ships. The only two important iron and steel commodities which the iron industry of the United States did not supply in 1890 (tin-plate and armor-plate) are at present being made in large quantities, and the census for 190o reports during the year I900 I5,302 tons of armor plate all produced in Pennsylvania, and valued at $7,526,479. Vast improvement has been made in the machinery necessary to manipulate iron and steel. The Bethlehem Iron Company has a hammer of I25 tons' capacity, built by John Fritz and put into successful operation in 1891. But armor- plate is no longer rolled nor forged by ham- mers, but manufactured with huge hydraulic presses, some with an energy of I5,000 tons. George Fritz is the inventor of what is known as the “automatic tables,” which with John Fritz's roll train enables the manufacturer to success- fully handle almost any weight of ingot. well remember when a 500-pound mass of iron was thought to be so heavy that the whole neighborhood gathered in to see it rolled. The necessity of handling such very heavy weights as could be made from ingots cast in large masses brought into play the invention of hy- draulic machinery, so that we now have pumps to produce any required pressure in a series of pipes which deliver the water to the hydraulic engines in any part of the works. By simply turning a valve now a boy will pick up a heavy ingot (say of Io,000-pound weight) with his hydraulic crane and deliver it anywhere within reach of the crane. If on a car, it may then be taken by a small locomotive to the rolling- mill, where another crane picks it up and puts it into the furnace, and, after heating to the required degree, takes it out and delivers it to the machinery at the rolls; then the automatic tables push it back and forth through the rolls until it is reduced to the required dimensions. The same tables now take it to the shears, which are also operated by hydraulic power, and the plate, sometimes two inches thick, is sheared ready for shipment. All this is done with more ease than was possible a few years ago. Within the last few years electricity has been brought into play to do some of the heavy work. CHARLES HUSTON. Revised by S. SANFORD, ‘Engineering and Mining Journal,” New York. Iron City, a name given to Pittsburg, Pa., owing to its extensive iron industries. “Smoky City” is another name frequently applied to Pittsburg because of the large number of roll- ing-mills, furnaces, and foundries in which bi- tuminous coal is used. Iron Cross, a Prussian order, instituted by Frederick William III. in 1813, and con- ferred for distinguished services in war. The decoration consists of a Maltese cross of iron, edged with silver. The order was revived by William I. in 1870, on the eve of the great war with France. The grand cross, of double size, is presented exclusively for the gaining of a decisive battle. Iron in Medicine. Iron was in use in medicine by the Chinese as early as 2700 B.C., and was employed in the treatment of anaemia much as it is administered to-day. In its native form, as iron, it is devoid of action, but when re- duced to a salt, or oxide, capable of dissociation, it becomes active. Iron differs from many of the other heavy metals in that it is an active in-. gredient of the tissues, and is probably essential to the life of many if not all forms of living things. In the human blood it is an absolutely essential constituent, and its importance is great for all of the tissues of the body. In a number of the animals that lack red blood-corpuscles iron is not found abundantly in the blood, but is nevertheless present in large amounts in all parts of the body, and is perhaps just as essen- tial for the chemical processes of nutrition as in higher vertebrates. It is well known that the presence of iron is necessary for the active processes of photosynthesis in plants, and that in its absence the higher plants are unable to develop chlorophyll, although chlorophyll itself does not contain iron in the form of haemoglo- bin. It is of interest, however, to note that Nencki, a Russian biologist, has shown that reduction compounds of haemoglobin and of chlorophyll are very closely allied, and he pro- pounds the interesting speculation that proba- bly the same iron compound was present in the living matter before a differentiation of animal and plant was made, and that as plants and ani- mals developed along divergent lines of struc- IRON MASK — IRON MOUNTAIN ture the iron compounds became somewhat separated in their chemical character. Iron combinations in medicine are usually divided into two classes, inorganic and organic. In the former the iron is dissociated in solution, and is usually acted upon by the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice and converted into soluble chlorides, in which form it probably enters into the tissues. In the organic iron it is probable that the same conversion takes place, although there is much controversy re- garding the method of its absorption; but this is true of all iron. The iron is usually taken up in the stomach and intestines, the larger part of it being rejected, and it enters into the blood in the form of an albuminate which passes into the duodenum, some being absorbed by the epithelium, and more or less of it carried directly to the spleen and probably to the liver. In the spleen it seems to undergo some changes, and is taken up by the blood and thereafter deposited more particularly in the liver and in the bone- marrow. When there is deficiency of iron in the blood or other organs, the liver gives up its store and it is absorbed by the tissue that is most in need of it. While in the blood, iron is the great organ of oxidation. By means of the haemoglobin the oxygen of the air is taken up and distributed to the different parts of the body. This permits of the active chemical oxi- dative changes that take place throughout the entire body, which changes are of such vital im- portance in general metabolism, and without which the body suffers, degenerates and dies. Iron is used particularly for diseases in which the blood is poor in that metal. This is par- ticularly the case in anaemias of primary and secondary character. In primary anaemia or chlorosis (q.v.), iron is a distinct help, often curing the condition. In primary pernicious anaemia, which is a grave blood-disease, it is of secondary value. In all of the secondary anaemias, those that follow hemorrhage, the acute infectious diseases, such as Scarlet fever, malaria, whooping-cough, measles, typhoid, pneumonia, etc., iron is of great service. It is particularly valuable following childbirth or any condition in which there has been a great loss of blood. It is also useful in conditions of scanty menstru- ation, in tuberculosis, and is one of the best general tonics in the realm of medicine. The effects of inorganic and iron solutions on the teeth should be borne in mind, although they are much exaggerated. Iron is apt to cause a cer- tain amount of constipation, but this, by proper laxatives regularly taken, should be overcome. Iron Mask, The Man with the, a famous personage who was kept a prisoner in two or three French prisons in the time of Louis XIV., and who excited a curiosity corresponding to the care with which his identity was concealed. His first prison was the castle of Pignerol, of which Saint-Mars was governor. In 1686 he was carried by Saint-Mars to the isles of St. Marguerite; and the same precautions were observed as upon his first journey. Saint-Mars having been appointed governor of the Bastile in 1698, carried the prisoner with him there, but still masked. An apartment had been prepared for him more convenient, and furnished with more care than those of the other unfortunate beings who inhabited this sad abode. He was not permitted to take off his mask even before his physician. In other respects the greatest at- tention was shown him, and nothing which he requested was refused him. His education ap- peared to have been carefully attended to; and he amused his leisure by reading, and playing upon the guitar. This unknown person died Ig Nov. 1703, at Io o'clock in the..evening, without having undergone any severe sickness. He was buried the next day in the afternoon in the cemetery of the church of St. Paul. He was, it was said, about 60 years of age, although the register of burials for the church of St. Paul, in which he is mentioned under the name of Marchiali, makes him only about 45. It is said that orders were given to burn everything which had been employed in his service; that the walls of the chamber which he had occupied were rubbed down and whitewashed; and that the precautions were carried so far, that the tiles of his room were removed, in the fear that he might have displaced some of them to conceal a letter behind them. Conjecture exhausted itself to discover who this mysterious personage might be. At the time of the destruction of the Bastile, in July 1789, there were not wanting curious persons, who sought, in the archives of this fortress, to discover some notices which might throw light upon this historical problem. But to no purpose. A widely-accepted conjecture was first thrown out in a letter written in 1770 by Baron D'Heiss to the ‘Journal Encyclopédique.” According to this view the Man with the Iron Mask was Count Girolamo Magni, or Mattioli, first minister of the Duke of Mantua, who had betrayed the interests of Louis XIV. by failing to secure for him, as he had pledged himself to do, in consideration of a large bribe, possession from his master of the fortress of Casale. For this offense he was lured to the French frontier, secretly arrested, and imprisoned in the fortress of Pignerol in 1679. The secret was preserved so carefully, on the supposition that Mattioli was the prisoner, because his seizure and detention were flagrant violations of international law. In a more recent investigation by M. Jung, “La Vérité sur le Masque de Fer? (1873), an attempt is made to identify the Mask with a gentleman of Lorraine, who was connected with an asso- ciation for the assassination of Louis. Funck- Brentano in 1894 revived the view that Mattioli was the mysterious prisoner, and many now con- sider the controversy settled and this view established. Consult: Hopkins, ‘The Man in the Iron Mask.” Iron Mountain, Mich., city, county-seat of Dickinson County; on the Chicago, M. & St. P. and the Chicago N. W. R.R.'s; about 47 miles southwest of Marquette and 57 miles west by north of Escanaba. It was settled in 1879 and chartered in 1888. It is the commercial centre for a large mining section in Michigan and for a farming section in Wisconsin. Its chief manu- factures are mining and agricultural implements, and its trade is principally in iron-ore and farm products. Pop. (1900) 9,242. Iron Mountain, the southern spur of the St. Francois Mountains, a low range in the eastern part of Missouri. This mountain, which is really a hill or knob, is in St. Francois County, about 60 miles southwest from St. Genevieve, the nearest point on the Mississippi River. It is about 300 feet above the surrounding land and IRON about 2,000 feet above the Sea. It covers an area of 500 acres. It is famous for its remark- able mineral deposits, specular or hematite iron- ore, the purest iron ore in the United States. The average elevation above the land around is 550 feet, and the area it covers is about 500 acres. Large oak trees flourish on its slope, their roots embedded in soil composed largely of fragments of peroxide of iron. Excavations were begun in 1845. An artesian well has been sunk to the depth of 152 feet, with the result that the beds passed through from the surface were as follows: Iron ore mixed with clay, 16 feet; sandstone, 34 feet; magnesian limestone, 7% inches; gray sandstone, 7% inches; hard blue rock, 37 feet; pure iron ore 5 feet; por- phyritic rock, 7 feet; iron ore 50 feet to the bottom. It would seem that nearly the whole mountain was a mass of magnetic iron ore. The adjacent valleys are underlaid with magnesian limestone in horizontal strata. Pilot Knob (q.v.), about six miles south of Iron Mountain, also contains an extensive deposit of iron ore; 'Shepherd Mountain, a short distance southwest of Pilot Knob, is the largest of the iron moun- tains in that immediate vicinity. Iron Ores. Although iron is the most abundant of the useful metals, forming 5 per cent of the earth's crust, 1t is rarely found na- tive — one famous native occurrence of it, however, being at Ovifak on the west coast of Greenland. The iron ores of chief commercial importance are hematite, magnetite, limonite, siderite and pyrite. Pure hematite contains 70 per cent iron; magnetite 72.4 per cent; limonite 59.89 per cent; siderite 48.27 per cent; pyrite 40.7 per cent. Iron ores, however, are prac- tically never mined pure, but are mined in quan- tity averaging Io per cent and over less iron than above stated, the principal impurities being silica, alumina, and lime. Hematite, ferric oxide (Fe2O3), by far the most important iron ore, varies greatly in physi- cal characteristics. Specular hematite is black, with a brilliant metallic lustre. Martite is a vari- ety of hematite. Magnetite, a ferro-ferric oxide (FeO,Fe2O3), is black magnetic, and crystallizes in octahedra, but as mined it is usu- ally massive or granular. Ilmenite, an oxide of iron and titanium, is not yet an ore of commer- cial importance. Franklinite, an oxide of iron, manganese, and zinc, found at Franklin, N. J., is used in making spiegeleisen, an alloy of iron and manganese after the zinc has been removed by roasting. Limonite or brown hematite, hy- drated ferric oxide (2Fe2O3.3H2O), is brown or yellow in color and occurs in massive, earthy, or in botryoidal forms. Bog-ore is a variety of limonite. Goethite, differing from limonite in crystalline form and containing less water, is found in large quantities in Minnesota. Siderite, or spathic iron, ferrous carbonate (FeCO3), is white to gray when pure, and crystallizes in rhombohedra. As mined, it varies much in ap- pearance, owing to oxidation. Clay iron stone is siderite mingled with clay. Blackhand ore is side- rite mixed with more or less bituminous matter. Pyrites, ferric disulphide (FeS2), often called “fool's gold,” is used in great quantities to make sulphuric acid. The residue, known as “blue-billy,” or pyrites clinker, is in some coun- tries smelted in the blast-furnace as an iron ore. In smelting an ore the silica, lime, and alu- ORES mina are removed as slag. Ores high in silica require more limestone in the furnace-charge for fluxing, that is, for combining with the sil- ica. Some ores contain silica and lime in such proportions as to be self-fluxing. The higher the iron content of an ore, generally speaking, the greater the yield per ton of material put through the furnace, and the lower the cost per ton of the iron made. A very hard ore must be broken into small lumps to give best results in the furnace. ematites often smelt easier than magnetites. A fine granular ore makes trouble in Smelting, and a certain proportion may be lost as dust, which clogs furnace-flues. The really injurious impurities most often found in iron ores are sulphur, phosphorus, and titanium. Sulphur can be largely removed by roasting the ore before smelting; phosphorus cannot, and all the phos- phorus in the ore goes into the iron. For mak- ing steel by the Bessemer process an ore should contain less than 1–1,000 of its amount of iron; thus, to be classified as Bessemer, an ore con- taining 61 per cent iron should contain less than .061 per cent phosphorus. For making steel by the basic process, high phosphorus ores are used. The present development of the world’s iron mines is the outcome of many factors. Gen- erally speaking, it is cheaper to bring the ore to the fuel than the fuel to the ore, hence, countries or districts that have great supplies of iron ore may be insignificant producers of pig-iron. Low-priced fuel has been the chief factor in de- termining the location of iron and steel indus- tries, while the chief factors in the development of iron mines are the quality of the ore and the cost at which it can be put down at the furnace. Iron-Ore Supplies of the World.— The iron industry in Asia is several thousand years old, but the annual output of iron ore is small. China has vast but little-developed deposits of limonite and hematite. Japan is very poor in iron ores. The iron industry of Australia is not of importance. The only ores exported from Africa are mined in Algeria, where the annual production has fallen to about I50,000 tons. Europe has famous ore fields. The Ores of Elba and those of Styria were worked by the Romans. Certain Swedish mines have been worked almost continuously since I300. The German output now comes chiefly from so-called minette beds of Lorraine and Luxemburg. The ore, a low-grade limonite high in phosphorus, is used in making steel by the basic process, and the present annual output is over 7,000,000 tons annually. The total ore supply left in the field is estimated at nearly 2,000,000,000 tons. The iron fields of Great Britain have passed their greatest productiveness. The principal districts are Cleveland in North Yorkshire, yielding clay ironstone containing about 30 per cent iron; Cumberland and Lancashire, yielding red hema- tite containing 50 to 60 per cent iron; and Lin- colnshire, Leicestershire, and Northampton, yield- ing cheaply-mined low-grade hematite. The blackband ores of Scotland are of much less im- portance than formerly. The principal Spanish mines are in the Bilbao district in the province of Biscay, the productive field being I5 miles long and 2% wide. The ores are red and pur- ple hematite, limonite, and carbonate, the iron content in the crude ores running from 45 to 56 per cent. The district has produced to date about 95,000,000 tons. The greater part of the IRON ORES Russian ore supply comes from the Ural Moun- tains, the ores on the east side of the range being magnetite, and on the west side limonite and carbonate. Near Krivoi Rog, in the Cau- casus, are mines of hematite and magnetite. Fully 80 per cent of the iron ore of France is obtained from the minette beds of the Moselle that extend into Lorraine and Luxemburg. Most of the French ores are limonites. The principal Austrian iron mines are in Styria, the Styrian Erzberg having one of the largest de- posits of siderite in Europe, yielding yearly about I,000,000,000 tons of carbonate ore, con- taining 40 per cent of iron. In Bohemia are mines of magnetite, limonite, and siderite. Sweden has immense deposits of iron ore, chiefly magnetite with Some specular hematite. The most impor- tant deposits are at Grangsberg in Central Sweden, where are specular hematite and mag- netite ores containing 62 to 64 per cent iron and O.9 to I.5 per cent phosphorus, and at Gellivare, IOO miles from the Gulf of Bothnia, where are huge bodies of magnetite that run from 68.69 iron and O.O5 phosphorus to 60 per cent iron and I.5 per cent phosphorus. The ores from this field and the neighboring districts of Kuruna- vara and Luossavara will be of great importance to British iron-masters, and shipments to the Atlantic seaboard of the United States are quite possible. WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF IRON ORE – METRIC TONS. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,350,325 37.7 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I6,570, 182 2I-4 Great Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2,475,7 OO 16.1 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,700,000 8.6 Prance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,260,747 5.5 Austria-Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,623, II 5 4.7 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,793,566 3.6 Other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I,8oo, ooo 2.4 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77,573,635 I O O. O. The total production was undoubtedly larger, since among the “other countries” are those that collect no returns of mineral output. The figures are for 190I or IQO2. The iron ore supplies of South America have been little developed, and those of Mexico are just coming into prominence. In the province of Santiago, Cuba, are deposits of high-grade hematite. From there over 690,000 tons were exported to the United States in 1902. At Belle Isle, N. F., beds of hematite are now worked on a large scale. In Ontario, Quebec, and British Columbia are deposits of good hematite and magnetite, and the Dominion will soon be a large producer. There is a possibility of iron ores being mined in Labrador. The United States leads the world in the production of iron ore. The ores mined range from low grade limonite to the highest grade hematites and magnetites. The purest ore ever mined in the United States in quantity was probably the magnetite from the Lovers Pit at Mineville, N. Y., which ran 72 per cent iron in TJNITED STATES IRON carload lots, though the Lake Angeline mine at Ishpeming, Mich., has shipped hard hematite running 68 per cent iron and 0.008 phosphorus in thousand-ton lots. Minnesota now leads the States in production, with Michigan second, Alabama third, and Pennsylvania fourth. The chief centre of iron-ore production is about Lake Superior, where the ores occur along five mineral belts or “ranges,” in Pre-Cambrian rocks. The Marquette range, in Michigan, was opened in 1856; the Menominee, mostly in Michigan, but partly in Wisconsin, in 1887; the Gogebic, in Michigan and Wisconsin, in I884; the Vermilion, in Minnesota, in 1884; and the Mesabi, in Minnesota, in 1892. The ores shipped are nearly all red hematite. The Marquette produces some magnetite. As much of the ore is hauled long distances to a furnace, 60 per cent iron was once about as low grade ore as could be shipped profitably, but now some mines ship Bessemer ores containing but 45 per cent iron. The ore-bodies are sometimes of great size. The Chapin mine, on the Menom- inee range, is working lenses Ioo feet wide and 600 feet thick in the middle, and 2,500 feet long. The Fayal mine, on the Mesabi range, in 1902 shipped 1,681,000 tons, and the Chapin in the same year 927,747 tons. The Mesabi deposits are flat-lying, covered by a varying depth of clay, sand, and boulders. By stripping off the surface and working the granular ore with steam-shovels, an enormous output is pos- sible. The output of the various ranges in I902 was: Mesabi, I3,342,840 long tons; Me- nominee, 4,627,524; Marquette, 3,853,OIO; Go- gebic, 3,663,484; Vermilion, 2,084,263; making a total of 27,571, I2I long tons. In the South there are three important iron- mining centres — one near Birmingham, Ala., another in southeastern Tennessee, and the third in southwestern Virginia. The ores are red hematites and low-grade limonites. The growth of the Alabama industry is due to cheap ore, limestone and coking-coal being found in close proximity. Pennsylvania leads the Union in the production of magnetite, chiefly from the great ore-body at Cornwall, and also produces much limonite. New York and New Jersey also produce magnetite, and the former State some red hematite. Carbonate ores now come chiefly from Ohio. Of the western States, Col- orado produces limonite, and in Utah and Wy- oming are great deposits of magnetite and hematite, destined to be of importance in the near future. The famous specular hema- tite mines at Pilot Knob and Iron Mountain, Mo., are exhausted. Texas has large deposits of ore, and several other States are or will be important producers. Mining and Handling Iron Ores.— Some extraordinary records of cheap mining and transportation have been made in the Lake Su- perior iron-ore trade. Large ore-bodies, effi- ORE PRODUCTION — IN LONG TONS. I880 1890 Igoo I902 Take Superior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.985,334 7,558,076 I9,095,393 27,57I, I2I Southern States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627,517 2,904,322 5, IOO,000 4,850,000 Other States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,884,658 4,056,469 I,758,000 2,215,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,497,509 14,518,867 25,953,393 34,636,121 IRON SKELETON CONSTRUCTION – IRONWEED cient labor, and excellent management have been the factors in reducing mining costs, while the long lake-water haul, nearly 900 miles, in spe- ºcially designed vessels, has made it possible to put down Lake Superior ores at Pittsburg, Over I, IOO miles from the mine, at a total trans- portation cost of under $2 per ton. On the Mesabi range, in some large mines steam- shovels load the ore directly upon the cars, one shovel having loaded I70,000 tons in 26 days, Or at the rate of over 6,500 tons per day. The shovels are each operated by five men, and the labor cost for mining and loading averages |but about 16c per ton, and at one mine which dug and loaded 293,651 tons in 174 days, the labor cost was only 4c per ton. The loaded ore- trains go 50 to II5 miles to a shipping port. There they are run on to long, high docks hav- ing large pockets or bins into which the ore runs through openings in the bottoms of the cars. From these pockets the ore passes by gravity down along chutes into the hold of the vessel, so that no hand-labor is required. The Ore-pockets hold about 160 tons each, and num- ber from 90 to 384, according to the length of the dock. In unloading the ore from the vessels, the use of labor-saving machinery is even more notable. A series of steel bridges, easily moved along the docks, is supplied with hinged arms which can be lowered into the hatch of the ves- sel. Along each arm and across the bridge runs a trolley-train to which are attached automatic grabs similar to a double scoop. The grab or scoop holds about five tons of ore, and when it begins to draw together it digs into the ore. The grabs can remove over half of the cargo without any assistance, and the remaining half is brought directly under the hatch by use of a scraper, operated by similar machinery. The grabs are so controlled by the engineer that he can drop them at any point over the hold he may wish, and after a grab seizes its load of ore it is raised at full speed, carried rapidly along the trolley to any given point, and dumped into railroad cars or on stock piles. This 5-ton grab has a hoisting speed of IOO ft. a minute, and can run along the bridge at the rate of I,000 ft. a minute. The bridges to which the arms with their grabs are attached are worked by electricity. By such a device 26 men can do the work of 300 under the old system. Another unloading device, the Hulett unloader, requires even fewer men, and takes out a larger proportion of the cargo without aid. Bibliography.— Owing to the enormous growth of the iron industry, there is no recent single work covering the production and use of iron ores. Statistics of production can be found in ‘The Mineral Industry,” the ‘Min- eral Resources of the United States,” and the ‘Engineering and Mining Journal.” Descrip- tions of geological occurrence and mining meth- ods can be found in the monographs and bullet- ins of the United States Geological Survey; and the ‘Transactions” of the American Insti- tute of Mining Engineers. See GOETHITE ; TIEMATITE ; ILMENITE ; LIMONITE ; MAGNETITE ; MINING ; ORE DEPOSITS. SAMUEL SANFORD, Assº, Editor ‘Engineering and Mining Jour- 7tal. Iron Skeleton Construction, a modern sys- tem of constructing high buildings, by which architects and builders are enabled to plan and erect buildings as high as I5 or 20 stories on plots of ground 20 to 30 feet wide. By the use of this system the thickness of walls is consid— erably reduced, thus giving a larger floor Space, a very desirable consideration, especially in Office buildings. Iron and steel columns are car- ried up from foundation to roof, and then cov- ered in with bricks or stone. Thus a carrying capacity equal to that of walls of much greater thickness is produced. A 12-story building in New York city thus constructed upon a lot 25 by IOO feet means a saving in floor space of thousands of feet. I'ronclad. See ARMOR-PLATE. Ironclad Oath, The, an act passed by the United States Congress in 1866, excluding voters, in the States lately in rebellion, from the franchise. The act practically disfranchised all Southerners over 25 years of age. It was repealed shortly after its passage. Irondale, i'êrn-dal, Wash., a place in the northeastern part of Jefferson County, a few miles south of Port Townsend. The first blast- furnace on the Pacific coast was erected at this place in about 1880. The furnace was in opera- tion about 12 years, and was then abandoned because of the great expenses incurred in pro- duction. The ore was obtained from Texada, an island belonging to British Columbia, and I30 miles distant. The last of the 19th cen- tury the Pacific Steel Company, a corporation in which practical iron-makers of Pennsylvania are the chief owners, began investigations as to the nature of the ore, and the possibility with improved machinery, to manufacture iron at Irondale or vicinity at paying rates. As a result the Pacific Steel Company have taken up the work abandoned by the Puget Sound Iron Com- pany. The works have been so improved as to be practically new, and 20 brick charcoal kilns have been erected for the use of the company. Coke is obtained in Washington. Ironton, i'êrn-tón, Ohio, city, county-seat of Lawrence County; on the Ohio River, and on the Detroit S., the Norfolk & W., and the Cincinnati, H. & D. R.R.'s; about IOO miles directly southeast of Columbus. The Chesa- peake & Ohio railroad, in Kentucky, has here a ferry for passengers and freight, which prac- tically gives the city the benefit of four impor- tant railroads. Ironton was settled in 1832, and for some years was known as a river-trading town. It was incorporated in 1849. It is situ- ated in a section of country noted for its clay (suitable for pottery), iron ore, and bituminous coal. Its chief industrial establishments are foundries, rolling-mills, blast-furnaces, machine- shops, nail-works, furniture factories, and planing-mills. It has also among its manufac- tures doors and mantels, stoves, boilers, cement, and fire-bricks. The clay in the vicinity is much used for pottery. The parks, River View, Lin- coln, and Beechwood, are attractive. Some of the principal Buildings are the Briggs Public Library, the Kingsbury school, Odd Fellows Hall, Masonic Temple, City hospital, and sev- eral churches. Ironton was the home for some time of the artist Sarah Cotter-King. Pop. (1900) II,868. Ironweed, a tall, coarse, composite plant of the genus Permonia, three species of which IRONWOOD — IRRIGATION grow abundantly in woods and along roadsides throughout the southern half of the Union, bear- ing heads of magenta-colored flowers somewhat like miniature thistles. The most conspicuous species (V. gigantea) is often Io feet high, and blooms in August and September. A similar species (V. moveboracensis) grows in low grounds throughout the northern States. I'ronwood, Mich., city in Gogebic County, on the Wisconsin C., and the Chicago & N. W. R.R.'s; about 12 miles south of Lake Superior and 33 miles Southeast of Ashland. It was set- tled in 1884 and incorporated in 1887. It is situated in a region rich in iron ore and timber; the section is known as the “Gogebic iron re- gion.” The famous Norrie mine is in this vicin- ity. Ironwood is the trade centre for the greater part of the mining and lumbering business of the county. Some of the principal buildings are the Carnegie library, the city-hall, the high school, and several churches. Trolley lines con- nect the city with Gile and Hurley, Wis. The government is vested in a mayor, who is elected annually, and a council. The mayor appoints, subject to the approval of the council, all the subordinate officials except the members of the board of education. Pop. (1890) 7,745; (1900) 9,705. Ironwood, a popular name for many trees whose timber is very hard and heavy. Proba- bly the best known species in America is also known as leverwood, Ostrya Virginica of the natural order Cupuliferae, indigenous from Nova Scotia to Florida and westward to Minnesota and Texas. It is a medium sized tree with fur- rowed bark, birch-like foliage, pistillate flowers in catkins resembling the female flowers of hop, hence its popular name hop-hornbeam. The name ironwood is also sometimes applied to Carpinus Americana or Caroliniana, of the same natural order. (See HoRNBEAM.) Among for- eign “ironwoods,” perhaps the most widely known is Mesus ferea, an East Indian tree planted around Buddhist temples for its fragrant flowers, which are used to decorate the images of Buddha. Another Asiatic species is Metro- sideros vera, from which the Chinese and Jap- anese make rubbers. In Australia and South Africa various species of Olea, Melaleuca, Sider- oxylon, Notelaea, and Myrtus are valued for their timber, locally called ironwood, employed where great toughness is desirable and weight no obstacle. Iroquois, ir-5-kwoi', the name given by the French to the confederacy of North Amer- ican Indians, called by the English the “Five,” and afterward the “Six Nations.” The Mo- hawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas, and Tuscaroras, after they were driven from their hunting-grounds in North Carolina in I7I2, were the members of this confederacy. They formerly resided on the Mohawk River in New York State and on the lakes which still bear their names, and extended their conquests to the Mississippi and beyond the St. Lawrence. Their valor and successes had procured them the name of the Romans of America. Their terri- tory abounded with lakes well stored with fish; their forests were filled with game, and they had the advantage of a fertile soil. The Sachems owed their authority to public opinion; the general affairs of the confederacy were man- aged by a great council, composed of the chiefs, which assembled annually at Onondaga. They exterminated the Eries, drove out the Hurons and Ottawas, subdued the Illinois, Miamis, Al- gonquins, Lenni Lennapes, Shawanese, and the terror of their arms extended over a great part of Canada, and the northern and northeastern parts of the United States. It is probable that, had America not been colonized by the whites, they would have absorbed all the nations from Can- ada to the Gulf of Mexico. In the long wars between the British and French, which contin- ued with some interruptions for nearly a cen- tury, until 1763, they were generally in the Brit- ish interest; and in the Revolutionary War they were also mostly in favor of the British. Ac- cording to the United States census, , and a Canadian report, the total number of the Iro- quois in IQ02 was about 17,000, of whom about 8,000 were in the United States. See SIX NA- TIONS, THE. Irrawad'dy. See IRAwadi. . Irrigation, the watering of land by artifi- cial means to make it productive. Historically, irrigation seems coeval with the earliest attempts to construct complicated machinery, and the sys- tems of irrigation used in the earliest times in the Far East, in Babylonia, and in Egypt, dating in the last-named country 20 centuries before Christ, furnish as important a chapter in the history of invention as in the story of agricul- tural development. In our times the sys- tems of India (q.v.) and Egypt (see Assou AN; NILE) are probably the best organized, being largely under governmental control. In Europe, irrigation is widely used in northern Italy, Southern France, and throughout Spain. The British colonial possessions of the southern hemisphere, notably Australia and South Africa, benefit more and more by artificial water-supply. Early Irrigation in America.- Irrigation was practised in prehistoric times by the town-build- ing Pueblo Indian tribes inhabiting portions of New Mexico and Arizona. The descendants of these Indians still utilize some of the lands which were tilled by irrigation at the time when the Spaniards first came from the south, and prac- tise many of the primitive customs of their an- cestors. The Mexicans of mixed Spanish and Indian origin, gradually extending their settle- ments from the south, through necessity prac- tised irrigation. The early missions of the Pa- cific coast also used it, and in southern California particularly are to be found the ruins of sub- stantial dams and headworks built of masonry and constructed by Indian labor. But the first systematic application of irrigation in the arid West by English-speaking people was made by the Mormons on the shores of the Great Salt Lake. The soil was so barren that crops could not be raised by ordinary means, and they turned the waters of the little cañon streams. upon the ground where Salt Lake City now stands. After many years they succeeded in mastering the art of irrigation, and under the wise rules of Brigham Young, limiting the size of irrigated farms, the Mormons have become a prosperous people. At about the time the Mor- mons were settling Utah, the gold-miners in California were building ditches for placer- washing, and were using water from these ditches for irrigation. The results obtained at- tracted public attention, and irrigation slowly IRRIGATION. º, s - 1. Scene in Southern California, showing the furrow method of irrigation. 2. Desert land reclaimed by irrigation, showing recently planted orchards. IRRIGATION developed as an adjunct to mining. With the stoppage of hydraulic mining, the ditches built for mining were either abandoned or used ex- clusively for irrigation. Many of them have been enlarged, and have now even greater value than in the old days of mining excitement. Development in the United States.—The successful irrigation attained by the Greeley col- ony, and the wonderful results shown by the Mormon communities in Idaho, Wyoming, Ari- zona, and Utah, greatly stimulated the colony idea; many organizations brought people in large bodies from the eastern States, and even from Europe, and placed them on Small farms located near each other and supplied with water from a common ditch. Individual settlers also sought opportunities for bringing land under cultivation by artificial watering; and thus, at many widely scattered points, irrigation has been introduced. There are no statistics con- cerning the area irrigated in 1870, but it is prob- able that in that year there were not over 20,000 acres under irrigation in the whole United States; but 1870–80 saw a rapid development of small ditches, constructed by individuals and associations of farmers. At the end of that period there were probably I,000,000 acres un- der irrigation. In the decade 1880–90 occurred the “boom” of speculative enterprise in irriga- tion canals. Large sums of money were ob- tained for irrigation works, but nearly all of these failed, and although they aided in the ex- tension of irrigation, they did not enrich the investors. The IIth census showed that in 1889 there were 3,631,381 acres irrigated on 54,136 farms, with an average irrigation area of 67 acres. During the following decade the irri- gated acreage doubled in extent. This was due to the extension and enlargement of the many canals existing in 1889, and to the more com- plete practice of irrigation on the lands under ditch. In Texas a great system of irrigation, the largest in the country, involving the reclama- tion of 295,000 acres, is now under construc- tion. A canal of IOO miles long is to reach from Pecos to Toyah Lake, thence to the Williams Canal, which it will join with the Pecos River. National Irrigation Act.—The latest and most important step in American irrigation is marked by the National Irrigation Act, which was passed by Congress in 1902, and received the countenance of President Roosevelt. The act provides for the construction of irrigating works under the control of the secretary of the interior, the particular method in each instance being in conformance with the laws of the State and existing conditions. Holdings were limited to 160 acres, because of the greater success of the comparatively small farm. The remarkable feature of the act is its financing. The expenses of construction and maintenance of this Federal improvement are met by the receipts from pub- lic lands. The land reclaimed will be sold to settlers, who must return to the government, in ten equal instalments, without interest on de- ferred payments, the cost of supplying water to the land. This will give them free land under the homestead law, and the water at actual cost, on easy terms, and with canal systems under their own control. It is believed that during each ten years for the next third of a century an acreage equal to the total now under irriga- tion in all the West may be added to the agri- cultural area of the I6 States and Territories affected; thus rapidly multiplying production, furnishing new homes for millions, and provid- ing the food products needed for shipment from the Pacific coast for use in the lands across the Pacific where new markets are now being opened for the surplus products of this country. The effect of the act was immediately felt; indeed, even before its actual passage plans were perfected for great improvements in the System of reclamation in Arizona, where a storage dam, 2IO feet high, is being built on Salt River. . It has a remarkable scheme for the generation of electricity by hydraulics, and the current is to be used in the construction of the dam, and afterward to be piped to a distance and there used for pumping underground water. In Utah also, in 1902, plans were made to use Utah Lake for storage, water being carried thither by a tunnel 3% miles long to be pierced through the Wasatch Mountains. A reservoir in Bear River Valley is also projected, another in Sanpete County, and a great canal from the Grand River. The passage of the National Irrigation Act has also been followed by an early start of the reclamation of Nevada. The Truckee dam is now (1903) under construction. A contract for $900,000 there has already been let, while its ultimate coast will be several millions. The water for Nevada is across the State line in California, a condition which constituted one of the great arguments in favor of a national irri- gation policy. A strict compliance with the apparent purpose of the irrigation law, which aimed to have each State receive improvements to the value of the sales of public lands within its own borders, would have left almost nothing for Nevada, since little public land is now sold there. In fact, only $14,000 would to-day be available. But the law was so drafted as to leave some discretion to administrative officers, and as soon as a start has been made with this Truckee improvement the sale of public lands in Nevada will doubtless enable the irrigation works of the State to earn their part. Surface streams supply over 90 per cent of the irrigated land of the United States. Streams within the arid region of the United States rise high, and at one point or another flow for a time through upper valleys or parks. But after passing through rocky defiles to a fertile lower valley, the typical stream of the arid West loses itself in a shallow sandy channel, and its waste or percolation, together with the scantiness of the rainfall, causes the aridity. Water-Supply and Regulation.—The water used in irrigation is for the most part taken from the river or creek by natural flow or grav- ity. The cost of lifting or pumping water is usually too, great in proportion to the value of crops raised to permit the general use of pumps. Water will flow rapidly in a ditch having a fall of two feet per mile, and the stream supplying the ditch may be falling at a rate of 12 feet per mile. At the end of the first mile the water in the ditch will be ten feet above that in the river, and at the end of the tenth mile will be IOO feet higher, and will thus cover land which is less than 100 feet in altitude above the stream at this locality. It is usual to construct some device at the upper end of each ditch or canal by which the amount of water entering from the river can be regulated. Without this, flood- waters would fill the ditch beyond its capacity, IRRIGATION and would overflow and wash away the banks. In times of low water, also, the stream may fall to such an extent that it must be raised somewhat and forced into the ditch, and at all times it may be necessary to regulate the flow in order to apportion the water fairly to all con- cerned. In the case of the simplest ditch, a small dam of brush and stone is built diagonally or into or across the stream-bed as the water becomes low in Summer, and this is made tight by means of sod and earth. More permanent dams are sometimes built of timber, or masonry. The head-gate or regulator of the canal placed at the end of the dam, consists of a stout frame- work firmly bedded in the earth or rock with one or more openings, each of which can be closed by a gate sliding vertically. The water enters under the gates, the quantity being con- trolled by raising or lowering them. The water is divided by a centre partition, which in some forms of division may be so adjusted as to divert different quantities of water. At a short dis- tance beyond the centre is a horizontal bar, raising the water slightly, so as to insure a fairly uniform condition at the point of division. A considerable slope can be used for small ditches, since the volume of water is not suffi- ciently great to move the large particles of sand and gravel. As a general rule, conduits of this character built in common earth should be so proportioned as to have an average velocity of a little less than three feet per second, or two miles per hour, when carrying their full capacity. It is necessary, therefore, to take into considera- tion the amount of water to be carried and from this deduce the size and shape of the cross- section of the canal or ditch in order to obtain the desired velocity. If the grade be excessive the seepage or loss of water becomes large. The shape of the cross-section of a canal depends largely upon the character of the surface soil. In light or sandy soil, where the earth is easily eroded, very gentle side slopes are given, while in harder materials the side slopes can be steeper. When the fall-of the canal is so great that it is impracticable to allow the water to flow freely down the slope, devices known as drops are introduced. These consist of an ar- rangement whereby the water can drop to a 1ower level without injury to the canal. Drops are usually built of planks with a sharp Over- fall edge, and a low dam or obstruction below the fall in order to maintain the pool. Occasionally they are made in the form of an incline, with a pocket at the bottom to break the force of the falling water. They are expensive to build, and difficult to maintain, because of the rapidity with which the timbers decay and the wearing action of the water, which constantly tends to cut exposed portions. It is necessary in the construction of nearly every ditch or canal to take water across a de- pression at some point in its course. This is usually done by means of a flume or long box, usually rectangular and supported above the ground by a frame or trestle of timber or iron. Such flumes are often used across rocky ground where it is impracticable to dig a ditch. This is particularly the case near the head, where the water, after being taken from the river is often carried through a narrow, steep-walled cañon. Here the foundation for a flume is prepared along the rocky cliffs, supports being devised to suit the inequalities of the ground. A better, though more expensive type of flume is that having a semicircular section, and built of narrow planks or staves laid side by side and held in place by iron bands run around the flume, joined by nuts and threads by which the bands can be drawn up and the staves brought together. In crossing very deep depressions it is necessary to have a correspondingly high trestle in order to carry the flume across on grade. Such high trestles are expensive and liable to destruction from storms. In their place there have been built inverted siphons, wooden Stave-pipe, or aqueducts of other form. The stave-pipes are similar in construction to the semicircular frame of narrow plank, carefully planed to a given dimension, and held in place by circular iron bands or hoops. Application of Water.— The methods of ir- rigation practised in various parts of the United States differ with the climatic conditions and soil, and especially with the early habits or training of the irrigators. The methods of con- serving and applying water have been improved under the stimulus of modern invention, although there has been little if any scientific or well- considered information available. Water is ap- plied to the irrigated field in three ways — by flooding, by furrows, and by sub-irrigation. Flooding.—This is done by the check system and by wild flooding. By the latter process the irrigator turns the water from a ditch over a level field and completely submerges it. Perfectly level fields are, however, comparatively rare, and the first step in primitive agriculture by irrigation has been to build a low ridge around two or three sides of a slightly sloping field, SO that the water is held in ponds. These low banks are commonly known as levees or checks. In construction they are frequently laid out at right angles, dividing the land into a number of compartments. Water is turned from a ditch into the highest of these compartments, and when the ground is flooded the bank of the lower side is cut or a small sluice-way opened, and the water passes into the next field, and so on until each in turn is watered. Furrows.-Irrigation in checks has gradually been given up, owing to the expense of level- ing and leveeing the ground. With experience the irrigator has become able to apply water to crops which are cultivated in furrows, without resorting to such expensive means. The furrows are plowed in such a direction that the water when turned into them from the lateral ditches will flow freely down them without washing away the soil. When the water has completely filled the furrows, and has reached the lowest points, the little streams are cut off and turned into another set of furrows. The methods of do- ing this differ. Sometimes the irrigator simply cuts the bank of the distributing ditch with a shovel and then closes the opening after sufficient water has escaped. A more systematic method is commonly employed in California. Water is carried to the furrows in a small box-flume with openings in the side. These openings are closed by little shutters and a number can be opened at once, permitting a certain quantity of water to escape into each furrow. The slope given the furrows determines to a certain ex- tent the amount of water received by the soil. If the fall is very gentle, the water moves slowly and a large portion is absorbed while the furrow is being filled. If steep, the water quickly passes IRRIGATION to a lower end and the ground does not absorb so much. When the entire field has been watered, the furrows are usually plowed out and a thin layer of the top soil stirred to make an open, porous covering or mulch, preventing excessive evaporation and allowing the air to enter the ground. Without such cultivation a hard crust may be formed. The loosening of this crust breaks the capillary connection with the moisture beneath and thus lessens the loss of water. For irrigating small grain, such as wheat, the Ordi- mary plow furrows are not used. The fields, brought to a uniform surface, are thoroughly cultivated, and after the grain has been Sown, small parallel lines are made similar to furrows, |but smaller and nearer together. These tiny channels are made either by a peculiar drag or by a roller upon which are projections so ar- ranged as to make small grooves in the soil. These are made in the direction of the desired slope, so that the water can flow down the marks through the grain as it would in furrows through a cornfield. The rapidly growing grain shades the surface and prevents the formation of crust, rendering subsequent cultivation unnecessary. In order to cause the water to spread from the lateral ditches into the furrows through the ground, use is made of the tappoon — a small sheet of metal of such shape as to fit across the ditch. This can be forced into the soft earth, making a small dam and causing the water to back up and overflow the field of grain. Some- times a canvas dam is used. Furrow-irrigation is usually employed in watering trees and vines. In some localities, However, basin or pool irrigation is practised. The supply is conducted often in cement-lined ditches and by wooden flumes as near as pos- sible to the trees and vines, and is then turned out into the furrows plowed around or near the trees. The water issuing from Small apertures in the side of the wooden box falls into the fur- rows and is immediately conducted to the vicin- ity of the trees. Care is usually taken that the water shall not actually touch the tree-trunks, and it is extended far enough about the ex- tremities of the roots to encourage these to spread outward. After the water has traversed the furrows to the lower end of the orchard, the supply is cut off, and the ground is tilled as soon as the surface dries sufficiently. Sub-Irrigation.—Attempts have been made to conduct the water beneath the surface imme- diately to the roots of the trees, thus preventing waste by evaporation from the surface of the ground. Few devices have been successful, Owing to the fact that the roots of the trees rapidly seek and enter the openings from which the water issues, or, surrounding the pipe by a dense network, cut off the supply. Porous clay tiling has been laid through orchards, and also iron pipes perforated so as to furnish a supply of water along their length. A machine has Been invented and successfully used for making cement-pipe in place. Small trenches are dug through the orchard between the trees and the pipe-making machine deposits the material in the trenches, which are filled with earth as soon as the cement is set. Water is thus distributed underground where needed. In orchards where sub-surface irrigation has been unsuccessful be- cause of roots stopping up minute openings beneath the surface, the system has been recon- structed and water has been brought to the surface at or near each tree by means of small hydrants. Vertical pipes are placed at short intervals leading to the level of the ground, and in these are small iron gates or shutters so arranged that the flow can be cut off in the buried pipe. For annual or root crops sub-irriga- tion has been successfully practised by the use of small iron pipes partly open at the bottom, allowing a small amount of water to escape. These pipes are laid I2 inches or more beneath the surface, and are connected with lines of tile or clay pipes leading from the reservoir or source of supply. As the crops are removed each year, and the ground cultivated, the roots have no op- portunity to stop up the pipes. The term sub- irrigation is occasionally applied to conditions occurring in nature where water percolates freely beneath the ground for a considerable distance sufficiently near the surface to supply the need of crops. Where the subsoil transmits water freely, irrigation ditches may sub-irrigate large tracts of country without rendering them marshy. Thus farms may obtain an ample supply of water from ditches half a mile or more away without the necessity of distributing small streams over the surface. In the San Joaquin Valley, California, vineyards in certain locali- ties are thus maintained in good condition, al- though water has not been visibly applied for many years. Quantity of Water.— The amount of water required for raising crops varies according to the character of the soil. The plants themselves need a certain minimum supply, but a far larger quantity is required to saturate the surrounding soil to such a degree that the vitalizing processes can continue. Prof. F. H. King of Madison, Wis., has found by direct measurements that from 300 to 500 pounds of water are required for each pound of dry matter produced. When the ground is first irrigated an enormous quan- tity of water is sometimes required to saturate the subsoil. The quantity of water turned upon the surface during the first year or two has fre- quently been sufficient to cover the ground to a depth of IO to 20 feet, and in some cases an amount equal to a depth of 5 feet or more per annum has been thus employed for several years. Gradually, however, the dry soil is filled. The pioneers of irrigation sometimes use too much water, often to their disadvantage. The quantity of water used in irrigation is usually stated in one of two ways: (1) In terms of depth of water on the surface; (2) in quantities of flowing water through the irrigat- ing season. In the humid regions the rainfall is usually from three to four inches per month during the crop season. In the arid region, where the sunlight is more continuous, and the evaporation greater, there should be for the ordinary crops at least enough water during the growing season to cover the ground from four to six inches in depth each month. The second method of stating the quantities necessary for irrigation is of convenience when considering a stream upon which there is no storage. It is estimated that one cubic foot per Second, flowing through an irrigating season of 90 days, will irrigate Ioo acres. One second- foot will cover an acre nearly two feet deep during 24 hours, and in 90 days it will cover 180 acres one foot deep, or Ioo acres to a depth of I.8 feet, or 21.6 inches. This is equivalent to a depth of water of a little over seven inches IRRIGATION per month during the season of 90 days. Suc- cessive years of deficient rainfall in Southern California from 1897 to 1900 served to prove that, with careful cultivation, crops, Orchards, and vineyards can be maintained by using very small quantities of water. In some cases an amount not exceeding six inches in depth was applied during the year, this being conducted directly to the plants, and the ground kept care- fully tilled and free from weeds. As estimated by various water companies in southern Cali- fornia, one miner's inch of water will irrigate from five to ten acres, the miner's inch equaling I2,960 gallons in 24 hours, or almost exactly O.02 second-foot, this being the amount delivered under a 4-inch head, measured from the centre of the opening. Under this assumption one Second-foot should irrigate from 250 to 500 acres. If it be assumed that one miner's inch is allowed for ten acres, or one second-foot for 500 acres, this quantity of water flowing from May to October, inclusive, will cover the ground to a depth of a little over seven tenths of a foot. The method of applying water largely governs the amount used. With alfalfa flooding is practised; with small grains the water is run in furrows; while with orchards the water is sometimes applied directly to each tree, or is run in furrows, four or five in each case be- tween two rows of trees. The annual charges for water by the acre in southern California, where this economy of water is practised, have been as low as $3, and from this rising to $15 or more per acre. For good farming in parts of the arid region outside of southern California, a depth of from 24 to 30 inches of water during the crop season should be sufficient, except in the case of alfalfa and other forms of forage which are cut a number of times. The temperature and the wind-move- ment introduce so many conditions that broad statements of this kind are merely suggestive, and not to be followed as rules. Where an excessive amount of water is put upon irrigated land, as high as 70 per cent has been known to pass by seepage to the lower grounds. Growing plants evaporate in many cases 300 times their own weight of water each year. If a crop be carelessly cultivated and weeds allowed to grow with plants, the worth- 1ess plants waste as much water as is used by those that are valuable. But with careful cul- tivation the evaporation is lessened and the waste of water is prevented. Thus the quan- tity of water required is only one half or one third of the amount needed where the farming is carelessly done. Users’ Rights-The first settlers frequently laid claim to the whole flow of the stream. Soon after the first ditch was built others were constructed a few miles above or below. As long as the stream is of sufficient volume to fill each of the ditches, no difficulties from this arise; but sooner or later the increasing size and number of ditches and canals result in dimin- ishing the flow in the river to such an extent that it becomes low, and water does not reach the ditches farthest downstream. The result has been that in many parts of the arid region, owing to scarcity of water, law- lessness has prevailed, and every man has en- deavored to obtain for his own crops as much as possible of the scanty supply. Usually the irrigators elected a water-master to apportion to each claimant a certain amount of water, or assign certain days or hours upon which water can be used. Often the quantity of the water has been settled only after vexatious lawsuits or neighborhood quarrels. In some parts of the arid region, notably in Wyoming and Colo- rado, the States have undertaken the regulation of disputes, and have created special boards, or tribunals to consider the matter and apportion Water. Methods of Obtaining Water.— In the arid region water can be obtained frequently by dig- ging or boring wells at points near stream-chan- nels or along the foot-hills. Out on the broad valleys it may be necessary to go to a depth of from Ioo to 300 feet or more before reaching moisture. Where the supply of water from wells is ample, various devices have been em- ployed, such as windmills and gasoline engines, for bringing it to the surface. It is very im– portant to continue the borings through the water-bearing sands or gravel, so as to take advantage of the full thickness of the pervious deposits. Perforated pipe is often driven into the layers of coarse gravel, and adds greatly to the capacity of the well. Artesian or flowing wells may be sunk wherever water held under pressure in pervious material is overlaid by clay. In a well dug through the impervious layer into the gravel the water will rise to a height equal to the line of saturation of the gravel stratum in the surrounding country. Ar- tesian conditions occur in nearly every State, but they do not extend over any considerable portion of the country, excepting on the Great Plains and in California. Wherever they occur the water has especial value on account of the convenience incident to its rising above the surface. In some places, as the James River Valley of South Dakota, the pressure is IOO pounds or more to the square inch, throwing the water to a considerable height and enabling the wells to be used as sources of power. The quantity of water to be had from deep wells is governed by the diameter of the well, the struc- ture and thickness of the water-bearing rocks, and the pressure sustained by the water. With relatively dense rocks a slight head of water will throw only a feeble stream, but from thick layers of open gravel or sand rock large volumes are delivered. It frequently occurs that a 4-inch pipe will deliver all of the water which can reach this point, and increasing the diameter of the well will not alter the flow. While most of the water used in irrigation is diverted by gravity from flowing streams, yet, as regards value, it may be said that some of the most important sources of supply are utilized through pumping. In some localities where horses have little value, pumping by horse-power is in vogue. The practicability of irrigation in this way is limited largely by the depth of the water and the number of animals available. The force of flowing water itself is frequently employed to bring water up to the level of the irrigable land, the bucket-wheel having been utilized from the earliest historical times up to the present. The most important source of power for pumping water is wind. Over the broad valleys and plains of the arid region the wind-movement is almost continuous for days and weeks. It is a comparatively simple and inexpensive operation to sink a well into the water and erect a windmill, attaching this IRRIGATION to a suitable pump. A windmill once erected on the plains is operated day and night by the wind, bringing to the surface a small but con: tinuous supply of water. This small stream if turned out on the soil, would flow a short dis- tance, then disappear into the thirsty ground, so that irrigation directly from a windmill is usually impracticable. To overcome this diffi- culty it has been found necessary to provide small storage reservoirs or tanks, built of earth, wood, or iron, to hold the water until it has accumulated to a volume sufficient to permit a stream of considerable size to be taken out for irrigation. Such a stream, flowing rapidly over the surface, will penetrate to a distance and cover an area much greater than is possible with the small flow delivered by the pump. One disadvantage connected with the use of wind- mills is that most of them are constructed to operate only in moderate winds. As the strength of the wind increases, the wheel begins to re- volve, increasing in efficiency until the velocity of the wind is about eight or ten miles an hour. At greater speed the mills are usually so con- structed that the efficiency decreases rapidly as the wind becames more powerful. When it approaches a gale, the mill stops completely. In many places drainage-works are a neces- sary adjunct of irrigation. On bench-lands or gently sloping hillsides the water which escapes from one man's farm is eagerly caught and used by his neighbor below, and there is none left to stagnate, the surplus from the cultivated lands being often of great value in watering the lower meadows. There are cases, however, where the question of disposing of the water is as im- portant as that of obtaining it. These are on the nearly level lands, where the subsoil has been filled to saturation by the water which has no opportunity to escape, and expensive works are required in order to redeem the lower lands for agricultural purposes. Duty of Water.—The amount of land which can be irrigated with a given quantity of water, or the relation which these bear to each other, is commonly expressed by the term duty of water. The investigation of the duty of water is one of the most complicated problems of irrigation. There is such a difference in methods of measurement, localities, soils, crops, appli- cation of water, and frequency of watering that the statements made by different persons are almost irreconcilable. In general, more water is used, or the duty is less, on the newer land than on that which has been cultivated by irrigation for some years. The rainfall also affects the quantity used, and as this is exceedingly irreg- ular, the amount of water applied each year fluctuates. Seepage likewise complicates mat- ters, for a field may often receive considerable water indirectly and require less by direct ap- plication. The duty of water is quoted at from 30 to 600 acres or more to the second-foot. For convenience the unit of Ioo acres to the second- foot has been considered as indicating careful irrigating, although in the more southwestern portion of the arid region this would be con- sidered low, and in the northern part high. Since the value of water per second-foot varies largely with its duty, it will be recognized that it is exceedingly difficult to estimate. How- ever, it is necessary to arrive at certain averages in order to approximate the possible values of river, or of storage basins, in the future develop- ment of the country. It has been estimated that a perpetual water-right is worth from $25 to $50 per acre in a grain or grazing country, and as high as from $100 to $500 per acre for fruit- land, rising in southern California for the best citrus lands even to $1,000 or more per acre. Alkali.-The accumulation of alkali in irri- gated lands presents one of the most serious problems encountered in this method of agri- culture. The injuries from the presence in excess of earthy salts are usually evident in the corrosive action of the tender bark, especially at the root-crown. Experiments made in Cali- fornia show that apple-trees are severely injured by the presence of 3,000 pounds of common salt per acre, this amount being disseminated through four feet in depth. On the other hand, the olive thrives at Tulare, where the soil con- tains as high as 5,600 pounds of salt per acre. Alfalfa, when young, is easily killed by alkali, but it has been found to thrive in soil contain- ing as much as 6,000 pounds of common salt, 3,000 pounds of carbonate, and over 1,000 pounds of sulphate, per acre, distributed through six feet in depth. Sugar-beets also have been known to grow well where a large amount of alkali is present. Grapes apparently are least affected by small amounts of alkali, while peaches and lemons are more susceptible to in- jury because of its presence. The recently introduced salt-bush is notable for its ability to grow in alkaline lands, and sorghum and alfalfa, especially when the latter has reached maturity, are almost equally vigorous. The most effective way of removing alkali is by underdrainage through tiles laid at a depth of from three to five feet, the drainage-water being allowed to escape into a stream, or into a well from which it can be removed by pumping. Recent authorities on the subject claim that the trouble caused by alkali yields easily to simple treatment, and that science has already solved the problem. It is declared that the tiling of 1and for alkaline washing costs even less than drain-tiling as practised on Eastern farms. In the government demonstration at Salt Lake City, where the percentage of alkali is enormous, the lines of tile are 150 feet apart. In Fresno, Cal., much alarm was felt over the appearance of sur- face alkali on some of the best lands, but gov- ernment demonstration of ditching and flooding has shown the process to be simple, practicable and cheap, with no waste of water. The water descending into the soil dissolves large quanti- ties of alkali near the surface and carries it off in solution, but not in sufficient quantities to prevent the drainage water being again used for irrigation on lower levels. According to a gov- ernment expert, land so tiled, even if badly alka- line, can be returned to profitable cultivation in six months if heavily irrigated, and within one year can be used for the production of any crop Suited to the climate. The large areas of alkali land in the West can be reclaimed at a cost far below the actual increase in the value of the land, and those lands injured by seepage water can be returned to fertility, and the danger of the rise of alkali entirely obviated. It is thought that the time will soon come when drainage will be as common in the irrigated districts as are the tile-drained fields of the Middle West. States Compared.— In the number of irri- gators California stands far ahead of any other State, having about one fourth of the total num- IRRIGATION BILL – IRVINE ber in the United States. Colorado, however, exceeds in the number of acres irrigated, al- though not in the value of irrigated crops. In this respect California leads, having a value double that of Colorado, and over one third that of the total value of irrigated crops in the United States. The greatest percentage of increase in the number of irrigators has been in the State of Washington, and the least in Oregon. This, doubtless, is due to the fact that in irrigation Oregon reached a certain culminating point previous to 1889, while in Washington the con- struction of ditches had only begun. If we take the increase for the United States as the normal condition — consider that for any given locality the number of irrigators should have doubled to show a normal growth — it will be seen that in Oregon, Nevada, Colorado, Utah, California, and Wyoming the growth has been less than normal, while in Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, and Arizona the increase has been above the normal. Taking in the same way the increase in number of acres irrigated, it is seen that Cali- fornia and Colorado, which together include only one half of the acreage irrigated, have fallen behind the normal or average growth of acreage brought under cultivation by the arti- ficial application of water; while on the other hand the remaining States and Territories have increased abnormally, development being least rapid in Oregon; greater in New Mexico, Ne- vada, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, Washington, Idaho; and greatest in Arizona. Comparison of Crops.--In considering the character and value of the crops produced on irrigated land in the arid States and Terri- tories, hay and forage form the most important item, being over one third of the whole. Cereals — principally wheat, oats, rye, and barley —come far below the forage crops; and next to these in order are vegetables, orchard fruits and small fruits. In California only the orchard fruits sur- pass the forage crops in value. The large pro- duction of hay and forage under irrigation illus- trates the fact that in these States irrigation is, to a large extent, an adjunct of stock-raising. The largest amount raised is in Colorado, Cali- fornia coming next in importance, being fol- lowed, in the order given, by Montana, Utah, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Wyoming, New Mexico, Arizona, and Washington. The production of cereals under irrigation is relatively small. In California, for example, only 6.0 per cent of the wheat is irrigated, and 8.0 per cent of the barley. The total value of all the cereals produced under irrigation in the United States is far less than that of those produced in almost any one of the humid States of the East; in New York, for example, though it is not considered a farming State, the value of the cereals raised is more than double that of the entire amount produced under irrigation in the whole country. In many localities the irrigation of cereals and staple crops has been brought about by local condi- tions, such as difficulty of transportation and consequent heavy cost of importation. The irri- gated cereals in such localities are raised almost wholly for local consumption, and do not enter the markets of the world. Economic Bearings.-Irrigation has im- portant economic aspects especially seen in the greater success of the small irrigated holding. The Salvation Army, following the example of the Mormon colonies of 1847 in Utah, and of the Greeley community in California, has lo- cated many city dwellers on small reclaimed farms. And the governmental action referred to above will no doubt help irrigation. The process will always be slow from the nature of the case, and the effect on Eastern agricul- ture, far from being sudden and severe as was urged by the opponents of the Irrigation Bill in 1902, will be gradual. It may be very bene- ficial in forcing Eastern farmers to more care- ful use of their water-supply, and perhaps to the adoption of a modified scheme of irriga- tion, which has been found to increase crops even in humid districts, and which would at least be a valuable resource in times of drought. Bibliography.—Mead, ‘Irrigation Institutes’ (1903); Wilson, ‘Manual of Irrigation Engi- neering’; Wilcox, ‘Irrigation Farming’; Long, ‘Irrigation Law) ; Newell, ‘Irrigation in the United States? (1902); King, “Irrigation and Drainage”; Dennis, “Reports on Irrigation and Canadian Irrigation Surveys’; Brough, ‘Irriga- tion in Utah’; Smythe, ‘Conquest of Arid America? (1900); Deakin, ‘Irrigation in West- ern America’; ‘Irrigation in Egypt and Italy’; |Markham, “On Spanish Irrigation’; Ronna, “Les Irrigations’; Stewart, ‘Irrigation for the Farm, Garden, and Orchard? ; Cole, “The New Agriculture, or the Waters Led Captive’; Den- ton, (Water-supply for Farms’; United States Department of Agriculture (Bull. No. 130, 1903), ‘Egyptian Irrigation’; (Bull. I33, 1903), “Report on Irrigation Investigations for 1902.’ Irrigation Bill, a Federal measure, adopted in June 1902, for the reclamation by irrigation of arid and semi-arid lands in Arizona, Cali- fornia, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Ne- braska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Washington and Wyom- ing. See IRRIGATION. Irtish, ir’tish, a river of Asia, which rises in China, in the Altai Mountains, and after ex- panding into Lake Zaisan, flows through the Russian territory of Semipalatinsk, passes the town of Tobolsk, and finally, after a course of about 1,800 miles, joins the Obi near Samarova. Much of its course is through low plains and steppes, and its navigation is much impeded by shifting sands. Its fisheries, particularly of sturgeon, are very productive. Irvine, William, American Revolutionary general: b. near Enniskillen, Ireland, 3 Nov. I74I ; d. Philadelphia 29 July 1804. Having graduated at Dublin University, he studied medicine and surgery, and was appointed sur- geon on board a ship of war, serving during a part of the war of I756–63 between Great Britain and France. On the declaration of peace he emigrated to America, and in 1764 settled in Carlisle, Pa., where for Io years he practised his profession. At the opening of the Revolution he took part with the colonies, was a member of the provincial convention assembled 15 July I774, until he was appointed by Congress, Io Jan. 1776, colonel of the 6th battalion of the Pennsylvania Hine. On 12 May 1779 he was pro- moted to the rank of brigadier-general, and as- signed to the command of the 2d brigade of the Pennsylvania line. In the autumn of 1781 he was ordered to Fort Pitt, to take command of the troops on the western frontier, and contin- ued to fulfil the duties of this post until after the war had closed. He was early in 1785 ap- IRVING pointed by the State agent under an “act for directing the mode of distributing the donation lands promised to the troops of the common- wealth.” About this time he suggested to Penn- sylvania the purchase from the United States of the tract of land known as “the triangle,” thus giving to the State an outlet upon Lake Erie. He was a member of Congress under the con- federation 1787–8, and of the Federal Congress I793-5. In 1794 he was assigned to the com- mand of the Pennsylvania troops for the purpose of quelling the “whiskey insurrection,” and in all the most important movements in connection with this subject took an active part. He was president of the State society of the Cincinnati at the time of his death. Irving, er'ving, Edward, Scottish preacher, founder of the religious sect known as Irving- ites: b. Annan, Dumfriesshire, 4 Aug. I792; d. Glasgow December 1834. He was graduated at the University of Edinburgh, and in 1815 be- came a licentiate of the Church of Scotland and subsequently Dr. Chalmer's assistant. In 1822 he became minister of the Caledonian Asylum chapel in Cross Street, Hatton Garden, London. Here he soon attracted very large congregations by the force and eloquence of his discourses, and the singularity of his appearance and gesticula- tion. The greatest orators and statesmen of the day crowded with the wealthy and fashionable to hear him. The appearance of the preacher — tall, athletic, and sallow — displaying a pro- fusion of jet-black glossy hair reaching to his shoulders, with a singular obliquity in one of his eyes, and a stern calm Solemnity of aspect, enhanced the interest and excitement produced by his discourses. His phraseology was one of the peculiarities which gave him &clat with the public, for he expressed his ideas in the lan- guage of Milton, Hooker, and Jeremy Taylor. At London he began to publish books in which he broached novel theological views. ‘Sermons, Lectures, and Occasional Discourses,” in which his theological peculiarities were first distinctly enunciated, were published in 1828. In the be- ginning of 1832 his aberrations had become so marked and extraordinary that his hearers, who in 1829 had erected for him a large church in Regent Square, preferred charges against their minister. On 2 May 1832 the London presby- tery unanimously found him guilty of error. The consequence was that he became dispos- sessed of his cure. In 1833 the presbytery of Annan, which had licensed him, deposed him from the ministry, on which occasion his defense of himself was a sublime effort of oratory. He retired to Scotland, broken in health and spirits, and was attacked with consumption. For the religious sect he founded see CATHOLIC APos- TOLIC CHURCH. His life has been admirably written by Mrs. Oliphant. Irving, SIR Henry (originally John HENRY BRODRIBB), English actor: b. near Glastonbury 6 Feb. 1838. He was for a time a clerk in Lon- don, but adopted the theatrical profession, his first appearance being at Sunderland in 1856. He appeared for the first time in London at the Princess' Theatre, in 1859, after which he went to Manchester, where he remained for five or six years, but returned to London in 1866, where his first marked success was as Digby Grant in Albery’s ‘Two Roses” (in 1870), which was followed by his powerful impersonation of Mathias in (The Bells.” His next noteworthy parts were Charles I., Eugene Aram, and Riche- lieu, in the plays so named. In 1874, at the Lyceum Theatre, he sustained the part of Ham- let so successfully as to raise himself to the first place among English actors. His chief Shakespearian parts are Macbeth, Othello, Shy- lock, and Richard III. In 1878 he leased the Lyceum Theatre for himself, and has since put on the stage in excellent style ‘Othello,” “The Merchant of Venice,” “Much Ado About Noth- ing,” “Romeo and Juliet,” “Twelfth Night,” “Faust,” “Macbeth,” etc., playing in them the principal character with Miss Ellen Terry. His appearances in the provinces have been equally successful with those in London, and he has met with like favor in his repeated visits to the United States. Of his more recent roles may be cited Becket in Tennyson’s play of that name (1893), King Arthur in a play of that name (I895), Napoleon in ‘Madame Sans-Gêne? (1897), the title role in his son's play of ‘Peter the Great” (1898), and Robespierre in a play of that name (1899), specially written for him by M. Victorien Sardou, and the title role in ‘Dante? (1903). He was knighted in 1895, and in 1898 Cambridge University conferred on him the honorary degree of LL.D. Irving, Washington, American author: b. New York 3 April 1783; d. Tarrytown, N. Y., 28 Nov. 1859. His father, William Irving, mer- chant, came to New York from the Orkneys in I763, having married Sarah Sanders, daughter of Cornish parents, two years before. Wash- ington was the youngest of their II children. His school training was far from thor- ough, and was not directed toward academic culture — though two of his brothers had been sent to Columbia College — a decision of his father that he much regretted in maturer years. He made up for his lack of interest in school subjects by enthusiastic reading in English authors, particularly Chaucer and Spenser. At I6 he entered a law office, and in 1802 began authorship by contributing humorous sketches, over the name of “Jonathan Oldstyle,” to The Morning Chronicle, a daily edited by his brother Peter. Developing symptoms of con- sumption, he sailed in 1804 for France, and spent two years in travel, on the continent and in England, which restored his health. On re- turn he was admitted to the bar, but instead of practice began, in 1807, with his brother Wil- liam, and James K. Paulding, the issue of ‘Sal- magundi,” the success of which determined his career, and the immediate character of his writ- ing. At the close of the next year he set about reshaping the burlesque history of New York, which he had begun, with Peter Irving, some time before on a different plan. While in this work he met with the great affliction of his life, the loss of his betrothed, Matilda Hoffman, daughter of a prominent lawyer of the city, in whose office he had finished his legal studies. The completion of the book, ‘Dietrich Knicker- bocker’s History of New York,” published in I809, was the only solace. that he permitted him- self in the first months of seclusion and grief. In 181o he wrote a short life of the poet Camp- bell, and was received into partnership by his brothers Peter and Ebenezer, who were found- ing an importing house, and wished to provide IRVINGITES – ISAAC Washington the means, without contribution of time or labor to the business, of preparing him- self more fully for his chosen work. In 1813 and 1814 he edited the ‘Analectic Magazine,” published in Philadelphia, and contributed bi- ographical articles upon some of the naval com- manders in the war then in progress with Great Britain. After the burning of our national capital in 1814, he offered his services to his native State, and was made aide-de-camp to Governor Tompkins, with the rank of colonel. At the close of the war he sailed for England, and was received with distinction, by the Amer- ican artists Allston and Leslie, and by Scott, Campbell, Moore and other literary men. In 1818 the firm of P. and E. Irving and Co. failed, and Washington's pleasant rambles in England and Scotland came to an end. He declined a post in the navy board, at home, and set him- self at work in London with his pen. Early in the next year he sent over for publication in New York and Philadelphia, the first number of the ‘Sketch Book,” containing ‘The Voy- age,” “Roscoe,” “The Wife,” and “Rip Van Winkle.” Other numbers followed, the success was great, and in 182O John Murray brought out an edition of the work in London. Its pop- ularity with British readers was such that Mur- ray became the first publisher of ‘Bracebridge Hall? (1822), ‘Tales of a Traveller” (1824), and other works. In 1826 Irving went to Ma- drid, at the instance of his friend, Alexander H. Everett, American minister to Spain, who ad- vised the translation of Naverreté’s ‘Voyages of Columbus,” then issuing in parts. Irving found the work impracticable to translate, being a collection of sources rather than a consistent narrative, and prepared instead the ‘History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Colum- pus,” finished in 1828. This first serious prod- uct of Irving's powers retained much of the ease and charm of ‘The Sketch Book? and ‘Tales of a Traveller,” and was eminently adapted to increase his fame. It was not espe- cially successful, though Murray paid 3,000 guineas for the copyright; an abridgment of the work had a better sale. ‘The Conquest of Granada’ (1829), ‘Companions of Columbus’ (1831), and ‘The Alhambra? (1832) were further fruits of his Spanish studies and travel. In the meantime he had been made secretary of 1egation (1829), in London, and received the medal of the Royal Society of Literature (1830), and the degree of LL.D. (1831) from Oxford. In 1832 he returned to America, but not to rest. He accompanied an Indian com- mission to Fort Gibson, on the Arkansas River, and wrote “Tour on the Prairies,” published as the first volume of ‘Crayon Miscellanies,” in 1835. The second volume, ‘Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey,” and the third, ‘Legends of the Conquest of Spain,” followed in a few months. He now bought the little Van Tassel farm, at Tarrytown, and began to enlarge its Dutch cottage, and improve the grounds. To this home, called “Sunnyside,” he soon removed from the city, and eventually brought to it the brothers who had aided him in earlier years. In 1836 he finished ‘Astoria,” with the help of his nephew, Pierre M. Irving, from materials furnished by John Jacob Astor. The next year he published ‘The Adventures of Captain Bonne- ville,” properly a continuation of the preced- ing. He then began a history of the conquest of Mexico, but on learning that W. H. Prescott was at work on the same subject, resigned the task to him. . In 1839 he engaged to write for the ‘Knickerbocker Magazine,” and furnished monthly articles for about two years. In 1842 he was appointed Minister to Spain, and for the next four years wrote little. On return he arranged with G. P. Putnam for a complete edition of his works, in 15 volumes, to which he added (1849) the ‘Life of Goldsmith,” and (1850) ‘Mahomet and his Successors.” . The way was now open for the ‘Life of Washington,” which had long been contemplated. In 1855 appeared ‘Wolfert's Roost,” mainly a reprint of the Knickerbocker papers, and two volumes of the ‘Life.” The work told on his strength, and the fifth and last volume, finished in March, 1859, left him a broken man. His death was from heart disease, in his 77th year. He was buried by the side of his mother, whose tastes he had inherited, and whose sympathy and nurture had made him what he was. His authorship was the outcome of his personal character, and was little modified by the literatures of the world. With all his graces of expression, he lacked the gift of deep insight, and failed to achieve much vigor of style. The best biography is still the ‘Life and Letters” by his nephew, Pierre M. Irving (1863). Consult also Warner, “Wash- ington Irving? (1881); Laun, “Washington Irving: Ein Lebens- und Charakterbild? (1870); Richardson, ‘American Literature? (1887–8); Wendell, “A Literary History of America? (1900). L. A. SHERMAN, The University of Nebraska. Ir'vingites. See CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH. Ir'vington, N. J., a town in Essex County, adjoining Newark on the southwest. It is a pleasant residential suburb of that city, and also has a number of manufactories, among which are smelting-works and establishments for making wall-paper, pocket-book frames, tools, brushes, rules, etc. The town was incor- porated in 1898, although its settlement dates back almost to 1660. Its governmental affairs are in the hands of a town council. Pop. (1900) 5,255. Irvington, N. Y., village in Westchester County, on the Hudson River, and the New York C. & H. R. railroad, 23 miles north of New York, and a short distance south of Tarry- town; named in honor of Washington Irving. It is mainly a residential village of recent growth and is noted for its beautiful dwellings and grounds, with their fine situation on the river-bank. These are largely the homes of New York business men and their families. The Guiteau Library and the town-hall are among its most noteworthy buildings. The vil- lage is a place of great interest as being the lo- cation of “Sunnyside,” for many years the home of Washington Irving. The house, half a mile north of the railroad station, “is a many-gabled, vine-clad cottage, covered with stucco, and shad- owed by grand trees.” It has been rebuilt and enlarged. Pop. (I900) 2,231. Isaac, i'zak (Heb. “he will laugh”), Hebrew patriarch, the son of Abraham by Sarah, so called to denote the laughter and glad- ness occasioned by his birth. He is remarkable for his miraculous escape from death as a burnt- WASHINGTON IRVING. ISAAC – ISAIAH offering; and for the fraud perpetrated upon him, at his wife Rebecca's instigation, by his Son Jacob, to the injury of Esau. He died at |Hebron 180 years old, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah, the resting-place of Sarah and Abraham, and of Rebecca. Isaac I., Comne'nus, Byzantine emperor: d. IO6I. He was the son of Manuel Comnenus, an eminent general under Basil II., emperor of Constantinople, and was the first of his family to assume the purple. He had distinguished himself as a soldier and commander in the wars against the Arabs in Asia Minor, and had mar- ried a captive Bulgarian princess. In IO57 he succeeded to the throne upon the deposition of the aged and incompetent Michael VI. He strengthened the frontiers of the empire against the Arabs of the south and the nomad tribes of the Don and Dniester on the north; he also im- proved the financial condition of the government loy an impartial imposition of taxes on all ranks of life. He abdicated in IoS9 and spent the re- mainder of his life in a monastery. He was a learned student of Greek ſiterature, one of the ablest and best of the Byzantine emperors and was succeeded by Constantine X., Ducas, the second of the Comnenian dynasty. Isaac II., An'gelus, Byzantine emperor: d. I2O4. He became sovereign of the East in II85, and reigned Io years. Isaac was a vicious and cowardly prince, and was dethroned, blinded, and imprisoned by his brother Alexius in II95. Eight years later he was restored to the throne and reigned for six months, when he was again dethroned, and soon after died in prison. Isaak Church, The, the finest building in Russia, or in northern Europe, begun by the Empress Catherine, and finished by Nicholas I. The foundation alone is said to have cost $1,000,000. It is a magnificent structure, one of the most remarkable sights of the Russian capital. The design is simple and majestic, the whole being surmounted by a gilded dome. The total cost of the structure was $67,500,000. Isaaks, Jorge, Hor'Hà é'såks, Colombian novelist and poet: b. Cali, State of Cauca, Co- 1ombia, 1843; d. 1895. He was the son of an English Jew who had married a Spanish woman and was taken to Bogotá in childhood, and ever after made it his home. He published a volume of poems in 1864, and in 1867 his mas- terpiece, the novel ‘Maria,” a story of domestic 1ife in Colombia, told with consummate skill and tender simplicity. Isabela, ć-sà-bā’lā, Philippines, province of Illuzon, on the northern Pacific coast of the is- 1and with Cagayan on the north and Príncipe and Nueva Ecija on the south; length 118 miles; area 5,395 square miles (including de- pendent islands), the largest province of Luzon. The Sierra Madre mountain range runs paral- 1el to the coast, a short distance inland; the rest of the surface is broken by low hills; the Grande de Cagayán River traverses the entire 1ength of the province; and the main highway from Aparri to Manila parallels this river. Rice, sugarcane, chocolate, coffee, corn and veg- etables grow with little cultivation; tobacco is extensively raised and its growth and treatment is the most important industry; this tobacco is regarded as the best in the Philippines and is the chief export of the province. Cattle raising is Vol. 9—Io also an important industry. Civil government was established in 1901, and the people have shown themselves generally friendly to it. Pop. 48,300. Isabella (Íz-a-bel’a) (I.) of Castile, queen of Spain, daughter of John II., king of Castile and Leon: b. Madrigal 23 April 1451 ; d. Me- dina del Campo 26 Nov. 1504. She married, I9 Oct. 1469, Ferdinand V., king of Aragon (q.v.), surnamed “The Catholic.” After the death of her brother, Henry IV., in 1474, she ascended the throne of Castile, to the exclusion of her elder sister, Joanna. T)uring the lifetime of her brother Isabella had gained the favor of the es- tates of the kingdom to such a degree that the majority, on his death, declared for her. After the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile were thus united, Ferdinand and Isabella assumed the royal titles of Spain. She was always present at the transaction of state affairs, and insisted that her name should be placed beside that of her hus- band in public ordinances. The conquest of Gran- ada, after which the Moors were entirely expelled from Spain, was in a great degree her work; and the encouragement she gave Columbus as- sisted him to the discovery of America. In all her undertakings Cardinal Ximenes was her assistant. She has been accused of severity, but a spirit like hers was necessary to humble the haughtiness of the nobles without exciting their hostility, to conquer Granada without let- ting loose the hordes of Africa on Europe, and to restrain the vices of her subjects, who had become corrupt by reason of the bad adminis- tration of the laws. She checked private war- fare, which had formerly prevailed to the de- struction of public tranquillity, and introduced a vigorous administration of justice. In I492 Pope Alexander VI. confirmed to the royal pair the title of “Most Catholic,” already conferred on them by Innocent VIII. The zeal for the Roman Catholic religion, which procured them this title, gave rise to the Inquisition, which was instituted in Spain in I480, at the sugges- tion of their confessor, Torquemada. See FERDINAND V., XIMENES, and Columſ BUS. Con- sult Prescott, ‘History of the Reign of Ferdi- nand and Isabella the Catholic.” Isabella II., ex-queen of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand III. : b. Madrid Io Oct. 1830; she succeeded her father in 1833, her mother being appointed queen-regent. The early years of her reign were disturbed by a rising in favor of her uncle, Don Carlos, who, if the Salic law had not been set aside, would have ascended the throne instead of her; but this was quelled in 1839. She was declared of age in 1843, and in 1846 was married to her cousin, Don Francisco d’Assisi (q.v.). Her reign was so despotic that a revolution took place in 1868, which drove her from the country. She resigned her claims to the crown in favor of her son Alfonso, who ascended the throne in 1875 as Alfonso XII. Isabella the Catholic, Order of, a Spanish order of knighthood founded by Ferdinand VII. in 1815 as a reward for loyalty in defense of the Spanish-American colonies. It is now conferred for all kinds of merit. The badge of the order is an eight-pointed cross of gold. Isabellita. See BUTTERFLY-FISH. Isaiah, I-zā'yā or I-zi'yā (Heb. YESHA- YAHU, Salvation of Jehovah), the first of the ISAR — ISINGLASS four great Hebrew prophets who lived in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Of the circumstances of his life almost nothing is known, further than that he had an important influence over the kings and people. As his ministry commenced before the death of Uzziah, he must have been at the least 80 or 90 at the accession of Manasseh. His resi- dence seems to have been at Jerusalem, and he lived about 740–700 B.C. He had three sons, given to him “for signs and wonders in Israel.” As there is a manifest want of a continuous unity of design in the prophecies of Isaiah, a contro- versy has arisen as to who was the compiler of the book. The obvious answer, that it was Isaiah himself, assisted by a scribe, has been accepted by many, whose opinion is fortified by 2 Chron. xxxii. 32, from which it appears that Isaiah was Otherwise an author. It is admitted that the “visions,” which were seen at different times, are not arranged in exactly chronological or material order; but an attempt has been made to account for this on the hypothesis of an original work with subsequent modifications. The dispute, however, with regard to the ar- rangement of the prophecies sinks into insignifi- cance in comparison with that concerning their authorship. As the last 27 chapters seem to have been written in the time of the Babylonian captivity, they have been ascribed to a later “Isaiah,” and coherence of structure and unity of authorship have not been denied to them. The impugners of the Isaiah authorship rely for argument on the author having taken his stand- point at the close of the Babylonian captivity, and on his knowledge of the career of Cyrus, who lived more than a century after the death of Isaiah. A difference of style and sentiment is also urged as militating against the commonly accepted authorship. The argument on the other side is drawn from the predictive charac- ter of prophecy, and from the nature of “vision,” in which the prophet sees the future as if it were the present. The style of Isaiah unites simplicity and clearness with dignity and ma- jesty. In fulness and power, he far surpasses all the other prophets. His writings are chiefly denunciations and complaints of the sins of the people, threats of approaching ruin, and antici- pations of a more glorious future. The whole bears the stamp of genius and true inspiration, and is marked throughout by nobleness of thought and feeling. See Driver, ‘Isaiah, his Life and Times,” and the commentaries by George Adam Smith and Marti. Isar, é'zār, a river of Germany, which rises in the Tyrol, enters Bavaria, flows past Munich to Freising, where it passes the towns of Landshut and Landau; and joins the right bank of the Danube a little below Deggendorf. Its length is about I90 miles. The current is extremely rapid, and is much used for floating timber. Isarog, e-sà-rög', an isolated mountain of the island of Luzon, Philippines, near the centre of the province of Ambos Camarines (Sur); it is an extinct volcano, height 6,450 feet. It lies between Lagonoy Gulf and Miguel Bay, and is the apex of the irregular mountain system which forms the watershed between these two bodies of water. It is 36 miles in circumference at the base, and a well built road makes a com- plete circuit of it. Ischia, És'ké-ā, an island of Italy, 26 Square miles in extent, in the Gulf of Naples. It is entirely volcanic in character, and is noted for its warm mineral springs and volcanic con- vulsions. In 1881 and 1883 earthquakes caused great loss of life and property. The capital, Ischia, with some 7,000 inhabitants, is a favorite resort of tourists. Other towns are Casamie- ciola and Forio, both of which suffered severely in 1883. Pop. (1901) 26,690. Ish'maelites, the descendants of Ishmael, the Son of Abraham by Hagar. These are to be found among the Arabians, as physical char- acteristics and language prove beyond a doubt. The Joktanite and Cushite monarchies in south- ern Arabia give no indication in character and habits of having had Ishmaelites as founders, but the Bedouins who roam over the deserts lying between the Peninsula of Sinai and the Persian Gulf, are unquestionably of Ishmaelitic origin. They maintain a primitive and patriarchal form of life, and are full of Ishmaelitic traditions. Ishmailis, ish-mâ'1és, one of the 72 hereti- cal sects of Mohammedanism (q.v.). Ish'peming, Mich., city in Marquette County; on the Duluth, S. S. & A., the Chicago, M. & St. P., and the Chicago & W. R.R.'s; about 14 miles west of Marquette, and 58 miles north by west of Escanaba. It was set- tled about 1856 and received its first charter in I857. It is situated in the great iron ore re- gion of Michigan, and is the centre of the iron ore mining industry of the State. Gold and marble are found in the vicinity and an excellent building stone. The manufactures are chiefly the machinery used in mining. The school buildings rank in architecture and equipment with the best in the State. Pop. (1890) II,197; (1900) 13,255. I'singlass, a form of gelatine (q.v.), whitish firm in texture, and of great purity, prepared mainly from the sounds or air-bladders of different species of fish, especially of the Russian sturgeon and, in this country, of cod, sturgeon, hake, etc. In some cases the skins are also used for this purpose. Besides Russia, from which it has been principally obtained, the United States and Canada, Brazil and the East Indies furnish considerable quantities to com- merce, as do also Manila and the West Indies. It is the basis of the Russian glue, preferred to all other kinds for strength. Isinglass receives its different shapes in the following manner: The sounds are taken from the fish while sweet and fresh, slit open, washed from their slimy matter, divested of a very thin membrane which envelops the sound, and then exposed to stiffen a little in the air. In this state they are formed into rolls about the thickness of a finger, and in length according to the intended size of the staple; a thin membrane is generally selected for the centre of the roll, around which the rest are folded alternately, and about half an inch of each extremity of the roll is turned inward. Isinglass is best made in the summer, as frost gives it a disagreeable color, deprives it of its weight and impairs its gelatinous principles. Boiled in milk, it forms a mild nutritious jelly, and is thus sometimes employed medicinally. It is used in making court-plaster, cement, mock pearls, and many other articles, also in clarify- ing fermented liquors for improving soups, ISIS – ISLE OF PINES jellies, etc., and as sizing for linens, silk, gauzes, and other fabrics. I'sis, the principal goddess of the Egyp- tians, the sister and wife of Osiris, representing the moon, as Osiris did the sun. The Egyptians believed that Isis first taught them agriculture. She is represented in various forms. In one she has the form of a woman, with the horns of a cow, as the cow was sacred to her. She is also known by the attributes of the lotus on her lead, and the sistrum in her hand, a musical instrument which , the Egyptians used in the worship of the gods. She is often accompanied by her infant son Horus. In one celebrated Egyptian statue she was shown with her face veiled. She was particularly worshipped in Memphis, but at a later period throughout all Egypt. From Egypt her worship passed over to Greece and Rome. Islam, a term which signifies the Mo- hammedan religion; complete submission of body and soul to God, His will and His service, as well as faith in all those articles of pro- fession, commands, and ordinances ordained by Mohammed. Island, a body of land entirely surrounded by water. Islands are of very different extent and surface, and some are so large that authors have doubted whether they should be called continents, as Australia; this, however, is a mere matter of definition. The great masses of land forming the Eastern and Western Continents are in reality islands. The following table shows the relative mainland area of the largest islands: Area in Area in ISLANDS SQ. In. ISLANDS SQ.. IIl. New Guinea . . . . . . 303,ooo Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . 40,300 Borneo . . . . . . . . . . . 284,000 Mindanao . . . . . . . . . 37,000 Madagascar . . . . . . . 227,ooo Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . 32,600 Sumatra . . . . . . . . . . I62,000 Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,8oo Honshu . . . . . . . . . . 86,500 Tasmania . . . . . . . . . 26,2Oo Great Britain . . . . . 83,700 Ceylon . . . . . . . . . . . 24,700 Celebes . . . . . . . . . . . 76,500 Nova Zembla — New Zealand — (N. Island). . . . . I9,300 (S. Island). . . . . . 58,500 Tierra del Fuego.. I 8,500 Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49,000 Nova Zembla — Cuba. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,000 (S. Island). . . . . . I 5,700 New Zealand — Formosa . . . . . . . . . . I 5,000 (N. Island). . . . . 44,500 Hainan . . . . . . . . . . . I4,000 Newfoundland . . . . 40,200 Sicily . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,8oo Luzon . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,000 Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . 9,000 A cluster of several islands is called an archipelago. The principal clusters in the At- lantic are the West Indies, the Azores, the Canaries, the Hebrides, Orkneys, Shetlands, etc. But the great world of islands is in the Pacific, and some modern writers consider them as forming a fifth division of the world, including the Eastern Archipelago, Polynesia, and Aus- tralia, to which they have given the name of Oceania. A large island is a continent in minia- ture, with its chains of mountains, its rivers, lakes, and is often surrounded by a train of islets. The rivers of islands are in general little more than streams or torrents, and the smaller islands are often uninhabitable from want of water; but they serve as haunts and breeding-places of innumerable sea-birds. There are islands in rivers and lakes as well as in the sea. In rivers they are often formed by the division of the stream into various branches, and often by accumulations of earth brought down and deposited around a rocky base. Ex- amples are not wanting of floating islands, which are formed by the roots of plants and trees in- terlacing with each other, and thus constituting a support for deposits of successive layers of earth. Islands have been grouped into the two distinct classes of continental and pelagic or oceanic islands. Continental islands follow each other in succession along the margin of the con: tinents, and are generally of the same geological structure. Pelagic islands are mostly of vol- canic or coral formation. Considerable islands have been known to be suddenly raised up from the sea-bottom by volcanic action, and Soon after to have as suddenly disappeared in the ocean. The Pacific contains a great number of low islands having their basis formed of coral reefs, these reefs being produced by the labors of innumerable coral-animals or zoophytes. (See CoRAL.) Submarine islands, as they have been sometimes called, are immense banks of sand above which there is no great depth of water. Island Number Io, a former island in the Mississippi River, near the northwestern corner of Tennessee, and about 40 miles below Colum- bus, Ky. Since the Civil War it has been washed away. It was the tenth in a succession of islands lying below Cairo, Ill. Early in 1862, having been fortified by the Confederate, Gen. Polk, it was commanded by Gen. Mackall, who had about 7,000 troops of Beauregard’s army. It was bombarded for three weeks by Commo- dore Foote, commanding seven Federal gun- boats, and surrendered 7 April 1862. The evac- uation was forced by Pope with a large land force. He, under cover of a vigorous fire from two gunboats, which had run past the island by night, brought his men across the river in trans- ports. The defenders of the batteries fled, and were pursued into the swamps. Over 6,000 prisoners were taken, together with an immense quantity of ammunition and supplies. The Fed- eral forces lost only a few men. Consult the Century Company’s “Battles and Leaders of the Civil War,” Vol. I. Isle of Man, in the Irish Channel, the largest island in the English seas. The prin- cipal towns are Douglas, Castletown, Ram- sey, and Peel. Castletown is the ancient capi- tal, but Douglas (pop. I5,719) is the chief town and the seat of government, which is “home rule” under a lieutenant-governor, who, with council and House of Keys of 24 members, makes up the Tynwald Court. Acts, after as- sent of the crown, must be proclaimed on Tynwald Hill. The land is in a high state of cultivation. Railways exist between the various towns. The Manx people are a distinct Celtic nationality. Their language and old customs are rapidly disappearing. Area, 220 square miles. Pop. (1900) 55,608. Isle Perrot, el-pér-5, a small island in the Saint Lawrence River, belonging to Canada. It is located above Montreal Island, between Lake Saint Louis and the Lake of Two Mountains. Isle of Pines (Isla de Pinos, es'1ã da pé'- nós), a small island belonging to Cuba, 40 miles southeast of Pinar del Rio. In 1900 the United States gave unofficial expression to the policy of its acquisition as a coaling station. It has an area of about 840 square miles. It is in effect two islands connected by a marsh, the one On the north being somewhat broken by hills, the one on the south low, flat, and sandy. The climate is healthy, the soil fertile and the min- ISLE ROYALE – ISOLATION eral resources extensive. For administrative purposes the island is a municipal district of the province of Havana. There are large marble quarries here. Cattle raising is the chief occu- pation of the inhabitants. Pop. (I900) 3,199. Isle Royale, rol-al (Fr. el rwāyāl), an island in Lake Superior, within the state bound- ary of Michigan. It is 45 miles long, 9 miles wide and has an area of 229 square miles. Val- uable deposits are found here. Isle of Wight, wit, the second largest island in the English seas, near the Hampshire coast. It is four miles in breadth, but only a 1mile in width on the west, between Hurst Castle and Cliff End, while it expands to seven miles between Southsea and the Foreland on the east. In shape the island is an elongated rhomboid. Its extreme length, from the Foreland to the Needles, is about 23 miles, and its extreme breadth, Cowes to St. Catharine's Point, is about I3 miles. The late Queen Victoria had a resi- dence here. The area is calculated at I45 square miles. Pop. (190I) 82,000. Isles of Shoals, a group of eight barren islands in the Atlantic Ocean, near the New Hampshire coast, Io miles southeast of Port- land, Maine, from which a daily steamer plies during the summer months. The three princi- pal islands are Appledore (400 acres); Star (150 acres), and White (55 acres). There is a revolving government light on the last named, 87 feet above the sea. On Star and Appledore islands are several large hotels for summer visitors who find sea air, boating and fishing here. A few fishermen are numbered among the permanent inhabitants. Islip, N. Y., town in Suffolk County, on Long Island; on the Long Island railroad, 44 miles east of New York. The town comprises several Small villages and covers an area 20 miles long and Io miles wide. Here are the Manhattan State Hospital for the Insane, Saint Joseph's Convent (Roman Catholic), and a large fish hatchery, owned by the State. The town is popular as a summer resort and has many fine hotels along the shores of Great South Bay. The Fire Island lighthouse, 166 feet high, is located eight miles from the main- land. Blue Point oysters are shipped from the town in large quantities. The government is vested in a town supervisor and town board, elected every two years. Pop. (I900) I2,545. . Isocrates, T-såk'ra-téz, Greek orator: b. Athens 436 B.C.; d. there 338 B.C. His prin- cipal teachers were Tisias, Gorgias, Prodicus, and Protagoras. On account of his weak voice and natural timidity he was reluctant to speak in public, but gave lessons in the art of elo- quence, and made orations for others. He thus made considerable profit, for he received twenty talents ($14,375) for a speech that he wrote for Nicocles, king of Cyprus. He was the first who saw the value of oratory in public life. By basing it on sound moral principles he rescued it from the abuses of the Sophists. He was distinguished for a polished style and a harmo- nious construction of his sentences. The com- position, revision, and repeated polishing of his speeches occupied so much time that he pub- lished little. His celebrated panegyric on Athens ‘Panathenaicus’ employed him . Io, or, accord- ing to others, I5 years. As all his speeches were modeled after the same pattern, their sameness excited weariness, although his subjects were the most important points of morals and politics. His patriotism was sincere, and his desire for the freedom of Greece so intense, that he starved himself to death in his ninety-eighth year from grief at the battle of Chaeronea, “fatal to liberty.” In Plutarch's time 60 orations went under his name, not half of which were, how- ever, deemed genuine. Twenty-one now remain, of which the principal are the ‘Panegyricus? (an oration in which he exhorts the Greeks to concord, and to war against the Persians) and the ‘Panathenaicus? (in which he dilates on the services rendered by Athens to Greece). I”sodimor'phous Series. See IsomoRPHISM. Isoetales, 1-sà-é-tā'1éz. See FERNS AND FERN-ALLIES. Isola’tion, in evolution (q.v.), the separa- tion or segregation of any set of animals in a particular area, so that incipient varieties or species are prevented from breeding with the parent species of adjoining regions. Through such isolation the swamping or leveling effects of free intercrossing, or mixing with allied va- rieties or incipient species, are prevented. As a consequence, variations or nascent species be- come fixed or localized, being prevented from spreading by some geographic or topographic barrier, with the result that there are many thousands of local races, varieties and species; indeed, probably over half of the number of 1 0, re- spectively. Metamerism is manifested, most commonly, by the ethers, esters, and amines. Isomerism in its narrower sense, or “true isomerism,” embraces those cases in which the bodies compared have the same empirical form- ulae, but have different structural formulae, and do not (like metameric bodies) consist of defi- nite carbon radicals united by oxygen, sulphur, or nitrogen. True isomerism may be of two kinds: (1) “nucleus isomerism,” and (2) “isom- erism of position.” The hydrocarbons afford good examples of both kinds of true isomerism. The paraffin known as propane, for example, Thas the empirical formula CaFis, and the struc- tural formula CH3–CHz—CHs. Propane may pe converted into butane by replacing one of its hydrogen atoms by the methyl radical, CH3; but the substitution may be made in two essentially different ways, according as the hydrogen that is replaced is attached to the interior carbon atom, or to one of the terminal ones. In the latter case the structural formula of the new substance is CH3–CH2—CH2—CH2, and the substance itself is known as “normal” butane. If the hydrogen that is replaced is attached to the interior carbon atom, a different substance, known as , “isobutane” and having different properties from normal butane, is formed; its CH3–CH-CH3. structural formula being | CHs These two substances, normal butane and iso- butane — are said to manifest “nucleus isomer- ism,” since they differ by the mode of arrange- ment of their fundamental carbon chains. As the number of carbon atoms in a compound in- creases, the possibilities of nucleus isomerism becomes enormous. Thus the general empirical formula of the saturated fatty hydrocarbons (or paraffins) is CnH2n + 2. We have seen that in the case of butane (for which n = 4) two nuclear isomers are possible. If the same kind of reasoning is applied to the higher members of the series, regarding each member as derived from the preceding one by the substitution of a methyl radical (CH3) for a hydrogen atom, we shall find that there are 3 pentanes (n=5) possible: 5 hexanes (n=6); 9 heptanes (n = 7); 18 octanes (n = 8) ; 35 ennanes (n = 9); 75 decanes (n = Io); I59 hendecanes (n = II); 355 dodecanes (n = I2); and no less than 802 tridecanes (n = 13). In that kind of true isomerism which is called “isomerism of position,” the isomeric podies contain substituted atoms or radicals, which occupy different positions in the main chain. Thus a paraffin may be converted into an alcohol by substituting a hydroxyl radical (OH) for one of the hydrogen atoms, and the resulting alcohol will have different properties according to the position of the hydrogen atom that was replaced. For example, four butane alcohols are possible. In normal butane, the structural formula of which is given above, the hydroxyl radical may be substituted for one of the terminal hydrogen atoms, in which case an alcohol is obtained which has the structural formula CHs—CH2—CH2—CH2—OH and is known as “normal primary butyl alco- hol.” If the hydroxyl is substituted in the place of one of the interior hydrogen atoms, an alco- hol is obtained which has the structural formula. CHs—CH-CH2—CHs and is known as “secondary butyl alcohol.” Proceeding, now, to the consideration of isobutane, we note that two essentially different substitutions of the hydroxyl radical are here possible. We may replace a hydrogen atom in one of the three CHA groups, or we may replace the one in the CH group. In the first case the alcohol has the structural formula CH2—CH-CH2—OH * Ha & and is known as "isoprimary Abutyl alcohol?: ISOMORPHISM – ISTHMIAN CANALS and in the second case it has the structural formula OH | CHs—C—CH, and is known as “tertiary butyl alcohol.” All of these four alcohols have been actually pre- pared. . (For isomerism of position as mani- fested in the aromatic compounds, and for the nomenclature used in distinguishing the various isomers that those compounds can exhibit, see AROMATIC CoMPOUNDs.) Certain compounds are known which pos- sess not only the same empirical formula, but the same structural formula also, and yet mani- fest distinctly different properties, either chem- ically or physically. Fumaric and maleic acids (see FUMARIC ACID) are examples of this. In such cases the provisional hypothesis is made, that the geometrical structures of the molecules 9f the two substances are related to one another in something like the same manner that the im- age of an object in a mirror is related to the 9bject itself, and the isomerism is said to be “geometrical” (See STEREO-CHEMistry.) With reference to isomerism in general, con- sult Hjelt, ‘Principles of General Organic Chemistry’; Lothar Meyer, (Modern Theories of Chemistry.” : Isomorphism, identity of crystalline form. Isomorphotºs bodies can form homogeneous mixed crystals; and each one is capable of growing in a saturated solution of the other, fresh crystals being gradually amassed around the original body as a nucleus. Carbonates of calcium, known as calcite; of magnesium, iron, manganese and zinc (magnesite, siderite, rhodochrosite, Smithsonite) all are of the same class in crystallography (q.v.). The presence of the same chemical elements of composition in substances does by no means imply isomor- phism and substances of very varying compo- nents may yet be isomorphous. The isomorphous elements in isomorphous salts, as, for instance, the metals, are generally of the same or re- lated groups of elements. Dimorphous sub- stances, that is, those which form crystals of more than one kind, are often connected by a third dimorphous substance, such as carbonate of lime in the case of calcite and aragonite, and form a group known as isodimorphous sub- StanceS. Isopoda, T-såp'ö-da, an extensive and varied group of Crustacea (q.v.) usually ranked as a suborder of the Arthrostraca or sessile- eyed Malacostraca. The body is broad and flattened, and either short or elongated; the carapace is little developed; the thorax long with seven free segments, each bearing a pair of walking limbs; the abdomen more or less short- ened and bearing lamellar branchial append- ages. The Isopoda are classified in seven tribes and more than 30 families, embracing an enor- mous number of species. They vary greatly in form and mode of life but all are of relatively small size and retiring habits. The vast major- ity are marine, but a few are inhabitants of fresh water or terrestrial; the latter are famil- jar to everyone under the names wood-lice and Till-bugs. Íife but conceal themselves in crevices or among Most of the marine forms live a free tº º º uniting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by a Sessile animals and plants, others bore into wood, some, as the gribble and its allies, being destructive to piling; many are commensal or parasitic, among the latter being the Cymo- thoidae, which infest fishes and whales, and the greatly degenerated Bopyrida, which live in the branchial chamber of prawns and similar crus- taceans. The group is traceable in fossil forms as far back as the Upper Carboniferous. Con- sult Packard, ‘Zoology” (1887); ‘Richardson, ‘Key to Isopods of North America,” in Pro- ceedings United States National Museum, Vols. XXI. and XXIII. (1899, 1901). Isospondyli, i-sà-spón'di-li. See ICHTHYOL- OGY. Ispahan, is-pa-hăn', or Isfahan, important city and former capital of Persia, 2Io miles south of Teheran, in the midst of an extensive plain watered by a broad river. In the time of Chardin the walls were 24 miles in circuit, and contained 162 mosques, 48 colleges, I,802 caravansaries, and 273 public baths, and the population was then estimated at 600,000. A great part of the city is at present a mass of ruins. Under the caliphs of Bagdad it became the capital of the province of Irak. Being sit- uated in the centre of the empire, and sur- rounded by the most fertile territories, it soon became a place of great population, wealth and trade. In 1387 it was taken by Tamerlane and the citizens were given up to indiscrim- inate massacre, and 70,000 are said to have per- ished. In 1722 it was taken by the Afghans; but in 1727 it was retaken by Nadir Shah, since which it has not been a royal residence. The great palace built by Shah Abbas is said to have been five miles in circuit, a great part of which space, however, was laid out in ten gar- dens, adorned with summer houses. The square called Maidan Shah was one third of a mile in 1ength, and was formerly encircled by a canal bordered with plane-trees; but all vestiges of both are now obliterated. The streets are nar- row, winding, irregular, unpaved, and very dusty. When Ispahan was in its prosperity its suburbs were distinguished for their extent and beauty. The manufactures of the city are still extensive, including trinkets, fire-arms, sword- blades, glass, and earthenware. The textile fabrics range from the most expensive velvet and satin to the coarsest nankeen and calico. The present population is about 75,000. Is'raelites. See JEws and JUDAISM. Israels, Joseph, yū'séf ez-rā-āls', Dutch painter: b. Groningen 27 June 1824. He was a pupil at Amsterdam of Kruseman and at Paris of Picot, and established his studio first at Am- sterdam and later at The Hague. Having es- sayed historical painting with no marked success, 'he turned his attention to genre work. He found his subjects among fisherfolk and the humbler classes, whose existence, particularly in its more serious or tragic phases, he depicts in a style likened to that of Millet. Among his canvases are: ‘Awaiting the Fishing Boats?; “Alone in the World? ; ‘Nothing More?; ‘The Struggle for Existence? ; ‘On the Dunes.” He published ... ‘Spanien, eine Reiseerzählung’ (1900). Consult the study by Liebermann (190I). Isthmian Canals, American. The plan of ISTHMIAN CANALS great ship canal has been a dream of navigators for several centuries, almost in fact since the days of Columbus, for as early as I58I the first survey was made to determine the feasibility of connecting the two oceans. In that year, in obedience to instructions, Capt. Antonio Pereira, governor of Costa Rica, organized an expedition and explored a route by way of the San Juan River, the lake, and the rivers emptying into Gulf Nicoya, Costa Rica. In 1620 Diego de Mercado submitted to King Philip of Spain an elaborate report in favor of the construction of a canal over that route which is known as the Nicaragua route. The Panama canal project was conceived later, and other projects were advanced, one of which was the bold conception of James B. Eads, an American engineer, to construct at Tehuantepec a railroad which would be able to carry the largest ships from Ocean to Ocean. The scheme of connecting the two Oceans has possessed a fascination for men of science and an intense interest for men of com- merce ever since it was proposed. A number of surveys of the Panama and Nicaragua routes were made during the past half century, but it may be said that not till 1879 was the first posi- tive step taken toward the realization of the pro- ject on which so much thought had been ex- pended. In May of that year an International Congress was convened in Paris by M. Ferdi- nand de Lesseps to discuss the plan of cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Panama. The congress adopted a plan which had been prepared previously by M. de Lesseps, and immediately following that action the Panama Canal Com- pany was formed. The company secured from Lieut. Lucien Napoleon Bonaparte Wyse of the French navy the concession which he had ob- tained from the United States of Colombia. After the concession had been secured by the company, a commission, known as the De Lesseps Engineering Commission, was sent to Panama to make surveys and prepare estimates of cost. The commission estimated that a canal could be made for 843,000,000 francs. De Lesseps re- duced these figures to 600,000,000 francs, or $120,000,000, and announced that a canal d miveau, or tide level canal, could be completed for that sum. So confident was he of the ac- curacy of his calculations that he invited men of prominence to attend the opening of the canal, which he set for 1888. On 21 Feb. 1881 the first detachment of canal employees arrived at Colon. Surveys were made, and the building of camps, hospitals, and other necessary buildings followed. In 1882 the Panama Canal Company purchased the Panama railway. Interest charges accumulated between 1882 and 1888, while nothing like the progress on the canal which had been anticipated had Deen made. In the autumn of 1888 further bor- rowing became impossible, and then came a crash which shook the financial world. On I Jan. I889 the company was forced into liquida- tion. This event created a ferment throughout France, no less than 800,000 French shareholders Having been induced to invest in the stock of the company, largely through the appeals which Had been made to their patriotism. A receiver was appointed by the Court of the Seine with unlimited powers. In 1890 the receiver sent a commission of French and other engineers to Panama to report on the actual condition of the work. The report was discouraging. Not more than a fifth of the proposed work had been done; a valuable plant, estimated at $30,000,000, was rusting away, and useless; the tide level at Colon was filling in and the harbor was shallow- ing, owing to the cut. In 1891 the government of Colombia granted to the Panama Canal Company an extension of Io years from 1893 in which to finish the con- tract, provided operations were resumed before February 1893. In November 1892 a member of the French Chamber of Deputies, M. Dela- haye, created a profound sensation in Paris by declaring on the floor of the Chamber that the Panama Canal Company had obtained excep- tional privileges, which it had used for the pur- pose of defrauding investors, by the bribery of no fewer than Ioo deputies. The demand for an investigation of the charges was of such force and insistence as to be irresistible, and the ministry decided to submit the whole ques- tion to a committee. Following this decision, Baron Reinach, a banker accused of being the instrument or agent of much of the corruption of the company, died suddenly, and it was alleged that he had poisoned himself. Amid a popular clamor, such as Paris had not known for many years, the investigation was carried on, and the disclosures before the investigating com- mittee indicated that the operations of the canal company had been slimed with fraud. It was shown that the Panama Company had bribed deputies and journalists on an extensive scale in order to cover up its shortcomings and leave the way open for further imposition. In February 1893 M. de Lesseps, his son Charles, and some of their colleagues were sen- tenced to various terms of imprisonment for fraud and bribery. At the time the blow fell M. de Lesseps had passed his 80th year. Bitter as was the feeling of the French toward those who were responsible for their loss of money, much sympathy was manifested toward the man who had been the presiding genius of the great enterprise. That he had been knowingly a party to the great fraud which had wrecked the hopes and fortunes of so many worthy persons in France, the public was loath to credit. The sympathy for him took such form that he was not imprisoned. But the great engineer, who had reaped so much glory through the construc- tion of the Suez canal, was unable to withstand the blow which the Panama exposure gave him. He died in November of the year following. At the end of 1893 the only prominent person left in prison as the result of the Panama prose- cutions was M. Baihut, formerly Minister of Public Works. In 1894 a prominent French engineer prof- fered a scheme by which he claimed the work could be completed in four years at an addi- tional cost of $1 Io,000,000. A new company was formed, and 300,000 shares were issued. Work on the canal was resumed under French auspices. Early in 1895 a strike occurred among the laborers on the canal, and the methods of the Inew company were criticised severely by the stockholders. Another scandal such as had at- tended the operations of the original company was feared, but developments showed that the suspicions were unwarranted. Nevertheless, the confidence of the French public in the ultimate success of the enterprise had been shaken to such extent as to make it manifest that the com- ISTHMIAN CANALS pletion of the canal under French auspices was no longer a possibility. That being the situation, those who were bound up in the enterprise turned toward Amer- ica for relief. The United States up to that time had concerned itself, as far as the build- ing of a canal was considered, solely with the Nicaragua route. The first survey for a canal at Nicaragua under American auspices was made in 1852 by Col. A. W. Childs. The project as outlined by him has been the basis for all sub- sequent locations. A second survey was made in 1872 by a party under the charge of Com- mander E. P. Lull of the United States navy. TEleven years later another survey was made by A. G. Menocal, a civil engineer, also of the United States navy. In 1889 the Maritime Canal Company was organized to construct the Nicara- gua canal on the lines of the Menocal project. As there was, for a decade following, consider- able enthusiasm over the Nicaragua canal Scheme in the United States, the project of the Panama Company enlisting American capital, were any- thing but promising. Nevertheless an auxiliary American company was organized. In the investigation of the French company's affairs which was made by the new American company, it was ascertained that of the $156,400,000 expended by the original company only $88,600,000 had been expended legitimately on the excavation and construction, the rest having gone in bribery and corruption. The second French company was started with a capital of 65,000,000 francs, about one half of which was expended cautiously on construction in four years. The second French company had abandoned the original plan of constructing a tidewater canal. Its plans contemplated the construction of a canal with locks. The history of the isthmian canal project shows that faith in the Nicaragua route as the most practicable suffered a steady decline. This decline was due more than anything else, per- haps, to the uncertainty of the cost of carrying out the project. The first estimate of the Mari- time Company was $67,000,000. After doing more or less work on the canal the Maritime Company ceased operations in 1893 for lack of funds. In 1895 Congress appointed the Ludlow Commission to examine and report on the Mari- time Company's project. This commission placed the cost of the canal's completion at $133,472,893. The Walker Commission, ap- pointed subsequently, increased the estimate to $140,000,000. Up to the outbreak of the Spanish-American war the project of constructing an isthmian canal, while acquiesced in by the general public in the United States, had received ardent ad- vocacy only in quarters where a special study of the subject had been made. But at the com- Imencement of that conflict the people of the |United States received an impressive object les- son on the need of a canal. That lesson was the historic trip of the battleship Oregon. With the declaration of hostilities American attention was absorbed by the possibility of the Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera making a sudden attack on some one of the important cities of the At- lantic coast. At that time the Oregon, a newly constructed battleship, was on the Pacific sta- tion. It was considered desirable to have the ship added to the strength of the Atlantic fleet. Orders were sent to her commander, Capt. Clark, to bring her around Cape Horn, using all Speed possible. The American people watched with anxiety the famous voyage. It furnished an argument for the construction of an isthmian canal more effective than a century of discussion. But coincident with the making up of the American mind that a canal must be built, there came the conflict of opinion as to the choice of routes. Those who were interested in the Panama enterprise were quick to see the oppor- tunity opened to them. When the commission that was appointed by President McKinley in 1899 to examine the American isthmus at every available point in order to determine the most practicable and feasible route for a ship canal went to Paris to examine the plans of the Pan- ama Company, the company, realizing the im– probability of its being able to raise sufficient funds in France to carry the enterprise to a suc- cessful conclusion, decided to face competition with the Nicaragua project before the Congress of the United States. At a meeting of the di- rectors it was decided to transfer all of the property of the company, its rights and pow- ers, together with those of the American auxil- iary company, to a new American company. That company was organized under the laws of the State of New Jersey, with the title of the Panama Canal Company of America. The cap- ital was fixed at $30,000,000 and the company was authorized to increase the amount if neces- sary. The arrangement which it made with the French company in taking over its rights, was to pay the shareholders of that company partly in money, but mainly in shares of the American company. The French company retains only an equity in the shape of a lien on a specified per- centage of the profits remaining after the pay- ment of all operating expenses and fixed charges and a dividend to the stockholders of the new company. An international commission of French, German, Russian, English, and Ameri- can engineers, consulted by the French company in drawing up its plans, estimated the cost of completing the Panama canal at $102,000,000, if the two locks were made of a certain width, and $125,000,000 if the locks were wider. The ex- tended concession from the Colombian govern- ment runs till 31 Oct. 1910, a bonus of $15,000,— Ooo having been paid to secure the extension. After the American company was organized and the proposition for a transfer was brought definitely before the French directors, so much opposition was developed to the surrender of an enterprise that had absorbed so much French enthusiasm and entailed such sacrifices on the French people that the directors were unwilling to shoulder the responsibility of carrying out the arrangement, and all resigned. ' The trustees of the De Lesseps company, in particular, were reluctant to sanction the total transfer of the entire management and control from France to the United States. A new board of directors was chosen, which continued the negotiations with the American company, and the transfer was made. Congress ultimately decided on the Panama canal route as the most feasible and practicable and passed the bill under which President Roosevelt was authorized to acquire the American Panama Canal Company's rights. The price fixed that the United States gov- ernment should pay the Panama Canal Company of America for its rights and privileges was $40,000,000. The cost of the completed canal ISTHMIAN CANALS was estimated at $184,233,358. Thus, the pas- sage of the Act of Congress, approved 28 June 1902, “To provide for the construction of a canal connecting the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,” was the first decisive action taken by the United States Government to secure an isthmian canal. The second important step was taken I7 March Igo3, when the Senate rati- fied the treaty that had been negotiated with Colombia to secure for our country the con- cession necessary for the canal’s construction and management. The law of 28 June 1902 authorized the Pres- ident to buy out the New Panama Canal Com- pany, negotiate a treaty with Colombia for a concession, and proceed by means of a commis- sion with the construction of the Panama Canal. If unable to secure a satisfactory title to the property of the Panama Canal Company, or “to obtain by treaty control of the necessary terri- tory from Colombia,” the President was em- powered to negotiate with Costa Rica and Nicaragua for a concession, and having secured the privileges desired, to construct the canal by the Nicaragua route. The purchase price to be paid the Panama Canal Company was not to ex- ceed $40,000,000 (the valuation which the Isthmian Canal Commission had placed on the company's entire assets, including the Panama Railroad), and before paying over the money to the company the President was required to assure himself of the validity of the title to the prop- erty to be transferred and to await the exchange of ratifications of a satisfactory treaty with Colombia. The first duty of the President was to in- vestigate the title held by the Panama Canal Company and to determine whether it was a good one, free of encumbrance, and transfer- able to the United States. The attorney-general was promptly instructed to make this investiga- tion, and his elaborate opinion, together with the data upon which his opinion was based, was laid before the President 25 Oct. I902. The subject entrusted to the attorney-general was one of great importance, and his report is fortunately comprehensive, thorough, and entirely convinc- 1ng. Before the attorney-general made his inquiry, the validity and transferability of the Panama Canal Company's title had been investigated by the Isthmian Canal Commission and by the Sen- ate committee on Interoceanic Canals. One of the important duties imposed upon the Canal Commission was to “ascertain what rights, priv- ileges and franchises” were held by the Panama Canal Company, and “the cost of purchasing all of the rights,” and of placing the canal under the control of the United States. Accordingly, one of the five committees to which the several departments of the commission's investigation were committed was the Committee on Rights, Privileges, and Franchises. The report of the Isthmian Canal Commission contains a full historical and analytical discussion of the sub- ject of concessions. The relations of the orig- inal . Panama Canal Company to the New Panama Canal Company were set forth, and the opinion expressed that the New Panama Canal Company was able to sell its concession and property to the United States, provided the rep- resentative of the rights of the old company, the “liquidator,” gave his approval of the sale, and united with the new company in the offer to sell. Shortly after this report was made the New Panama Canal Company offered to sell out to the United States, and the liquidator gave his consent to the sale. The Commission pre- pared a supplemental report dealing with this offer, and came to the conclusion that the offer thus made was one that the New Canal Company was competent to make, and that Congress ought to accept. The chairman and a majority of the Senate committee on Interoceanic Canals disagreed with the conclusions of the commission, but the re- port of the majority was criticised by the minor- ity members of the committee in an ably written report that supported the conclusions reached by the Canal Commission. The latter was ac- cepted by the Senate. The treaty granting to the United States the concession and rights necessary for the con- struction, operation, and control of the Panama Canal was signed by Secretary Hay and the Colombian chargé d'affaires, 22 Jan. I903, and ratified without change by the United States Senate, 17 March. It is a lengthy treaty, con- taining 28 articles, but is remarkable for the conciseness and directness with which each pro- vision is stated. The Canal Commission did not consider it necessary for the United States to acquire sovereignty over the territory adjacent to the canal. The desirability of our country's having the sole and undivided ownership and control of the canal when constructed was em- phasized, and the recommendation was made that the compensation to be paid by the United States should be definitely fixed either as a single payment or as a predetermined annual payment, or as a combination of these two methods. The treaty authorizes the New Pan- ama Canal Company to sell out to the United States; exempts the Panama Railroad Company from its financial obligation to Colombia, and gives the United States a lease for a period of Ioo years, renewable at the option of the United States, of a strip of land Io kilometres wide across the Isthmus of Panama. The United States not only recognizes the sovereignty of Colombia over this leased strip, but “disavows any intention to impair it in any way whatever, or to increase its territory at the expense of Colombia or of any of the sister republics in Central or South America.” The United States secures the right to construct the canal and harbors, to establish free ports at the termini of the canal, to maintain hospitals and drainage and sanitary works along the line of the canal and its dependencies, and to install waterworks and a sewerage system in Colon and Panama, with the authority to “collect equitable water rates during 50 years.” Colombia agrees not to cede or lease to any foreign power any terri- tory in the Department of Panama, and the United States guarantees that no country shall be allowed to seize such territory. It is provided that the canal shall be neutral in perpetuity, in conformity with the treaty of I8 Nov. 1901, between the United States and Great Britain; but the United States secures the right to protect the canal. The new treaty in no wise limits the rights of the United States under the treaty of 1846–8 with New Grenada, by which we guarantee the neutrality of the isth- mian transit route and the sovereignty of Colom- bia. ISTHMIAN CANALS The canal is to be a neutral highway for the commerce of the world. The United States has been in favor of the principle of neutrality for more than half a century. The only serious difference of opinion has been in regard to the question whether the principle of neutrality should be enforced by an international agree- ment, such as the treaty of Constantinople con- cerning the Suez Canal, or whether the United States should be the sole guarantor of the neu- tral use of the waterway by the people of all nations. The question has been settled in the best manner. The United States stands respon- sible for the maintenance of the principle of neu- trality, having given a pledge to Great Britain and Colombia. In the summer of 1903 came the unexpected rejection of the treaty by Colombia, and this put a new phase upon the question. It is possi- ble that this act of Colombia may lead to the reopening of final negotiations with Nicaragua and Costa Rica for the construction of a canal by the Nicaragua route. At least there has been much discussion of the old problem of the two canals. The President is empowered to negotiate with those governments if unable to Secure a satisfactory title to the property of the Panama Canal Company. The two routes, Panama and Nicaragua, are both practicable and feasible from an engineering standpoint. In 1903 the ‘Scientific American? published a compari- son of the two routes. This comparison, based upon the reports of the International Commis- sion on Panama and of the Nicaragua Canal Commission, offers a concise and clear résumé of the question. For the bearing on the ques- tion of the successful revolt of Panama from Colombia in November 1903, see PANAMA. The two canals have certain features in com- mon. In both the greatest problem is the main- tenance of the summit level and the control of the flood waters of rivers which are subject to extremely heavy freshets. In both cases the plan determined upon seeks to make the one difficulty cancel the other, the flood waters of the rainy season being stored by the erection of large dams across the course of the rivers, the dams being associated with spill-ways, or waste-weirs, by which the impounded waters 1may be regulated between predetermined maxi- Imum and minimum levels. Panama.— The route of the Panama Canal extends from the six-fathom line in Colon Harbor on the Atlan- tic to the six-fathom line off Panama on the Pacific, a distance of 49 miles. The physical difficulties consist of the Culebra cut through the continental divide near the Pacific, and the floods of the Chagres River, which latter flows down from the northeast, intercepts the line of the canal at about its centre, and coincides more or less with the general route of the canal from the point of interception to its Atlantic terminus. The problem is to be solved by cutting a tide-level canal for the first 16 miles from the Atlantic to Bohio, where a dam will be thrown across the Chagres River, the dam to be of sufficient height to form a great lake in the valley of the Chagres, whose maximum elevation will be go feet above mean sea-level. Allowing for the greatest possible variation due to continued drought or to heavy freshets, the level of the lake will be main- tained between the extremes of 82 feet as a minimum and 90 feet as a maximum level above the sea at mean tide. The surplus waters of the rainy reason will be discharged over a weir 2, ooo feet in length, which will be built not far from the Bohio dam, the waste waters being conducted to the Atlantic partly by the Chagres River and partly by artificial channel. At Bohio will be located a double-lift lock with a total maximum lift of 90 feet. The line of the canal traverses the Bohio lake thus formed for a distance of about 14 miles, or until it reaches Obispo, where there will be placed a set of gates I oo feet wide, the purpose of the gates being merely to retain the waters of Lake Bohio should it at any time be desirable to drain off the waters of that portion of the summit level lying beyond the gates. Passing through the gates the canal enters the Culebra section, which consists of a great cut through the conti- nental divide. This section is about eight miles in length, and at the Pacific end of it are the Pedro- Miguel locks. Then follows, a level I.33 miles in length, which leads to the Miraflores locks, by which descent is made to tide-level on the Pacific. From the Miraflores locks to the six-fathom line on the Pacific is a distance of 8.5 miles. g Nicaragua.-- Although the route of the Nicaragua Canal is nearly four times as long as that at Panama, the cost of its construction, while greater by about $6,000,ooo, is nothing like proportionate to its greater length. Topographically considered, the controlling features at Nicaragua are the existence of a great deep- water lake near the Pacific, and its connection with the Atlantic Ocean by the Rio Grande, a river of considera- ble size and discharging in the rainy season an enormous volume of water. Starting from Greytown on the Atlantic, the canal will be excavated generally along the edge of the delta formed by the San Juan River until it enters the river channel at a distance of 46 miles from the sea. Three miles further down the river, at Conchuda, it is proposed to build a great dam across the San Juan River, whose crest will be of sufficient height to raise the surface level of the im- pounded waters to a maximum elevation of II o feet above mean sea-level. The difference of level will be overcome by four locks at various points on this sec- tion. This dam will have the effect of canalizing the San Juan River from this point to its point of outflow from Lake Nicaragua, a distance of 49.64 miles. Where the sharper bends of the river occur, cut-offs will be made. The distance across Lake Nicaragua, 70.51 miles, will lie chiefly in deep water; but the approach to the canal at each side of the lake will have to be dredged to obtain the necessary depth of 35 feet. The remaining 17.34 miles of canal from the western shore of the lake to deep water on the Pacific will contain four locks, by which the difference of elevation of II o feet will be overcome. SUMMIT LEVEL. Panama.— The average summit level proposed by the Isthmian Canal Commission for Panama is 85 feet above mean tide. This is to be secured by the con- struction of a dam at Bohio and a spillway near by, at Gigante, which will be a fixed weir 2, ooo feet in length. As a provision against seasons of extreme drought the canal will be excavated to such a depth that the summit level might fall to 82 feet and still leave the requisite depth of 35 feet throughout this section of the canal. The records of the Canal Company and of the Isthmian Canal Commission show that it is improba- ble these extremes will be reached, or that, if reached, it will be only at very rare intervals. Nicaragua.- The regulation of the summit level at Nicaragua is a much more serious problem, for the reason that it involves maintaining the level of the extensive Nicaragua Lake, which has an area of be- tween 2,700 and 3,000 square miles, within certain predetermined maximum and minimum levels. It in- volves, says the report of the Commission, the control of the lake level within such limits “as will never permit the navigable depth of the summit level to be anywhere less than 35 feet on the one hand, nor permit the lake to rise materially beyond a determined eleva- tion on the other. This regulation can be accomplished by the construction of dams across the Rio Grande west of the lake and across the San Juan on the east side, both being designed with suitable water-ways for the discharge of surplus water.” he minimum eleva- tion has been fixed at Ioa and the maximum at 1 Io. The problem is a stupendous one, and limitations of space prevent any detailed discussion of it here. DAMS. Panama.— The Bohio dam is the most important structure on the line of the Panama Canal. The dam proposed by the Panama Company was to have been of clay founded upon a variety of material — hard clay, soft clay, sand, gravel, etc. The Isthmian Canal Com- mission very wisely decided that for a work of this importance security was a prime object to be aimed at. They decided that a masonry dam founded throughout on rock, or an earth dam with a masonry core going down everywhere to rock, would close the valley effec- tually and prevent all possibility of seepage. The core- wall-and-earth dam was preferred. The structure, which is to be 2,540 feet in length along its crest, will contain a core wall which will be carried down everywhere to ISTHMIAN GAMES – ISTLE rock, the latter being reached in places at a depth of I 28 feet below the sea-level. Below elevation — the pneumatic process will be used in construction and above — 30 cofferdams will be used. The cost of this dam will be $6,369,640, and as it will probably take ten years to build, it will be the controlling feature in the question of time of construction of the canal. Once built, however, it will be a perfectly secure struc- ture for all time. Nicaragua.— The dam designed by the Commission at Conchuda on the San Juan will be a smaller struc- ture, and the greatest depth to rock will be only 80 feet. The regulation of the surface level will be accom- plished by wasteways, vertically-moving gates of the Stoney type being adopted, each giving an opening of 30 feet on the crest of the dam. This discharge will amount to I oo, ooo cubic feet per second with the water in the pool immediately above it at 1 oz. . The total length of the dam, which will be entirely of masonry, will be 1,27 I feet and its cost $4,000,ooo. LOCKS. Panama.- At Panama there will be but three locks in all, one set at Bohio, with a double lift of a maxi- mum of 45 feet each and a total lift of 90 feet, and two sets at the Pacific end of the summit level — double-lift locks at the Pedro-Miguel and single-lift locks at Miraflores. All of these locks will be on a rock foundation. Nicaragua.- The ascent or descent from maximum summit level at Nicaragua will be accomplished by eight locks, four on the Pacific side and four on the Atlantic side. I,ENGTH AND CURVATURE. Panama.- The total length of Panama from ocean to ocean is 49 miles, and of this total 22.85 miles is curvature, the total degrees of curvature being 77 I. The curves are of very large radius and will present no difficulties in the way of navigation, a fact which is commented upon favorably by the Commission. Nicaragua.- The total length of Nicaragua from ocean to ocean is 186.5 miles, and of this 49.29 miles is in curvature, the total amount of curvature being 2.339 degrees. The greater part of this curvature ocurs in the valley of the San Juan River, and owing to the limits imposed by the configuration of the valley, most of the curves are extremely sharp, and must necessarily somewhat hamper navigation, particu- larly in the case of modern vessels of 6oo or 7oo feet length. An attempt is made to offset this by providing greater width in the canal on curves. There is no point, unless it be that of shortness in time of transit, in which Panama shows its great engineering and ope- rating advantages over Nicaragua so much as in this matter of alignment. IIARBORS. Panama.- The Panama Canal is greatly favored in the matter of harbors, which, by the way, are a most essential feature in the successful operation of a maritime canal. Good harbors exist both at Colon and IPanama, and with the improvements suggested by the Commission, they will be able to accommodate the largest shipping that seeks the canal. Nicaragua.- In the matter of terminal harbors, it must be confessed that the Nicaragua scheme is alto- gether wanting, since they simply do not exist. In 1832 there was a spacious harbor at Greytown with depths of from 18 to 30 feet of water. To-day three- fourths of this harbor is a sandy swamp, and the rest of it is a shallow lagoon with from 6 to 16 feet depth of water. An artificial harbor will have to be con- structed both here and at Brito on the Pacific, and the cost of dredging to keep these harbors open will be a permanent charge upon the canal. TIME OF TRANSIT. It has been estimated by the Commission that a 400-foot ship would take I I hours 14 minutes to pass through the Panama Canal, this estimate being based on a speed that varies from 7 miles an hour on curves to Io miles an hour in Lake Bohio. It is estimated that the same vessel will take 33 hours to pass through the Nicaragua Canal. Suppose that two identical pas- senger steamers of 18 knots sea speed enter the Atlan- tic termini at Panama and Nicaragua at 12 o'clock noon, January I. By the time, 33 hours later, that the steamer at Nicaragua was at the Pacific, the steamer at Panama would be 378 knots distant on the Pacific. This gain, however, would be offset by the saving in distance and time between some of the ports on the Atlantic and on the Pacific. WORK DONE. The Commission estimates the value of the work done at Panama, the Panama Railroad, the maps, draw- & 4 ings, etc., at $40,000,ooo, while it states that “practi- cally none of the property '' representing work done, etc., at Nicaragua “would have any value to-day in the construction of the canal.” COST. The total cost of completing Panama is estimated at $144,233,358, while the total cost of building Nicaragua will be $189,864,062. The Panama Company, however, have offered to sell their properties at the price named by our Commission, $40,000,ooo, thus making the cost of the completed Panama Canal $184,233,358. This renders the completed Panama Canal cheaper by $5,639,704 at first cost. The Commission, however, say it will cost $1,300,000 more every year to maintain and operate Nicaragua than it will Panama. This sum capitalized at 4 per cent and added to the cost of constructing Nicaragua, makes the Panama Canal con- sidered as a financial proposition, over $38, ooo,ooo cheaper in the long run than the Nicaragua Canal. Isthmian Games, so called because they were celebrated on the Isthmus of Corinth. Here was a famous temple consecrated to Po- seidon, near which the Isthmian games were celebrated. On one side of the temple were the statues of the victors in these games, and on the other was a grove of pines. In the tem- ple stood four horses, gilded all over, with the exception of their ivory hoofs: by the side of the horses were two Tritons, the upper parts of which were gilt, and the rest of ivory. Be- hind the horses was a car, with the statues of Poseidon and Amphitrite, of gold and ivory. Not far from the temple were a considerable theatre, and the stadium, of white stone, in which the games were celebrated. The whole isthmus was sacred to Poseidon, who was thence called Isthmius. According to the common Opinion the Isthmian games were founded in honor of Palaemon or Melicertes, by Sisyphus, king of Corinth. . When there was war between the states of Corinth and Athens a sacred truce was concluded, and the Athenians were sol- emnly invited to attend the celebration of the games. They were celebrated with the same Splendor, as the Olympian and other public games, in the first, and third years of each Olympiad, probably in autumn; the athletic ex- ercises were the same. The victors were at first adorned with wreaths of pine-leaves, but after- ward with wreaths of dry and faded ivy. The pine wreaths were afterward resumed. Victory shed a lustre not only over the individual, but over his family and the community to which he belonged. Istle, is tſ, or Tampico. This structural fibre is produced from several species of small agaves in Mexico, chiefly Agave heteracantha, and A. lechuguilla. The plants grow wild over a wide area of central and northern Mexico, the centres of the industry being located in the states of Coahuila, Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon and San Luis, Potosi. The fibre is extracted by the peons by hand labor and prepared by rudest methods. The filaments are harsh and stiff, but smooth, and in color a yellowish white, and form, an admirable substitute for animal bris- tles in brush manufacture. Nearly 8,000 tons of the fibre is imported into the United States annually, worth almost half a million dollars. In Mexico the fibre is used for rough cordage and webbing (for saddle girths), and for sacks for the transportation of all kinds of merchan- dise. A little fibre finds its way into this coun- try to mix with the cheaper cordage fibres, but it cannot amount to very much in the figures of imports. . The fibre is derived from the cogolla, or central spike of unopened leaves, these being ITACOLUMITE — ITALY separated by hand, and each leaf scraped on both sides with a kind of dull edged knife, in order to release the fibre, which lies just under the epidermis. After drying, the fibre is sold at the haciendas, put up in bundles of about 75 pounds, and transported on the backs of pack animals to the neighboring towns, where it is sorted, baled, and sent by rail to the port of Tampico for shipment, hence the commercial name Tampico. For further information see article on Istle Fibre in Mexico, Scientific American Supplement, (1902). See CoRDAGE: CoRDAGE INDUSTRIES: FIBRE; , MEXICO. CHAS. RICHARDS DoDGE. Itacolumite, i-ta-kö1’i-mit, also known as flexible sandstone, is a mineral curiosity. It is a light colored, slightly schistose sandstone con- taining besides quartz grains, mica, talc and chlorite. Usually thin bedded, pieces an inch thick or more have considerable flexibility. This property is attributed to the presence of thin laminae of mica, talc, etc. and also to the shape of the sand grains which have interlock- ing angles, due to a secondary growth of the grains by deposition of silica. Itacolumite is found in Brazil, also at several localities in the Southern Appalachians. Itagaki, Taisuke, ti-soo'ká č-tá-gā'ké, Count, Japanese statesman: b. Tosa province, island of Shikoku, 1838. He received a mili- tary education, and in the war of the Restora- tion (1868) was prominent in the imperial army. From 1871 until his resignation in 1873 he was a privy councillor to the emperor. He then became the centre of a movement for con- stitutional government which in 1877 addressed to the government a memorial asking for a representative assembly and broaching popular rights. Itagaki aimed at a system based on that of Great Britain or the United States, as opposed to the system based on that of Germany, drafted by the Marquis Ito and promulgated in 1890. But he would have been satisfied at first, it is said, with an assem- bly which quite excluded the popular element. He organized the Jiyuto, or Liberals, the first Japanese political party, which rapidly increased in numbers. In 1878 he became minister of public works, in 1880 minister of the interior, and in 1898 the Liberals united with the Pro- gressists, led by Count Okuma, to form the so- called. Constitutional party, which had a large majority in the lower house of Parliament. Át the Mikado's request Itagaki and Okuma formed a cabinet, with Itagaki as minister of the in- terior. The cabinet resigned after six months, and the Constitutional party was separated into its original parts. Italian Architecture. ITALY. Ital'ic Languages, the languages of an- cient Italy, before it had become Latinized by the predominance of Rome. These are generally described as Umbrian, Oscan, Etruscan, and Latin. The three first only survive in some frag- ments and inscriptions. Thus the Eugubine Tables, seven tablets of brass discovered in 1444 near Eugubium, are engraved with a series of sacerdotal inscriptions in ancient Umbrian. Taken together they contain about 450 lines, reading from left to right, some in Roman, others in Etruscan letters. The most important See ARCHITECTURE: fragment of the Oscan language is that in- scribed on a bronze tablet discovered in 1793, and called the Bantine Table, from the neigh- boring city of Bantia. The Oscan Bantine in- Scription contains 36 lines, and is much more easy to interpret than the Eugubine Tables. The Oscan language was spoken in the South of Italy. Another important monument of Oscan is the Cippus Abellanus discovered in 1685. The bronze tablet of Agnone discovered in 1848 also contains an Oscan inscription. The Etrus- can language is most difficult of all to inter- pret. The most important remains which are known were discovered in the neighborhood of Perugia in the year 1822. The inscription is engraved on two sides of a block of stone, and consists of forty-five lines. The learned are divided about its interpretation. The most copious and important of the legal fragments which exhibit the Latin language in its earliest form are the Twelve Tables (q.v.). Italy, a kingdom in southern Europe, con- sisting in the main of a large peninsula stretch- ing Southwards between the Adriatic Sea and the western part of the Mediterranean, but also including a considerable portion of the main- land and some of the adjacent islands. It is bounded on the north by the Alps, which sepa- rate it from Austria and Switzerland, except at the district lying to the north of Lake Garda, where its frontier does not follow the line of the Alps; on the west by France, from which it is separated along the larger part of the frontier line by the Graian, Cottian, and part of the Maritime Alps, and by the Mediterranean; on the South by the Gulf of Taranto and the Mediterranean; and on the east by the Adriatic and a portion of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It is comprised between lat. 36° 40' and 46° 40' N. and between lon. 6° 35' and 18° 35' E. Political Divisions.— For administrative pur- poses Italy is divided into 69 provinces, which are grouped under I6 departments (comparti- menti territoriali), some of which consist of only a single province. The provinces are sub- divided into circles (in Venetia and the pro- vince of Mantua called districts). The follow- ing table furnishes a list of the provinces and departments, with the area of each, and the population as estimated I Feb. 1901: PROVINCES AND Area in Pop. on DEPARTMENTS SQ. I11. Feb. 1, 1901 Alessandria . . . . . . . . * . IQ5O 81 I,833 Cuneo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2882 638,235 Novara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2553 743, II 5 Torino (Turin). . . . . . . . 3955 I, I24,218 PIEMonTE (Piedmont) II,340 — 3,317,401 Genova (Genoa). . . . . . . 1582 934,627 Porto Maurizio. . . . . . . . 45.5 I42,846 LIGURIA . . . . . . . . . . . 2,037 — 1,077,473. Cagliari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5204 483,548 Sassari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O90 308,206 SARDINIA (Island). . . 9,294 — 791,754 Bergamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . Io98 459,594 Brescia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845 538,427 Como . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Io9 I 580,214 Cremona . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 327,838 Mantova (Mantua) . . . . . 912 3 II,942 Milano (Milan). . . . . . . I223 I,442, I 79 avia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I290 496,969 Sondrio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I232 I25,565 LoMBARDIA (L’bardy) 9,386 — 4,282,728 Belluno . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . I293 I92,800 Padova (Padua). . . . . . . 823 443,227 Rovigo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 22I,904 Treviso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96o 412,267 - S. --- - J. | U ſº I A M | Cape cers. - | - º -- º ºf ºn º º - - Spitz -- S. E. A. * º º --- -- º º º ſe-u. ºtºs. Monte ºglio Lº Lº nº. --- dº --- - ºbºt. ºran - Civiºn -º-ade-1- | ULF º nºw ſcº --------- ºut-ºf-the --- - -º-ºn- - Rinnini Luca --- --- - S-ºngºlº ------ º --- -Zara º ºnal micircuit. ºwſ ºf ºt- ------ Palmarola - ſ º * - - Pou-Luº 1- N venunui º ---. Lachia 1. - ºr gº º nº --- ------ N Strombº Lipari Island Fºllºul allouin Uºnº º º º º sº º - s C.S. - "º . ºn ºf - sauna º Linari º Liºr --- --- -- p-n º --- lººd - inity. --- º º --- --- * *** - *- - - - - º Lagosta º º - ---. - ºf . -on- - --- 1. Lººtº --- ºn tº º 0 ° T. A R A N T 0. ºn- an au- º- - --- -- ºn S. º. square ºte a sºlo : --- º-º-º-º- º - |- ºn. 2. 2. Gauta i. - cºuranitola tani al-1- Cis-Maruo --- 2 º Sºus- º Pantellaria 1. Pantellaria --- ITALY. scALE OF MILES º -- Population of places is indicated. by different lettering, thus: 200,000 and over - ROME 100,000 to 200,000 Venice 50,000 to 100,000__ -au- 10,000 to 50,000 Smalle-Places nailroads - ---. {{HWV HALOOS JAGUARONDI — JAMAICA ards. Consult the works of South American travelers and naturalists, especially Humboldt, Azara, Walterton, Wallace, Bates, and W. H. Hudson. Their accounts are well summarized by Porter in ‘Wild Beasts? (New York 1894). Jaguarondi, jäg-wa-rón'di, or Yaguarondi, a slender, long-tailed, unspotted, blackish-gray wildcat (Felis jaguarondi) of tropical America. It is not common, and is little known. It mea- sures about 30 inches from snout to tail, and the tail is 25 inches long; and the sides of its nose are curiously pinched in. Jains, jinz, or Jainas, ji'nāz, a Hindu re- ligious sect, which in union with the Buddhists opposed Brahmanism. They are numerous in the great cities of western and northwestern India, as well as in the Dravidic states of the South. The name signifies a follower of Jina (“conqueror of the world”), one of the denom- inations of their apotheosized saints. They have many fine temples built in different parts of the Deccan, as well as elsewhere. The Jains deny the divine origin and infallible authority of the Vedas; they reverence certain holy mor- tals, now termed Tirthankara or saints, and they manifest extreme and even ludicrous ten- derness for animal life. They positively affirm that the world exists from all eternity, not being created by God or any other being, and that it will exist forever. This world is divided into three parts — the upper, the middle, and the lower worlds. The Jains believe that not to kill any sentient being is the highest virtue; and lying, covetousness, theft, are strongly con- demned. Not to eat at night, and to drink water strained (for fear of its containing any insect), not to drink arrack, are important in- junctions. Various fruits and vegetables they will not eat even under the pressure of starva- tion, and any kind of flesh meat they will not touch with the hand. They believe in a sort of nirvâna (like the Buddhists). Those who at- tain to this nirvâna, this extinction of action, this final liberation, do not return to a worldly state, and there is no interruption to their bliss ; they have perfect vision and knowledge, and do not depend upon works. The Jains are split up into two principal divisions, Digambaras and Svētāmbaras; the points of difference between them are said to comprehend a list of 7oo topics, 84 of which are considered of paramount im- portance. The Digambara (sky-clad, naked) now wears colored garments, confining the dis- use of clothes to meal hours; the Svētāmbara wears, as the name signifies, white garments. Both the parties have the same sacred books, which they style “angas,” but no sacerdotal caste. Jalſap (so called from Jalapa, or Xalapa, Mex., whence it is imported), the tuberous roots of several plants of the order Convolvulaceae, that of Ipomaea purga being the most important. This is a twining herbaceous plant with cordate leaves and deep pink flowers, growing naturally on the eastern declivities of the Mexican Andes, at from 5,000 to 8,000 feet. The jalap of com- merce consists of irregular ovoid dark-brown roots, varying from the size of an egg to that of a hazel-nut. The drug is one of the most common purgatives, but is apt to produce grip- ing and nausea. Jalapa, hā-1ā'pā, or Xalapa (“a place of water a:d sand”), Mexico, city, capital of the state of Vera Cruz; on the railroad which ex- tends from the city of Vera Cruz across the state of Vera Cruz and Puebla; about 50 miles north- west of Vera Cruz. Jalapa is situated about 4,340 feet above the sea, at the base of the basaltic mountain, Cofre de Perote, which rises about 14,300 feet. Before the advent of rail- roads, the route from Vera Cruz to Mexico City was through Jalapa, which was then of con- siderable importance. It is a favorite mountain resort for the inhabitants along the coast and in the valleys. The irregularity of the streets, the gardens which surrounded the city, the well. built houses, the parks, and promenades, all make the place most attractive. It was once the capital of the state. It is one of the oldest cities on the continent; one of its churches is said to have been built by Cortes, who found here an Indian town. The Franciscan convent was built in I556. The great annual fair held here between the years 1720–77 made Jalapa a place of note. People came from far and near to See and purchase goods brought from Europe, mostly from Cadiz. In the city there are three hospitals, a number of good schools, and several fine church buildings. Pop. (1903) 20,500. Jalisco, hä-lès'kö, Mexico, a state bounded On the west by the Pacific Ocean, and on the north, east, and south by the states of Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, San Luis . Potosí, Guanajuato, Quenetaro, Michoacan, Colima, and the territory of Tepic. The Sierra Madre range in the eastern portion of the state includes the active volcano Colima (about 14,238 feet) and other high mountains. The largest river is the Santiago, or Lerma, which forms the cascades of Juanacatlan in the vicinity of the city of Guadelajara. At that point the river is 520 feet wide, and falls 65 feet. A large electric plant utilizes the force generated by these falls, sup- plying electric power to a number of factories. Lake Chapala, the source of the Santiago, is the largest body of water in the republic. The total mineral production of the state is somewhat more than $2,250,000 Mexican silver. There are numerous silver, gold, copper, iron, lead, and cinnabar mines. The high table-lands of the eastern regions have a temperate, or cold climate, and produce cereals; in the valleys and on the hot lowlands of the coast sugar-cane, cotton, vanilla, tobacco, oranges, and coffee are culti- vated. The maguey plant is one of the chief products of the district of Tequila. The annual output of Sugar is II,000 tons of the raw, and I5,000 tons refined. The capital of the state, Guadalajara (q.v.), has become in recent years one of the chief manufacturing centres in Mex- ico, producing large quantities of manta, or un- bleached cotton, and leather goods. More than $300,000 Mexican silver is appropriated annu- ally for the maintenance of schools, which are attended by 31,725 pupils. Private and church schools have an attendance of 14,106. The popu- lation of the state in 1900 was 1,137,311. Jalla'o, a West Indian market-name for the margate-fish (q.v.). . . Jamaica, ja-ma'ka, the largest of the Brit- ish West India Islands. It occupies the central position in the Antillean region, being nearly equidistant from Florida and the northern point of South America; from the mouths of the Orinoco and Galveston; from the head of the JAMAICA Gulf of Honduras, on the west, and St. Thomas, On the east. Its greatest length is I44 miles; greatest breadth, 49 miles; area, 4,200 to 4,218 square miles. The eastern part of the island has, as its most commanding feature, the Blue Mountain range (highest peak 7,360 feet). The centre and west, an elevated plateau of later geologic formation, show the characteristic An- tillean limestone, and, more perfectly here than elsewhere in the West Indies, the extraordinary results of exposure of that soluble material to the tropical rainfall. This upland plain, by the action of the elements, has been carved into hills, basins, called “cockpits,” 500 feet or more in depth, and much larger and deeper valleys, in which the plantations are situated, and from which the numerous streams often find their way to the sea by underground passages. One of these , depressions, the Clarendon Valley (drained through a cañon), is 25 miles wide and 50 miles long; another, St.-Thomas-in-the-Vale, is circular in form, with a diameter of about Io miles. Throughout the western half of the island such valleys occur, some with, others without, apparent drainage outlets. Coastal plains are most extensive on the south side, where the largest, the plain of Liguanea, has an area of 200 square miles. There are no naviga- ble rivers, but a great number of small streams, pools, and thermal springs. In the limestone region there are many caverns, interesting on account of their size, beauty, or the relics of the Old Indian population which they contain. The mean temperature at the coast is very little more than 78° F.; that of the larger part of the habitable regions (1,000 to 3,000 feet above sea- level) is about 73° F.; and at the altitude of 5,500 feet it is 60° F. The maximum for a period of Io years at Kingston, on the south coast, averaged 87.8° F., and the minimum 70.7° F. On the plateau the annual variation is scarcely 9°; for example, at St. Elizabeth the maximum is 75° F. and the minimum 67° F. As a whole, the island has a pleasant climate. The average rainfall is 66 inches, the extremes being IOO inches on the high mountains and 44 inches at Kingston. The death-rate is 20.9 in I,000; but this favorable showing, as compared with the other islands of the Antilles, is due much less to natural advantages than to the strict enforcement of local sanitary and quarantine regulations. The total number of inhabitants in I903 is estimated at about 780,000. The census of 1891 showed 639,49), five sixths of the entire population being blacks or colored people; the whites numbering I4,692, and East Indian coolies Io, II6. The birth-rate is little less than twice the death-rate. The Jamaican negroes are fairly good laborers when well fed; the menial work of the island is performed by them, and they are regarded as cheerful, honest, and re- spectful servants. They have no share what- ever in the government. Fauna, Flora, and Agriculture.—Jamaica has no native mammals. There are many spe- cies of lizards, including the large iguana, a few harmless Snakes, and the slightly poisonous cen– tipede and Scorpion; in the lowlands mosquitoes, ants, and sand-flies are common; butterflies, fire- flies, and beetles, parrots, pigeons, water-fowls, and 20 different kinds of song-birds are enumer- ated. Edible marine fish are seldom caught near the island, but the streams contain a few fresh-water species. The flora is distinguished from that of the other Antillean regions by the . total absence of the royal palm, and by the abundance of pimentos, or allspice-trees, which are found nowhere else. Common trees are the ceiba, mango, wild Orange, cocoa-palm, plantain, fustic, logwood, and cedar. Begonias, orchids, ferns, and grasses abound, except on the South- ern coast, which has a flora of the arid type, including the cactus, thorny acacias, etc. There are 739,256 acres under cultivation (tillage 200,- I68, pasturage 413,152, etc.). Of this total, 83,549 acres are devoted to pimento (allspice), but chiefly as a by-product on lands also used for stock-raising. Since the abolition of slavery the production of sugar has fallen off very greatly. . In 1805 Jamaica exported 151,000 hogs- heads of Sugar, and 5,000,000 gallons of rum; in 1897 the cultivation of sugar-cane, constituted only IQ per cent of the whole agricultural in- dustry; in 1902 only 27,342 acres were under this crop. Other products have gradually taken its place, as shown in the following statement of areas devoted to them : Ground provisions, 9I,733 acres; coffee, 31,265 acres; bananas, 32,- 842 acres; cocoanuts, 13,244 acres; etc. Since the great frosts in Florida (1895–6) the exporta- tion of oranges from Jamaica has been carried on profitably; since 1886 tobacco has been grown and cigars for exportation made on a large Scale. Coffee from the Blue Mountain estates is of fine quality. The cultivation of cocoa has in- creased in recent years; ginger grows most readily in the rich soils on the mountains; and among the other exports may be mentioned an- natto, lime-juice, tamarinds, nutmegs, a number of dye-woods, cabinet-woods, etc. Special in- struction in agriculture is given at the schools, and agricultural and horticultural interests are encouraged by the government and active pri- vate associations. Commerce, Railways, Roads, etc.— The |United States has the most important trade relations with Jamaica, furnishing a large part of the staple food supplies, and affording the best market for the island’s fruit and sugar. Thus, in 1895–6, the total exports were valued at $8,900,000, the United States taking 57 per cent, and Great Britain 27.6 per cent. Imports in the same year amounted to $13,722,500, Great Britain, Canada, and other British possessions furnishing about 55.6 per cent, and the United States 41.8 per cent. There are about 185 miles of railway, 683 of telegraph, and I54 of tele- phone. In the year Igor—2 the number of letters and postal-cards transmitted by the post-office was 5,424,814. The system of public highways (3,600 miles), extending into all parts of the island, is admirable: the roads are thoroughly well built and graded, have substantial bridges, and are kept in good repair. The principal line of steamships is the Royal Mail, with fortnightly sailings between England and the Caribbean ports. The Atlas Line and the Boston Fruit Company’s steamers maintain communication with New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Bal- timore. A steamer from Kingston circumnavi- gates the island once a week. Government, Education, and Religion.— The executive authority is vested in a governor, ap- pointed by the king. He is assisted by a secre- tary, attorney-general, director of public works, collector-general, , and the commanding officer of the military forces. The legislative council consists of 29 members, with the governor as JAMAICA —JAMAICA BAY president; of the whole number 14, are elected (term 5 years), Io nominated, and 5 are the administrative officers mentioned above. Ad- mittance to the lower grades of the civil service is gained through competitive examinations. The government medical service has in charge 18 public hospitals. The police system includes more than Ioo stations in different parts of the island; a force of more than 1,500 men (769 district constables); several prisons, reforma- tories, and industrial schools. In 1902 the strength of the regular forces stationed in Ja- maica was 1,866 officers and men; militia, 763. Fortifications and batteries are at Port Royal, Rocky Point, Salt Pond's Hill, Rock Fort, Fort Augusta, Fort Clarence, and Apostles' Battery. Ships of the royal navy on the North American and West India station are 13 in number (See also below in connection with Kingston). The judicial department includes a high court of justice (9 members), circuit courts, and a magis- trate in each parish. Public revenue and ex- penditure in recent years, each about $3,000,- OOO; the public debt in 1897 was given as $7,581,000. Government schools in 1902 num- bered 728, with 84,779 pupils. There are four government training colleges for teachers; sev- eral endowed secondary, industrial, and high schools; a public lyceum and museum, with a valuable library, etc. Local examinations are held on the island by the University of Cam- bridge. In 1870 the Church of England was disestablished and disendowed on the island; in 1902 churches and chapels were: Church of England, 219; Baptist, 189; Methodist, I28; Presbyterian, 73; United Methodist Free Church, 43; Roman Catholic, 28; Moravian, 27; Congre- gational, 26; Christian Church, 20; and Church of Scotland, Io. Dependencies.— The Cayman Islands, Turks, and Caicos Islands, and the Morant and Pedro Cays are attached to Jamaica for administrative purposes. Of these, the first group lies in the Caribbean Sea, 180 miles northwest of Jamaica, and comprises Grand Cayman, 17 miles long, 4 to 7 broad; Little Cayman, 9 miles long and about I mile broad; and Cayman Brae, Io miles long and I mile broad. The government is ad- ministered by a commissioner, and magistrates are appointed by the governor of Jamaica. The population will be referred to under History. The second group, Turks and Caicos Islands, situated nearly 500 miles northeast of Jamaica, geographically belongs to the Bahamas; but the governor of Jamaica exercises a supervising power over the local authorities (a commissioner and legislative board of 5 members). Area, I65%, square miles; population, 5,350; capital, Grand Turk; products, salt, sponges, pink pearl, etc. The Morant Cays and Pedro Cays are situated, respectively, about 33 miles southeast, and about 45 miles Southwest, of Jamaica. Chief. Towns.— Kingston, the capital, has 46,542 inhabitants, a good water-supply and sys- tem of sewerage, well-lighted streets, large shops, a street-railway, etc. The town is, how- ever, unattractive; residences of the officials and wealthy merchants are built in the suburbs. Public institutions are the museum, library, co- lonial offices, Schools, churches, almshouse, peni- tentiary, asylum, and Victoria Market. Four miles away is the important naval station of Port Royal, headquarters for the British West India naval forces, and a strongly fortified place. Spanish Town, population 5,019, at One time the capital, is situated 15 miles west of Kingston. Port Antonio, on the northeast side of the island; Montego Bay, population 4,803; Savanna-la-Mar, Falmouth, Lucea, St. Ann's Bay, Buff Bay, Port Morant, Black River, etc.; are distributed among the three counties of Surrey, Middlesex, and Cornwall. History.— The native word from which we have the name Jamaica signifies “island of foun- tains.” Names recalling the old Spanish occu- pation of the island are Montego (Spanish Manteca), Bog Walk (Spanish Boca del Agua), Wag Water (Spanish Agua Alta), and others. As a Spanish colony (1509–1665) Jamaica was backward and of little consequence; the total population in the year last mentioned, when an English fleet captured it, was only 3,000. One half of that number took refuge in Cuba. The settlers who arrived subsequently were peasants from Scotland, Ireland, and England, English subjects from the other West Indian islands, and Jewish traders from Minorca. Negroes were brought from Africa in great numbers; the old town of Port Royal being chosen as a con- venient point from which to reship slaves to the other islands and the mainland. That town, Once a place of great wealth and importance, was ruined by repeated calamities. “On 7 June 1692 happened that earthquake which swallowed up great part of Port Royal,” says Edwards, who explains that the town “was chiefly built on a bank of sand, adhering to a rock in the sea, and a very slight concussion, aided by the weight of the buildings, would probably have accomplished its destruction.” Hurricanes in 1712 and 1722, and a conflagration 13 July 1815, completed the work of obliteration. Toward the close of the 18th century the island was occupied by large plantations, and was exceedingly productive. Before that time 610,000 slaves had been landed at Port Royal. The freeing of the negroes (see EMANCIPATION) resulted in the abandonment of the island by many landlords. The effort to re- gain the lost prosperity through diversified agri- culture has already been mentioned. In August 1903 a hurricane inflicted great injury at several points in Jamaica, and destroyed life and prop- erty on the Cayman Islands. The population of the latter was 4,322 according to the census of I891, and the productions tropical fruits. Consult: Hill, “Cuba and Porto Rico, with the other Islands of the West Indies? ; and Ed- wards, ‘History of the British West Indies.” MARRION WILCOx, Authority on Spanish America. Jamaica, a part of the borough of Queens in the city of New York. Prior to 1 Jan. I898 Jamaica was the county-seat of Queens County on Long Island, but that portion of Queens County in which Jamaica is situated has been incorporated in the city of New York (Greater New York). The town was settled as early as I656. Several houses built before the Revolu- tionary War are in a good state of preservation. In the vicinity there are a large number of mar- ket gardens. One of the New York State nor- mal Schools is situated in Jamaica. Jamaica Bay, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean which indents the southeast shore of Long Island. It is nearly circular in shape; the Rock- away Beach extends across the side toward the Ocean and makes of the bay a land-locked body JAMES of water. A number of islands are in the mid- dle and at the entrance. The whole of the bay, except an inlet, Head Bay on the east shore, is within the limits of New York city; Coney Island is near the entrance to the bay. James, Saint, called the “Greater,” the son of Zebedee. He was called to be an apostle, together with his brother Saint John, as they were mending their nets with their father, who was a fisherman. They then followed Christ, were witnesses with Saint Peter of the trans- figuration, and accompanied our Lord in the garden of Gethsemane. In the lists of the apos- tles given in the synoptic Gospels and in the Acts the names of Peter, Andrew, James, and John stand first; and it is plain that these four were at the head of the I2 throughout. After the ascension Saint James persevered in prayer with the other apostles and the women and the Lord's brethren. Nothing further is certainly known of him till the passover of 44, when, be- ing in Jerusalem, the Jews stirred up Herod Agrippa I. against him, who put him to a cruel death. Thus Saint James was the first of the apostles who suffered martyrdom. There is a legend that he went to Spain, and that his bones lent miraculous aid to the Spaniards against the Saracens. James, Saint, called the “Less,” an apostle, the brother or cousin of Jesus. He is called in Scripture the “Just,” and is probably the apostle described in Matt. x. 3 and elsewhere as the son of Alpheus. He was the head of the church in Jerusalem when the Scribes and Pharisees threw him down from the gable of the temple, and a fuller dashed out his brains with a club, about the year 62. This is the account of his death given by Hegesippus, a Christian of Jewish origin, who lived in the mid- dle of the 2d century, and it differs somewhat from the narrative of Josephus. Some critics maintain that James, the son of Alpheus, was One person, and James, the brother of Jesus, another. Whether James was the author of the epistle which bears his name is considered doubtful. James I., king of England, and VI. of Scotland, the only child of Mary, Queen of Scots, by her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darn- ley: b. Edinburgh Castle 19 June 1566; d. palace of Theobalds, Hertfordshire, 27 March 1625. In I567 he was solemnly crowned at Stirling, and from that time all public acts ran in his name. His childhood was passed in civil wars, under the regencies of Murray, Mar, and Morton, dur- ing which time he resided in Stirling Castle, under the tuition of the celebrated Buchanan. From the first he seems to have imbibed those exalted notions of the royal authority and divine right which proved so injurious to his posterity. But James soon found it advisable to ally him- self with Queen Elizabeth and accept a pension from her. When, however, it became apparent that the life of his mother was in danger from the sentence of an English judicature, James sent representatives to England to intercede with Elizabeth; but his whole procedure in the mat- ter shows a singular callousness. As a matter of form he ordered the clergy to pray for his mother, but when the news of Mary’s execution arrived James was not much moved, though he attempted to make a show of indignation by condemning one of the commissioners to death, a sentence which, however, he commuted to banishment. On 23 Nov. 1589 James married Anne, daughter of Frederick II., king of Den- mark. On his return home, after passing the winter in festivities at Copenhagen, he was in some danger from the unruliness of the nobles; and for several succeeding years of his reign the history of Scotland displays much turbulence and party contest. In 1603 James succeeded to the crown of England, on the death of Elizabeth, and proceeded amidst the acclamations of his new subjects to London. One of his first acts was to bestow a profusion of honors and titles on the inhabitants of both countries. At a con- ference held at Hampton Court between the divines of the Established Church and the Puri- tans James exhibited the ill-will he bore to popu- lar schemes of church government. The meet- ing of Parliament also enabled him to assert those principles of absolute power in the crown which he could never practically maintain, but the theoretical claim of which provided the in- creasing spirit of freedom in the House of Com- mons with constant matter of alarm and con- tention. Although James had behaved with great lenity to the Catholics in Scotland, those in England were so disappointed in their ex- pectations of favor, that the famous gunpowder plot was concerted in 1605, the object of which was to blow up the king and Parliament. (See GUNPOWDER PLOT, THE.) In 1612 he lost his eldest son Henry, a prince of great promise, then I9; and in the following year the eventful mar- riage of his daughter Elizabeth with the elector palatine took place. No circumstance in the reign of James was more unpopular than his treatment of the celebrated Sir Walter Raleigh (q.v.). James had set his heart on marrying His son Charles to a Spanish princess, but the negotiations failed through the overbearing tem- per of Buckingham, the royal favorite, who quarreled with the grandees of the Spanish court. The close of the life of James was marked by violent contests with his Parliament. He was also much disquieted by the misfortune of his son-in-law, the elector palatine, who, hav- ing been induced to accept the crown of Bo- hemia, and to head the Protestant interest in Germany, was stripped of all his dominions by the emperor. Urged by national feelings for the Protestant cause, he was at length (Io March 1624) induced to declare war against Spain and the emperor; and troops were sent to Holland to act in conjunction with Prince Maurice. James was not destitute of abilities nor of good intentions, but the former were not those of a ruler, and he was neither beloved at home nor esteemed abroad. He received dur- ing his lifetime a great deal of adulation on the score of his literary abilities. Consult: Aikin, “Memoirs of the Court of King James the First? (1822); Burton, ‘History of Scotland? (1873); Macaulay, ‘History of England’, (1858); S. R. Gardner, ‘History of England from the Ac- cession of James I. to the Spanish Marriage? (1863–9); ibid., “The First Two Stuarts? (1876). James II., king of England, second son of Charles I. and of Henrietta of France: b. London I5 Oct. 1633; d. St. Germain, France, I6 Sept. 1701. He was at once declared Duke of York, though only formally raised to that JAMES dignity in 1643. At the Restoration in 1660 he took the command of the fleet, as lord high-ad- miral, and was also made Warden of the Cinque Ports. He had previously married Anne, daugh- ter of Chancellor Hyde, afterward Lord Claren- don (q.v.). In 1671 the Duchess of York died. Before her death she declared herself a convert to the Roman Catholic faith, which had been secretly that of the duke for many years, and was now openly avowed by him. This declaration laid the foundation of the opposition which finally drove him from the throne. A test act being soon after passed, to prevent Roman Catholics from holding public employ- ments, the duke was obliged to resign his com- mand. On 21 Nov. 1671 he married Mary Beatrice of Este, daughter of the Duke of Mo- dena, and in 1677 his eldest daughter, Mary, was united to William, prince of Orange. On the death of Charles II., 6 Feb. 1685, the duke succeeded, under the title of James II., and from the time of his ascending the throne seems to have acted with a steady determination to render himself absolute, and to restore the Roman Catholic religion. At variance with his Barliament he was under the necessity of ac- cepting a pension from Louis XIV. He sent an agent to Rome to pave the way for a Solemn re-admission of England into the bosom of that Church, conduct which encouraged the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth. The unrelenting temper of James was again exhibited in the ex- ecutions on this account. The legal proceedings under Jeffreys were brutal in the extreme; and no fewer than 320 persons were hanged on the western circuit alone, which attained an unenvi- able notoriety as the Bloody Assize. He gradually proceeded to a direct attack on the Established Church, by the formation of an ecclesias- tical commission, which cited before it all clergy- men who had done anything to displease the court. Apparently to conciliate the Puritans a declaration of indulgence in matters of religion was ordered to be read by the clergy in all the churches of the kingdom, but its real object, however, was to favor the Roman Catholic ele- ment. Seven bishops met and drew up a loyal and humble petition against this ordinance, and for this act they were sent to the Tower, on a charge of seditious libel. On 29 June 1688 they were acquitted amid the most enthusiastic re- joicings of the populace. The innovations, in regard both to the religion and government, gradually united opposing interests, and a large body of nobility and gentry concurred in an application to the Prince of Orange, signed by seven of the most prominent and influential political leaders, to occupy the throne. James, who was long kept in ignorance of these trans- actions, when informed of them by his minister at the Hague, was struck with terror equal to his former infatuation; and, immediately re- pealing all his obnoxious acts, practised every method to gain popularity. All confidence was, however, destroyed between the king and the people. William arrived with his fleet in Tor- bay 5 Nov. I688, and landed his forces, amount- ing to I4,000 men. Several men of rank went over to William, and the royal army began to desert by entire regiments. Incapable of any vigorous resolution, and finding his overtures of accommodation disregarded, James resolved to quit the country. He repaired to St. Ger- main, where he was received with great kindness and hospitality by Louis XIV. In the meantime the throne of Great Britain was declared abdi- cated, and was occupied, with the national and parliamentary consent, by his eldest daughter, Mary, and her husband, William, conjointly; Anne, who had equally with her sister been edu- cated a strict Protestant, being declared next in Succession, to the exclusion of her infant brother, known in history as the Pretender, who had been born on Io June of that year. Assisted by Louis XIV., James was enabled, in March 1689, to make an attempt for the recovery of Ireland. The battle of the Boyne, fought I July 1690, compelled him to return to France. All suc- ceeding projects for his restoration proved equally abortive. Consult: Burnet, ‘History of the Reign of King James the Second2 ; Cavelli, “Les derniers Stuarts à Saint Germain-en-Laye? (1871); Klopp, “Der Fall des Hauses Stuart? (1875–88). James I., king of Scotland, of the house of Stuart: b. Dunfermline 1394; d. Perth 21 Feb. I437. He was the son of Robert III. In 1406, while on his way to France, he was taken by the English and carried to the Tower of Lon- don. For the next 18 years he remained a pris– oner in England, being confined during part of his captivity in Nottingham Castle, Evesham, and Windsor Castle, where he wrote the “King’s Quhair? and other poems. Robert III. died very shortly after learning of his son's captivity, and James was proclaimed king; but during the remainder of the reign of Henry IV., and the whole of that of Henry V., he was detained in England, with a view to prevent the alliance of Scotland with France. In 1424, under the regency of the Duke of Bedford, he was re- stored to his kingdom, at which time he was in his 30th year. Previous to his departure he married Jane or Joanna Beaufort, daughter of the Earl of Somerset, a lady of the blood royal of England, who is the fair dame alluded to in his poem ‘The King's Quhair.” On his return to Scotland he restored Scotland to some degree of order, but so severe was his treatment of his turbulent nobles that he was at last murdered by their emissaries at Perth in the 13th year of his reign. James II., king of Scotland, son of James I. : b. 16 Oct. I430; d. Roxburgh, Scotland, 3 Aug. 1460. During the minority his kingdom was distracted by struggles for power between his tutors Livingston and Crichton and the great house of Douglas. In 1449 he assumed the government and married Mary of Guelderland. He had latterly allied himself with the Doug- lases, but being deprived of all real power, he resolved to free himself from their yoke. This he did in 1452 by inducing the Earl of Douglas to come to Stirling Castle, where he stabbed him with his own hand. He then quelled a powerful insurrection headed by the next earl, whose lands were confiscated. In 1460 he infringed a truce with Henry VI. of England by besieging the castle of Roxburgh, and was killed by the bursting of a cannon in the 29th year of his age. James, III., king of Scotland, son of James II. : b. Io July 1451; d. II June 1488. He was crowned at Kelso on his father's death, but in I465 came under the influence of Bishop Ken- JAMES nedy and the Boyd family, one of the latter espousing the king's sister in I467. James mar- ried Margaret of Denmark in I469 and dis- missed the Boyds from favor only to advance other favorites. Prominent among these was Cochrane, through whom one brother of James was obliged to flee the kingdom, and another was put to death. The nobles seized Cochrane and five others and hanged them. Subsequently a plot was formed to dethrone the king, and though many peers remained loyal to him the royal army was defeated at Sauchie, near Stir- ling. James escaped from the field, but was murdered during his flight. James IV., king of Scotland: b. 17 March I473; d. Flodden 9 Sept. I513. He was the son of James III. He commanded the nobles who vanquished and killed his father at Sauchieburn, and was crowned at Scone in June 1488. He married Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII. of England, but taking umbrage at the hostile attitude of his brother-in-law, Henry VIII., allied himself with France. He was defeated and slain at the battle of Flodden (q.v.) during an invasion of England. James V., king of Scotland, son of James IV. : b. Linlithgow, Scotland, Io April 1512; d. Falkland Palace I4 Dec. I542. He came to the throne under the regency of his mother in I513 and assumed the reins of government in I528. He married Madeleine of France in I537, and on her death married the daughter of the Duke of Guise, Mary of Lorraine, in I538. He ruled with much vigor and decision, and on account of his mingling freely with his people was called “the king of the commons.” Becoming en- tangled in war with England in I542 he was de- feated at the battle of Solway Moss and died a month later. He was succeeded by his daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was but seven days old at his death. James, Bushrod Washington, American oculist: b. Philadelphia 25 Aug. 1836. He was graduated from the Homoeopathic Medical Col- lege of Pennsylvania in 1857, became well known as a practitioner, was elected president of the Pennsylvania Homoeopathic Medical Society in 1873, of the American Institute of Homoeopathy in 1883, and in 1896 was vice-president of the Homoeopathic Medical Congress held at London, England. His publications include: ‘American Climates and Resorts” (1889), a manual of cli- matology (1889); ‘Alaskana’ (1892); ‘Echoes of Battle” (1895); and ‘Alaska: Its Neglected Past and its Brilliant Future? (1897; rev. ed. I90I). James, Charles, English novelist and play- wright: b. London 26 Dec. 1858. He received a private education, became lieutenant-colonel of the Royal West Kent regiment, and pub- lished: ‘A Bird of Paradise” (1889); ‘The New Faith? (1890); ‘Honors Easy” (1892); ‘A Worker in Iron’ (1894); ‘At the Sign of the Ostrich? (1895); and ‘Where Thames is Wide? (1896); etc. James, Edmund Janes, American college president: b. Jacksonville, Ill., 21 May 1855. He was educated at Northwestern University and at Harvard, was principal of the high Schools at Evanston and Normal, Ill. (1878–82), pro- fessor of public finance and administration in the Wharton School of Finance and Economy of the University of Pennsylvania (1883–95), and professor of political and social Science in the university (1884–95). In 1896 he became pro- fessor of public administration in the University of Chicago and director of the extension divi- sion, and in 1902 president of the Northwestern University. He became president of the Amer- ican Academy of Political and Social Science in 1889, vice-president of the National Municipal League in 1896, and in 1891-5 was president of the American Society for the Extension of Uni- versity Teaching. His writings include: ‘The Legal Tender Decisions? (1887); ‘The Canal and the Railway’ (1890); ‘The Federal Consti- tution of Germany” (1890); and ‘The Growth of Great Cities in Area and Population? (1900). James, Florence,"FLORENCE WARDEN,”, Eng- lish novelist: b. Hanworth, Middlesex, I6 May 1857. She taught as a governess, 1875–80, and was on the stage, 1880–5. Her novels, many of which are strongly sensational in tone, have been very popular in this country as well as in Eng- land. They are published under the pseudonym “Florence Warden,” and among them are: ‘At the World's Mercy? ; ‘The House on the Marsh,” which established her reputation; ‘A Prince of Darkness? ; ‘Scheherezade? ; “A Per- fect Fool’; ‘Pretty Miss Smith’; ‘A Lady in Black? (1897); ‘A Very Rough Diamond’; “Morals and Millions? ; ‘One too Often? (1901); ‘A House with a History.” James, George Payne Rainsford, English novelist and historian: b. London 9 Aug. 1801 ; d. Venice 9 May 1860. As a young man he traveled widely on the Continent. He began his writing under the influence of Scott's novels, and wrote in all over Ioo novels; he was also known as the author of popular historical books, and in 1839 was appointed historiographer royal, in this capacity writing ‘History of the United States Boundary Question” and ‘The Corn Laws.” In 1850 he was British consul in Mas- sachusetts, two years later was transferred to Norfolk, Va., and in 1856 became consul gen- eral at Venice. His novels include: ‘Richelieu’ (written 1825, published 1829); ‘Darnley? (1829); ‘DeLorme? (1830); ‘Philip Augustus? (1831); ‘Henry Masterton’ (1832); ‘The Gypsy” (1835); ‘Attila” (1837); ‘Man at Arms” (1848); ‘King's Highway” (1848); ‘Agincourt” (1844); ‘The Smuggler” (1845); ‘Ticonderoga’ (1854). His historical works include: “Memoirs of Great Commanders? (1832); ‘Life of the Black Prince’ (1836); ‘Life of Richard I.” (I842-9). James’ novels were very popular when first written, and a new edition appeared in 1903. - James, George Wharton, American ex- plorer, lecturer and ethnologist: b. Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, England, 27 Sept. 1858. He has spent many years in making geological and other researches in California, and elsewhere in the southwestern United States, and is a member of various learned societies in this country and England. He has published: “The Lick Ob- servatory” (1888); ‘Nature Sermons’; ‘Pic- turesque Southern California’; ‘Missions and Mission Indians of California’, ‘From Alpine Snow to Semy-Tropical Sea”; “In and Around the Grand Canyon’ (1900); ‘Indian Basketry’ JAMES (1900); ‘The Indians of the Painted Desert Region’ (1903). James, Henry, American Swedenborgian theologian: b. Albany, N. Y., 3 June 1811; d. Cambridge, Mass., 18 Dec. 1882. He was edu- cated at Union College and Princeton Theolog- ical Seminary, traveled abroad, and became a Sandemanian and later a Swedenborgian. He subsequently lived in New York, Newport, R. I., and lastly at Cambridge. Among the most noted of his works on morals and religion are: ‘What is the State?” (1845); “Moralism, and Christianity” (1852); ‘Lectures and Miscel- lanies (1852); ‘The Nature of Evil” (1855); ‘Christianity the Logic of Creation’ (1857); (Substance and Shadow” (1863); ‘The Secret of Swedenborg? (1869). His ‘Literary Re- mains,” edited by William James, appeared in 1885. James, Henry, American novelist and es- sayist: b. New York I5 April 1843. He was the son of a clergyman, Henry James (q.v.), who gained fame as a writer on philosophico- theological subjects, first from the Sandemanian, and afterward from the Swedenborgian stand- point. The novelist, known until his father's death as Henry James, Junior, was educated under his father's guidance in New York, Ge- neva, Paris, and Boulogne. He lived in Europe with his parents during the years 1855–9, and after his return to the United States studied, in the Harvard Law School in 1862. He began his 1iterary career about 1865 as a contributor to American magazines, and soon afterward pub- lished (The Story of a Year, a tale of the Amer- ican Civil War.” In 1869 he took up his resi- dence in Europe, and since then he has resided chiefly in England and Italy. ‘Roderick Hud- son? (1875) was his first hong novel. His sub- sequent novels include: ‘Watch and Ward’ (1878), originally published in 1871 in the “At- lantic Monthly’; ‘The American? (1877), by some regarded as his best; ‘Daisy Miller? (1878); ‘The Europeans: a Sketch? (1878); CConfidence? (1880); ‘Washington Square’ (1880); ‘A Bundle of Letters” (1880); ‘Diary of a Man of Fifty” (1880); ‘The Portrait of a Lady’ (1881); ‘The Bostonians? (1886); ‘Prin- cess Casamassima’ (1886); ‘The Tragic Muse? (1892); ‘The Other House? (1896); ‘The Spoils of Poynton’ (1897); ‘What Maisie Knew? (1897); ‘The Awkward Age” (1899); (The Sacred Fount” (1901); ‘The Wings of a Dove? (1902); ‘The Better Sort” (1903). He Has also written a great many short stories, among which are: “A Passionate Pilgrim, and other Tales? (1875); “Pension Beaurepas? (1878); ‘An International Episode” (1879); ‘The Madonna of the Future, and Other Tales? (1879); ‘The Siege of London? (1883); ‘The Point of View” (1883); ‘Tales of Three Cities? (1884); ‘The Author of Beltraffio, and other Stories? (1885); ‘Stories Revived? (1885); ‘The Aspern Papers, and other Stories? (1888); ‘The Reverberator? (1888); ‘A London Life, and other Stories? (1889); ‘The Lesson of the Master, and other Stories? (1892); ‘The Real Thing, and other Tales? (1893); ‘Picture and Text” (1893); ‘The Private Life? (1893), a col- 1ection of stories; ‘The Album? (1894); ‘The Reprobate” (1894); ‘Tenants? (1894); ‘Disen- gaged', 1894); ‘Terminations, and other Sto- Ol. 9–I4 ries? (1896); ‘In a Cage” (1898); ‘The Two Magics’ (1898), consisting of two stories; and ‘The Soft Side? (1900), a series of stories. In very many of his stories he describes the life of Americans in Europe, and they depend for much of their interest upon the contrasts between American and European character and institu- tions. (Though a very prolific writer, he is never careless, his style being always felicitous, while in respect to the substance of his work he ranks as the subtlest of American novelists. A dra- matic version of ‘The American? was produced in London in 1891, but neither it nor his sub- sequent play ‘Guy Domville” (1895) was suc- cessful. He has turned his intimate knowledge of modern French literature to good account in his volume of essays entitled “French Poets and Novelists” (1878). Other works of a similar kind are (Transatlantic Sketches” (1875); ‘Por- traits of Places? (1884); ‘A Little Tour in France? (1884; new ed. 1900); ‘Partial Por- traits” (1888); ‘Essays in London and Else- where? (1893). He also contributed the volume on ‘Hawthorne? (1879) in the ‘English Men of Letters’ series, and in 1903 published ‘William Wetmore Story and his Friends,” a notable biography. James, Thomas Lemuel, American banker: b. Utica, N. Y., 29 March 1831. He early learned the printer's business and bought out a weekly Whig paper, the ‘Madison County Jour- inal,” at Hamilton ; and in 1856 changed its name to the “Democrat-Republican,” which was for Io years the most powerful Republican organ in Madison County. He was collector of canal tolls at Hamilton 1854–85; was appointed in- spector of customs in New York 1861; weigher in 1864; and in 1870 was promoted to be deputy collector in charge of the bonded warehouse, which department he immediately proceeded to arrange according to a new system. In 1873 President Grant appointed him postmaster of New York, and he was reappointed by Presi- dent Hayes in 1877. He filled this office with signal success and originated improvements in the delivery system involving the whole postal methods of the United States. President Gar- field in 1881 gave him the portfolio of post- master-general, and his chief important service during his Io months' incumbency was his ini- tiation of inquiries which led to the investigation of the Star Route frauds. In 1882 he became Wººlent of the Lincoln National Bank of New ork. James, William, American psychologist and philosopher: b. New York II Jan. 1842. He is the son of Henry James, theologian (q.v.), and brother of Henry James, novelist (q.v.). He was educated in private schools and by tutors in New York and abroad, studied in 1861–3 at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard Uni- versity, accompanied the Thayer expedition to Brazil in 1864–5, was graduated from the Har- vard Medical School in 1870, in 1872 was ap- pointed instructor in anatomy and physiology at the school, and in 1876 assistant professor of physiology. In 1885 he was appointed assistant professor of philosophy in the university, in 1889 professor of psychology, and subsequently prèfessor of philosophy. He was Gifford lecturer on natural religion in the University of Edin- burgh in 1899–1901. His best known work has JAMES BAY – JAMES RIVER been done in the domain of analytical psychol- ogy, in which he won European recognition. His works are marked by a most readable style and skilful exposition of different topics. He was a founder of the American Society for Psychological Research in 1884, and published: ‘Principles of Psychology” (1890); and ‘Psy- chology, Briefer Course” (1892), both popular text-books; “The Will to Believe? (1897); “Human Immortality” (1898); ‘Talks to Teach- ers on Psychology” (1899); and ‘The Varieties of Religious Experience? (1902). James Bay, an inlet of Hudson Bay, in the Southern part. The bay was named in honor of Captain Thomas James, an English navigator, who explored this body of water in 1631–3. The bay is about 320 miles long and from 140 to 160 miles wide. It contains a number of islands, the largest, Agomska, being about 70 miles in length. . Several large rivers flow into James Bay; the Albany, Moose, Noddawai, and East Main are the largest. Moose Factory, at the mouth of Moose River, on the southern shore, is the most important Canadian trading station, next to York Factory, of the Hudson's Bay Company. James, Epistle of, an encyclical letter ad- dressed to the Jews of the Dispersion. It was written by a Jew for Jewish readers, all of whom are supposed to be subject to the Jewish law. Its date is about 50 A.D., at latest, certainly before the fall of Jerusalem. The epistle was not at first admitted into the canon, and it is not much quoted by the earlier writers, Origen in- deed being the earliest we find quoting it by name. Eusebius places it in his list of books controverted but recognized by most (Antile- gomena), and Jerome expresses the doubt more strongly still. It was finally declared canonical by the third Council of Carthage (397), and already we find it acknowledged by Cyril of Jerusalem, Epiphanius of Cyprus, Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, and all later theologians, down to the time of the Reformation, when it was rejected by Erasmus and Cardinal Cajetan, and stigmatized by Luther as “a downright epistle of straw . . . with nothing evangel- ical about it,” although Calvin thought that it was worthy of an apostle. The aim of the epistle is throughout ethical rather than doctrinal, Christianity being promi- nently put forward as the ethical fulfilment of the law, the perfect man being he whose faith has constantly proved itself in practice, and who is patient under all tribulation. It echoes closely the language and method of Christ himself; as Beyschlag says, “essentially it is the teaching of Christ, and thus there is little teaching about Christ.” Besides the discourses of the Master, especially his Sermon on the Mount, we find distinct traces of familiarity with the Wisdom of Solomon, and the Ecclesiasticus of the son of Sirach. Formalism, greed of gain, respect of persons, falsehood, evil-speaking, boasting, wrangling and bitterness in debate, attention to dogmatic definitions instead of holiness of life — such are the sins against which the author in- veighs with vivid and abrupt invective. His Greek is unusually pure, and some scholars, as Schmidt, Bertholdt, and Bishop Wordsworth, have supposed that the epistle was first written in Aramaic and afterward translated. The passage in the second chapter (14–26) has been interpreted by many theologians as a direct attack on the Pauline view of faith and justification, that Christ by his death had ac- complished a new order of salvation, in which the law, which was merely temporary, was now abrogated, and that thus Christianity had fitted itself to become a universal religion; but Paul's conception is more philosophical and comprehen- sive, although it by no means excludes the con- ception of James, whose faith without works is not Paul's justifying faith at all, but the profit- less faith without love condemned in I Cor. xiii. The Tübingen school, as might have been ex- pected, claimed the Epistle of James as a polemic against Paul, and made its author a pseudony- mous writer of later time, who employed the name of James as an accepted type of spirit- ualized Jewish Christianity. Bibliography.— Besides the general introduc- tions of Bleek, De Wette, S. Davidson, Hilgen- feld, Holtzmann, Salmon, Dods, and Weiss, and the works on the New Testament canon by Kirchofer, Overbeck, Westcott, and Zahn, may be consulted the special commentaries by Bas- sett (1876), Reuss (1878), Erdmann (1881), Schegg (1883), E. H. Plumptre (1884), Beyschlag (1888; the 5th ed. of the commentary in the ‘Exegetisches Handbuch?), and R. John- stone (2d ed. 1888). James Island, an island in Charleston harbor, in South Carolina. It is separated from the city of Charleston by the Ashley River and the South Channel of the harbor, here a little Over a mile wide. On the northeast coast of the island is Fort Johnson and nearby a quar- antine station. Just northeast of the island is Fort Sumter (q.v.). The battle of Secession- ville, fought on 16 June 1862, and several other engagements of the Civil War, took place on this island. James Milliken University, an organiza- tion which includes three institutions of learn- ing: the Lincoln College, located at Lincoln, Ill. ; the Industrial School and the Decatur Col- lege, at Decatur, Ill. The synods of the Cum- berland Presbyterian Church of Iowa, Indiana, and Illinois, founded, in 1865, the Lincoln Col- lege. Schools of art, music and elocution, a classic college, and a preparatory department, at times a commercial school, all made up Lin- coln College. The Decatur College and Indus- trial School are endowed institutions opened in I903. In 1900–01 a fund for a university was provided by gifts from James Milliken, an ap- propriation from the Cumberland Presbyterian synods of Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana, and dona- tions from the citizens of Decatur. The three schools mentioned were united in the James Mil- liken University, but each one retains to a cer- tain degree its own independence. James River, a stream which has its rise in Wells County, in North Dakota, and flows south into South Dakota, and in a southerly direction across the State into the Missouri River. Some of the largest cities and towns of the interior of both North and South Dakota are on or near the James River; Aberdeen, Huron, Mitchell, and Yankton near the mouth, in South Dakota; and Jamestown in North Da- kota. It is about 450 miles long. James River, the largest river in Virginia, has its rise in the western part of the State, in JAMESON – JAMESTOWN the Alleghany Mountains; the head-waters are the Jackson and Cowpasture rivers which unite at Covington, in Virginia. The James flows southeast to Buchanan, in Botetourt County, then northeast to Balcony Falls. where it breaks through the Blue Ridge Mountains, again South- east to Lynchburg, then northeast to Scottsville, from which point the general course is southeast to the Chesapeake Bay. Its length is about 450 miles. At the Rocketts, just below Richmond, where the river becomes a tidal stream, is the head of navigation for steamboats of I30 tons, about 150 miles from the mouth. Ocean steam- ers come up the river as far as City Point, at the mouth of the Appomattox River. From City Point to the mouth, 66 miles, the stream is really a broad, deep estuary with Hampton Roads (q.v.) at its entrance to the Chesapeake. The falls in the river at Richmond, about IOO feet in six miles, furnish a large amount of water power. From Richmond to Buchanan, a dis- tance of nearly 200 miles, the Kanawha Canal follows the course of the river and utilizes ex- tensive reaches of slack water navigation. The chief tributaries of the James are the Chicka- hominy (q.v.) from the north, and the Appo- mattox from the south. The broad body of water at the entrance into Chesapeake was early explored by European navigators, and James- town (q.v.), the first permanent English settle- ment, was located on this river. Jameson, jā'mé-són, Anna Brownell Mur- phy, English author and art critic: b. Dublin 17 May 1794; d. Ealing, Middlesex, England, 19 March 1860. In 1827 she was married to Robert Jameson, afterward speaker of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada, and attor- ney-general, but the union proved unhappy. She made her first appearance as an authoress by the publication of the ‘Diary of an Ennuyée” (1826), which was very favorably received. Her ‘Loves of the Poets? appeared (1829), and was succeeded by “Memoirs of Female Sovereigns? and ‘Characteristics of Shakespeare's Women.” In 1836 Mrs. Jameson visited her husband in Canada, and published ‘Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada? (1838). Later works of hers include: ‘Handbook to the Pub- lic Picture-galleries of Art” (1842); ‘Com- panion to the Private Galleries of Art in Lon– don’ (1844); ‘Memoirs of the Early Italian Painters” (1845); ‘Memoirs and Essays on Art, Literature, and Social Morals? (1846); ‘Sacred and Legendary Art” (1848); ‘Legends of the Monastic Orders” (1850); ‘Legends of the Madonna? (1852). In these the author has given admirable expositions of the works of the old masters and the religious bearings of me- diaeval art. Few writers have done so much to refine the public taste, and diffuse sound canons of art criticism. Consult: Macpherson, “Memoirs of the Life of Anna Jameson? (1878). Jameson, John Franklin, American histo- rical writer: b. Boston I April 1859. He was graduated from Amherst College in 1879 and was professor of history at Brown University 1888–1901. He has been managing editor of the ‘American Historical Review” from 1895 and the head of the department of history at the University of Chicago from 1901. He has pub- lished ‘History of Historical Writing in Amer- ica? (1891); ‘Dictionary of United States His- tory? (1894); etc. Jameson, Leander Starr, Scottish physi- cian, administrator, and freebooter: b. Edin- burgh 8 Feb. 1853. He studied medicine in Edinburgh and London, began professional prac- tice at Kimberley, Cape Colony, in 1878, in 1891 became administrator of Rhodesia for the Brit- ish South Africa Company, and in 1895 led the now well known raid into the Transvaal. Dur- ing disturbances between the Boers and the Uit- landers, or foreigners, in the South African Republic, Jameson had, by order of Cecil Rhodes (q.v.), then premier at the Cape, as- sembled a Rhodesian military force on the Transvaal border, to act in case of emergency. On 29 December, with 600 troopers, Jameson, proceeding on his own judgment, entered the South African Republic for the support of the Uitlander party. His force was compelled to surrender to the Boers at Doornkoop on 2 Jan. 1896. Jameson, with his officers, was handed over by President Kruger to the British gov- ernment for trial. He was sentenced, May 1896, to ten months’ imprisonment, but in December was released because of illness. In 1897 he re- turned to Rhodesia, and in the second Boer war served in the English army. Jameson's surren- der was followed by a congratulatory message to Kruger from the German emperor which for a time threatened serious consequences. Jameson, Patrick Henry, American physi- cian: b. Monroe Township, Jefferson County, Ind., 8 April 1824. At 19 he went to Indianapo- lis, taught school there four years, studying med- icine meanwhile, and was graduated from Jef- ferson Medical College, Philadelphia, in 1849. He then returned to Indianapolis, where he be- came very prominent as a physician. During the Civil War he served as military surgeon and was commissioner of the Indiana hospital for the insane, 1861–80. He was likewise active in the establishment of the Indianapolis city hospital and in the organization of the University of In- dianapolis, and was for 30 years a director of Butler College, at Indianapolis. From 1863 to ‘1869 he was a member of the Indianapolis com- mon council and compiled the city ordinances in 1865. He has published “Memoirs of Promi- nent Physicians of Indianapolis.” Jameson Raid, The. See JAMESON, LEAN- DER STARR. Jamestown, jāmz'town, N. Y., city in Chautauqua County, on the Conewango Creek, which is the outlet of Chautauqua Lake; and on the Erie and the Jamestown & C. L. R.R.'s ; about three miles from Chautauqua Lake, 25 miles from Lake Erie, and 70 miles, by rail, southwest of Buffalo. Lake steamers and trolley cars connect it with a number of the nearby towns. The first permanent settlement was made in 1810, by settlers in search of agricultural lands. The location, so near the outlet of the lake and in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, attracted settlers, and in 1815 the town was planned ; and was incorporated as a village in 1827. The country around developed rapidly, but Jamestown was not chartered as a city until 1886. The chief manufactures are furniture, woolen goods, photographic paper, metallic goods, boots and shoes, agricultural implements, and brooms. It has saw-mills, canning factories, lumber and brick yards. The city has the James Prendergast Free Library, containing about. 17,000 volumes, and an excellent high school. JAMESTOWN —JANE EYRE The municipal officers are a mayor, who holds office two years, a city council, a clerk, overseer of the poor, sealer of weights and measures, constables, assessors, justices of the peace, and police justices, all of whom are elected by the people. Other subordinate officials are ap- pointed by the mayor subject to the approval of the council. Jamestown was the home of Reuben E. Fenton (q.v.). There are about 8,000 Swedes now living in Jamestown. Al- though they are adopted citizens, those born in Sweden still use their native language in the homes ; and they have their own Swedish papers and literature. Pop. (1890) 16,038; (1900) 22,892. Jamestown, N. D., city, county-seat of Stutsman County; on the James River, and on the main line and a branch of the Northern Pa- cific railroad; about 80 miles west of Fargo, on the Red River of the North, and IOO miles east of Bismark on the Missouri River. It is sit- uated in an agricultural region, noted for its extensive wheat fields and large stock farms. Some of the industrial establishments are flour- mills, grain elevators, stock-yards, wholesale groceries, lumber and brick yards. It is the trade centre for a large extent of country, and the small towns off the railroad procure their local supplies of manufactures and groceries from Jamestown. Pop. (I900) 2,853. Jamestown, Va., in James City County, the first permanent English settlement in the New World, and capital of Virginia I607–98; on what was a peninsula of the James River some 32 miles from its mouth, nearly opposite the present Williamsburg, with a neck over- flowed at high tide, and since then washed away, leaving the place an island; the front also has been eaten away by the river, so that the site of the original huts is submerged. It was ill chosen and malarious, and the place never prospered; but no towns did in early Virginia. It was founded 13 May 1607 by the company of . Gosnold, Wingfield, John Smith, etc., with Capt. Newport; and was first a triangular wooden blockhouse called Fort James, after the 1